VIETNAM

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Cong Hoa Chu Nghia Viet Nam

CAPITAL: Hanoi

FLAG: The flag is red with a five-pointed gold star in the center.

ANTHEM: Tien Quan Ça (Forward, Soldiers!).

MONETARY UNIT: The dong (d) is a paper currency of 10 hao and 100 xu. There are coins of 1, 2, and 5 xu, and notes of 5 xu, 1, 2, and 5 hao, and 1, 2, 5, and 10 dong. d1 = $0.00006 (or $1 = d15,855) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, but some traditional measures are still used.

HOLIDAYS: Liberation of Saigon, 30 April; May Day, 1 May; Independence Day, 2 September. Movable holidays include the Vietnamese New Year (Tet).

TIME: 7 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated on the eastern coast of mainland Southeast Asia, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV) has an area of 329,560 sq km (127,244 sq mi), extending 1,650 km (1,025 mi) n–s and 600 km (373 mi) e–w. Comparatively, the area occupied by Vietnam is slightly larger than the state of New Mexico. At its narrowest, Vietnam is only 50 km (31 mi) across. The nation is bordered on the n by China, on the e by the Gulf of Tonkin, on the e and s by the South China Sea, on the sw by the Gulf of Thailand, and on the w by Cambodia and Laos, with a total land boundary of 4,639 km (2,883 mi) and a coastline of 3,444 km (2,140 mi). Before unification, which was proclaimed on 3 July 1976, Vietnam was divided in two by the 17th parallel. To the south was the Republic of Vietnam (RVN), also known as South Vietnam; to the north, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), also known as North Vietnam.

Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Brunei, Taiwan, and Malaysia claim all or part of the Spratly Islands and Paracel Islands, located in the South China Sea roughly 600 km (350 mi) east of Ho Chi Minh City and 400 km (250 mi) east of Da Nang, respectively. The Paracel Islands are known in Vietnamese as the Hoang Sa archipelago, and the Spratlys as the Truong Sa. Both archipelagoes are reportedly surrounded by rich undersea oil reserves, and are productive fishing grounds. China has occupied the Paracel Islands since 1974, when Chinese troops drove a South Vietnamese garrison from the western islands. Vietnam occupies six of the Spratlys, and has unsuccessfully engaged in negotiations with Malaysia and the Philippines over the remainder. Periodic clashes between Chinese and Vietnamese naval forces have taken place in the vicinity of both island groups.

Vietnam's capital city, Hanoi, is located in the northern part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Vietnam has been described as a carrying pole with a rice basket hanging from each end. The description is a fitting one, for a single mountain chain, the Annam Cordillera (in Vietnamese, Truong Son), extends along Vietnam's western border from north to south, connecting two "rice baskets," which are formed by the densely populated Red River Delta of the Tonkin region in the north and the rich Mekong River Delta in the south. Over two-thirds of the entire population of the country lives in the two lowlying delta regions, both of which are composed of rich alluvial soils brought down from the mountainous regions of southern China and mainland Southeast Asia. The remainder of the population lives along the narrow central coast, in the hilly regions of the Central Highlands north of Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon), or in the mountains north and west of the Red River Delta. The highest mountain peak is Fan Si Pan (3,143 m/10,312 ft), near the northern border.

CLIMATE

Vietnam is entirely located in the tropical belt lying between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. While there are slight variations in temperature, depending on the season and the altitude, the primary seasonal changes are marked by variations in rainfall.

In the north, the rainy season extends from mid-April to mid-October; the city of Hanoi has a mean annual rainfall of 172 cm (68 in), and in the mountains, annual rainfall sometimes exceeds 406 cm (160 in). Daily temperatures fluctuate considerably in the Red River Delta region, particularly in the dry season, when the thermometer may drop as low as 5°c (41°f) in the region of Hanoi. During the rainy season, the average temperature in Hanoi is about 30°c (86 f).

The south is more tropical; temperatures in Ho Chi Minh City vary only from 18–33°c (64–91°f) throughout the year. Temperatures in the Central Highlands are somewhat cooler, ranging from a mean of about 17°c (63°f) in winter to 20°c (68°f) in summer. The rainy season extends from early May to November, with annual rainfall averaging about 200 cm (79 in) in lowland regions. The typhoon season lasts from July through November, with the most severe storms occurring along the central coast. Typhoons in this region frequently lead to serious crop damage and loss of life.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The mountainous regions of Tonkin, as well as the Annam Cordillera, are characterized by tropical rain forest broken by large areas of monsoon forest. In the higher altitudes of the far northwest there are pine forests. Shifting cultivation has resulted in many sections of secondary forest. Tropical grasses are widespread, and there are mangrove forests fringing parts of the Red River Delta and in the Ca Mau peninsula, which juts into the Gulf of Thailand. Tropical evergreen forests predominate in the south, with extensive savanna in the southwest.

Deer and wild oxen are found in the more mountainous areas. Two of the seven new species of mammals identified worldwide in the 20th century can be found in a nature reserve in the northwest corner of Vietnam. They are the giant muntjac (a barking deer) and the Vu Quang ox. As of 2002, there were at least 213 species of mammals, 262 species of birds, and over 10,500 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

During the Vietnam war, massive bombing raids and defoliation campaigns caused severe destruction of the natural foliage, especially in the Central Highlands in the south. In addition, dioxin, a toxic residue of the herbicide known as Agent Orange, had leached into water supplies. Over 50% of the nation's forests have been eliminated. However, reforestation projects have begun in some areas of the country.

The nation has 367 cu km of renewable water resources with 87% of annual withdrawals used for farming activity and 10% used for industrial purposes. As of 2002, only 67% of the rural population had access to improved water sources.

Salinization and alkalinization are a threat to the quality of the soil, as are excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers. Environmental damage has also been caused by the slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by nomadic tribal peoples in the Central Highlands and in the mountainous regions in the north. The government is engaged in a program to introduce modern farming practices to these populations.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 41 types of mammals, 41 species of birds, 24 types of reptiles, 15 species of amphibians, 23 species of fish, and 145 species of plants. Endangered species include the tiger, elephant, Sumatran rhinoceros, Thailand brow-antlered deer, kouprey, river terrapin, Siamese crocodile (probably extinct), estuarine crocodile, Javan rhinoceros, and the pileated, crowned, and caped gibbons. The Vietnam warty pig has become extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Vietnam in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 83,305,000, which placed it at number 13 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 7% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 29% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 100 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.3%. The government viewed this rate as too high, despite the significant success of family planning programs in reducing the fertility rate from 3.7 births per woman in 1990 to 2.9 in 2005. The projected population for the year 2025 was 103,187,000. The population density was 251 per sq km (650 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 26% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 3.21%. The capital city, Hanoi, had a population of 3,977,000 in that year.

MIGRATION

The 1954 partition of Vietnam resulted in the exodus of over 820,000 refugees, the majority of them Catholics, from the northern part of the country. Most eventually settled with government assistance in the Central Highlands or on the outskirts of the capital city of Saigon (now Ho Chi Minh City). During the same period, about 80,000 Viet-Minh troops and their dependents moved from the south to the north.

The Vietnam war caused severe disruption of living patterns in both the north and the south. In the north, intensive US bombing of major industrial cities led to a dispersal of the population from urban areas, while a government-sponsored program resulted in the resettlement of nearly one million Vietnamese from crowded areas in the Delta to less densely populated regions in upland areas of the country. In the south, migration was primarily from the countryside to the cities, as millions of peasants fled their villages to escape the effects of the war or to seek employment in the affl uent cities of Saigon and Da Nang. At the end of the war in 1975, nearly one-half of the population lived in urban areas, many in refugee camps on the edges of the major cities.

After seizing control of the south in 1975, the Hanoi regime announced a new program that called for the resettlement of over 10 million Vietnamese into less crowded areas of the country by the end of the century. Many were to be moved from refugee camps in the south to new economic zones established in the Central Highlands or along the Cambodian border. Although the zones were unpopular because of poor living conditions, between the end of the war and 1981, nearly 1.5 million Vietnamese were resettled into new areas. The overall aim was to disperse the entire population into several hundred "agro-industrial districts" that would provide the basis for development of an advanced Socialist economy. Since 1981 another 2.1 million have been resettled.

In addition to this migration within the country, since the war there has been a substantial outflow of Vietnamese fleeing to other countries. About 150,000 were evacuated from the south in the final weeks of the war, many of them eventually settling in the United States. There were 593,213 people of Vietnamese ancestry in the United States in 1990. In 1978, a new exodus began after the government nationalized all private trade and manufacturing in the country. During 1978–87, an estimated one million Vietnamese fled by sea to other countries in Southeast Asia, or overland to China. Many later resettled in Australia, France, the United States, and other countries. From 1979–84, 59,730 persons emigrated legally through the US Orderly Departure Program; this program was suspended by the Vietnamese government in 1986 but later resumed, with 57,000 emigrating to the United States in 1993 alone. In 1984, the United States started a program that offered asylum to Vietnamese political prisoners and all Asian-American children. This program was restarted in September 1987. Between 1975 and 1984, about 554,000 persons, known as the "boat people," emigrated illegally. In 1992, Vietnam signed agreements with the United Kingdom providing for the forcible repatriation of almost all the 55,700 "boat people" remaining in Hong Kong. The major refugee community was in China, which was harboring 285,500 Vietnamese of Chinese ancestry at the end of 1992.

As of 1997, 3,000 Vietnamese remained in Hong Kong. By 1999, some 110,000 nonrefugee boat people had returned to Vietnam. In 2004, there were 2,630 refugees in Vietnam and 13 returned refugees. In that same year there were 299,280 Vietnam refugees in China, 21,776 in Germany, 12,382 in the United States and 9,132 in France. Additionally, in that same year over 4,500 Vietnamese sought asylum in 8 countries. In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as -0.43 migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the emigration level as too low, but the immigration level as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

About 85–90% of the population of the SRV is composed of ethnic Vietnamese. The racial origins of the Vietnamese are obscure, although many scholars believe they represent a mixture of Australoid peoples who lived in mainland Southeast Asia during the Stone Age with Mongoloid peoples who migrated into the area from southern China.

In addition to the ethnic Vietnamese, there are 53 other ethnic groups living in the SRV. Many, like the Tay, the Thai, the Nung, the Rhadé, and the Jarai, are nomadic tribal peoples living in the mountainous areas of the Central Highlands and along the Sino-Vietnamese border. The overseas Chinese (Hoa) are descendants of peoples who migrated into the area in recent centuries. The Cham and the Khmer are remnants of past civilizations that controlled the southern parts of the country.

The largest ethnic minority in the country is the ethnic Chinese, numbering more than two million. The next largest minority group is the Montagnards (mountain people) of the central highlands. The Khmer Krom (Cambodians) number at about 600,000 people, primarily living along the Cambodian border and at the mouth of the Mekong River. Other sizable minority groups are the Muong, the Tay, Meo, Man, and Cham.

LANGUAGES

The official language of the SRV is Vietnamese (Quoc ngu). A tonal language, it bears similarities to Khmer, Thai, and Chinese, and at least one-third of the vocabulary is derived from Chinese. Formerly, Vietnamese was written in Chinese characters, but under French rule a Romanized alphabet originally developed by Roman Catholic missionaries in the 17th century was adopted as the standard written form of the language. Most of the minority groups have their own spoken languages, and some have their own writing systems, but all children in the SRV receive instruction in the national language. Other languages include Chinese, English, French, Khmer, and the tribal languages of Mon-Khmer and Malayo-Polynesian.

RELIGIONS

The dominant religious belief was Buddhism; however, many believers practice a mixture of Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, sometimes called Vietnam's "Triple Religion." Though 50% of the population is nominally Buddhist, the government Office of Religious Affairs estimates that only 11% of the population are practicing Buddhists. Like many Asian peoples, the Vietnamese also practice spirit worship, a form of religious belief that was particularly prevalent among the tribal peoples.

Christianity was first brought to Vietnam in the 17th century by Roman Catholic missionaries sponsored by the French, the Spanish, the Portuguese, or the papacy. Eventually, however, propagation of the Christian faith was forbidden by the imperial court and Catholicism could only be practiced in secret. French priests were especially active in provoking the French decision to conquer Vietnam in the 19th century. Under French rule, Christianity prospered, and when Vietnam restored its independence in 1954, there were more than two million Catholics in the country, a population that increased to between six and seven million in 1998. Estimates indicate that 8–10% of the population are Roman Catholics. There are anywhere between 421,000 to 1.6 million Protestants in the country. About 65,000 people are Muslim, primarily Sunni. About 54,000 people are Hindu, most of whom are ethnic Cham. The Baha'i Faith claims a membership of between 6,000 and 8,000 people.

Two millenarian religious sects, the Cao Dai and the Hoa Hao, have became popular among peasants and townspeople in the Mekong Delta. Both religions are based in part on Buddhism. The Cao Dai claim a membership of about four million. The Hoa Hao have a membership of about 1.3 million.

Since reunification in 1975, religious activities have been restricted, although freedom of religion is formally guaranteed in the 1980 constitution. All religious groups must register with the government, a process established by the government as a means of monitoring and controlling religious activities. The government offers official recognition to some Buddhist, Roman Catholic, Protestant, Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, and Muslim organizations, a designation which offers some freedom to operate openly throughout the country; however, these groups must still receive government approval for all operations, including the appointment of church leaders.

TRANSPORTATION

The war wreaked massive damage on Vietnam's transportation network, especially its railways, roads, and bridges. Further damage occurred during the Chinese invasion in 1979, after which direct rail and air connections with China were severed. The nation's truck fleet is ancient and seriously lacking in spare parts. Most goods move by small barges or sampans along the countless waterways. The length of inland navigable waterways totals about 17,702 km (11,000 mi), of which 29% is navigable year-round by vessels with less than a 1.8 m draft. Major ports such as Haiphong in the north and Da Nang in the south, are frequently clogged with goods because many of the stevedores—often overseas Chinese—have fled abroad. In 2005, Vietnam had a merchant fleet of 194 ships of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 1,170,621 GRT.

Recognizing its importance to economic growth, the government is making a major effort to improve the transportation network. The railroads are to be expanded. As of 2004, Vietnam's railway system totaled 2,600 km (1,615 mi) of standard, narrow and dual gauge track, of which 2,169 km (1,347 mi) was narrow gauge, 178 km (111 mi) was standard gauge, and 253 km (157 km) dual gauge.

There were an estimated 24 airports as of 2004, of which 23 (as of 2005), had permanent-surface runways. The nation's air fleet remains primitive, as the national airline (Hang Khong Vietnam) uses Soviet passenger liners built in the 1950s. In 2003, about 4.553 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights. There were 93,300 km (57,977 mi) of roads in the country in 2001, but only 23,418 km (14,552 mi) were paved. There were an estimated 101,100 passenger cars, 144,600 commercial vehicles in 2003. The main route from Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City badly needs improvement. In 1997, the government authorized the construction of a new north-south highway, the largest infrastructural project ever undertaken in Vietnam. The construction will take at least 15 years, utilizing 10 days of mandatory labor from almost every citizen between the ages of 18 and 45.

HISTORY

During the first millennium bc, the Lac peoples, the ancestors of the modern-day Vietnamese, formed a Bronze Age civilization in the vicinity of the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam. The Lac were primarily rice farmers, although those living in mountain valleys occasionally practiced the slash-and-burn agriculture now prevalent among nomadic tribes in the Central Highlands and the mountainous regions in the north. In the 3rd century bc, the Vietnamese kingdom of Van Lang was conquered by a Chinese military adventurer who incorporated the Red River Delta area into his own kingdom in southern China. A century later, Vietnam was integrated into the expanding Chinese empire. During 1,000 years of Chinese rule, Vietnamese society changed significantly as it was introduced to Chinese political and social institutions; Chinese architecture, art, and literature; and the Chinese written language. In ad 939, during a period of anarchy in China, Vietnamese rebels restored national independence.

During the next several hundred years, the Vietnamese Empire, then known as Dai Viet (Great Viet), gradually developed its own institutions and expanded steadily to the south. Under two great dynasties, the Ly (1009–1225) and the Tran (1225–1400), the Vietnamese fended off periodic attempts by China to resubjugate Vietnam, while gradually expanding southward at the expense of their southern neighbor, Champa. In the early 15th century, Chinese rule was briefly restored, but a national uprising led by Le Loi led to the expulsion of the Chinese and the formation of an independent Le Dynasty (1428–1788). Under the Le, expansion to the south continued, and the entire Mekong River Delta came under Vietnamese rule during the 17th century. But expansion brought problems, as a weakened Le court slipped into civil war between two princely families, the Trinh in the north and the Nguyen in the south.

The division of Vietnam into two separate political entities came at a time when European adventurers were beginning to expand their commercial and missionary activities into East and Southeast Asia. In 1771, a major peasant revolt led by the Tay Son brothers destroyed the Nguyen and the Trinh and briefly united the entire country under Emperor Nguyen Hue, ablest of the Tay Son. But a prince of the defeated Nguyen house enlisted the aid of a French Roman Catholic bishop and raised a military force that conquered the Tay Son and reunited the country under a new Nguyen Dynasty (1802–1945). When the founding emperor, Gia Long, died in 1820, his son Minh Mang refused to continue the commercial and missionary privileges granted by his predecessor to the French. In 1858, French forces attacked near Saigon and forced the defeated Vietnamese Empire to cede territory in the area to the French, which became the colony of Cochin China. In 1884, France completed its conquest of the country, establishing a protectorate over central and northern Vietnam (now renamed Annam and Tonkin). In 1895, the three sections of Vietnam were included with the protectorates of Laos and Cambodia into a French-ruled Indochinese Union.

The first Vietnamese attempts to resist French rule were ineffectual. Western-style nationalist movements began to form after World War I, and an Indochinese Communist Party, under the leadership of the veteran revolutionary Ho Chi Minh, was formed in 1930. After the collapse of France in World War II, Japan forced the French administration to accept a Japanese military occupation of Indochina. During the joint French-Japanese rule, Communist forces under the umbrella of the Viet-Minh Front began to organize for a national uprising at the end of the war. In March 1945, the Japanese, nearing defeat, disarmed the French and seized full administrative control over French Indochina. At the same time, the Japanese set up a puppet government, with Bao Dai, the figurehead emperor of Vietnam, as nominal ruler. Shortly after Japan surrendered to Allied forces in August 1945, Viet-Minh forces, led by the Indochinese Communist Party, launched the nationwide August Revolution to restore Vietnamese independence. On 2 September, President Ho Chi Minh declared the formation of an independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) in Hanoi. Under the Potsdam agreements, Nationalist Chinese troops occupied all of Indochina north of the 16th parallel, while British troops occupied the remainder of the old Indochinese Union. Chinese commanders permitted the Viet-Minh to remain in political control of the north, but the British assisted the French to restore their authority in the south.

In March 1946, the French and the DRV signed a preliminary agreement (the Ho-Sainteny Agreement) recognizing Vietnam as a "free state" in the new French Union. The agreement also called for a plebiscite in Cochin China to permit the local population in that colony to determine their own future. During the summer of 1946, French and Vietnamese negotiators attempted without success to complete an agreement on the future of Vietnam. In September, Ho Chi Minh signed a modus vivendi calling for renewed talks early in 1947, but military clashes between Vietnamese and French troops in the DRV led to the outbreak of war in December 1946. The Franco-Viet-Minh war lasted nearly eight years, ending in July 1954 after a successful siege of the French garrison at Dien Bien Phu by Viet-Minh forces. According to the Geneva agreement signed on 21 July, Vietnam was temporarily partitioned along the 17th parallel, pending general elections to bring about national reunification. North of the parallel, the DRV began to build a Socialist society, while in the south, an anti-Communist government under the Roman Catholic politician Ngo Dinh Diem attempted with US aid to build a viable and independent state. In the summer of 1955, Prime Minister Diem refused to hold consultations with the DRV on elections called for by the Geneva accords. On 26 October, Diem proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam (RVN), with its capital at Saigon. In a referendum held three days earlier, Diem had defeated ex-Emperor Bao Dai, and in 1956, Diem became president of the RVN under a new constitution written with US support. With the Geneva accords thus abrogated, Vietnamese guerrillas, supported by the DRV, initiated low-level political and military activities to destabilize the Saigon regime. Their efforts were assisted by Diem's own shortcomings, as he brutally suppressed all political opposition and failed to take effective measures to bring to an end the unequal division of landholding in South Vietnam.

In December 1960, revolutionary forces in the south formed a National Liberation Front (NLF) to coordinate political activities against the Diem regime. Guerrilla activities by the People's Liberation Armed Forces (known in the United States as the Viet-Cong) were stepped up, and Hanoi began to infiltrate trained cadres from the north to provide leadership to the revolutionary movement. Despite increasing economic and military assistance from the United States, the Diem regime continued to decline, and in November 1963, Diem was overthrown by a military coup waged with the complicity of US president John F. Kennedy's administration, which had watched in dismay as Diem had alienated Buddhist elements by his open favoritism toward Roman Catholics. A Military Revolutionary Council, led by the popular southern general Duong Van (Big) Minh, was formed in Saigon. General Minh promised to continue efforts to defeat the insurgency movement in the south but was unable to reverse the growing political anarchy in Saigon. Early in 1964, he was replaced by another military junta. During the next 15 months, a number of governments succeeded each other, while the influence of the NLF, assisted by growing numbers of regular troops that were infiltrating from the north, steadily increased in the countryside. By early 1965, US intelligence was warning that without US intervention, South Vietnam could collapse within six months.

Beginning in February 1965, US president Lyndon Johnson took two major steps to reverse the situation in South Vietnam. American combat troops were introduced in growing numbers into the south, while a campaign of heavy bombing raids was launched on military and industrial targets in the north. In Saigon, the political situation stabilized with the seizure of power by a group of army officers led by Nguyen Van Thieu and Nguyen Cao Ky. Encouraged by the United States, the new military regime drafted a constitution, and in elections held in September 1967, Gen. Thieu was elected president of the country. By 1967, US troop strength in South Vietnam had reached over 500,000, while US air strikes over DRV territory were averaging about 100 sorties a day. The Hanoi regime attempted to match the US escalation by increasing infiltration of North Vietnamese military units into the south, but under the sheer weight of US firepower, the revolution began to lose momentum, and morale was ebbing.

On 30 January 1968, in an effort to reverse the military decline on the battlefield and encourage the growing popular discontent with the war in the United States, Hanoi launched the Tet Offensive, a massive effort to seize towns and villages throughout the south. The attempt to seize Saigon or force the collapse of the Saigon regime failed to achieve its objective, but the secondary aim of undermining support for the war in the United States succeeded. President Johnson canceled plans to increase the US military commitment and agreed to pursue a political settlement. To bring about negotiations with Hanoi, a complete bombing halt was ordered on 1 November, just before the US presidential election that brought Richard M. Nixon to office as the new Republican president. President Nixon announced a policy of "Vietnamization," according to which US forces would be gradually withdrawn and the bulk of the fighting in the south would be taken over by RVN forces. On 30 April 1970, in order to destroy enemy sanctuaries beyond the South Vietnamese border, US and South Vietnamese forces invaded neutral Cambodia. The invasion backfired, however, stimulating the rise of revolutionary activities by the Hanoisupported Cambodian Communist movement and arousing protests in the United States that the war was being expanded. The withdrawal of US military forces continued, and in March 1972, the DRV attempted to test the capability of the South Vietnamese forces by launching a direct offensive across the 17th parallel. The "Easter Offensive" succeeded in capturing the provincial capital of Quang Tri, but further gains were prevented by the resumption of US bombing raids.

By this time, both sides were willing to compromise to bring the war to an end; on 26 October 1972, the DRV announced that secret talks between US secretary of state Henry Kissinger and its representative, Le Duc Tho, had produced a tentative agreement. Hanoi agreed to recognize the political authority of President Nguyen Van Thieu in Saigon, while the United States agreed to complete the withdrawal of US forces without demanding the removal of existing North Vietnamese troops in the south. The negotiations briefly ran aground in late autumn, leading President Nixon to order an intensive bombing assault on the DRV, but the talks resumed in early January, and the Paris Agreement was formally signed on 27 January 1973.

The Paris Agreement and the withdrawal of US forces by no means signaled the end of the conflict. Clashes between revolutionary forces and South Vietnamese units continued in the south, while provisions for a political settlement quickly collapsed. In January 1975, North Vietnamese forces in the south launched a major military offensive in the Central Highlands. When South Vietnamese resistance in the area disintegrated, further attacks were launched farther to the north, and by late March the entire northern half of the country was in North Vietnamese hands. President Thieu resigned on 21 April, but his successor, General Duong Van Minh, was unable to achieve a negotiated settlement. The capital of the RVN, Saigon, was occupied by North Vietnamese troops on 30 April. Thus ended a war in which some 2,000,000 Vietnamese and more than 56,000 Americans were killed and an estimated 4,000,000 people were injured. In the DRV, US bombing was estimated to have destroyed 70% of the industrial plants; in the RVN, more than four million were homeless. During the 1950–74 period, total US economic and military aid to Vietnam was $23.9 billion (including $16.1 billion in direct military aid), representing the largest bilateral assistance program in modern history. Chinese aid to the DRV (according to intelligence estimates) probably averaged over $200 million a year. No complete figures are available on the extent of Soviet assistance to the DRV, but some scholars estimate it at about $1 billion annually.

During the next 15 months, the DRV moved to complete national reunification of north and south. Nationwide elections for a new National Assembly were held on 25 April 1976. On 24 June, the first Assembly of the unified country met and proclaimed the establishment on 2 July of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), with its capital remaining at Hanoi. In December, the Communist Party, known as the Vietnamese Workers' Party since 1951, was renamed the Vietnamese Communist Party. The NLF was dissolved into a nationwide Fatherland Front for the entire country. The nation's Communist leadership, with Le Duan the general secretary of the Communist Party and Pham Van Dong the prime minister, remained unchanged, while loyal members of the revolutionary movement in the south were given positions of prominence at the national level. Ton Duc Thang, figurehead president of the DRV after the death of Ho Chi Minh in 1969, remained in that position until his death in 1980.

Economic reconstruction and the building of a fully Socialist society proved more difficult than reunification. Nationalization of industry and collectivization of agriculture had been achieved in the north in the late 1950s, but the south proved more resistant to official efforts to end private enterprise after 1975. When the regime attempted to destroy the remnants of capitalism and private farming in the south in 1978, thousands fled, and the economy entered a period of severe crisis. Its problems were magnified by the outbreak of war with China. In December 1978, Vietnamese forces had invaded neighboring Kampuchea (known as Cambodia until 1976 and again from 1989) to overthrow the anti-Vietnamese government of the revolutionary Pol Pot. A pro-Vietnamese government was installed in early January 1979. China, which had been supporting Pol Pot to retain its own influence in Southeast Asia, mounted a punitive invasion of North Vietnam in February 1979. After a short but bitter battle that caused severe casualties on both sides, the Chinese forces withdrew across the border. China, however, continued to support guerrilla operations led by Pol Pot against the government in Kampuchea.

During the 1980s, the SRV attempted to recover from its economic crisis. Party leaders worked out a compromise permitting the survival of a small private sector while maintaining a program of gradual Socialist transformation. With the death of Le Duan in June 1986, a new leadership emerged under General Secretary Nguyen Van Linh at the Sixth National Party Congress. This leadership promised a new "openness" in political affairs and a policy of economic renovation (doi moi) to improve the livelihood of the population. A strong conservative coalition of party leaders seriously reduced Linh's effectiveness as they stressed the dangers of political liberalization and slowed the pace of economic reform. In March 1988 Prime Minister Pham Hung died, and Linh's choice of a conservative replacement, Do Muoi, was a clear concession to these groups.

Economic recovery continued to be difficult due to a serious lack of investment capital, resources, and technical skills. The SRV's internal problems were compounded by the continuing dispute with China. To protect itself from Chinese intimidation, Hanoi had formed a military alliance with the USSR and was deeply dependent upon Soviet economic assistance. The continuing civil war in Kampuchea also represented a steady drain on the SRV's slender resources and prevented foreign economic assistance, particularly from the United States. In December 1988 the constitution was amended to remove derogatory references to the United States, China, France and Japan, as an attempt to improve international relations. In August 1991 Do Muoi resigned as prime minister. His successor Vo Van Kiet favored free-market reforms. A new constitution was adopted by the National Assembly in April 1992. A general election took place in July 1992 and, for the first time, independent candidates were allowed to present themselves, but neither of the two deemed qualified were elected. On 23 September 1992, the National Assembly elected Lu Duc Anh as president and reelected Vo Van Kiet as prime minister.

In January 1989 the first direct talks between Vietnam and China since 1979 resulted in Vietnam's agreement to withdraw its troops from Cambodia by the end of September 1989 and China's agreement to end aid to the Khmer Rouge guerrillas once the Vietnamese withdrawal was achieved. Later, Vietnam insisted that the withdrawal was contingent on the end of all foreign military aid to factions opposing Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen. Hanoi hoped to use the September 1989 withdrawal of its troops from Cambodia as leverage for improved relations with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Japan, and the West. On 23 October 1991 a Cambodian peace agreement was signed, paving the way for Vietnam's eventual entry into ASEAN, which occurred in 1995.

The Soviet economic assistance on which Vietnam had depended, withered away with the collapse of the USSR, although technical help from Russia remains important. With the loss of major Soviet aid, Vietnam's relations with the West began to warm considerably. In June 1992, Vietnam announced that all South Vietnamese officials had been released from reeducation camps, a US-mandated prerequisite for lifting its embargo against Vietnam. As a result, on 3 February 1994 President Bill Clinton lifted the US trade embargo against Vietnam. At the time Clinton lifted the embargo, there were still 2,238 US servicemen listed as missing. Vietnam agreed to cooperate with their recovery to the "fullest possible extent." Vietnam and the United States established full diplomatic relations in 1995.

In October 1991 Vietnam agreed to accept the forced repatriation of Vietnamese refugees—known as boat people—who were designated economic migrants, not seekers of political asylum. The boat people were in camps around Asia from 1975–94. The "comprehensive plan of action" adopted by the UN High Commission for Refugees in 1989 reduced the number of boat people fleeing Vietnam. In 1994, the Commission decided that all those still living in camps were to be repatriated.

During the 1990s, Vietnam stepped up its efforts to attract foreign capital from the West and regularize relations with the world financial system. At the same time, the country struggled with its intention not to descend too deeply into Western style consumerism, as demonstrated in 1996, when the government, while continuing to court foreign investment, banned consumer-goods advertising in foreign languages. That move angered Western investors and free-market Vietnamese, but marked the beginning of a countrywide attempt to purge society of overt Western decadence. Analysts attributed the drive to the aging hard-line leadership who looked at the doi moi reforms with intense skepticism.

After joining ASEAN in 1995, Vietnam began reframing its trade laws and began instituting legal reforms aimed at codifying its sometimes capricious statutory system. During 1995, a significant year in Vietnam's opening up to the world, the Communist Party held two meetings to discuss the establishment of a law-based civil society to replace the decades-old system of rule by fiat. In this spirit, the National Assembly passed a series of laws aligning the country with international standards on copyright protection—needed for World Trade Organization (WTO) membership—and other areas. An extensive document, called the Civil Code, was passed containing 834 articles ostensibly granting the Vietnamese people greater civil liberties. Other measures were decidedly investor-unfriendly, such as Prime Minister Kiet's decree that no more land would be turned over from rice production to industrial use. Subsequently, Vietnam's foreign investment rate slid from a peak of $8.6 billion in 1996, to just $1.4 billion in 1999.

In June 1996, the Communist Party held its eighth congress, its first full congress since 1991. Much was expected from the congress in light of the country's ambiguous and, at times, conflicting moves toward openness and reform over the 12 years of doi moi. The congress returned to power the aging leadership, granting additional five-year terms to General Secretary Do Muoi, President Le Duc Anh, and Prime Minister Vo Van Kiet. The Party issued decrees in favor of continued economic reform and international investment, but balked at the kind of market liberalization most internationalist investors perceive as necessary to the creation of a viable economy.

After the long war between the Communists and the United States, 30 April 2000 marked Vietnam's reunification. Celebrations of the occasion, with military parades and a carnival atmosphere, were followed by the 6 May funeral of former prime minister Pham Van Dong. One of the original troika leading Vietnam during the struggle against France and the United States, Dong (born in 1906) had been an influential, unswerving Communist conservative. It remains to be seen whether the inevitable winnowing of Vietnam's "gerontocracy" will result in significant liberalization.

Severe, violent unrest in the countryside during 1997 led to punishment of rural officials for corruption, and increased awareness of agricultural concerns. As much as 80% of Vietnam's population lives in farming communities. Expressions of rural discontent continued to emerge, even in the form of peasant anticorruption protests in the streets of Ho Chi Minh City.

As aftereffects of the 1997 Asian economic crisis stunted the growth of Vietnam's economy, the country remained poor at the beginning of the 21st century. In spite of strides in rice production, literacy and education, unemployment outpaces economic growth. Rural infrastructure languishes, and the urban gap between a rich elite and struggling masses is enormous. Socialist rhetoric and retrenchment failed to heal the divide, which also exists between North and South. Some effort has been made to recognize Party officials from the South, such as early 2000s appointment of Truong Tan Sang, who had been Ho Chi Minh City's Party head, to lead the Party's economic commission. The reformists within the Party have never been completely marginalized, only outmaneuvered by the old-time Marxists. Retired General Tran Do's open criticism of corruption and other failures of the system resulted in his expulsion from the Party in January 1999. General Tran Do endured other forms of harassment, but it was not as severe as that meted out to other dissidents, due to his revered war veteran, communist faithful, status. He died on 9 August 2002.

Issues of importance relevant to Vietnam's reintegration into the international system have included the status of Vietnamese refugees; border and troop withdrawal disputes with Cambodia, Thailand, and the People's Republic of China; conflicts over the Spratly and Paracel island groups in the South China Sea; conflicts with the United States over the recovery of the remains of US soldiers missing-in-action (MIA); and Vietnamese cooperation in a diplomatic settlement in Cambodia.

Trade between the United States and Vietnam was normalized in December 2001. Vietnam initially did not want to be perceived by China as overly friendly with the United States, and the Party elite was reluctant to embark on the economic overhaul that the United States demands. Nevertheless, trade relations between the United States and Vietnam grew steadily in the first decade of the early 21st century. United Airlines began servicing Vietnam in 2004. By April 2005, around the time of the 30th anniversary of the fall of Saigon, the United States had become Vietnam's largest export market. Trade between the two countries totaled $6.4 billion by 2004, compared with $451 million in 1995. Stronger trade ties helped Vietnam's economy grow considerably. The World Bank, for instance, had rated 58% of Vietnam's population as poor in 1993; by 2002, that figure stood at 29%. Through the mid-1990s into the early 21st century, the country's economy grew at an annual 7.4% rate.

A May 2000 report, "Vietnam: Silencing of Dissent" by Human Rights Watch, detailed ways in which those expressing views counter to the Party line are subjected to "harassment and intimidation," although it noted that Vietnam has fewer actual political prisoners than in the past. The US government (particularly members of Congress) remains critical of Vietnam's human rights policies, including arbitrary arrest and detention of citizens. In contradiction to assertions of commitment to the cause of human rights, authorities continued to severely limit freedom of speech, press, assembly and association, workers' rights, and rights of citizens to change their government.

Print and broadcast media remain firmly state-dominated. In January 2002, the Communist Party ordered the seizure and destruction of unauthorized books written by leading dissidents. The arrival of Internet access in Vietnam began to provide a means for free expression, although so far Internet content is government monitored. In August 2001, the government passed a decree that imposed stricter regulations on Internet cafes and imposed fines for illegal Internet usage, while opening up provision of Internet services to privately owned businesses, including foreign companies. The government controlled the operation of the sole Internet access provider. In August 2002, the government proposed severe penalties for Internet cafe owners who allow customers to visit antigovernment or pornographic websites. There were approximately 4,000 Internet cafes in 2002.

The controversy between the People's Republic of China and Vietnam over the control of the Spratly and Paracel archipelagoes in the South China Sea dates to the early part of the 20th century. After the Vietnam War, when oil supplies became an issue, the dispute intensified, leading to numerous armed clashes between China and Vietnam. Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Brunei, Taiwan, and Malaysia claim all or part of the Spratly and Paracel archipelagoes. These competing claims have broad geopolitical implications regarding oil reserves, fishing rights, rights of passage for ships, prevention of nuclear dumping, and security in the region. In 1995, China occupied Mischief Reef, on an island in the area claimed by the Philippines and later that year China signed an agreement with a US oil exploration firm to drill for oil in waters claimed by Vietnam. As a member of ASEAN, Vietnam took its complaint to that body. In March 1997, a meeting of the ASEAN ambassadors was convened in Hanoi and the regional bloc emerged united in opposition to China's move against what they officially recognized as Vietnam's legal territory, marking the first time the ASEAN nations stood up in defiance of Beijing. Vietnam staked its own claim to the islands when it fired on a Philippines jet in 2002. Although the disputes over the islands remained unresolved as of early 2003, all of the claimants except for Taiwan agreed to resolve the dispute eventually through peaceful means.

At the ninth Party congress held in April 2001, reform-minded National Assembly chairman Nong Duc Manh was chosen as General Secretary to replace the unpopular Le Kha Phieu, who was increasingly seen as an obstacle to Vietnam's modernization. In 2002, the Party revised its rules to allow members to engage in private business. At the meeting of the National Assembly in July 2002, Prime Minister Phan Van Khai and General Secretary Nong Duc Manh, among others, identified corruption as one of the government's main challenges. By September, more than 100 government officials had been arrested, more than 50 police officers had been suspended from duty, and two members of the Central Committee were expelled from the Party for dealings with Nam Cam, a crime figure involved in drug, prostitution, and protection rackets.

In National Assembly elections held on 19 May 2002, approximately 700 candidates competed for 498 seats, some of whom were independents. However, a government body, the Fatherland Front, was responsible for screening candidates. No opposition parties contested the vote. In July 2002, President Tran Duc Luong was reappointed for a second term by the National Assembly, which also reappointed Prime Minister Phan Van Khai for a second five-year term. The next presidential election was to be held in 2007.

GOVERNMENT

The Communist Party-controlled government of Vietnam has ruled under four state constitutions. The first was promulgated in 1946, the second in 1960, the third in 1980, and the fourth in 1992.

The 1946 constitution of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), adopted shortly before the war with the French, was never fully implemented because of wartime conditions. On 1 January 1960, a new constitution was promulgated, instituting a largely presidential system to capitalize on Ho Chi Minh's considerable prestige. In the Republic of Vietnam (RVN), formerly South Vietnam, two constitutions were promulgated. The first, by the regime of Ngo Dinh Diem was introduced in 1956. The second was put forth when Nguyen Van Thieu was elected president in 1967. Like the DRV constitution, it created a modified presidential system, with a cabinet responsible to the legislative branch. Following the fall of the RVN in 1975, the north moved quickly toward national reunification. A nationwide National Assembly was elected in April 1976, and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed in early July. In December 1980, the SRV adopted a new constitution for the entire country. The new charter, more doctrinaire than its predecessors, described Vietnam as a "proletarian dictatorship" led by the Communist Party, and called for an early transition to full Socialist ownership. The highest state authority was the National Assembly. Members were elected for five-year terms by universal adult suffrage at age 18. The Assembly appointed the Council of Ministers (a cabinet of 33 ministers), the chairman of which ranked as premier. The Council of State (12 members in 1987) served as the collective presidency of Vietnam, elected by the National Assembly from among its own members and accountable to it.

In 1992 a new constitution was adopted by the National Assembly. Like the 1980 constitution it affirmed the central role of the Communist Party, stipulating that the party must be subject to the law. In support of a free-market economy, constitutional protection of foreign investment was guaranteed. However, land remained the property of the state, with individuals or enterprises entitled to the right to long-term leases that can be inherited or sold. The newly created position of president replaced the Council of State; the president has the right to appoint a prime minister subject to the approval of the National Assembly. The National Assembly, with a maximum of 400 members, retained legislative power. Members are elected to five-year terms by universal adult suffrage. As of 2002, there were 498 members of the National Assembly. The next election was to take place in 2007.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The government of the SRV is a de facto one-party state ruled by the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP). The Vietnamese Communist Party is the political successor to the Indochinese Communist Party, created in 1930 and formally dissolved in 1945. From 1945 until 1951, the party operated in clandestine fashion, until it emerged once more as the Vietnamese Workers' Party at the Second National Congress in 1951. The party assumed its current name in 1976, shortly after the unification of the country into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

The Communist Party is administered through an assembly of national delegates. National party conventions elect a Central Committee to guide party affairs between sessions of the national convention. The Central Committee in turn elects the Politburo, the highest policy making body, and a secretariat to direct day-today party operations.

The Fatherland Front is the linear successor of the Viet-Minh Front, formed in 1941 to provide the Communist Party with a broad organization to unify all elements in Vietnam against the French colonial regime. The Fatherland Front was formed in North Vietnam in 1955 as a device to mobilize the population to support the regime's goals. A similar organization, the National Liberation Front (NLF), was established in South Vietnam in 1960 by Nguyen Huu Tho to provide a political force in favor of national reunification. After the fall of the RVN in 1975, the NLF was merged into the Fatherland Front.

Under the RVN government, development of a political party system in the Western sense never passed the rudimentary stage. President Thieu, who headed the People's Alliance for Social Revolution, tried to consolidate anti-Communist political organizations in the RVN through a multiparty National Social Democratic Front, but formal political organizations were weak and plagued with religious and regional sectarianism. Wartime conditions and the lack of a national tradition of political pluralism were additional factors preventing the rise of a multiparty system. All such parties were abolished after the fall of Saigon in 1975.

In the SRV, elections for national and local office are controlled by the Communist Party and the state. In the July 1992 general elections 601 candidates contested 395 National Assembly seats. For the first time independent candidates—not Communist Party members or endorsed by organizations affiliated with the Party—were permitted to contest seats, although they did require Party approval in order to present themselves. Two candidates qualified, but neither was elected. In 1996, the Communist Party held its eighth congress, at which it was widely expected a new generation of leaders would be inaugurated; but, again the aging hard-line leaders were given another five-year term in office as the country struggled with the consequences of 12 years of economic reform and increased international openness. In 1998's national elections, the first three "self-nominated" candidates (not proposed by the Party or the Fatherland Front) managed to gain seats in the 450-member National Assembly. Women held 26% of seats in the National Assembly as of May 2000, but have not yet risen to the top echelons of the Party. At the ninth party congress held in April 2001, National Assembly chairman Nong Duc Manh was chosen as general secretary, which was seen as a step toward reform. In the 19 May 2002 elections for the 498-member National Assembly, some independents competed for seats, although the Fatherland Front was responsible for approving them. No opposition parties contested the vote. The Communist Party took 90% of the vote (447 seats): the other 10% (51 seats) was won by candidates who are not Party members but were approved by the Party.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Vietnam is divided into 59 provinces (tinh ), and five municipalities (thu do )—Can Tho, Da Nang, Hanoi, Haiphong, and Ho Chi Minh City—all administered by the national government. Districts, towns, and villages are governed by locally elected people's councils. Council candidates are screened by the party. Council members' responsibilities include upholding the constitution and laws and overseeing local armed forces units. The councils in turn elect and oversee executive organs, called people's committees, to provide day-to-day administration. The entire system functions in a unitary fashion, with local organs of authority directly accountable to those at higher levels.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The judicial system of the SRV parallels that of the former DRV. The highest court in Vietnam is the Supreme People's Court, whose members are appointed for five-year terms by the National Assembly on the recommendation of the president. In addition, there are local people's courts at each administrative level; military courts; and "special courts" established by the National Assembly in certain cases. Law enforcement is handled by the People's Organs of Control; the president, or procurator-general, of this body is appointed by the National Assembly.

Although the constitution provides for the independence of judges and jurors, there is close control of the entire governmental system by the Vietnamese Communist Party (VCP) and a judicial selection process which favors appointment of jurists supportive of the VCP. Prison sentences are frequently imposed through administrative procedures without the protections of procedural due process or judicial review.

Trials are generally open to the public. Defendants have the right to be present at the trial, to have an attorney, and to crossexamine witnesses. The legal system is based on communist legal theory and French civil law. Rising crime, including violent robbery and extortion, in the cities, plus endemic corruption and smuggling, provide challenges for under-funded law enforcement agencies and the criminal justice system.

ARMED FORCES

Since reunification in 1975, Vietnam has continued to maintain a strong military presence. As of 2005, the armed forces had 484,000 active personnel. Of that figure, the Army had about 412,000 personnel, the People's Air Force 30,000 members and the Navy an estimated 15,000 personnel, in addition to 27,000 naval infantry troops. Reserves numbered between three and four million. The Army's primary armament included 1,315 main battle tanks, 620 light tanks, 100 reconnaissance vehicles, 300 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 1,380 armored personnel carriers and over 3,040 artillery pieces. The Navy's major units included two tactical submarines, six frigates, five corvettes 37 patrol/coastal vessels and 15 mine warfare ships. The People's Air Force had 221 combat capable aircraft that included 204 fighters, in addition to four fixed wing antisubmarine aircraft, 26 attack and 13 antisubmarine warfare helicopters. Paramilitary forces include an estimated 40,000 member Border Defense Corps and local rural and urban militia units with more than five million members. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $3.47 billion.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Vietnam was admitted to the United Nations on 20 September 1977. The nation belongs to ESCAP and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the World Bank, IAEA, the FAO, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNCTAD, and the WHO. Vietnam is also a member of the Asian Development Bank, APEC, ASEAN, the Colombo Plan, and G-77. The country has observer status in the WTO. Vietnam is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Vietnam is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Wet-rice agriculture is the most important segment of the Vietnamese economy. Approximately 65% of the workforce is engaged in agriculture. While agriculture has continued growth, transforming Vietnam from a net importer 15 years ago into the second-largest exporter of rice, industry has grown even faster. Industry in 2005 accounted for 40.9% of GDP, services 38.1%, and agriculture 21%. The most diversified area in Southeast Asia in terms of mineral resources, Vietnam is well endowed with coal, tin, tungsten, gold, iron, manganese, chromium, and antimony. Foods, garments, shoes, machines, cement, chemical fertilizer, glass, tires, oil, coal, steel, and paper are the main industrial products. Most of the nation's mineral resources are located in the north, while the south is a major producer of rice and tropical agricultural products, such as rubber, coffee, and tea. The war took its heaviest economic toll on Vietnam's infrastructure, which even in the best of times was far from adequate to afford access to and mobilization of the country's agricultural and industrial resources. Further setbacks came in the late 1970s. In 1976, the regime announced a five-year plan, calling for rapid industrialization and Socialist transformation by the end of the decade. According to official sources, in 1978 floods destroyed 3 million tons of rice, submerged over 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres) of cultivated land, and killed 20% of all cattle in the affected areas along the central coast. The termination of all Chinese aid in the same year, followed by the Chinese attack on the north in February–March 1979, dealt the economy further blows. Vietnam's economy had already been weakened by the military effort in Kampuchea (known as Cambodia until 1976 and again after 1989) and by the suspension of food aid from the EC (now EU), the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand because of objections to Vietnam's refugee policies. Reportedly, the country came close to general famine in 1979.

In 1979, faced with serious shortages of food and consumer goods, Vietnamese leaders approved a new program granting incentives for increased productivity and delaying the construction of farm collectives in the southern provinces. During the 1981–85 five-year plan, emphasis was placed on agriculture and the production of consumer goods. Economic performance improved in the early 1980s, with the growth rate estimated at about 10% annually. Price inflation, however, became a major problem, averaging 700% in 1986–87.

Policy changes were introduced incrementally with economic liberalization preceding consideration of political liberalization. On 3 February 1994 US President Clinton lifted the trade embargo against Vietnam that had been in place for 33 years. The reforms helped Vietnam's economy to grow at a rate of 9% a year during most of the 1990s and by almost 10% in 1996. Growth in the industrial sector was especially strong at over 12% annually between 1988 and 1997. In Hanoi, the increased presence of a foreign community spurred the availability of western-style restaurants and bars, hotel and airport renovation and upgrading, accessible public telephones, and advertising of consumer goods. However, with the onset of the Asian financial crisis in 1997, growth, which was 8.2% for the year in 1997, dropped to 3.5% in 1998 and 4.5% in 1999. Growth increased to 6.8% in 2000, to 6.9% in 2001, 7% in 2002, 7.2% in 2003, and 8.4% in 2005. The pace of growth was projected to be impressive in 2006–07, aided by solid growth in industry, but was forecast to decline slightly from the seven-year high reached in 2005.

Unemployment grew during the 1990s to an estimated 25% in 1995. Several factors contributed to Vietnam's growing unemployment: natural increases in the population; monetary and other adjustments for hyperinflation, which intensified the unemployment problem by limiting growth in some sectors of the economy; the return of demobilized troops from Cambodia; repatriation of refugees; workers laid off from state enterprises; and returning guest workers. However, with capital investment, this labor force could be turned into a resource for growth in labor-intensive manufacturing, considering the low wage base in Vietnam, the high skills levels, and high motivation. The unemployment rate was estimated at 6.1% in 2003, and at 2.4% in 2005. Inflation, which jumped from 3.1% in 1997 to 7.9% in 1998, moderated to 4.1% in 1999, and was at negligible levels in 2000 (-1.7%) and 2001 (0.8%). By 2005, the inflation rate stood at 8%, and had averaged 4.4% over the 2001–05 period. The Party leadership is concerned about persistent unemployment and underemployment, the widening gap between rich and poor, and increases in bankruptcy, prostitution, and corruption.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Vietnam's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $251.8 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $3,000. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 7.6%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 8%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 21% of GDP, industry 40.9%, and services 38.1%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $2.700 billion or about $33 per capita and accounted for approximately 6.9% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $1,769 million or about $22 per capita and accounted for approximately 4.5% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Vietnam totaled $25.36 billion or about $312 per capita based on a GDP of $39.2 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 5.2%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 49% of household consumption was spent on food, 15% on fuel, 4% on health care, and 18% on education. It was estimated that in 2002 about 28.9% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

Vietnam's labor force was estimated at 44.03 million in 2005. As of 2003, the nation's occupational breakdown was as follows: agriculture (including forestry and fishing) 59.7% of the labor force; industry 16.4%; and the services sector 23.9%. Unemployment in 2005 was estimated at 2.4%.

As of 2002, Vietnamese workers were not free to form or join independent unions. The government-controlled Trade Union Federation of Vietnam (VGCL) is the sole labor organization, and all workers automatically become members of the union of their workplace. In 2001, the VGCL had four million members throughout the country, including 95% of all public sector employees, 90% of workers in state-owned enterprises, and 70% of private sector workers. Strikes are prohibited at enterprises that serve the public or are important to the national economy or defense, and the Prime Minister decides what enterprises come under that definition. Most strikes occur against foreign enterprises.

The minimum age for full-time employment is 18, with special provisions for those between 15 and 18 years of age. However, many children work in violation of this law, especially in the informal economy. The Labor Law requires the government to set a minimum wage, which was $30 per month for foreign-investment joint ventures in 2002. Outside of these enterprises the minimum was set at $12 per month. Working hours are set by law at eight hours per day with a mandatory 24-hour rest period per week. Working conditions are slowly improving.

AGRICULTURE

Nearly 67% of the labor force of the SRV derives its livelihood from agriculture; arable land in 2003 was 8,980,000 hectares (22,190,000 acres). In 2004, there were 32,961 farms with sown crops and 22,759 with perennial crops.

Only about 15% of the land in the north is arable, and 14% of it is already under intensive cultivation. Agriculture in the north is concentrated in the lowland areas of the Red River Delta and along the central coast to the south. The Mekong Delta, among the great rice-producing regions of the world, is the dominant agricultural region of the south. Excess grain from the area is shipped to the northern parts of the country. Annual food-grain production averaged 20 million tons in the early 1990s, reaching 39.6 million tons in 2004.

Rice, the main staple of the Vietnamese diet, occupies 94% of arable land. In the north, two and in some cases three crops a year are made possible through an extensive system of irrigation, utilizing upward of 4,000 km (2,500 mi) of dikes. Single-cropping remains the rule in the south, where heavy rains fall for six months of the year and virtually no rain at all during the other six months. The southern region's extensive network of canals is used mainly for transport and drainage, although some irrigational use was attempted under the RVN government. Rice production between 1975 and 1980 was adversely affected by bad weather and the regime's attempt to promote collectivization, but it began to rebound during the early 1980s. In 1980, 11.7 million tons of paddy rice were produced; output rose to 16.2 million tons in 1985 and to 19.2 million tons in 1990. Production totaled 36.1 million tons in 2004.

Other crops include corn, sorghum, cassava, sweet potatoes, beans, fruits, and vegetables. In 2004, estimated production (in thousands of tons) was sugarcane, 15,880; corn, 3,453; groundnuts in shell, 451; and soybeans, 252. Rubber, formerly a major crop and a leading source of foreign exchange, was grown mostly on large plantations organized under the French colonial regime. As a result of the Vietnam war, practically all of the large plantations in the "redlands" area in the south were shut down, and damage to the trees was severe. In 1975, the SRV announced that rubber workers had resumed the extraction of latex from hundreds of thousands of rubber trees on plantations north and northwest of Ho Chi Minh City, most of which had lain fallow for years. Rubber production was given high priority by the Hanoi regime and increased from 40,000 tons in 1975 to an estimated 400,000 tons in 2004. Other industrial and export crops produced in Vietnam include coffee, tea, tobacco, pepper, and jute. In 2004, 834,600 tons of coffee (second in the world after Brazil), 108,000 tons of tea, 95,700 tons of pepper, 14,000 tons of jute, 27,000 tons of tobacco, and 825,700 tons of cashews (first in the world) were harvested.

Agriculture in the north has reached an advanced stage of collectivization. A land-reform program completed in 1956 distributed 810,000 hectares (2,002,000 acres) to 2,104,000 peasant families. The share of the Socialist sector in agricultural land increased from 1% in 1955 to 95% in 1975. By 1977, the north had 15,200 agricultural cooperatives and 105 state farms.

In the south, rapid collectivization began in 1978, when the regime announced a program to place the majority of southern farmers in low-level cooperative organizations by the end of the 1976–80 five-year plan. Popular resistance was extensive, however, and by 1981, less than 10% of the rural population was enrolled in full-scale collectives and a roughly equal number in lowlevel, semi-Socialist production solidarity teams and production collectives.

In an effort to make collectivization more palatable, the regime announced a "household contract" system, permitting members of cooperatives to lease collective land in return for an agreed proportion of total output. This system apparently encouraged many peasants to join cooperative organizations, and the regime announced in mid-1986 that collectivization at the low level had been "basically completed" in the south, with 86.4% of the rural population enrolled in some form of collective organization. In 2003, of the 7,694 agricultural cooperatives throughout Vietnam, only about 25% were in the south.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The most important aspect of animal husbandry in the SRV remains the raising of draft animals, mainly water buffalo. Lack of feed, shelter, and technical guidance and an inability to control disease combine with the legacy of war damage to hinder the growth of this sector. Increasing the livestock is now a major priority of the Hanoi regime. The sizes of herds in 2005 (with 1975 figures in parentheses) was as follows: hogs, 27,000,000 (8,800,700); buffalo, 2,950,000 (2,193,000); and cattle 5,250,000 (1,485,000). Vietnam also had an estimated 1,200,000 goats, 111,000 horses, 195 million chickens, and 50 million ducks in 2005. Meat production totaled 2,740,000 tons in 2005, with pork accounting for 77%; poultry, 14%; buffalo and other meat, 9%.

FISHING

Fresh and dried fish and fish sauce (known as nuoc mam) are major ingredients of the Vietnamese diet, and fishing is an important occupation. Shrimp, lobster, and more than 50 commercial species of fish are found in Vietnamese waters. Ha Long Bay, the major fishing area of the north, is particularly rich in shrimp and crayfish. Fish also abound in Vietnam's rivers and canals. In 2004, Vietnam had 20,071 vessels engaged in offshore fishing.

The fishing industry was severely depleted after the Vietnam War, when many fishermen (often overseas Chinese) fled the country. The government has increased marine production into a major export industry. In 2003, ocean production was estimated at 1,896,277 tons, and inland production was estimated at 738,111 tons. Exports of fish products were valued at $2.2 billion in 2003. Vietnamese aquaculture primarily produces cyprinids and prawns. In 2004, there were 35,424 fish farms covering 904,900 hectares (2,236,000 acres), 70% in marine or brackish water, primarily for shrimp. That year, farmed shrimp production totaled 290,200 tons. The government estimates the value of aquaculture at d33 trillion, or 66% of the total output value of fishing in 2004.

FORESTRY

In 2004, forests covered 37% of the total land area of Vietnam, consisting of 9.9 million hectares (24.5 million acres) of natural forest and 2.27 million hectares (5.61 million acres) of planted forest. Important forestry products include bamboo, resins, lacquer, quinine, turpentine, and pitch. Depletion of forests, however, has been serious, not only through US defoliation campaigns in the south during the war, but also because of the slash-and-burn techniques used by nomadic tribal groups in mountainous areas. Planted forests are mainly found in the northeast, where they serve as watershed protection and supply materials for the mining and paper industries. In 1998, the government began a reforestation program which aims to increase the forest cover by 5 million hectares (12.3 million acres) by 2010.

The damaged areas are recovering faster than anticipated, although reforestation has been slow and some regions are faced with sterility and erosion. Official policy emphasizes the replacement of natural forests with export crops such as cinnamon, aniseed, rubber, coffee, and bamboo. Roundwood production was estimated at 30,597,000 cu m (1.08 billion million cu ft) in 2004, with 86% used as fuel wood. Vietnam has become a world-class producer of wooden furniture, with exports rising from $200 million in 2000 to nearly $1.5 billion in 2005.

MINING

Vietnam had a wide variety of important mineral resources, but the mining sector was relatively small and undeveloped. The principal reserves, located mainly in the north, were bauxite, carbonate rocks, chrome, clays, anthracite coal, copper, natural gas, gemstones, gold, graphite, iron ore, lead, manganese, mica, nickel, crude petroleum, phosphate rock (apatite), pyrophyllite, rare earths, silica sand, tin, titanium, tungsten, zinc, and zirconium. Coal dominated the mining sector, and, along with carbonate rocks, crude petroleum, and phosphate rocks, was produced in large quantity. Iron reserves were estimated at 520 million tons, and apatite reserves, 1.7 billion tons. Bauxite mines in the Central Highlands Province (Lam Dong) were capable of producing 1.7 million tons per year of ore. Mining and quarrying contributed 6.1% to gross domestic product (GDP) in 2003. Also among leading industries were the production of cement, chemical fertilizer, oil, coal, and steel; crude oil was its top export commodity. Vietnam's movement toward a free market has resulted in increased international trade.

Estimated production outputs in 2004 included: chromium ore (gross weight), 150,000 metric tons, up from 120,000 metric tons in 2003; ilmenite (gross weight), 200,000 metric tons, unchanged from 2003; mined zinc, 40,000 metric tons, down from 45,000 metric tons in 2003; mined tin, 3,500 metric tons, up from 2,100 metric tons in 2003; gold, 2,000 kg, unchanged from 2003; lime, 1.5 million tons; and silica sand, 63 million tons, unchanged from 2003. Vietnam also produced barite, bauxite, bentonite, hydraulic cement, chromium, kaolin clay, refractory clay, construction aggregates, copper, fluorspar, gemstones, granite, graphite, ilmenite, iron ore, lead, lime, marble, nitrogen, phosphate rock, pyrite, pyrophyllite, rare earths, salt, silica sand, sulfur, building stone, and zirconium. Most chromite, ilmenite, and zirconium, and some granite, kaolin, salt, and silica sand, was exported. No tungsten was reported produced from 2000 through 2004. Asian Mineral Resources started two diamond drilling programs at nickel deposits. The mining industry comprised state-owned companies, several state-and-foreign mining and mineral-processing company joint ventures, many small-scale local government-owned mining companies, local government–private mining company joint ventures, and local private miners.

ENERGY AND POWER

Vietnam has the potential to become a regional supplier of oil and natural gas.

As of 1 January 2005, Vietnam had proven oil reserves of 600 million barrels, according to the Oil and Gas Journal. However, that total is seen as increasing as exploration continues to move forward. In 2004, oil production was estimated at 403,000 barrels per day. With domestic consumption in 2004 estimated at 210,000 barrels per day, Vietnam that year became a net oil exporter. In 2004, net oil exports totaled an estimated 193,000 barrels per day.

Vietnam also has reserves of natural gas, estimated by the Oil and Gas Journal, as of 1 January 2005, at 6.8 trillion cu ft. However, it is expected that the country's actual reserves may total as much as 10 trillion cu ft. As of 2002, Vietnam consumed all the natural gas it produced. In that year, output of natural gas and domestic consumption each totaled an estimated 79.8 billion cu ft.

Vietnam also has coal reserves of 165 million short tons, most of which is anthracite coal. In 2002, coal production totaled an estimated 14.4 million short tons. In that year, demand for coal totaled an estimated 9.1 million short tons, making the country a net exporter of coal. Exports of coal that year totaled 5.3 million short tons.

Vietnam's electric power generating capacity in 2002 totaled 8.323 million kW, of which 4.195 million kW of capacity was came from conventional thermal plants. Hydroelectric plants accounted for the remaining 4.128 million kW. Electric power output in 2002 totaled 34.558 billion kWh, of which 16.542 billion kWh came from conventional thermal plants and 18.016 billion kWh, from hydroelectric plants. In the same year, consumption of electricity totaled 32.139 billion kWh.

Control over the Spratly Islands remains a contentious issue between Vietnam, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Brunei, and Malaysia. The reefs, many of which are partially submerged, lie atop an oil field containing an estimated 1–7 billion barrels of oil.

INDUSTRY

Most heavy and medium industry is concentrated in the north, including the state-owned coal, tin, chrome, and other mining enterprises; an engineering works at Hanoi; power stations; and modern tobacco, tea, and canning factories. The industrial sector in the south is characterized by light industry and consumer goods industry, including pharmaceuticals, textiles, and food processing, although there are some large utilities and cement works. Much of the industrial sector in the north was badly damaged by US bombing raids during the war. In the south, the private sector was permitted to continue in operation after 1975, but all industry and commerce above the family level was nationalized in March 1978. The results were disastrous, and the regime now permits the existence of a small private sector, mainly in the area of consumer goods and other light industry. The results have been generally favorable; industrial production in the 1980s increased at an average annual rate of 9.5%. During the 1990s, industrial production grew by about 12% per year. Industry accounted for 40.9% of GDP in 2005, up from 28% in 1995. Industrial gross output increased by 15.2% in 2005. Leading industrial sectors are food processing, garments, shoes, machine building, mining, cement, chemical fertilizers, glass, tires, oil, coal, steel, and paper.

Food processing and packaging accounts for 40% of total export turnover. The average annual growth rage has been about 11%.

VINATEX (Vietnam National Textiles and Garment Corporation), the largest Vietnamese corporation in the textile sector, planned to invest $900 million in the period 2001 to 2005, made up of $700 million in the textiles sector and $200 million in material and accessories sectors, for equipment upgrades. In January 2005, the WTO abolished world textile quotas, and Chinese exports to the United States and EU soared: both the United States and EU during the course of 2005 reimposed certain quotas to protect their textile industries, thus putting a slight curb on the flow of Chinese goods. Although this policy bode well for developing Southeast Asian textile exporters, as competition with China was eased, Vietnam in 2005 was not yet a member of the WTO and thus still faced quotas on its exports to the United States, which it was trying to fill. But because its wages are lower than China's, Vietnam in the long term must pursue strategies to save its clothing industry once it enters a quota-free world.

Vietnam exports about $3 billion worth of footwear a year, its third-largest export earner after crude oil and textiles. In 2004, Vietnam was Asia's third-largest oil producer, with crude oil production averaging 403,300 barrels per day.

Vietnam's rubber sector has been growing at about 15% a year with an output of 300,000 tons of dried latex. Plans are to invest about $100 million in the period 2001 to 2010 in building/expanding 11 latex plants. Construction has been one of the driving forces of economy, growing at 15% a year. The construction sector consists of about 3,500 companies, including 270 foreign invested enterprises.

Vietnam has a large-scale wood processing industry with a nation-wide network of some 760 state-managed wood processing units. There are also over 200 local enterprises, more than 50 joint ventures and close to 1,200 small scale production units. In the early 2000s, the market for metal-working machinery and equipment was some $45 million of which 90% was imported.

The state-dominated industrial sector, which accounts for about 45% of the country's GDP, is still marked by inefficiency and low productivity and has retarded the growth of the private sector. This is due the low level of development, characterized by obsolete plants and machinery, shortages of capital, raw materials, energy and transport, and a command-style economic system. Vietnam's assets include low wages, good skill levels, and a motivated work force.

The government owns an estimated 6,000 state-owned enterprises (SOEs): the majority of nonagricultural enterprises. Most of these SOEs reflect the inefficiencies of parastatals, including debt, obsolete equipment and practices, and poor labor. In 1997, the government organized 2,000 SOEs into 88 conglomerates, accounting for 80% of the state sector and further monopolizing the industrial sector. Foreign investment, while welcome, is hard pressed to find opportunities outside of the Vietnam government's reach. In 2003, the first auction of a state-owned enterprise (SOE) took place, which resulted in the sale of the Hai Phong Agricultural Mechanical Engineering Company for $300,000 to a private Vietnamese company. The auction was financed by the Australian government.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Science and technology have been one of the key weak spots in the Vietnamese economy and were targeted for significant growth during the second five-year plan (1976–80). Vietnam's leading learned societies are the Union of Scientific and Technical Associations (founded in 1983) and the General Association of Medicine (founded in 1955), both in Hanoi. The State Commission for Science and Technology supervises research at the universities and institutes attached to the Ministry of Higher Education; the Institute of Science organizes research at other institutions. All research institutes are attached to government ministries.

Courses in basic and applied sciences are offered at Cantho University (founded in 1966), the Hanoi University of Technology (founded in 1956), the University of Hanoi (re-founded 1956), the University of Ho Chi Minh City (founded in 1977), Ho Chi Minh City Pedagogical University of Technology (founded in 1962), and various colleges. In 1996, the Hue College of Sciences (formerly the University of Hue) had 10 departments and a large library.

In 1985, total expenditures on research and development amounted to 498 million dong. In the period 1990–2001, there were 274 researchers engaged in research and development per million people.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Since 1979, the government has permitted the existence of a private commercial sector, mainly in southern cities as Ho Chi Minh City and Da Nang. Most private businesses are small shops and restaurants. In 1991, private enterprise and company laws were adopted by the National Assembly. It is estimated that private businesses account for 70% of domestic trade. Consumer items, durable, and nondurable goods, are available in greater abundance.

Wholesalers in Vietnam consist of state-owned trading companies and private local wholesalers. The retail sector in Vietnam is undergoing rapid transformation, as new sales outlets and merchandising techniques have emerged. In the major urban areas, several Western-style mini-markets and privately-owned convenience stores have opened. Showrooms and service centers for electronics, appliances, and industrial goods offer wholesale and retail sales. In 1996, the Saigon Superbowl opened in Ho Chi Minh City as Vietnam's first entertainment and retail center. Outside of the largest cities, retail outlets consist of family-operated market stalls or small street-front shops. There is still a strong "gray market" of smuggled goods. A value-added tax applies to most goods and services. Advertising appears in many forms. The government has restricted the use of foreign imagery in outdoor advertising by placing limitations on foreign language, landscapes, and models.

Business hours are usually Monday through Friday between 8 am and 5 pm, with a midday break between noon and 1:00 pm. Those hours pertain to government offices as well. Commercial offices are also open on Saturdays from 8 to 11:30 am. Banks are open until 3 or 4 pm weekdays and until 11:30 am on Saturdays. Shops and restaurants are open into the evenings and on Sundays.

FOREIGN TRADE

Beginning in 1980, emphasis was placed on the development of potential export commodities such as cash crops, marine products, and handicrafts, while imports were severely limited. To promote trade expansion with Japan, Singapore, and Hong Kong, several export-import firms were set up in Ho Chi Minh City under loose official supervision. The results were favorable but the experiment aroused distrust among communist party leaders, and the freewheeling enterprises were integrated into a single firm strictly supervised by the government.

The economic reforms of the late-1980s, including currency devaluation, adoption of a flexible exchange rate system, and lifting restrictions on foreign trade, contributed to the rapid growth in exports in the early 1990s. The US lifting of economic sanctions in 1994 pushed the volume of foreign trade even further upwards. Investments in Vietnam are contributing to the development and expansion of tourism. Vietnam joined the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) in 1995, committing itself to tariff reductions among member nations. In 1999, the economy recorded its smallest trade deficit in recent memory as exports climbed 23% while imports increased only 2.1%. In 2001, a US-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) was concluded, which, by 2004, had resulted in a fourfold increase in bilateral trade between the two countries. Since 2001, the government has moved toward economic liberalization and international integration in order to modernize the economy and produce more competitive, exportdriven industries.

Import commodities include petroleum and steel products, motor vehicles and tractors, tires, foodstuffs, raw cotton, sugar, and grain. The most important export commodities for Vietnam are crude petroleum, footwear, and apparel. Other exports include rice, shellfish, and coffee.

In 2004, Vietnam's major exports, in percentage terms, were: crude oil (22.1% of total exports); textiles and garments (17.1%); and footwear (10.5%). Primary imports included: machinery and equipment (17.5% of total imports); refined petroleum (11.5%); and steel (8.3%). Vietnam's leading markets in 2004 were: the United States (20.3% of total exports); Japan (13.7%); China (8.5%); and Australia (7%). The leading suppliers were: China (14.1% of total imports); South Korea (11.9%); Japan (11.3%); and Singapore (11.2%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

A traditional merchandise trade deficit is partially offset by an inflow of foreign money. This inflow, however, has made the Vietnamese currency overvalued (some argue by as much as 20–30%) and was seen to be hurting exports by driving up the cost of goods. The 1998 financial crisis reflected the culmination of this overvaluation, which was remedied by 1999 with low import levels, and smaller investment figures. Vietnam is the world's second-largest rice exporter after Thailand, exporting 5.2 million tons of rice in 2005. In recent years, Vietnam has received an increase in foreign loans, aid, and direct investment. Vietnam's foreign debt stood at $19.17 billion in 2005.

In 2004, the value of merchandise exports increased by some 27% to $25.6 billion. However, merchandise imports increased to $31.1 billion, up from $24.9 billion in 2003, resulting in a merchandise trade deficit of $5.5 billion in 2004, compared with $4.7 billion in 2003 and $2.5 billion in 2002. The current-account balance averaged -1.6% of GDP over the 2001–05 period.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The State Bank of Vietnam, created in 1951, was the central bank of issue for the DRV, with numerous branches throughout the territory and an extensive agricultural and industrial loan service; in 1976, it became the central bank of the SRV. Foreign exchange is regulated by the Foreign Trade Bank. The Bank for Agricultural Development provides loans to the agricultural and fishing sectors.

Financial chaos became a constant threat during the final years of the RVN. The National Bank of Vietnam (NBV), established in 1954, was the sole authority for issuing notes, controlling credit, and supervising the formation of new banks and changes in banking establishments.

In early May 1975, shortly after the fall of Saigon, the new revolutionary regime announced the temporary closure of all banks in the south, although the RVN piaster continued to circulate as the only legal tender. Two months later, the National Bank of Vietnam was reopened under new management. Stringent regulations were announced to control inflation and limit currency accumulation. All private Vietnamese and foreign banks were closed in 1976. By then, the Hanoi regime had ordered a complete withdrawal from circulation of the RVN currency and its replacement by the dong, in use in the north.

Since the banking reorganization of July 1988, but particularly since 1992, Vietnam has moved to a diversified system in which state-owned joint-stock, joint-venture, and foreign banks provide services to a broader customer base. The first foreign representative bank office arrived in 1989. In 1992, foreign banks were granted permission to open full commercial branches. The government set up the Bank for the Poor in 1995, and gave it the task of lending to "the poor living in underprivileged areas." As of December 1998, in addition to four state-owned commercial banks, there were numerous joint-stock banks, foreign bank branches, joint-venture banks and foreign banks with representative offices. Foreign banks only recognize three of the joint-stock banks as viable partners, however.

The state banks still dominate the system, state enterprises are still the main borrowers, and their lending is still predominantly short-term because of the skewed interest rate structure. These banks are the Bank of Foreign Trade (Vietcombank), the Vietnam Industrial and Commercial Bank (Incombank), the Vietnam Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (BARD), and the Vietnam Bank for Investment and Development (BIDV).

Two banking decrees, issued in October 1990 and governing respectively commercial banks, credit cooperatives and other financial institutions, and the State Bank, aimed to regulate the financial system more strictly. Credit cooperatives had to be licensed by the State Bank rather than by local People's Committees. The first decree also gave the state commercial banks greater autonomy, and permitted them to compete with each other and to seek capital from sources other than the state. The second decree introduced new instruments through which the State Bank could control the banking sector, including open-market operations and varying reserve requirements and discount rates.

Despite these changes, the banking system is in poor health. Public confidence in the system remains low. Only 4% of all potential holders of accounts have actually opened one. There were only 10,000 bank accounts in the entire country of 80 million people in 2002. As of 2002, the Vietnam banking system had gained little international confidence, although international audit standards are beginning to be implemented. Loan fraud investigations and low loan liquidity have brought bank finances under scrutiny. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $7.6 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $17.1 billion. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 4.8%.

In July of 2000, the Vietnam Stock Exchange opened its doors for the first time.

INSURANCE

Before May 1975, life and property insurance coverage was available in the RVN from three small Vietnamese insurance companies and through local representatives of about 70 French, UK, and US insurance firms. By the end of 1975, all private insurance facilities had ceased to operate, and the Vietnam Insurance Co., established in the DRV in 1965, had become the nation's lone insurance firm. In 1981, the main types of insurance offered were motor vehicle, personal accident, hull and cargo, offshore exploration, aviation, and third-party risk. In Vietnam, third-party automobile insurance and employers' liability are compulsory.

In 1997, other insurance companies operating in Vietnam were Hochiminh Insurance Co., Nha Rong Joint-Stock Insurance Co., Petrolimex Joint-Stock Insurance Co., Petrovietnam Insurance Co. (PVIC), Vietnam National Reinsurance Co., and the Yasuda Fire and Marine Insurance Co. As of 2002, foreign insurers were allowed in Vietnam, thus opening up the market. In 2003, the value of all direct insurance premiums written totaled $550 million, of which life insurance premiums accounted for $331 million. In 2001, Bao Viet was the country's leading nonlife and life insurer, with gross written nonlife premiums of $75.5 million and gross written life insurance premiums of $102.4 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The main sources of monetary revenue are income taxes, the sale of SOE's, and customs taxes. Annual deficits are financed by foreign aid. Monetary policy reforms enacted since 1988 helped end the hyperinflationary spiral of the 1980s. Aid from the former Soviet Union, formerly Vietnam's most prominent donor, was greatly reduced after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Foreign investment peaked in 1995 after the United States declared an end to

economic sanctions, but quickly receded thereafter. Implementation of a VAT in 2000 was expected to increase revenue.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Vietnam's central government took in revenues of approximately $11.6 billion and had expenditures of $12.9 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$1.3 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 75.5% of GDP. Total external debt was $19.17 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were d102,223 billion and expenditures were d117,180 billion. The value of revenues was us$7 million and expenditures us$8 million, based on a market exchange rate for 2001 of us$1 = d14,725 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 65.3%; economic affairs, 7.0%; health, 3.6%; education, 13.7%; and social protection, 10.5%.

TAXATION

Individual income is subject to a progressive tax ranging from 0–40%. Individuals realizing capital gains from the right to use land or the transfer of a house are subject to a progressive tax with a top rate of 60%.

The main corporate tax rate is 28%. In addition, companies deriving income from land use rights are subject to a surtax from ranging from 10–25%. Capital gains incurred by companies by the sale of fixed assets are taxed at the corporate rate. Gains stemming from the sale of shares in a foreign-invested company are taxed at a 25% rate. There is no tax on dividends, although income from interest and/or royalties are each subject to a 10% withholding rate.

Other taxes include capital transfer taxes, land and housing taxes, a natural resources tax, technology transfer fees, import and export duties. There are also special consumption taxes applied to tobacco products, spirits, beer, and other items ranging and which range from 15–100%. Vietnam also imposes a value-added tax (VAT) with a standard rate of 10% and which covers all goods and services. Exports however are exempt.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

All imports must be authorized by one of the state trading corporations. Customs duty is generally charged on imports and exports, with many exemptions and duty reductions available (including imports related to an aid program and goods to be used for security, national defense, scientific and educational training, or research purposes). Tariff rates are divided into three categories according to the import source country's trade relationship with Vietnam: ordinary rates apply to goods imported from countries that have not exchanged normal trade relations (NTR) agreements with Vietnam; preferential rates apply to goods from countries that have exchanged NTRs with Vietnam; and special preferential rates apply to goods from countries that have made special trade arrangements with Vietnam. Ordinary tariff rates are about 50% higher than preferential rates. Special preferential rates vary by country. There are also special consumption taxes (mostly on luxury goods) of up to 100%, a value-added tax (VAT) of 0%, 5%, 10% and 20%, and import quotas.

In 1994, the United States lifted its trade embargo on Vietnam and in 1995 the two countries established formal relations. Vietnam is a member of ASEAN and its free trade area (AFTA).

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

France was the dominant foreign investor in Indochina before World War II. Resident Chinese, however, played a major role in rice milling, retailing, and other activities (and continued to do so in the south through the early 1970s). Following the 1954 partition agreement, the French economic position in the DRV was completely liquidated, and the participation of private foreign investors in the DRV economy was prohibited. The RVN government encouraged the introduction of private capital. In March 1957, a presidential declaration provided guarantees against nationalization and expropriation without due compensation, temporary exemption from various taxes, and remittance of profits within existing regulations. Despite these efforts, because of wartime conditions, relatively little new private foreign investment was attracted to the country, apart from a few ventures by US and Japanese interests. In 1977, the SRV issued a new investment code in an effort to attract private foreign capital to help develop the country. However, because of stringent regulations and a climate of government suspicion of private enterprise, the 1977 code attracted little enthusiasm among potential investors. Only the USSR and France made sizable investments, although Japan subsequently laid the foundation for future investment by bank loans. Beginning in 1984, the regime began to encourage the formation of joint ventures and announced that preparations were under way for a new foreign investment code.

In 1987 the National Assembly passed a liberalized investment law seeking to improve the overall investment climate and emphasize the development of export industries and services. The Vietnamese investment laws were much more liberal than those of other countries in Southeast Asia. The code permitted wholly owned foreign enterprises in Vietnam, levied low taxes on profits, allowed full repatriation of profits after taxes, and guaranteed foreign enterprises against government appropriation. The law also encouraged oil exploration. Factors hindering performance of foreign investors are bureaucracy, lack of management expertise, smuggling and corruption, and an underlying distrust and uncertainty on the part of officialdom.

In early 1994 the government announced three proposals intended to improve the investment environment and increase foreign trade: expedited decisions on small investment projects; the elimination of the requirement for import-export licenses for many commodities; and reduced list of industries that would be off limits to foreign investors. Foreign investments were allowed in insurance companies and brokerages, and reinsurance between companies. Under amendments to the Foreign Investment Law in 1996 more authority over investment licensing was given to local governments.

Total foreign direct investment (FDI) approvals from 1988 to June 2002 amounted to $38.58 billion, but the total disbursed was a little over $20 billion, about 52% of approved FDI. Since the 1994 reduction of restrictions, however, actual inflows of FDI have averaged about 70% of the approvals. After the Asian financial crisis, the level of inflow decreased by about $900 million a year. From 1998 to 2000, the annual average inflow was $1.7 billion. The main cause of the decline was reduced investments from other Southeast Asian countries. As of 2003, it was estimated that FDI projects produced 13% of the country's GDP, including 36% of industrial production. As of 1999, Singapore was the largest foreign investor with $5.9 billion of total investments approved by the Vietnam government between 1988 and 1999 (only $2 billion actualized). Other major investors included Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, France, the British Virgin Islands, Russia, the United States, and the United Kingdom. The Vietnamese government controls both upstream and downstream oil and gas industries, but since 1998 foreign investment has been permitted. In 2001, the consortium that included Conoco, the Korean National Oil Company (KNOC), SK Corporation of South Korea, and Geopetrol of France made a major find of oil in the Cuu Long Basin. In 2002, the Japan Vietnam Petroleum Comany (JVPC) made its first sizeable discoveries. JVPC is the operator in the joint venture. and holds a 46.5% share.

Vietnam's encouragement of foreign investment includes its ability to attract and utilize large amounts of foreign capital, both in the form of FDI and ODA (official development assistance). As of 2006, Vietnam did not allow significant foreign portfolio investment. For the 2001–05 period, the government set targets for FDI at $11 billion in disbursements from existing and newly licensed foreign investments and for approximately $10 to $11 billion in ODA disbursed by foreign donors for a total of $21 to $22 billion from foreign sources. These levels of FDI and ODA were designed to maintain a GDP growth rate of 7.5% per year. By December 2004, Vietnam had attracted nearly $46 billion in investment commitments since the country was opened to foreign investment in 1988, 58% of which had been disbursed.

Vietnam's primary investors in 2004, in terms of licensed capital, were, in order: Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, the British Virgin Islands, Canada, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and the United States.

There is little information on Vietnam's direct investment abroad, but according to the government, as of the end of 2004 Vietnam had invested in 113 projects worth about $226 million in Russia, Singapore, Laos, Japan, Hong Kong, Cambodia, Tajikistan, the Middle East, the United States, Uzbekistan, and Taiwan.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

With the defeat of the RVN forces in April 1975, Vietnam faced the task of restoring its infrastructure, damaged by the war, while working toward the goal of a technologically advanced society. Long-range planning centered on the second five-year plan (1976–80), which called for major emphasis on heavy industry and rapid agricultural growth. Due to factors including unfavorable weather, decreased foreign aid, and high military expenditures—combined with managerial inefficiency—the plan was a disaster. Industrial production grew by only 0.6% and agriculture by 1.9%. The third five-year plan (1981–85) was more modest in its objectives. Emphasis was placed on agricultural development and the promotion of consumer goods, with industrial development in the background. Socialist transformation remained a high priority, although a less rapid rate of change was expected than during the previous five years. Although the goals of the new plan were more realistic than those set for its predecessor, its success was limited. Growth figures in industry (9.5%) and agriculture (4.9%) improved significantly over the previous five years. Production remained spotty in key areas, however, and problems of mismanagement—primarily by the state sector—proliferated.

The fourth five-year plan (1986–90) continued the previous plan's emphasis on agricultural growth and expansion of exports and light industry. Efforts to promote Socialist transformation were to continue, but at a gradual pace and "by appropriate forms." Development aid continued to come primarily from the former USSR and other CMEA countries. In 1978, the SRV became fully integrated into the CMEA planning and development structure, and its five-year plans were coordinated with those of its CMEA partners. Planned Soviet outlays for the 1986–90 period totaled some $11–13 billion. This aid and trade waned with the decline of the USSR, with the full cutoff occurring in 1991. The SRV's new economic emphasis, doi moi (renovation) was instituted by Nguyen Van Linh following the sixth national party congress (1986). His plan included policy and structural reforms for a market-based economic system: price decontrol (liberalized prices), currency devaluation, private sector expansion through decollectivization of agriculture (food production), legal recognition of private business, new foreign investment laws, autonomy of state enterprises, business accounting methods, devolution of government decision-making in industry to enterprise level, and limiting government participation to macroeconomic issues. Implementation of these policies was achieved with varied success.

Inflation policy and agricultural reform resulted in immediate increases in rice production. Vietnam changed from a net importer of rice to the third major rice exporter after Thailand and the United States. It was the second-largest world rice exporter in 2005.

Industry has replaced agriculture as the main engine of the economy, and by 2005 accounted for 40.9% of GDP. Agriculture remains important, however, accounting for about 21% of GDP and about 65% of the labor force. A privatization program in the early 1990s met with resistance from conservative politicians, companies, and from foreign investors. Conservatives feared that privatization undermined the economic basis of socialism, and foreign investors were wary of poor investments with meager legal underpinnings. Opposition from managers who would lose a "free hand," and employees whose jobs might be replaced by new equipment also arose. In 1994 the director and deputy director of the textile company that was the flagship for this privatization program were dismissed for alleged corruption.

US president Bill Clinton's lifting of the 30-year-old trade embargo in 1994 opened the way for waiting American companies to do business in Vietnam. International assistance during the mid-1990s was from the World Bank for education and agricultural reforms, the Japan Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund for infrastructure programs, the United Kingdom for soft loans, technical training and refugee resettlement, and from the Asian Development Bank. A continuation of reforms promoting foreign investment and minimizing the state's role in the economy moved slowly in the late 1990s due to political corruption and inefficiencies.

The Asian financial crisis negatively affected investor confidence in the region, severely reducing Vietnam's main focus of economic development. A complete overhaul of the financial regulatory system is still necessary in order to stimulate the economy. Vietnam's increasing integration in regional and international economic organization should impel more competitive production methods. At the end of 2001, Vietnam concluded a bilateral trade agreement with the United States, and it is on the path toward accession to the World Trade Organization.

Vietnam by 2006 had largely overcome the negative effects of the Asian financial crisis, with GDP growth ticking along at 7.4% over the 2001–05 period, despite the global economic slowdown of 2001–03. Vietnam must work to promote job creation to keep up with the country's high population growth rate. The government has made progress in reducing poverty: as of 1993, the World Bank declared 58% of the population to be poor, and by 2002, that had fallen to 29%. Nevertheless, the poor remain concentrated in remote, rural districts populated mainly by ethnic minorities, which are areas least touched by the government's reform program. Cities are growing faster than the countryside. Other economic challenges remain, in terms of strengthening the financial sector and the legal framework and reforming state-owned enterprises. Diseases like SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) and avian flu, had not made a severe dent in the economy by 2005. Small businesses are booming: by the end of 2002, more than 50,000 new companies had been established. However, Vietnam has few midsized private firms between these small family firms and large exporters backed by foreign investors.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A social security plan provides old age, disability and survivorship benefits, as well as worker's injury and medical insurance. All private and public sector employees with employment contracts of at leave three months are covered. Pensions are funded by 5% of employee wages, 10% of employer payroll, and government contributions. Maternity benefits are payable at 100% of wages for 120 days, and are also available to women who adopt a newborn baby. Workers' compensation is provided according to the level of disability.

Women have full legal rights under law, but are subject to various forms of social discrimination. Few women are found in senior management or high level government positions, but business and the public sector nevertheless employ many women, and they are an important part of the economy. Women also generally receive lower wages than their male counterparts. Domestic violence against women is common, and women tend to stay in abusive marriages rather than confront the stigma of divorce.

The human rights record is poor, and there are continuing reports of arbitrary detention and the mistreatment of detainees during interrogation. In 2004, the restrictions on the Internet were increasing, with the government closely monitoring activity. Human rights organizations are not permitted to operate in Vietnam.

HEALTH

Wars in Vietnam since 1946 have undermined much of the progress made by the DRV, RVN, and SRV in the health field. Damage to urban hospitals in the north was especially severe. A 1976 World Health Organization report indicated the dimensions of that destruction: 24 research institutes and specialized hospitals, 28 provincial hospitals, 94 district hospitals, and 533 community health centers; all destroyed mainly as the result of US bombing. Three decades of intermittent war has also had a devastating effect on health conditions in the south.

The incidence of tuberculosis, which had been largely controlled rose again in the late 1990s. Commonly reported diseases in Vietnam were diarrheal disease, malaria, and tuberculosis. Venereal and paravenereal diseases were said to have affl icted one million persons in the south (about 5% of the total population) and, WHO claimed, 80% of RVN soldiers. Opiate addiction affected about 500,000 persons. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.40 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 220,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 9,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

During the early 1980s, foreign visitors routinely reported observing severe cases of malnutrition and shortages of medical equipment and supplies. While conditions have generally improved as agricultural production has increased, most Vietnamese continue to live at the minimum level of subsistence. In February of 1996, Vietnam was considering fortification of foods with iron and vitamin A. In 1995, the Vietnamese government issued the National Plan of Action for Nutrition (1995–2000), which aimed to eliminate food insecurity, reduce malnutrition, and reduce micronutrient deficiencies. About 39% of all children under 5 were classified as malnourished in 2000.

Vietnam reported life expectancy in 2005 to be 70.61 years and infant mortality to be 25.95 per 1,000 live births. Maternal mortality was 160 per 100,000 live births. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 20.9 and 6.1 per 1,000 people. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were tuberculosis, 96%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 95%; polio, 95%; and measles, 96%.

Family planning services were provided to 2,157,000 people in 1992. An estimated 75% of married women (ages 15 to 49) were using contraception in 2003. Abortion is available on request. Vietnam's fertility rate in 2000 was 2.2, down nearly 2% from the previous 5-year period.

In 2004, the country had an estimated 53 physicians, 56 nurses, and 18 midwives per 100,000 people. About 97% of the population had access to health care services. Approximately 56% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 73% had adequate sanitation. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 4.8% of GDP.

HOUSING

Housing is a serious problem in Vietnam, particularly in urban areas of the north where war damage has caused overcrowding and lack of resources has hampered efforts to resolve the problem. By 1986, housing had become a critical problem in Hanoi, particularly in the central sections of the city, where per capita living space was reduced to four sq m. Large flats are gradually being erected in the suburbs to ease the problem. In the meantime, many families live in temporary quarters built directly on the sidewalk or attached to other buildings. Housing is less a problem in the countryside, where many farm families have begun to take advantage of a rising standard of living to build new houses of brick and stone. Similarly, in the south, housing is available to meet the requirements of the population because building construction had continued at a relatively high level during the war years.

At the 1999 census, about 12.8% of the housing stock were permanent houses, 50.4% were semipermanent, 14.1% were built with a durable wood frame, and 22.7% were temporary houses. The average living area per household (excluding temporary housing) was 47.9 sq m; the average living space per person was 10.4 sq m. About 13% of all households had clean tap water, 10.1% used rain water as a main water source, and 54.9% used some type of filter system or hygienic well. Only 16.4% of all households used a flush toilet. About 77.8% of all households used electricity.

EDUCATION

After 1975, the educational system in the south was restructured to conform to the Socialist guidelines that had been used in the DRV. The 12-year school cycle was reduced to 10 years, and the more than 20,000 teachers in the south were among those subjected to "reeducation." By 1976, some 1,400 tons of textbooks printed in the DRV had been shipped to the south, and the books used previously under the RVN were destroyed. In addition, more than 1,000 formerly private schools in the south were brought under state control.

Education is free at all levels, and five years of primary education is compulsory. Seven years of secondary school is offered through two cycles of four plus three years. Students progress to the upper level only through completion of an entrance examination. Vocational studies are also offered at the upper secondary level. The academic year runs from September to June.

In 2001, about 43% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2001 was estimated at about 95% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 62% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 95.5% of all students complete their primary education. The student-toteacher ratio for primary school was at about 25:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 26:1.

There are about 90 colleges and three universities in the SRV. The major university is in Hanoi. In 2003, it was estimated that about 10% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in tertiary education programs. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 90.3%, with 93.9% for men and 86.9% for women.

As of 1999, public expenditure on education was estimated at 2.8% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The École Française d'Extrême-Orient once maintained an extensive research library in Hanoi, which was transferred intact to the DRV; it is now the National Library, housing about one million volumes. The bulk of the present collection has been added since 1954 and includes a substantial number of Russian titles. The General Scientific Library in Ho Chi Minh City (formerly the National Library) maintains a collection of over 800,000 volumes. Vietnam National University at Hanoi Library holds 1.4 million volumes.

The collections of the Musée Louis-Finot, an archaeological and cultural museum established by the French in Hanoi, were transferred intact to the DRV. These collections, now part of the Historical Museum, contain artifacts and related material from archaeological discoveries in Thanh Hoa and Yen Bay, including a 2,500-year-old burial boat and an excellent array of bronze implements. Hanoi's National Art Gallery includes a folk-art collection and Vietnamese Bronze Age artifacts. Notable also is the Museum of the Revolution, grouping memorabilia of Vietnam's struggle for independence from the French since the early 1900s. The Army Museum, housed in the Hanoi Citadel, contains a collection of weapons and documents concerning the Indochina war. The Vietnamese Fine Arts Museum (1966) houses exhibits on the decorative and applied arts, and folk and modern art. The architecture of religious edifices and former Vietnamese imperial structures reflect the country's cultural heritage. The Ho Chi Minh City Museum, founded in 1977, has a section devoted to the revolution and another to ancient arts.

MEDIA

Vietnam's postal, telegraph, and telephone services are under the Ministry of Communications. The country made significant progress in upgrading its telecommunications system in the 1990s: all provincial switchboards have been digitized and fiberoptic and microwave transmission systems have been extended from the major cities to the provinces. However Vietnam still lags behind its Southeast Asian neighbors. In 2003, there were an estimated 54 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 34 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Hanoi has a strong central broadcasting station, the Voice of Vietnam, boosted by local relay transmitters. Since 1975, almost the entire country has been blanketed by a wired loudspeaker system. Radio programs beamed abroad include broadcasts in Chinese, English, French, Japanese, Spanish, Thai, Bahasa Indonesia, Russian, Khmer, and Lao, and there are special broadcasts to mountain tribes. Television was introduced into the RVN in 1966, and an extensive service, reaching some 80% of the population, was in operation by the early 1970s. A pilot television station was inaugurated in the DRV in 1971. Many of the major cities now have television stations, all under the guidance of the Ministry of Information, which replaced the State Committee for Radio and Television in 1987. As of 1999, there were 65 AM and 7 FM radio stations. In 1998, there were seven television stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 109 radios and 197 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 9.8 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 43 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 10 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

Most newspapers in the south were shut down by the PRG in 1975, but some papers that had been sympathetic to the NLF/DRV cause were allowed to continue publication. All press is strictly controlled by the Ministry of Culture and Information. Principal Vietnamese dailies (with their affiliation and estimated 2002 circulation) are: Nhan Dan (Communist Party, 200,000), Quan Doi Nhan Dan (army, 60,000), Hanoi Moi (Communist Party, 35,000), and Saigon Giai Phong (Communist Party, 100,000). The Englishlanguage Saigon Times was established in 1995.

Even though the constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, the government places major restrictions and regulations on all media and prison time for violators is not uncommon.

ORGANIZATIONS

The principal mass organization is the Fatherland Front, which merged in January 1977 with the National Liberation Front and with the Vietnam Alliance of National, Democratic, and Peace Forces. The Fatherland Front draws up single slates of candidates in all elections and seeks to implement the political, economic, and social policies of the Communist Party.

Other organizations that form part of the Fatherland Front are the Peasant Union, with some five million members; the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Union, with four million members; and the Vietnamese Women's Union, with 11.4 million members. Industrial and commercial enterprises are represented by the Chamber of Commerce of the SRV in Hanoi.

There are some professional organizations that also serve to promote education and research in specific fields, such as the Chemical Society of Vietnam and the Vietnam Medical Association. There are several charitable organizations, primarily those representing aid from other countries or other major international organizations, such as the Red Cross and Habitat for Humanity.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Vietnam possesses a number of historic and scenic areas of interest to tourists. In the north, the beauty of Ha Long Bay, with its countless grottoes and rock spits jutting vertically into the sea, is well known. Hanoi itself, with its historical monuments, its lakes and pagodas, and its extensive French colonial architecture, is extremely picturesque. Hotel facilities are improving in the larger areas and in some resorts.

In 1986 and 1987, the government made plans to expand international and domestic airline service, double hotel capacity in the major cities, simplify the complicated visa restrictions, and grant shore leave passes to passengers on cruise ships stopping at Vietnamese ports. As a result of these measures, tourism grew rapidly. From 20,000 tourists in 1986, visitor arrivals rose to 450,000 in 1992 and 1,715,637 in 1997. In 2000, about 2,140,000 foreign visitors arrived in Vietnam. That year there were 66,700 hotel rooms with 120,800 beds and an occupancy rate of 50%. All visitors need visas and must register with the government within 48 hours of arrival.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in Ho Chi Minh City at $182 per day. Travel costs in Hanoi were estimated at $176 per day.

FAMOUS VIETNAMESE

Important figures in Vietnamese history include the sisters Trung Trac and Trung Nhi, national heroines who led a revolt (ad 40–43) against China when that nation was imperial master of Tonkin and North Annam; Ngo Quyen, who regained Vietnamese independence from China in 938; Tran Hung Dao, who defeated the forces of Kublai Khan in 1288; Emperor Le Loi, national hero and brilliant administrator, in whose reign the Vietnamese legal code was promulgated in 1407; Emperor Gia Long (d.1820), who reunified Vietnam in the early 19th century; and Le Van Duyet (1763–1832), a military leader who helped the emperor to unify the country.

Phan Boi Chau (1875–1940) was Vietnam's first modern nationalist and, like China's Sun Yat-sen, is claimed by Vietnamese Communists and nationalists alike as their spiritual leader. Ho Chi Minh ("The Enlightener"), born Nguyen That Thanh (1890–1969), was a man of many other pseudonyms. Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969) was a founding member of the French Communist Party in 1920 and founded the Vietnamese Communist Party in 1930. Often referred to as "Uncle Ho," he was president of the DRV from 1945 until his death. General Vo Nguyen Giap (1912–75), a professor of history turned strategist, organized the first anti-French guerrilla groups in 1944, led the Viet-Minh in its eight-year struggle against France, and defeated the French at Dien Bien Phu; subsequently he served as minister of defense, commander in chief of the army, and vice-premier of the DRV. Truong Chinh ("Long March," 1906–88), the DRV's foremost Communist thinker, was secretary-general of the Vietnamese Communist Party from 1940 until 1956, when he was purged from his post for having mismanaged the land reform; exonerated shortly thereafter, he was president of the Council of State (1981–87). Pham Von Dong (1908–2000), a member of the nobility, joined the Vietnamese revolutionary movement at its inception and became minister of foreign affairs in 1954, premier of the DRV in 1955, and premier of the SRV in 1976; he resigned in 1987. Le Duan (1907–86), first secretary of the Communist Party, presided over Vietnam's reunification and the formation of the SRV. Le Duc Tho (1911–90), a member of the Communist Party Politburo but with no post in the government, was the DRV's chief negotiator in talks that led to the 1973 Paris Peace Agreement; for his role, Le shared with US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize.

Prominent political figures in the formation of the RVN included Bao Dai (Nguyen Vinh Thuy; b.France, 1913–97), who had served as nominal emperor of Annam under the Japanese and had attempted to form a unified national government after the war, and Ngo Dinh Diem (1901–63), who served as president of the RVN from its founding on 26 October 1955 until his overthrow and death in November 1963. Nguyen Cao Ky (b.1930), an RVN air force commander, took control of the government in the coup of June 1965. General Nguyen Van Thieu (1923–2001) was elected president of the RVN in the elections of September 1967 (with Ky as his vice presidential running mate), an office he retained until the RVN's defeat in 1975. Both Thieu and Ky left the country in 1975, Thieu taking up residence in Taiwan and Ky in the United States. The new leadership in the south, following the 1975 NLF victory, was headed by Pham Hung (1912–88), chairman of the southern wing of the Communist Party since 1967; Huynh Thanh Phat (1913–89), the PRG premier, who later became a member of the Council of State; and Nguyen Thi Binh (b.1927), the PRG's foreign affairs minister who had headed the NLF delegation at the Paris talks and who also became a Council of State Member. Pham Hung became premier of the SRV in 1987, and Vo Chi Cong (b.1913?) became president of the Council of State. Nguyen Van Linh (1915–98) became general secretary of the Communist Party in December 1986.

The 13th-century writer Nguyen Si Co is regarded as one of the first truly Vietnamese authors; he is best known for his collection titled Chieu Quan Cong Ho. Other leading literary figures are two 15th-century poets, Ho Huyen Qui and Nguyen Binh Khien; the latter's collection, Bach Van Thi Tap, is a classic of Vietnamese literature. Nguyen Du (1765–1820) wrote a famous novel in verse, Kim Van Kieu. Hoang Ngoc Phach, who wrote the romantic novel To Tam (1925), is credited with the introduction of Western literary standards into Vietnamese literature. Duong Thu Huong (b.1947) is a contemporary Vietnamese author and political dissident; her first two books were published in Vietnam, but subsequent novels were only published abroad.

DEPENDENCIES

Vietnam has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Altbach, Philip G. and Toru Umakoshi (eds.). Asian Universities: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Challenges. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.

Ashwill, Mark A. Vietnam Today: A Guide to a Nation at a Crossroads. Yarmouth, Me.: Intercultural Press, 2005.

Kelley, Michael. Where We Were in Vietnam: A Comprehensive Guide to the Firebases, Military Installations, and Naval Vessels of the Vietnam War. Central Point, Oreg.: Hellgate Press, 2002.

Kerkvliet, Benedict J. The Power of Everyday Politics: How Vietnamese Peasants Transformed National Policy. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2005.

Lockhart, Bruce M. and William J. Duiker. Historical Dictionary of Vietnam. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2006.

Moise, Edwin E. Historical Dictionary of the Vietnam War. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2001.

Olson, James Stuart. Where the Domino Fell: America and Vietnam, 1945 to 1995. 2nd ed. New York: St. Martin's, 1996.

SarDesai, D. R. Vietnam, Past and Present. 4th ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2005.

Slabey, Robert M. (ed.). The United States and Vietnam from War to Peace: Papers from an Interdisciplinary Conference on Reconciliation. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland and Co., 1996.

Vietnam

History & Background

Vietnam's nearly 1300-mile long coastline uncoils in the shape of an "S" from China's border to the southeastern extremity of mainland Southeast Asia. It is bordered on the north by China, to the west by Laos and Cambodia, and to the east and south by the South China Sea. Vietnam extends unevenly at widths ranging from 31 to 310 miles and covers an area of 127,300 square miles.

Vietnam's two fertile alluvial basins, the Red River in Tongking and the Mekong in the south, have inspired the image of the Vietnamese peasant carrying a pair of rice baskets suspended at the end of a pole. The two deltas, covering only a quarter of the land area, supports almost 80 percent of the country's population, which was estimated at 76,000,000 people in 2000. Vietnam ranks seventh in Asia and twelfth in the world in its size for population. The female population is larger, at 52 percent. In general, the population is young, with 80 percent of the people born after 1945; the population below 15 years of age accounts for 45 percent. Vietnamese citizens between the ages of 16 and 60, who comprise the bulk of the workforce, account for 48 percent of the population, while the elderly population (aged 61 and older) accounts for only 6.5 percent. Infant mortality has gone down significantly since 1975, standing at 48 per 1,000 in the year 2000.

The Tongking Delta has long reached the point of optimum agricultural expansion; its cultivable land has benefited from a 2000-year-old irrigation system based on an intricate network of dams and canals. It is the cradle of Vietnam's history and culture. Until the fifteenth century, Vietnam was limited to a little south of the Tongking Delta. Pressures on land have historically led to expansion in Central and South Vietnam through the extinction of the Champa kingdom in Central Vietnam—most of it in 1471 and the remnant in 1720. It wrested the Mekong delta from Cambodia in the eighteenth century, thereby reaching its present borders of Vietnam. The two rich deltas made Vietnam one of the world's leading rice exporters in the twentieth century. (That status was lost during the decades of conflict from 1940 to 1975, but it was restored in the late 1980s.) In the last quarter of the twentieth century, extensive reserves of petroleum and natural gas, believed by some experts to be the largest in the world, were also found.

Approximately 80 percent of the population lives in rural areas, mostly in the river delta areas and along the coast. Ethnically, an overwhelming majority of the population, 85 percent, are Vietnamese or Kinh, a mixture of non-Chinese Mongolian and Austro-Indonesian stock, who moved into Tongking Delta from Kweichow, Kwangsi, and Kwantung areas of China beginning around the third century B.C. Minority communities in Vietnam, comprising roughly 11,000,000 people in 2000 A.D. included more than 50 diverse tribes, living mostly in the northwest mountains and in the central highlands where the French lumped many of them together as montagnards or mountain people. There are some 35,000 to 40,000 Chams, descendants of a once mighty Cham kingdom (second to fifteenth century A.D.) who fled to central highlands, and about 660,000 Khmers in South Vietnam. There are also 1,000,000 Hoa or Chinese, who migrated at different times in history, most of them during the French rule and with French encouragement, to Vietnam in the nineteenth century. The Chinese are concentrated in Quang Ninh province in North Vietnam and in Cholon, the twin city of Ho Chi Minh City in the south. Many of them were relocated in the New Economic Zones following the reunification of Vietnam. An estimated 250,000 of them migrated across the northern border to China and to other countries as "boat people" during the period of hostile relations between Vietnam and China.

Few countries have attracted international attention for so long as Vietnam did in the third quarter of the twentieth century. The world witnessed a small country of relatively short and wiry people with only conventional weapons and without the use of airpower holding a superpower at bay and emerging victorious. Historians will debate for a long time whether the Vietnamese were inspired by visions of world communism or those of narrow nationalism. Communist Vietnam's wars with the fraternal Communist states of Cambodia and China in the late 1970s raised serious questions whether communism had ever been a dominant motivation among the Vietnamese masses during the severe conflict with the Americans in the Second Indochina War (1964-1975).

Vietnamese nationalist identity was fostered by long periods of struggle against alien domination, first the Chinese rule for 1050 years from 111 B.C. to 939 A.D. and from 1407 to 1428 A.D. and in modern times by a century of French rule that ended in 1954. Vietnamese historians have emphasized the existence of a thriving indigenous culture, notably the Dongson culture (700-300 B.C.) predating the Chinese rule and the numerous expressions of Vietnamese "nationalism" in the form of anti-Chinese revolts, some of them successful in punctuating the Chinese rule. One of the revolts was led by two Trung sisters, who ruled as joint queens for two years in the first century A.D. A disproportionately large Chinese force crushed the revolt, and the two sisters jumped in the river Day to commit suicide.

During the long centuries of their rule, the Chinese imposed their culture and institutions on their Vietnamese subjects, notably Confucianism, which provided the basis for the political order, the social hierarchy, and the value system. It also formed the core of the curriculum for their civil service examination system. It took several years to gain proficiency in the Chinese script (characters), and to master the literature, philosophy, and law that were mostly based on Confucian scholarship and were needed to pass the triennial examinations that were offered at three levels corresponding to the district, provincial, and imperial levels. Success in the examinations brought bureaucratic appointment of a mandarin along with high prestige in the society and land grants from the government.

Even after the overthrow of the Chinese rule, the Vietnamese emperors continued with the study of Confucianism and the conduct of the civil service examinations. During the last quarter of the eleventh century A.D., the Ly rulers established an elaborate apparatus to promote the Confucian cult at the court; these included a Confucian Temple of Literature and the Han-Lin Academy for Study in Confucianism at the highest level. In 1076 A.D., the Quoc Tu Giam (National College) was opened to teach Confucianism to children of the royal family and nobility. Only scholars well-versed in Confucianism could pass the civil service examinations. In 1089, the Ly Emperor fully adopted the Chinese model of hierarchical bureaucracy, creating nine levels of civil and military officials. In 1397, Emperor Tran Thuan Tong opened public schools right down to the district level. In the following century, during the rule of Emperor Le Thanh Tong (1460-1497), the number of such schools multiplied substantially to enable the children of the common people to study Confucianism and prepare them to take the civil service examinations. Besides the relatively smaller number of government schools at the nation's capital and the capital cities of the provinces and districts, there were a large number of private schools, financed and managed by the people at village and commune levels. Thus, despite fears that China would dominate Vietnam politically, the Vietnamese rulers deliberately set their nation on a course of Sinicization (change through Chinese influence) through adoption of Confucianism.

Parallel to and sometimes overlapping the civil service examinations, a system of conferring academic degrees developed over the centuries. Thus, from the beginning of the thirteenth century, a degree called thi hoi, which according to Vietnamese experts, roughly equaled the western Master of Arts degree, was conferred. From the fourteenth century onwards, a higher degree, thi dinh, equivalent to a doctorate, was awarded. The best among the holders of the doctorate were called trang nguyen. At Van Mieu (Temple of Literature) in Hanoi, there are 83 steles bearing the names of 1,036 "doctors" who had won the highest academic distinction from 1442 to 1779. The Vietnamese emperors held the civil service examinations in Tongking until 1915 and in Hue until 1918.

Along with continuing Confucian learning, some Vietnamese emperors developed pride in Vietnamese culture and promoted the development of an independent literature in the Vietnamese language. In the fourteenth century A.D., a form of writing called Chu Nom, which represented a radical modification of the Chinese Chu Han, developed. In the middle of the seventeenth century, a Jesuit, Alexandre de Rhodes, developed Quoc Ngu, a Romanized phonetic script with diacritical marks to help catechism and compile a Vietnamese-Latin-Portuguese dictionary. The French rulers encouraged Quoc Ngu, which progressively replaced the Chinese as well as Chu Nom methods of writing. After World War I, a group called Tu Luc Van Doan (Self-Reliance Literary Club) reformed Quoc Ngu by standardizing six tone signs and three vowel signs, making it easier to learn the script and the language. It is this form that has been adopted by the Vietnamese governments since 1945.

As in China, the Vietnamese people have always given education a high priority and held educated people in high respect. Vietnamese mandarins, Confucian scholars who had passed the examinations, were, as a rule, regarded as social, intellectual, and cultural leaders In the period just before the French rule began in the nineteenth century, Vietnam had an estimated 20,000 schools with a very high literacy rate. At the end of the French rule, literacy was estimated at around 10 percent, a measure of the neglect of education under the alien Western rule.

For purposes of administration, the French divided Vietnam into trois pays or three countries. Tongking in the north with Hanoi as center was technically a protectorate though, in practice, it was as directly ruled as was Cochin-China or South Vietnam centered on Saigon (renamed Ho Chi Minh City in 1975), which was given the status of a colony. In the center of the country was Annam, with Hue as the seat of the imperial Nguyen family, which was allowed nominally to rule with the help of a traditional council of mandarins. Hanoi became the seat of the French governor-general of Indochina, including Lao and Cambodia. Beginning the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the French introduced a dual policy aimed at the eventual acculturization of its colonial subjects: the higher-level policy of "assimilation" for Cochin-China and the transitional-level policy of "association" for Tongking and Annam. There was a very high percentage of Frenchmen in the administration as well as in the educational establishment of Cochin-China, where Confucianism disintegrated faster than in the other two areas. Those who collaborated with the French regime in business and administration saw benefits of acquiring a French education in Vietnam and France. These included a large number of Catholics, who received preferential treatment from their ruling co-religionists.

While in France, many Vietnamese improved in their self-esteem as they successfully competed with Frenchmen in studies. They also learned about the disparity in the French profession of liberty, equality, and fraternity and their government in the colonies where these values were conspicuous by their absence. Some of the Vietnamese ex-patriates in France like Ho Chi Minh got acquainted with radical ideologies including Marxism-Leninism. Many of those who returned to Vietnam with university degrees found their avenues of employment blocked by French nationals. Not surprisingly, the anti-colonial movements, whether communist or noncommunist, were led by such frustrated educated young men who developed an identity for Vietnam as a whole condemning the French concept of trois pays as a deliberate myth to divide the colonial subjects and make it easy for the French to rule over them.

Inspired by the victory of Japan over Russia in 1905, many Vietnamese, among them a future eminent leader of the nationalist movement, Phan Boi Chau, went to Japan for higher studies. In northern Vietnam, an anti-colonial movement manifested itself in the form of a "free schools" movement, the most notable of these being the Dong Kinh Free School, which opened in Hanoi in 1907. The school's founders openly declared that education would be a means to "regain national autonomy." It quickly became a movement attracting more than 1,000 students; besides regular education, it promoted agricultural and commercial cooperatives and became a center for raising funds to send students to China and Japan for higher studies. The movement reflected the thinking of China's modernizers such as Kang Yu-wei, who had advocated in the beginning of the twentieth century a combination of tradition and Western sciences and Western literature as a means of strengthening nationhood of a people. The French colonial authorities quickly smothered the movement by closing the Dong Kinh School in less than one year of its opening.

However, the French reacted to the development by establishing a Franco-Vietnamese or Franco-Native school system of its own, not so in pursuance of its proclaimed goal of a civilizing mission but to combat the incipient growth of nationalism through Vietnamese traditional education. Thus far, the French had established schools in three cities of Hanoi, Hue, and Saigon not for the benefit of the colonial subjects, but for the children of French residents of Indochina. Very few Vietnamese children, mostly from Francophile families, would be admitted if they passed the prerequisite examinations for admission to lycees (grammar schools). By the early twentieth century, children of Vietnamese civil servants and business collaborators outnumbered the French children in the lycees because often the latter failed to pass the examinations.

In 1906, the French appointed the Council for the Improvement of Native Education, which met periodically in Hanoi. Its deliberations clearly indicated that the French school system would be developed in Vietnam as a response to the indigenous bid to establish their own system, with their own interpretations of Western civilization. The Council's recommendations eventually led to a Code of Public Instruction in December 1917. Under it, new Franco-Vietnamese schools were opened in the main cities and towns of Vietnam. In 1924, in a move that would exclude all other educational systems, the government enacted strict laws that required all educational institutions to follow a common curriculum, to use only French and Vietnamese (not Chinese) in the Quoc Ngu script, and to employ only government-certified teachers. All schools, public and private would be subject to inspection by the Inspector of Public Instruction. The curriculum in the schools for French children would be different from that followed by the Franco-Vietnamese schools. The Vietnamese schools were the most affected by this law, which led to the closure of 1,835 Vietnamese traditional schools.

The educational system introduced by the French rulers in Vietnam in 1917 consisted of 13 years of education: 3 years of elementary school in Vietnamese in the Romanized Quoc Ngu script; 3 years of primary education in French; 4 years of vocationally-oriented primary superior education in French; and 3 years of French-language secondary education leading to an Indochinese baccalaureate. The enrollment in schools was about 15 percent of the school-age children. Of them, 90 percent were in elementary classes where the teaching was in Vietnamese, elementary math, moral education, hygiene and/or drawing, and manual labor. The remaining 10 percent were in primary through secondary university education. The first university was established in 19l9.

While the emphasis at the elementary level was chiefly on learning Vietnamese, at the primary and secondary levels, it was on learning French and literature. There was hygiene and practical science but no hard sciences; math was only for 2 hours of a 27-hour school week, history for one half hour, and moral education and physical education were about 2 hours each. The emphasis was on teaching about Vietnam, not about France or other parts of the world, the intention being to expose the population to more than a simplistic life and agricultural pursuits. The French neglected education of their subjects in Vietnam focusing primarily on the economic exploitation of the country, a principle source of exports of rice and rubber.

After 1917, the French made some half-hearted efforts to introduce education also at the higher level. Thus, a number of colleges were opened. Before 1917, there was only one, namely, the College of Medicine and Pharmacy opened in 1902. In 1917, the Teacher Training College was started. In 1918, four were added: the College of Veterinary Medicine, the College of Law and Administration, the College of Agriculture and Forestry, and the College of Civil Engineering. In 1923-1924, three more were opened: the College of Literature, the College of Experimental Sciences, and the College of Fine Arts and Architecture. Yet as Pham Minh Hac observed, the education offered in these mostly two-year institutions was more like that offered in vocational education. Beginning in 1919, the first pre-university level courses in physics, chemistry, and natural sciences were taught. It was beginning in 1924 that the first batch of students for the degree in medicine was enrolled. Most institutions needed to wait until the establishment of the University of Indochina, to which most colleges were affiliated, in 1940. And it was later, during the course of the war when the pro-Vichy and pro-Japanese regime prevailed, that the college education was upgraded to the degree level in Law, Agriculture, Civil Engineering, and the Sciences. In l954, when the French were forced to quit Vietnam, there was only one university in the country and 14 secondary schools. Only 10 percent of the primary-school-age children enrolled in the so-called Franco-Vietnamese schools.

The severe suppression by the French of the noncommunist nationalist movement in 1930 gave scope for the Indochina Communist Party (ICP), which was also suppressed but survived because of their superior underground organization. Taking advantage of the wartime conditions, Ho Chi Minh brought Communists and noncommunists alike under an anti-Japanese front, the Viet Minh (short for Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi or Vietnamese Independence League), which received assistance, financial and military, from the Allies, including the American Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the precursor of the CIA, in their fight both against Japan and Japanese-supported pro-Vichy French regime in Vietnam. Taking advantage of the interregnum between Japan's withdrawal and the arrival of the Allied forces, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) on September 2, 1945, with a program that was liberal but totally devoid of communism. In the following year, Ho entered into an agreement with the French, allowing them to return temporarily on certain conditions, an agreement soon violated by the French bombardment of the port of Haiphong, which commenced the First Indochina War (1946-1954). After the birth of NATO and the establishment of the People's Republic of China, the conflict became increasingly a part of the global Cold War between Communist and anti-Communist forces. The Viet Minh, by then led by the ICP, emerged victorious at Dien Bien Phu in May, 1954. The Geneva Peace Agreements that followed in July, temporarily divided Vietnam at the seventeenth parallel, with the provision for elections two years later for the reunification of the country. The DRV in the north became a communist regime; in the south, the government was led by Ngo Dinh Diem, who received massive U.S. assistance including military in the capacity of "advisers." In 1955, South Vietnam declared itself a separate sovereign republic and was recognized among others by the United States, United Kingdom, and France.

Frustrated by the pro-Catholic, anti-Buddhist, authoritarian regime of Ngo Dinh Diem, badly advised by his brothers and a sister-in-law, Madame Nhu, a strong anti-government movement developed under the National Liberation Front (NLF), which was dominated by the southern communists who were soon to be assisted by the DRV. The assassination of the Ngo brothers in 1963 brought several revolving-door governments led by the military and assisted by the United States.

The Second Indochina War (1964-1973), called "The American War" by pro-Communist and Communist Vietnamese, adversely impacted both the halves of Vietnam, resulting in a loss of 3,000,000 Vietnamese lives, and causing long-term damage to the environment. It brought physical and emotional devastation far more in the south than in the north, creating large-scale demographic changes as large numbers of rural population moved for security to towns and cities, inducting hundreds of thousands of youngsters, who should have been in schools, into prostitution and pimping. The war's end in 1975 marked a communist victory and led to the reunification of the country in the following year, for the first time in a century, this time under Hanoi's domination. Saigon's name was changed to Ho Chi Minh City.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

The Constitution of 1946, proclaimed soon after the birth of the DRV, included free and compulsory education in the national language, Vietnamese. It also provided for educational rights to all its citizens, specifically guaranteeing equal access to it for women and minorities. The same principles were reiterated in the Constitutions of 1960 and 1976. The DRV noted that 90 percent of the population was illiterate. In the first Cabinet meeting held the day after the proclamation of the DRV, Ho Chi Minh said: "An ignorant nation is a weak nation. That's just why I propose that we should start an anti-illiteracy campaign considering illiteracy an enemy as dangerous as foreign aggressions and famine and the improvement of the people's intellectual level an urgent task of the time." Despite the preoccupation with the First Indochina War (1946-1954), the DRV or the Viet Minh made 8,000,000 people in the territories under its control literate before the French pull-out in 1954. During the conflict, the Viet Minh made every effort to keep the schools running; plans were prepared for scientific and technical education to meet the reconstruction needs of the country after the French left. By the end of the l950s, the DRV claimed that 94 percent of the population of North Vietnam was literate, thus completely reversing the dubious French legacy in the ability of the people to read and write. In the period before 1954, in the Viet Minh-held territories, the education system was changed from the French system of 12 years to a system of 9 years.

In August 1956, two years after the partition of the country, the DRV promulgated its "general education" policy. It announced a unified school system consisting of 3 levels totaling 10 years of general education: level I of 4 years from grades 1 to 4; level 2 of 3 years from grades 5 to 7; and level 3 of 3 years from grades 8 to 10. The teaching periods per week in level 1 remained at 17 to 19, the same as before; they were extended at levels 2 and 3 from 20 to 29 and from 21 to 30, respectively. After completing lower middle school, students could enter vocational secondary schools or they could go on to regular upper middle school and receive the secondary school leaving certificate.

The government then linked education to the demands of the economy, which required skilled workers in large numbers. Therefore, it gave special attention to training of teachers and technicians through short-term courses. It established the Hanoi Polytechnic Institute and encouraged students to take up short-term vocational and technical courses leading to diplomas in mechanical, civil and electrical engineering, and industrial food technology. The government also reorganized the Franco-Vietnamese University into the University of Hanoi and, between 1954 and 1975, the DRV opened 20 technical and professional schools to cater to a variety of fields such as agriculture, communications, construction, fine arts, geology, hydraulic engineering, international relations, mining, music, and physical education and sport. It also established 5 pedagogical institutes (three in Hanoi and one each in Vinh and Viet Ba) for teacher-training.

The minimum requirement for admission to all of these institutions of higher education was the secondary school leaving certificate. Some institutions had their own competitive entrance tests; those who did not show high merit could compensate by producing evidence of civilian or military work experience. Only about 35 to 40 percent of those eligible to apply would get admission.

Educational System—Overview

A point of commonness between the two halves of Vietnam was the importance given to education. The Constitution of 1967 provided equal access to all citizens to education, made basic education free and compulsory, and declared that "talented persons who do not have the means will be given aid and support to continue their studies." Facing the high percentage of illiteracy, the government conducted an active literacy campaign. Enrollment at the primary level was increased from 441,000 students in 1954 to more than 2,500,000 in 1973, nearly 85 percent of the children in the age group from 6 to 11.

Unlike in North Vietnam, the education system in the South continued along the lines laid by the French, the former colonial rulers. It offered a series of examinations with considerable wastage at every stage. Thus, only about 60 percent of those who took the examination at the end of the fifth grade would qualify to enter the secondary school. Many of these did not enter the secondary school; only about 25 percent did. Of the secondary school students, only about 40 percent passed the first baccalaureate examination at the end of the eleventh grade; only 40 percent of those who took the second baccalaureate examination at the end of the twelfth grade passed. Consequently, only an estimated 20 percent of those in the secondary school age group of 12 to 17 remained in school.

The National Education Conference in 1964 was a landmark for introducing changes in the education system. First, South Vietnam was divided into four categories based on economic and cultural differences: the Mekong Delta, central highlands, coastal regions, and the capital. Separate curricula were devised to suit these differences. Secondly, it was recognized that the old French system emphasizing memorization did not promote thinking and analysis; therefore, the pedagogical faculty at the University of Saigon and 11 specially selected schools were brought together to devise a curriculum that would incorporate industrial arts for males, home economics for females, and business education for both. Analysis and problem-solving techniques were emphasized. A new center was created in the Ministry of Education to produce newer kinds of educational materials all the way from elementary to secondary levels.

Progressively from the late 1950s, French suffered as a language of instruction and importance. Just as in the north, Vietnamese replaced it as the medium of instruction. With the growth of American influence and the increasing use of English in U.S.-South Vietnam military interaction and international business, English became the most popular option at the secondary and higher education levels. By the time South Vietnam came under communist rule in 1975, more than 80 percent of the students took English as their modern language option. From the mid-1960s, the national institutes in administration, agriculture, and technology—as well as the community colleges—adopted American models for their curriculum, faculty development, teaching methodologies, and physical equipment.

As in the North, the South Vietnamese attached considerable importance to the education of their children. Those who could afford the cost preferred to send their wards to private schools, which absorbed as many students as the state-run schools. The elementary education lasting five years was compulsory.

Unlike in the communist North Vietnam, there were private schools run by the Catholic Church, nondenominational private schools, and those run by the Chinese community numbering more than 1,000,000 centered in Saigon's twin city, Cholon. Although the Chinese schools were officially required to teach only in Vietnamese, in practice, they did so only in Chinese. They followed the curriculum of the educational system in Taiwan and took examinations conducted by the education board there for graduation.

The secondary school took seven years of education split into two cycles of four and three years. The first cycle provided general education after which the students could choose to specialize in any one of the four options: experimental science, science and mathematics, modern humanities, and classical humanities. At the end of the two cycles, students took the government-administered national examination and, upon passing it, received the school leaving certificate. After two years of the second cycle, students could opt for a three-year cycle of vocational/technical education.

Following the fall of Saigon in 1975, South Vietnam was integrated with the system obtaining in the north and the entire country renamed the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV). As part of the task of reconstruction in the south, the new government dispersed the population of the cities, which had been a haven for millions of those who had fled the bombardment of the villages during the war. Several millions were relocated in the New Economic Zones on the Cambodia border or in the central highlands. Large numbers of prostitutes, estimated by the World Health Organization at 400,000, and pimps were included in this rehabilitation program.

From 1975 till the major economic reforms of 1986, Vietnam followed socialist policies of high command economy and political centralization, extending the collectivization of agriculture to South Vietnam and nationalizing of all economic and industrial enterprises including foreign enterprises. Between 1980 and 1885, the government adopted half-hearted liberal measures including family-based contract systems and promoting state-private joint enterprises. The economic stagnation continued until l986 when the proponents, within the Vietnamese Communist Party, of economic liberalization along the lines followed by China came to power. The new policy, styled doi moi (politics of renovation) led to the abandonment of centralized planning in favor of decision-making by factory managers in terms of equipment, production targets, and sources of finance. Major incentives were provided to attract foreign investment in all sectors except defense. The collapse of Marxism in the Soviet Union and East European countries accelerated the process toward a state-managed market economy but without concomitant liberalization in the political process.

The doi moi policies registered spectacular economic gains in the growth in GDP, in savings and investment rates, and exports. They brought in large amounts of foreign investment, liberalized the banking structure, and made the currency stable. These measures, among others, led to the lifting of the economic embargo by the United States and made loans and grants by the IMF, World Bank, and Western donors possible.

Preprimary & Primary Education

After the reunification of the two Vietnams in 1976, the government extended the crèche system functioning in the Viet Cong-held areas to the rest of South Vietnam. A southern division of the Commission for the Protection of Mothers and Children Ministry was created. In 1987, the care for education of preschool age children in the entire country was integrated into the "Young Shoot" education and was brought directly under the Ministry of Education and Training. Two years later, the government established the Commission of Child Care with, from 1991, a member of the Cabinet as Chairman of the Commission. In 1996, the Eighth Congress of the Party specifically urged the government to provide "young shoot" education for all 5-year-olds by 2000 to prepare them for entry into grade 1. A further target was announced to provide "young shoot" education to all in the age group of 3 months to 5 years by the year 2020.

The importance the government gives to preschool education is reflected in the "Objectives and Plans for Preschool Education" issued in 1990 by the Ministry of Education. The broader objectives of the "Young Shoot" education as stated in the Ministry's circular include: "promoting initial elements of the personality of a Vietnamese citizen, refraining from any imposition or constraint, showing love for children and respecting their personality, and taking the mother-daughter-like sentiments between nurses and children as a decisive factor." It must further aim at achieving "a harmonious combination between care, maintenance, and education so as to secure an all-round development of children."

The content of children's education in crèches and infant schools, as outlined by the Ministry, includes: education about "movements and sensations;" observation of the environment around them (natural and social); moral education and shaping of personality; personal hygiene and "environmental hygiene;" and physical education. In terms of preparation for first grade, the infants should be introduced to the Vietnamese language and "approach to literature;" music and "rhythmic movements;" and mathematics. Significantly, the objectives include giving scientific knowledge of children's education and health to the parents.

There are two kinds of facilities for preschool education in Vietnam, officially called "regular forms" and "irregular forms." Regular forms have crèches for children from 3 to 36 months of age and infant "young shoot" schools for children from 3 to 5 years of age. Some of the facilities combine crèches and infant schools. The crèches are divided into sections according to the children's age and named after their diet. Thus, the 3- to 13-month-old group is called the "flour-fed" group; the 13- to 18-month-old group is called the "soupfed" group; the 19- to 24-month-old group is named the "wet boiled rice-fed" group; and the 25- to 36-month-old group is called the "rice-fed" group.

In the urban areas, the crèches typically operate 10 hours a day, including a lunch and a nap. Some facilities operate in two shifts of a half-day each and there are still others which adjust to shifts in factories. In the rural areas, most crèches operate seasonally, enabling peasant men and women to tend to agriculture without having to worry about caring for their infants.

The infant "young shoot" schools are divided into 3 sections according to age: the 3-year-old small infant group, the 4-year-old medium infant group, and the 5-year-old elder infant group. They operate on the same pattern as crèches, adjusting to labor shifts and rural seasonal work. Since 1996, the Ministry of Education has insisted that the 5-year-olds attend a minimum of 36 weeks as a preparation to first grade.

Irregular forms involve informal but regular arrangements between a child-keeping group and the families sending their children there. Except for the 5-year-old children, preparing for admission to first grade, the program in the irregular forms is fairly flexible—though guidelines for running them are provided by the Ministry of Education. The classes for the 5-year-olds must provided education for 36 sessions of about 150 minutes each.

There are about 13,000 crèches providing education to about 600,000 children from 3 months to 3 years of age. There are about 85,000 teachers in the crèches with a 7.5:1 student-teacher ratio. The budget allocation from the Ministry of Education to the crèches amounted to 5.3 percent of the total, which was 40.0 percent higher than what is given to infant schools. Infant schools are receiving less attention than before from the government; there are about 7,000 infant schools in Vietnam with about 75,000 teachers and a student enrollment of children from 3 to 6 years, numbering 1,600,000, giving a student-teacher ratio of 21.3:1. The infant schools receive only about 3 percent of the Ministry of Education's budget.

The number of infant schools has remained fairly constant since the liberalization of 1986. Thus, in 1986-1987, there were 6,117 schools with 76,059 teachers and 1,768,938 students. A decade later, In 1995-1996, there were 7,213 schools with 75,034 teachers and 1,931,611 children enrolled. In general, crèches and infant schools attached to large government enterprises function well—as do the schools attached to large private sector companies particularly where foreign investment or management is involved. Those in the delta areas function better than those catering to tribal minorities or mountainous areas.

Following the economic liberalization in 1986, government subsidies especially to crèches and child-minding groups have declined. The Ministry of Education continues to inspect all facilities but is less insistent on standards in all but infant classes for 5-year-olds. In 2000 there were about 800,000 children in infant schools for 5-year-olds, which accounted for 50 percent of all the other infant classes combined. Though the Ministry's interest in preschool education itself (except for 5-year-olds) has declined, the government has stepped up its health program in crèches and infant schools through more regular health check-ups and vaccination programs. Also, the Ministry of Education has upgraded its program of educating young parents in the areas of child care and health and education.

Despite the sincere efforts on the part of the government, the care of children in preschool stage is unsatisfactory. In this respect, the government has served well in being its own critic. The annual reports of the Ministry of Education and Training blame the deficiencies on insufficient budget allocations noting that, in 1996, as many as 46 percent of the children below the age of 6 suffered from malnutrition; crèches lacked enough numbers of trained nurses or "child-minders," so the hygiene conditions in the preschool facilities were generally poor and too often the children were "left to play by themselves with a few toys." The Ministry of Education has also deplored the tendency to include in the preschool teaching information suitable to primary education level. It urges greater efforts to develop skills in language and independent thinking among the infants. Furthermore, the government would like to "achieve coordination with families in cultivating in children humane sentiments—the foundation of personality" and "concrete manifestations of a polite behavior in family and towards teachers and friends."

Most primary education in Vietnam since 1975 has been provided through the public system. Officially, it is compulsory and free, though in practice, students are charged sizable fees for various services; parents are encouraged to make "voluntary contributions" toward construction and major purchases. The basic cycle of primary and secondary education consists of 5 years of primary school, 4 years of lower secondary school, 3 years of upper secondary school, and 2 to 6 years of higher or professional education. Those who do not go for higher education join the secondary/vocational school or enter the labor force.

In keeping with the economic liberalization since 1986, there has emerged a non-public system that includes semi-public, private, and community schools. It parallels the country's move from a centrally-planned system to a market economy. The economically comfortable families prefer to send their children to semi-public or private schools. A World Bank study in late 1998 concluded that willingness to spend on education increased as household incomes rose and that given the marginally small cost of switching from public to private schools, it was not surprising that the number of private schools has increased rapidly.

In 1997, there were 11,683 primary schools and 2,093 "basic general" schools, which combined primary and lower secondary level classes. To alleviate the financial stringency, the government encouraged joint efforts by the state and the people in the construction of school buildings, in all communes and hamlets. Such joint efforts extended to "voluntary contributions" from parents toward other costs as well. In most cases, the extra income thus generated is allowed to be kept by the schools for supplementing the teachers' meager salaries and for the purchase of the much-needed equipment.

In keeping with the pattern in Communist societies, school children are infused with a spirit of loyalty to the state, placing the good of the state above the good of the individual or the family. As the Ministry of Education states: "The aim of primary education [perhaps applicable to all levels] is to cultivate in pupils a need for and an interest in study and the collective life, and give shape to good feelings, knowledge, attitudes and habits. These are initial bases required for the gradual promotion of ideals and ethics of the new Vietnamese man." There is no elaboration of what these "ideals and ethics" mean. These are defined by the Communist Party from time to time, often at the prestigious meetings of the Party Congress that take place every few years.

The Ministry of Education outlines the curriculum of primary education under five headings: education in the world outlook, ideology, politics, law, ethics, and behavior; cultural and scientific education; labor and vocational education; physical education and hygiene; and aesthetics. The Ministry requires the schools to teach each of these subjects under three rubrics: knowledge, skills, and attitude.

The "Teaching Plan" approved by the Ministry of Education on May 16, 1986, for all five years of primary education is split into two categories: seven subjects and four kinds of activities. The subjects are: Vietnamese language, mathematics, ethics, nature and society, labor, art, and physical education. In 1991, two subjects were added by splitting art into fine arts and songs (music) and physical education into physical education and gymnastics. The activities include: collective activity by groups of five students, salute to the national flag, mid-class relaxation, gymnastics, and meetings to discuss subjects of general and political interest. All these subjects and activities were taught weekly as one lesson each except for the following: the Vietnamese language was to be taught in 12 lessons out of a total of 22 in first grade, tapering to 8 lessons out of 23 in fifth grade; mathematics from 3 lessons in first grade, increasing to 5 in fifth grade; nature and society from l lesson in first grade to 3 in the fourth and fifth grades; and labor from 1 lesson in first grade to 3 in fifth grade. In its annual reports, the Ministry, however, laments that while this is an ideal plan, the paucity of funds, unavailability of adequate number of teachers, and poor infrastructure have limited the teaching in most primary schools only to 4 subjects, namely, Vietnamese language, mathematics, ethics, and nature and society. In December 1996, the Communist Party's Central Committee resolved that by the year 2000, all primary schools would be required to teach all nine subjects in the "Teaching Plan." It proved to be yet another instance when the government's performance has fallen short of the Party's lofty wishes.

Based on the objectives of education and the teaching plan, the Ministry of Education gets textbooks and teachers' books prepared and published. Beginning in the school year of 1981-1982, it launched a scheme to publish what it called "reformed books" for one grade of primary education each year. Thus, every five years, a cycle of book replacement for the 5-year primary education would be completed. This helps revision and upgrading of the content of the textbooks not only in terms of information but also in terms of what the Party thinks are the changing needs of the society. Three such cycles have been completed. There was substantial revision in the first two cycles but very little in the third.

Enrollment and attendance in primary schools in the 1990s was on the increase in most provinces, with the national average being 80 percent. The number of children attending the first grade was as high as 98 to 99 percent in the two delta regions. The national average was brought down by the mountainous provinces where the figure dropped to 60 to 70 percent. The statistics show that in some provinces, the enrollment of children in grade 1 exceeded 100 percent of the children in that age group because the government made primary education compulsory in 1994, compelling those aged 6 to 11 years who had failed to attend primary schools in the past to do so. Another consequence is that there are a number of children far above the normal age of six in first grade.

In 1996, there were 10,200,000 students in primary schools of whom 4,860,000 million were females. There has been a steady number of entrants at about 2,000,000 students every year, rising from 2,062,507 in 1986-1987 to 2,348,655 in 1995-1996. In 1996, there were 298,407 teachers at the primary level, of whom 224,955 were women, with a student-teacher ratio of approximately 30:1. There were 11,683 primary schools and 2,093 basic general schools, which included primary education. In 1996, the government claimed that there was a primary school facility in every commune down to each hamlet throughout the country.

About 50 percent of the students at the primary level complete the 5 years of primary education. There is no automatic promotion and there are those who fail a class. The numbers of repeaters at the primary level rose from 8.46 percent in 1986-1987 to 12.35 percent in 1991 but dropped progressively to 6.91 percent in 1996. The dropout rate fell from 11 percent in 1989 to 5 percent in 1995.

Those who pass the fifth grade receive a diploma of primary education. They have the option of taking a general examination conducted by the provincial office of education. Until 1996-1997, there were national competitions in the Vietnamese language and mathematics for which there would be between 400 and 500 prizes. These were abandoned in favor competition for the title "excellent pupil of primary school." About three-quarters of all the students in the primary division enter the lower secondary schools.

Secondary Education

At the secondary school level, those who repeat the class are charged twice the "fee" as the regular entrants. Each secondary school is permitted to enroll 25 percent of repeating students. The difference in fee is used to increase teachers' salaries, clearly an incentive to teachers to allow more students in their classes. A teacher is permitted to add up to 300,000 Dongs (about US$300) per month in this way to his/her income. There are some secondary schools in the private sector that justify the high fees they charge on grounds that they prepare the students better for entrance to universities and to other institutions of higher learning.

In 1996, there were 4,312,074 students at the lower secondary level, of whom a little less than 50 percent, or 2,016,094, were females. The annual intake dropped from 1,066,259 in 1987-1988 to a low of 842,242 in 1991-1992 increasing steadily to 1,476,130 in 1995-1996. There were 2,093 combined primary/lower secondary level schools, while there were 701 schools where the junior and senior level facilities were combined.

Because of paucity of funds available for construction of school buildings, many schools operate two or even three shifts. In 1996, there were 154,416 teachers at the lower secondary level, of whom 106,953 were women, with an overall student-teacher ratio of about 29:1. The effectiveness of teaching and the growing socio-economic importance of education was reflected in the percentage of repeating and dropout students falling dramatically from 5.08 percent in 1986 to a meager 0.50 percent in 1996. In 1996, there were 701 senior secondary schools, which included junior secondary schools, and an additional 644 senior secondary schools exclusively for tenth through twelfth grade, with a total of 1,019,480 students, of whom 457,793 were females. There was an increase of 10 percent over the previous decade.

However, just as at the lower secondary level, the number of students at the senior secondary level also dropped: from 917,593 to 522,735 in 1991-1992, rising steadily thereafter to 1,0l9,480 in l995-1996. In the latter year, there were 39,398 teachers at the senior secondary school level, of whom 19,663 were women, with a student-teacher ratio of 25:1. The percentage of repeaters as well as dropouts at the senior secondary level dropped dramatically in the 1990s: repeaters dropped from 4.55 percent in 1985-1986 to 1.35 percent in 1993-1994 while dropouts declined from 10.07 percent over the same period.

At the time of the end of the French rule in 1954, Vietnam was very weak in the study of technology. The French colonial masters had opened only four applied technology schools in the country. After 1945, in the areas under the control of the Viet Minh or DRV, eight secondary schools provided vocational education. After 1954, the DRV energetically pursued training technicians and workers through two kinds of facilities: regular secondary vocational schools and "craft-teaching" schools. The Second Indochina War (1964-1975) spurred a demand for skilled workers both in North Vietnam and in the areas controlled by the Viet Cong in the South. By 1975 before the reunification of the country, the communist-controlled Vietnam had 186 secondary vocational schools with about 70,000 students with an almost equal number of craft-teaching schools.

Vocational/technical training has been very crucial for the reconstruction of Vietnam. Since 1975, there has been a growing need, never adequately met, of skilled workers and technicians in numerous government enterprises and, since the economic liberalization of 1986, in private sectors as well. Besides the regular vocational/technical secondary schools, in-service training programs are conducted by state farms, regional centers, government enterprises, and a variety of government agencies including the military. Three-year courses as well as evening and correspondence classes are offered to working people—including qualified workers, Communist Party personnel, and members of mass organizations. After the completion of such three-year programs, they may be admitted to higher level technical schools. The experience with in-service programs was found wanting and, therefore, the trend since l986 has been to increase the short-term, six-month programs in regular vocational schools.

Before the reunification of the country, North Vietnam had entered into a number of agreements with socialist countries such as the Soviet Union (up to the late 1980s), China, and Eastern European countries for technical and scientific cooperation. Before 1975, some selected workers from the North and, after 1975, from all of Vietnam were sent to these countries for training in factories, technical schools, and universities. Some of them worked in those countries for periods of time in lieu of payment of debts incurred by Vietnam mostly during the war. Under the same programs, experts from the socialist countries spent periods of time in Vietnamese facilities to train workers.

The secondary vocational schools as well craft-teaching schools/centers have prospered. In 1995-1996, there were 253 regular secondary vocational schools with an enrollment of 69,057 while the craft-teaching schools/centers numbered 174 with an enrollment of 79,488. The vocational schools have focused on training in economics, education, culture, and health and art, while the craft-teaching schools train students in "practical" arts.

Basic general school graduates, who after 3.0 to 3.5 years of education receive a diploma that is considered on par with non-vocation secondary school graduates, receive education in four "Groups": general knowledge group, comprised of politics, foreign languages, physical education, military education, economics, production organization, mathematics, and informatics; basic technical knowledge group, comprised mainly of electrical technology; professional technical knowledge group, involving more advanced education in electrical systems like power plants and transformers and industrial electrical equipment; and practice group, involving hands-on experience.

Before 1990, when a major reorganization of vocational education was undertaken by the Ministry of Education, there were some 390 crafts taught by an unaccounted number of vocational schools and craft-teaching centers. In that year, the Ministry ordered many of these closed and ordered many others to merge to make them viable units, in terms of physical facilities, equipment, and funding. In 1990, there remained 242 craft teaching schools, 119 of them under the central government and 123 under provincial and municipal management. The process of integration of schools continued bringing the total number of craft-teaching schools further down to 174 by 1995-1996. The craft-teaching schools were divided into six categories: industry, agriculture/forestry/fisheries, construction, mechanics/driving, commercial services or business, and others. Most of these schools offer a diploma after two to three years of training. Students in these schools are admitted at two levels: those who have completed the ninth grade general education and those who have completed the senior secondary education (twelfth grade). The former group takes two years for completion of a course in simple crafts and an additional year for complicated ones; the latter group takes one year for simple crafts and an additional year for the complicated ones. All students in the craft schools go through an integrated program that includes Vietnamese language and literature, a foreign language, mathematics, physics, chemistry, politics, ethics, physical education, technology, and craftsmanship. The details of the curriculum are adjusted to suit the craft "as required by the society at a specific stage of socioeconomic development."

Besides the regular network intended to train workers in the different crafts, some 200 centers were opened in the 1990s in the district capitals throughout the country to provide short-term courses for those who were already holding jobs in the general labor category but who wanted to qualify themselves in a specific craft. The government has indicated that such centers will grow in size and numbers to add large numbers of semi-qualified workers to fill the burgeoning demand for such labor from the industry.

Higher Education

Students passing the national examination at the end of the two cycles of secondary school were eligible for admission to institutions of higher education in arts, sciences, and law. The other faculties and specialized institutions had their own entrance examinations.

South Vietnam was handicapped in 1954 for lack of a university. Between 1954 and 1973, several universities were opened both in the public and private sectors. In 1955 the first university, the National University of Vietnam, was established in Saigon with the help of a large number of anti-communist, mostly Catholic, students and faculty of the Franco-Vietnamese University in Hanoi, who chose to move to the south. Before 1954, a medical school and law faculty in Saigon were affiliated to the Franco-Vietnamese University of Hanoi In 1957, and the National University was renamed the University of Saigon. Other public universities were established at Hue (l957 and Can Tho (1966). These universities benefited from the University of Saigon faculty, who traveled regularly to Hue and Can Tho to teach there. The government also established three professional institutions: the National Institute of Technology (1957), which offered a four-year degree program in engineering-civil, electrical, industrial, and mechanical-and a three-year diploma for technicians; the National Agricultural Center (1959), which offered a degree program in agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry; and the National School of Administration, which offered a three-year diploma program in public administration, economics, and finance as well as an advanced three-year graduate program in public administration.

The government also encouraged establishment of universities, mostly sectarian, in the private sector. The University of Da Lat in the central highlands (l958) established by President Diem's archbishop brother and Minh-Duc University in Saigon (1970) were Catholic universities; the University of Van-Hanh in Saigon (1964) was Buddhist. The University of Cao Dai, and the University of Hoa Hao, were established in 1971 by the followers of those sects. In 1973, the year peace agreements were signed in Paris, the government opened a major institution, the Thu-Duc Polytechnic University in Saigon. Finally, the government established three community colleges at Da Nang, Nha Trang, and Thu Duc, which trained people in technical skills. The training of teachers at the primary and lower middle level schools was handled by five pedagogical institutions including two run by Catholics; secondary school training was the responsibility of the universities.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Education policy in Vietnam is determined at the national level by the Ministry of Education and Training, which is the main body in charge of education in the whole country. It issues directives to officials in the educational establishment in the whole country on how the laws and ordinances approved by the National Assembly and/or the government are to be implemented. The Ministry draws annual and five-year plans for educational development and submits them to the government, which then presents them to the National Assembly for approval. The Ministry is divided into general departments and departments responsible for specific branches of study. The former includes finance, planning, organization and personnel, international relations, and science and technology. The departments for specific studies include: the "Young Shoot" education, primary education, secondary education, secondary vocational education and craft-teaching, higher education, and post-graduate studies. The Ministry is also in charge of inspection of education facilities and evaluation of teaching at all levels.

Although the Ministry of Education is in charge of formulating policies, in effect, several other governmental agencies and the communist party apparatus are also involved. Thus, the Central Committee and the Polit-bureau of the Communist party of Vietnam decide the "line and strategic orientation" for education. The Party was involved in making the initial strategic shifts in education policy at all important stages of reform. The National Assembly discusses the details of the policies as approved by the Party's top leadership. All the important laws and decrees are issued in the name of the National Assembly. Sometimes, the government appoints a "National Committee" to be in charge of implementation of major education drives such as the one established in 1989 for the eradication of illiteracy or universalization of primary education. The drive resulted in the legislation of 1991, which made primary education universal. The Committee included representatives of 11 ministries and various mass organizations of peasants, women, and youth who would galvanize the support of their members for the government programs. Indicative of the importance of education in Vietnam was the establishment in 1997 of the National Education Council under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister.

Until 1987, there were four separate ministries at the national level in charge of education. In that year, they were consolidated into two ministries—the Ministry of General Education and the Ministry for Higher, Technical and Vocational Education. In 1990, there came a major reorganization and the merging of the entire management of education into one management behemoth, namely, the Ministry of Education and Training. It has 15 divisions, including the central office of the Ministry, planning and finance, personnel, inspection, international cooperation, preschool education, primary and secondary education, technical and vocational education, postgraduate (graduate) education, in-service and complementary education, physical education, sport, and science and technology.

While the Ministry of Education and Training is directly responsible for higher education, it leaves the routine administration including personnel, finance, and organization at "young shoot," primary, secondary, vocational, and craft-teaching schools to provincial, district, and community level officials and people's committees at those levels. District offices have two main divisions: inspection and management and facilities. In the case of vocational and craft-teaching schools, all these agencies work with those departments of the central government that deal with industrial enterprises in the public and private sectors.

In general, the Ministry of Education confines itself to formulation of objectives, planning, new programs, inspection, and examinations held at the end of the secondary education. It also concerns itself in the areas of teacher training in specific fields such as music and painting, gymnastics, sports, and technology. It also declares from time to time which crafts need emphasis in the crafts schools and vocational education. The general control of the Ministry of Education over the entire educational apparatus in the country is maintained significantly by its authority to release funds for salaries of teachers and scholarships at all levels of education. As for higher education, the Ministry of Education is directly responsible for the two national universities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City and three regional universities in Thai Nguyen, Hue, and Da Nang, and a number of colleges: Hanoi University of Technology, Hanoi National Economy College, Can Tho University, Hanoi University of Foreign Languages, Trade College, Hanoi Open University, Ho Chi Minh City Open University, and International Post-Graduate Schools. The Ministry also is in charge of some "national programs" such as construction of boarding schools for ethnic minorities, upgrading the teacher training schools, and international cooperation programs such as the World Bank's program for primary education. There are some 25 other colleges under the management of other ministries. Thus, the Hanoi Medical College is managed by the Ministry of Health; the College of Culture and the Hanoi Conservatoire under the Ministry of Culture; the water Conservancy College under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; and the College of Gymnastics and Sports under the General Department of Gymnastics and Sports.

Despite the proclaimed priority to education, the financial allocations to education fall far short of the requirements. In general, the national government finances the full cost of higher and vocational education and a quarter of the expenses on preschool, primary, and secondary education. Even so, with the increasing allocation for education from 8.9 percent in 1990 to around 12.0 percent of the total national budget in 2000, Vietnam's education budget compares well with the education budgets of most developing countries. The trend is toward increasing such allocations at the national, as well as at the provincial and district levels. The bulk of the allocations are, however, absorbed by salaries of teachers and other personnel estimated at 75 to 80 percent of the Ministry's budget, with only about 20 percent available for construction, equipment, and new programs. As mentioned before, a substantial part of the costs of construction of school structures at the primary level is met through "volunteer contributions" from parents. Students also contribute toward "incidental expenses" of different kinds through special fees.

Nonformal Education

A survey made in 1990 showed that there were slightly more than 2,000,000 illiterates in the country in the age bracket of 15 to 35 years and 2,100,000 children in the age group of 6 to 14 years who had either never attended primary school or had dropped out after a very brief exposure. Illiteracy was very high among the "socially and economically underdeveloped areas" particularly in the mountainous areas, central coast, offshore islands, and some parts of the Mekong Delta. The mountainous areas had 747,300 illiterates or about 39 percent of the total while the Mekong delta had 650,639 or 33 percent. The literacy programs, which are not part of the school programs, include in-service, complementary and vocational education programs. These are offered or financed by different governmental agencies as well as by voluntary organizations such as the Youth Union and the Women's Union, which are recognized by the government as being representative of those sectors of the society.

As a result of the massive drive undertaken by the government during 1990-1995 to combat illiteracy, some 1,723,320 illiterates attended classes. Of them, 805,223 persons learned to read and write, and the balance finished education up to first or second grade. Every year in that period, 220,000 to 280,000 people attended literacy classes; 50 to 60 percent became literate and 60,000 to 100,000 moved on to post-literacy classes. In 1996, the National Committee for Illiteracy Eradication claimed that 27 provinces and cities with 7,760 communes and wards out of a total of 10,219 had eradicated illiteracy taking the percentage of literacy in the nation from 88 percent in 1990 to 91 percent in 1996. This meant that 34 provinces still had a number of illiterates. In the mountainous provinces, only 1,403 out of 2,676 (52.4 percent) communes were able to eradicate illiteracy; in the Mekong Delta, only 970 of 1,598 communes reached the goal. Therefore, in 1996, a timetable was drawn up whereby 9 provinces would be helped to eradicate illiteracy in 1997, some 13 others in 1998, then 4 in 1999, and the remaining 8 in 2000, thereby eradicating illiteracy completely in all of Vietnam.

At the same time, the government claimed in 1996 that Vietnam had exceeded the norm for illiteracy eradication set by the International Conference in Jomtien (Thailand) in March 1990 that, by the year 2000, some 80 percent of the 6- to 11-year-old children should be attending primary school and 50 percent of the illiterates in 1990 will have learned to read and write. Except for some mountainous provinces and remote areas, Vietnam claimed it had met and even exceeded those goals. The government was, however, concerned that in 1996, there were still some 1,400,000 illiterates in the country. It ascribed the problem to the fact that every year about 1,000,000 children who do not enroll in primary school get added to the ranks of the illiterates.

Teaching Profession

One out of five in the state labor force of about 4,000,000 people is in the teaching profession. In 1995-1996, there were 298,407 teachers at the primary level, of whom 70.72 percent were females; 154,416 junior secondary level teachers, with 83.88 percent females; 39,398 senior secondary teachers, of whom 93.31 percent were females; 25,562 vocational education teachers, of whom 51.8 percent were females; and 34,117 college, university, and professional school faculty in higher education, of whom 19.4 percent were women.

Although the respect and the high social status of teachers has been steadily maintained by government and society in Vietnam, the teachers' salaries are not as high. The nation celebrates November 20 as "Vietnam Teachers' Day" with great enthusiasm. Teachers' Day is also appropriately used by the Ministry of Education as well as academic establishments at the provincial, district, and commune levels to bestow varied honors like "Outstanding Teacher" or "People's Teacher" or for distribution of badges recognizing the deserving teachers for their meritorious services. Because of the low salaries, however, the profession fails to attract the best minds particularly at the primary and lower secondary school levels. Moreover, the salaries, in general, have failed to keep up with the inflation rate. For instance, a university teacher's average salary in 1985 was equivalent to 191.4 pounds of rice (the staple food of the Vietnamese); by late 1991, it purchased only 74.8 pounds. Teachers often need to hold more than one job.

It is no wonder, therefore, that there is a shortage of teachers to the extent of 120,000 for preschool, primary, and secondary education in Vietnam. Among the teachers working in schools, there are large numbers of inadequately qualified and untrained teachers. Only one-third of primary school teachers have received training, and only about one-half of lower secondary school teachers are qualified to teach at that level. The requisite qualification for primary school teachers is graduation from senior secondary schools (twelfth grade) and 2 years of study in a teachers' training school or three years' training after graduation from lower secondary school (tenth grade). For lower secondary teachers, it is three years training after graduation from senior secondary school (twelfth grade). Teachers of senior secondary schools require four years in teacher's training college following the twelfth grade. Teachers in the infant schools and kindergartens are expected to undergo training for two years after graduation from junior secondary schools or for one year after finishing the senior secondary school.

Teacher training in Vietnam at the primary and lower secondary school levels is largely the responsibility of the provincial administration. Thus, there are 31 junior teacher training colleges in the provincial capitals, while there are only 8 colleges of that level run by the central government. Of the latter, three train teachers for the kindergarten and infant schools, one of the training of music and painting teachers and one for the training of sports and gymnastics teachers. Some of these facilities at the central and provincial levels are multi-level, training teachers from preschool to lower secondary levels. Teacher training at the senior secondary is normally the responsibility of the 10 national teacher training colleges or of the departments of education in the universities.

Summary

Despite the requisite qualifications and training prescribed by the Ministry of Education, a large number of schools have at least part of its teaching staff without adequate training or qualifications. This is particularly so in the mountainous and remote areas, where city and townbred senior school graduates are reluctant to serve. The same is true for many primary schools where, as stated before, there is a serious shortage of teachers. The enrollment in the primary schools across the country has outpaced the numbers of qualified persons willing to enter the teaching profession at that level.

By the end of the last century, U.S.-Vietnam relations had come full-circle with the establishment of full diplomatic relations in 1995 between the two former foes, admission of Vietnam (with U.S. support) as a full member of the pro-West Association of Southeast Asian nations (ASEAN), the bilateral trade greement between Vietnam and the United States, and a four-day visit by President Clinton to Vietnam in November 2000. Academically significant was Clinton's choice of the University of Hanoi as the venue for his major address and his mention of the increasing academic ties between the United States and Vietnam, notably the Education Abroad Program of the University of California in Hanoi.

Bibliography

Asian Development Bank. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors on a Proposed Loan to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam for the Vocational and Technical Education Project. Manila, November 1998.

DeFrancis, John Frances. Colonialism and Language Policy in Vietnam. The Hague: Mouton, 1977.

Elliott, David W., et al. Vietnam: Essays on History, Culture, and Society. New York: Asia Society, 1985.

Nguyen Thi My Huong, Patricis, Ed. Language in Vietnamese Society: Some Articles by Nguyen Dinh Hoa. Carbondale, IL: Asia Books, 1980.

Pham, Minh Hac. Vietnam's Education, The Current Position and Future Prospects. Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 1998.

Education in Vietnam: 1945-1991. Hanoi: Ministry of Education and Training of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, l994.

Sloper, David, and Can Le Thac, eds. Higher Education in Vietnam, Change and Response. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995.

Woodside, Alexander. "The Triumphs and Failures of Mass Education in Vietnam." Pacific Affairs, 56, No.3. fall 1983.

—D. R. SarDesai

VIETNAM

Compiled from the September 2004 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Socialist Republic of Vietnam

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 331,114 sq. km. (127,243 sq. mi.); equivalent in size to Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee combined.

Cities: (2002) Capital—Hanoi (2.842 million). Other cities—Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon; 5.378 million), Hai Phong (1.711 million), Da Nang (715.000).

Terrain: Varies from mountainous to coastal delta.

Climate: Tropical monsoon.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Vietnamese (sing. and pl.).

Population: (2003) 80.7 million.

Annual growth rate: (2003) 1.18%.

Ethnic groups: Vietnamese (85%-90%), Chinese (3%), Hmong, Thai, Khmer, Cham, mountain groups.

Religions: Buddhism, Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, Christian (predominantly Roman Catholic, some Protestant), animism, Islam.

Languages: Vietnamese (official), English (increasingly favored as a second language), some French, Chinese, and Khmer, mountain area languages.

Education: (2002) Literacy—91%.

Health: (2003) Birth rate—19.58/1000 Infant mortality rate—30/1000. Life expectancy—65.5 yrs. male, 70.1 yrs. female. Death rate—6.56/1,000.

Government

Type: Communist Party-dominated constitutional republic.

Independence: September 2, 1945.

New constitution: April 15, 1992.

Branches: Executive—president (head of state and chair of National Defense and Security Council) and prime minister (heads cabinet of ministries and commissions). Legislative—National Assembly. Judicial—Supreme People's Court; Prosecutorial Supreme People's Procuracy.

Administrative subdivisions: 59 provinces, 5 municipalities (Can Tho, Hai Phong, Da Nang, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh).

Political parties: Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) with over 2 million members, formerly (1951-76) Vietnam Worker's Party, itself the successor of the Indochinese Communist Party founded in 1930.

Suffrage: Universal over 18.

Economy

GDP: (2003) $39 billion.

Real growth rate: (2003) 7.24%.

Per capita income: (2003) $483.

Inflation rate: (2003) 3%.

External debt: (2002 est.) 38.3% of GDP, $13.1 billion.

Natural resources: Coal, crude oil, zinc, copper, silver, gold, manganese, iron.

Agriculture and forestry: (21.8% of GDP, 2003) Principal products—rice, maize, sweet potato, peanut, soya bean, cotton, coffee, cashews. Cultivated land—12.2 million hectares per year. Land use—21% arable; 28% forest and woodland; 51% other.

Industry and construction: (40% of GDP, 2003) Principal types—mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electricity, gas, water supply, cement, phosphate, and steel.

Services: (38.2% of GDP, 2003) Principal types—wholesale and retail, repair of vehicles and personal goods, hotel and restaurant, transport storage, telecommunications, tourism.

Trade: (2003) Exports—$19.88 billion. Principal exports—garments/textiles, crude oil, footwear, rice (second-largest exporter in world), sea products, coffee, rubber, handicrafts. Major export partners—U.S., EU, Japan, China, Singapore, Australia, Taiwan, and Germany. Imports—$24.995 billion. Principal imports—machinery, oil and gas, garment materials, iron and steel, transport-related equipment. Major import partners—China, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Thailand. Exports to U.S. (2003)—$4.55 billion. Imports from U.S. (2003)—$1.32 billion.

PEOPLE

Originating in what is now southern China and northern Vietnam, the Vietnamese people pushed southward over 2 millennia to occupy the entire eastern seacoast of the Indochinese Peninsula. Ethnic Vietnamese constitute about 90% of Vietnam's 80.7 million population.

Vietnam's approximately 2.3 million ethnic Chinese, concentrated mostly in southern Vietnam, constitute Vietnam's largest minority group. Long important in the Vietnamese economy, Vietnamese of Chinese ancestry have been active in rice trading, milling, real estate, and banking in the south and shopkeeping, stevedoring, and mining in the north. Restrictions on economic activity following reunification of the north and south in 1975 and the subsequent but unrelated general deterioration in Vietnamese-Chinese relations sent chills through the Chinese-Vietnamese community. In 1978-79, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees (many officially encouraged and assisted) or were expelled across the land border with China.

The second-largest ethnic minority grouping, the central highland peoples commonly termed Montagnards (mountain people), comprise two main ethnolinguistic groups—Malayo-Polynesian and Mon-Khmer. About 30 groups of various cultures and dialects are spread over the highland territory.

The third-largest minority, the Khmer Krom (Cambodians), numbering about 600,000, is concentrated near the Cambodian border and at the mouth of the Mekong River. Most are farmers. Other minority groups include the Cham—remnants of the once-mighty Champa Kingdom, conquered by the Vietnamese in the 15th century—Hmong, and Thai.

Vietnamese is the official language of the country. It is a tonal language with influences from Thai, Khmer, and Chinese. Since the early 20th century, the Vietnamese have used a Romanized script introduced by the French. Previously, Chinese characters and an indigenous phonetic script were both used.

HISTORY

Vietnam's identity has been shaped by long-running conflicts, both internally and with foreign forces. In 111 BC, China's Han dynasty conquered northern Vietnam's Red River Delta and the ancestors of today's Vietnamese. Chinese dynasties ruled Vietnam for the next 1,000 years, inculcating it with Confucian ideas and political culture. In 939 AD, Vietnam achieved independence under a native dynasty. After 1471, when Vietnam conquered the Champa Kingdom in what is now central Vietnam, the Vietnamese moved gradually southward, finally reaching the rich Mekong Delta, encountering there earlier settled Cham and Cambodians. While Vietnam's emperors reigned ineffectually, powerful northern and southern families fought civil wars in the 17th and 18th centuries.

French Rule and the Anti-Colonial Struggle

In 1858, the French began their conquest of Vietnam starting in the south. They annexed all of Vietnam in 1885, but allowed Vietnam's emperors to continue to reign, although not actually to rule. In the early 20th century, French-educated Vietnamese intellectuals organized nationalist and communist-nationalist anti-colonial movements.

Japan's occupation of Vietnam during World War II further stirred nationalism. Vietnamese communists under Ho Chi Minh organized a coalition of anti-colonial groups, the Viet Minh, though many anti-communists refused to join. After Japan stripped the French of all power in March 1945, Ho Chi Minh announced the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945.

North and South Partition

France's post-World War II unwillingness to leave Vietnam led to failed talks and an 8-year guerrilla war between the communist-led Viet Minh on one side and the French and their anti-communist nationalist allies on the other. Following a humiliating defeat at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, France and other parties, including Britain, China, the Soviet Union, and the United States, convened in Geneva, Switzerland for peace talks. On July 29, 1954, an Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities in Vietnam was signed between France and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The United States observed, but did not sign, the agreement. French colonial rule in Vietnam ended.

The 1954 Geneva agreement provided for a cease-fire between communist and anti-communist nationalist forces, the temporary division of Vietnam at approximately the 17th parallel, provisional northern (communist) and southern (noncommunist) zone governments, and the evacuation of anti-communist Vietnamese from northern to southern Vietnam. The agreement also called for an election to be held by July 1956 to bring the two provisional zones under a unified government. However, the South Vietnamese Government refused to accept this provision. On October 26, 1955, South Vietnam declared itself the Republic of Vietnam.

After 1954, North Vietnamese communist leaders consolidated their power and instituted a harsh agrarian reform and socialization program. In the late 1950s, they reactivated the network of communist guerrillas that had remained behind in the south. These forces—commonly known as the Viet Cong—aided covertly by the north, started an armed campaign against officials and villagers who refused to support the communist reunification cause.

American Asistance to the South

In December 1961, at the request of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem, President Kennedy sent U.S. military advisers to South Vietnam to help the government there deal with the Viet Cong campaign. In the wake of escalating political turmoil in the south after a 1963 generals' coup against President Diem, the United States increased its military support for South Vietnam. In March 1965, President Johnson sent the first U.S. combat forces to Vietnam. The American military role peaked in 1969 with an in-country force of 534,000. However, the Viet Cong's surprise Tet Offensive in January 1968 deeply hurt both the Viet Cong infrastructure and American and South Vietnamese morale. In January 1969, the United States, governments of South and North Vietnam, and the Viet Cong met for the first plenary session of peace talks in Paris, France. These talks, which began with much hope, moved slowly. They finally concluded with the signing of a peace agreement, the Paris Accords, on January 27, 1973. As a result, the south was divided into a patchwork of zones controlled by the South Vietnamese Government and the Viet Cong. The United States withdrew its forces, although U.S. military advisers remained.

Reunification

In early 1975, North Vietnamese regular military forces began a major offensive in the south, inflicting great damage to the south's forces. The communists took Saigon on April 30, 1975, and announced their intention of reunifying the country. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (north) absorbed the former Republic of Vietnam (south) to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on July 2, 1976.

After reunification, the government confiscated privately owned land and forced citizens into collectivized agricultural practices. Hundreds of thousands of former South Vietnamese Government and military officials, as well as intellectuals previously opposed to the communist cause, were sent to re-education camps to study socialist doctrine.

While Vietnamese leaders thought that reunification of the country and its socialist transformation would be condoned by the international community, this did not happen. Besides international concern over Vietnam's internal practices, the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1978 and its growing tight alliance with the Soviet Union appeared to confirm suspicions that Vietnam wanted to establish hegemony in Indochina.

Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia also heightened tensions that already existed between Vietnam and China. Beijing, which had long backed the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia, retaliated in early 1979 by initiating a border war with Vietnam.

Vietnam's tensions with its neighbors and its stagnant economy contributed to a massive exodus from Vietnam. Fearing persecution, many Chinese in particular fled Vietnam by boat to nearby countries. Later, hundreds of thousands of other Vietnamese nationals fled as well, seeking temporary refuge in camps throughout Southeast Asia.

The continuing grave condition of the economy and the alienation from the international community became focal points of party debate. In 1986, at the Sixth Party Congress, there was an important easing of communist agrarian and commercial policies.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

A new state constitution was approved in April 1992, reaffirming the central role of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in politics and society, and outlining government reorganization and increased economic freedom. Though Vietnam remains a one-party state, adherence to ideological orthodoxy has become less important than economic development as a national priority.

The most important powers within the Vietnamese Government—in addition to the Communist Party—are the executive agencies created by the 1992 constitution: the offices of the president and the prime minister. The Vietnamese President, presently Tran Duc Luong, functions as head of state but also serves as the nominal commander of the armed forces and chairman of the Council on National Defense and Security.

The Prime Minister of Vietnam, presently Phan Van Khai, heads a cabinet currently composed of three deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions, all confirmed by the National Assembly.

Notwithstanding the 1992 constitution's reaffirmation of the central role of the Communist Party, the National Assembly, according to the constitution, is the highest representative body of the people and the only organization with legislative powers. It has a broad mandate to oversee all government functions. Once seen as little more than a rubber stamp, the National Assembly has become more vocal and assertive in exercising its authority over lawmaking, particularly in recent years. However, the National Assembly is still subject to party direction. More than 80% of the deputies in the National Assembly are party members. The assembly meets twice yearly for 7-10 weeks each time; elections for members are held every 5 years, although its Standing Committee meets monthly and there are now over 100 "fulltime" deputies who function on various committees. There is a separate judicial branch, but it is still relatively weak. Overall, there are few lawyers and trial procedures are rudimentary.

The present 15-member Politburo, elected in April 2001 and headed by Communist Party General Secretary Nong Duc Manh, determines government policy, and its Secretariat oversees day-to-day policy implementation. Although there has been some effort to discourage membership in overlapping party and state positions, this practice continues. Five of the Politburo members—President Tran Duc Luong, Prime Minister Phan Van Khai, Deputy Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung, Minister of Public Security Le Hong Anh, and Defense Minister Pham Van Tra—concurrently hold high positions in the government, while another—Nguyen Van An—serves as Chairman of the National Assembly. In addition, the Party's Central Military Commission, which is composed of select Politburo members and additional military leaders, determines military policy.

A Party Congress, comprised of 1,168 delegates at the Ninth Party Congress in April 2001, meets every 5 years to set the direction of the party and the government. The 150-member Central Committee, which was elected by the Party Congress, usually meets at least twice a year.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 12/16/04

Vietnamese officials are addressed by the last element in their names.

General Secretary, Communist Party of Vietnam: Nong Duc MANH
President: Tran Duc LUONG
Vice President: Truong My HOA
Prime Minister: Phan Van KHAI
First Dep. Prime Min.: Nguyen Tan DUNG
Dep. Prime Min.: Vu KHOAN
Dep. Prime Min.: Pham Gia KHIEM
Min. of Agriculture & Rural Development:
Min. of Construction: Nguyen Hong QUAN
Min. of Culture & Information: Pham Quang NGHI
Min. of Education & Training: Nguyen Minh HIEN
Min. of Finance: Nguyen Sinh HUNG
Min. of Fisheries: Ta Quang NGOC
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Nguyen Dy NIEN
Min. of Home Affairs: Do Quang TRUNG
Min. of Industry: Hoang Trung HAI
Min. of Justice: Uong Chu LUU
Min. of Labor, War Invalids, & Social Welfare: Nguyen Thi HANG
Min. of National Defense: Pham Van TRA , Sr. Lt. Gen.
Min. of Natural Resources & Environment: Mai Ai TRUC
Min. of Planning & Investment: Vo Hong PHUC
Min. of Posts, Telecommunications, &Technology: Do Trung TA
Min. of Public Health: Tran Thi Trung CHIEN , Dr.
Min. of Public Security: Le Hong ANH
Min. of Science & Technology: Hoang Van PHONG
Min. of Trade: Truong Dinh TUYEN
Min. of Transportation &Communications: Dao Dinh BINH
Chmn., National Assembly: Nguyen Van AN
Chmn., State Ethnic Minorities Ctte.: Ksor PHUOC
Chmn., State Inspection Ctte.: Quach Le THANH
Chmn., State Population, Family and Children: Le Thi THU
Chmn., State Sports, & Physical Training Affairs Ctte.: Nguyen Danh THAI
Chmn., Govt. Office: Doan Manh GIAO
Governor, State Bank: Le Duc THUY
Chief, People's Army of Vietnam: Phung Quang THANH , Lt. Gen.
Ambassador to the US: Nguyen Tam CHIEN
Permanent Representative to the UN New York: Nguyen Thanh CHAU

Vietnam maintains an embassy in the U.S. at 1233-20th Street, NW, #400, Washington DC 20036 (tel. 202-861-0737; fax 202-861-0917); Internet home page: www.vietnamembassy-usa.org/. There is also a consulate general located in San Francisco at 1700 California Street, Suite 430, San Francisco, CA 94109 (tel. 415-922-1707; fax 415-922-1848; Internet homepage: www.vietnamconsulate-sf.org.

ECONOMY

Economic stagnation marked the period after reunification from 1975 to 1985. In 1986, the Sixth Party Congress approved a broad economic reform package called "Doi Moi," (renovation) that introduced market reforms and dramatically improved Vietnam's business climate. Vietnam became one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, averaging around 8% annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth from 1990 to 1997 and 6.5% from 1998-2003. Vietnam's inflation rate, which stood at an annual rate of over 300% in 1987, has been below 4% since 1997 (except in 1998 when it rose to 9.2%). Simultaneously, investment grew threefold and domestic savings quintupled. Agricultural production doubled, transforming Vietnam from a net food importer to the world's second-largest exporter of rice.

Foreign trade and foreign direct investment improved significantly. The shift away from a centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economic model improved the quality of life for many Vietnamese. Per capita income, $220 in 1994, had risen to $483 by 2003 with a related reduction in the share of the population living in acute poverty. However, average income is widely disparate—$483 for whole but $1,640 in Ho Chi Minh City and much lower than average in poorer provinces of the central and northern highlands.

The Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s slowed the pace of economic growth that marked the earlier part of the decade. While returning to precrisis levels of growth and development has been slow, the pace has picked up in recent years, primarily as the result of ongoing economic and trade liberalization. Vietnam's economic stance following the East Asian recession first emphasized macroeconomic stability, then shifted its focus toward growth. While the country has moved toward a more market-oriented economy, the Vietnamese Government still continues to hold a tight rein over major sectors of the economy, such as the banking system and state-owned enterprises. The government has plans for reforming key sectors and privatizing state-owned enterprises, but implementation has lagged. Greater emphasis on private sector development is critical for job creation. Urban unemployment has been rising in recent years, and rural unemployment, estimated to be between 25% and 35% during nonharvest periods, is already at critical levels. Layoffs in the state sector and foreigninvested enterprises combined with the lasting effects of an earlier military demobilization further exacerbate the unemployment situation.

The December 10, 2001, entry-into-force of the Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) between the U.S. and Vietnam is a significant milestone for Vietnam's economy and for normalization of U.S.-Vietnam relations. Implementation of this agreement, which includes provisions on trade in goods, trade in services, enforcement of intellectual property rights, protection for investments, and transparency, is fundamentally changing Vietnam's trade regime and helping liberalize its economy. The BTA gave normal trade relations (NTR) status to Vietnamese imports in the U.S. market. Bilateral trade between the two countries has expanded dramatically, reaching $5.88 billion in 2003.

Agriculture and Industry

Land reform, de-collectivization, and the opening of the agricultural sector to market forces converted Vietnam from a country facing chronic food shortages in the early 1980s to the second-largest rice exporter in the world. Besides rice, key exports are coffee, tea, rubber, and fisheries products. Despite this unquestioned success story, agriculture's share of economic output has declined, falling as a share of GDP from 42% in 1989 to 16.7% in 2003, as production in other sectors of the economy has risen.

Paralleling its efforts to increase agricultural output, Vietnam has sought with some success to invigorate industrial production. Industry contributed 34.1% of GDP in 2003. State-owned enterprises are marked by low productivity and inefficiency, the result of a command-style economic system applied in an underdeveloped country. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a new and dynamic feature of Vietnam's industrializing economy. Billions of FDI dollars from countries around the globe are helping to transform the industrial landscape of Vietnam.

Of late, Vietnam has achieved some success in increasing exports of some labor-intensive manufactures. Subsidies have been cut to some inefficient state enterprises. The government also has repeatedly stated its intent to "equitize" a significant number of state enterprises. However, only a relatively small percentage of remaining state enterprises have been equitized in recent years.

Trade and Balance of Payments

From the late 1970s until the 1990s, Vietnam was heavily dependent on the Soviet Union and its allies for trade and economic assistance. To compensate for drastic cuts in Soviet-bloc support after 1989, Vietnam liberalized trade, devalued its exchange rate to increase exports, and embarked on a policy of regional and international economic re-integration. Vietnam has demonstrated its commitment to trade liberalization in recent years, and integration with the world economy has become one of the cornerstones of its reform program. So far, Vietnam has locked in its intention to create a more competitive and open economy by committing to several comprehensive international trade agreements, including the Association of Southeast Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the U.S.-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA). Also, Vietnam aspires to accede to the World Trade Organization (WTO) by 2005. The Government of Vietnam first submitted its application to join the WTO in 1995 and has since participated in seven meetings of the working party on Vietnam's accession, the most recent of which took place in Geneva in December 2003.

As a result of these reforms, and implementation of the U.S.-Vietnam BTA, exports expanded significantly, growing by as much as 20%-30% in some years. In 2003, exports accounted for 51% of GDP. Efforts to control Vietnam's import growth have achieved limited success. In the last 2 years, import growth has outpaced export growth. Vietnam's total external debt, accounting for 38.3% of GDP in 2002, was $13.1 billion.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

During the second Indochina war (1954-75), North Vietnam balanced relations with its two major allies, the Soviet Union and China. By 1975, tension began to grow as Beijing increasingly viewed Vietnam as a potential Soviet instrument to encircle China. Meanwhile, Beijing's increasing support for Cambodia's Khmer Rouge sparked Vietnamese suspicions of China's motives.

Vietnamese-Chinese relations deteriorated significantly after Hanoi instituted a ban in March 1978 on private trade, mostly affecting Sino-Vietnamese. Following Vietnam's December 1978 invasion of Cambodia, China launched a retaliatory incursion over Vietnam's northern border. Faced with severance of Chinese aid and strained international relations, Vietnam established even closer ties with the Soviet Union and its allies in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon). Through the 1980s, Vietnam received nearly $3 billion a year in economic and military aid from the Soviet Union and conducted most of its trade with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R., or Soviet Union) and other Council for Mutual Economic Assistance countries. However, Soviet and East bloc economic aid ceased after the breakup of the Soviet Union.

Vietnam did not begin to emerge from international isolation until it withdrew its troops from Cambodia in 1989. Within months of the 1991 Paris Agreements, Vietnam established diplomatic and economic relations with ASEAN as well as most of the countries of western Europe and Northeast Asia. China reestablished full diplomatic ties with Vietnam in 1991, and the two countries concluded a land border demarcation agreement in 1999.

In the past decade, Vietnam has recognized the increasing importance of growing global economic interdependence and has made concerted efforts to adjust its foreign relations to reflect the evolving international economic and political situation in Southeast Asia. The country has begun to integrate itself into the regional and global economy by joining international organizations. Vietnam has stepped up its efforts to attract foreign capital from the West and regularize relations with the world financial system. In the 1990s, following the lifting of the American veto on multilateral loans to the country, Vietnam became a member of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Asian Development Bank. The country has expanded trade with its East Asian neighbors as well as with countries in western Europe and North America. Of particular significance was Vietnam's acceptance into the Association of Southeast Nations (ASEAN) in July 1995. Vietnam joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in November 1998 and hosted the ASEAN summit in 2001. Vietnam currently holds observer status in the World Trade Organization (WTO) and is applying for full membership.

While Vietnam has remained relatively conflict-free since its Cambodia days, tensions have arisen in the past between Vietnam and its neighbors (especially China). Vietnam and China each assert claims to the Spratly Islands (as does Taiwan), an archipelago in a potentially oil-rich area of the South China Sea. Conflicting claims have produced over the years small-scale armed altercations in the area; in 1988 more than 70 people were killed during a confrontation between China and Vietnam. China's assertion of control over the Spratly Islands and the entire South China Sea has elicited concern from Vietnam and its Southeast Asia neighbors. The territory border between the two countries is being definitively mapped pursuant to a Land Border Agreement signed December 1999, and an Agreement on Borders in the Gulf of Tonkin signed December 2000. Vietnam and Russia declared a strategic partnership March 2001 during the first visit ever to Hanoi of a Russian head of state, largely as an attempt to counterbalance the People's Republic of China's (P.R.C.) growing profile in Southeast Asia.

U.S.-VIETNAM RELATIONS

After a 20-year hiatus of severed ties, President Clinton announced the formal normalization of diplomatic relations with Vietnam on July 11, 1995. Subsequent to President Clinton's normalization announcement, in August 1995, both nations upgraded their Liaison Offices opened during January 1995 to embassy status. As diplomatic ties between the nations grew, the United States opened a consulate general in Ho Chi Minh City, and Vietnam opened a consulate in San Francisco.

U.S. relations with Vietnam have become deeper and more diverse in the years since political normalization. The two countries have broadened their political exchanges through regular dialogues on human rights and regional security. They signed a Bilateral Trade Agreement in July 2000, which went into force in December 2001. In 2003, the two countries signed a Counternarcotics Letter of Agreement, a Civil Aviation Agreement, and a textile agreement.

As of April 27, 2004, the U.S. Government had 1,862 Americans unaccounted for in Southeast Asia, including 1,420 in Vietnam. Since 1973, 721 Americans have been accounted for, including 501 in Vietnam. Additionally, the Department of Defense has confirmed that of the 196 individuals who were "last known alive" (LKA), fewer than 40 of those cases remain unresolved. The United States considers achieving the fullest possible accounting of Americans missing and unaccounted for in Indochina to be one of its highest priorities with Vietnam.

Reflecting the growing diplomatic relations between the two nations, economic relations between the United States and Vietnam have changed dramatically over the past decade. In July 1993, subsequent to the opening of the U.S. repatriation office in Ho Chi Minh City, the U.S. dropped its objections to bilateral and multilateral lending to Vietnam. In February 1994, following substantial Vietnamese cooperation on prisoners of war/missing in action (POW/MIA) issues, President Clinton removed the longstanding trade embargo on Vietnam. In March 1998, President Clinton granted a Jackson-Vanik waiver to Vietnam, which has been renewed annually ever since. (A Jackson-Vanik waiver is required along with U.S. congressional approval of a bilateral trade agreement in order to grant Vietnam normal trading rights. This waiver must be renewed annually and is based on Vietnam's cooperation on emigration issues.) In October 2000, President Clinton paid the first visit of a U.S. President to Vietnam since the end of the war. He was met by enormous crowds of well-wishers lining the routes of his visits in both Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. On December 10, 2001, the U.S.-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement entered into force.

Since entry into force of the BTA, increased trade between the U.S. and Vietnam, combined with large-scale U.S. investment in Vietnam, evidence the maturing U.S.-Vietnam economic relationship. In 2003, Vietnam exported $5.55 billion of goods to the U.S. and imported $1.32 billion of U.S. goods. Similarly, U.S. interests continue to invest directly in the Vietnamese economy. During 2003, the U.S. private sector committed more than $45 million to Vietnam in foreign direct investment.

Another sign of the expanding bilateral relationship is the signing of a Bilateral Air Transport Agreement in December 2003. Several U.S. carriers already have third-party code sharing agreements with Vietnam Airlines. The U.S. Government is working closely with the Government of Vietnam to prepare for safety and security assessments that will enable two-party code shares and direct flights between the U.S. and Vietnam to begin.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

HANOI (E) Address: 7 Lang Ha, Ba Dinh District; APO/FPO: PSC 461 Box 400, FPO, AP 96521-0002; Phone: (84) (4) 772-1500; Fax: (84) (4) 772-1510; INMARSAT Tel: Located off-site-contact IPC to coordinate call; Workweek: M–F, 0800-1700; Website: http://www.usembassy.state.gov/vietnam

HO CHI MINH CITY (CG) Address: 4 Le Duan St. District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; APO/FPO: PSC 461, Box 500, APO, AP 96521-0002; Phone: (84-8) 822-9433; Fax: (84-8) 822-9434; Workweek: M–F, 8 am-5 pm

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

September 20, 2004

Country Description: Vietnam is a poor but developing agrarian country controlled by a Communist government. Tourist facilities are not well established, but are improving in certain areas, especially in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, and some beach and mountain resorts.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A valid passport and Vietnamese visa are required. A visa must be obtained from a Vietnamese Embassy or Consulate before traveling to Vietnam; entry visas are not available upon arrival. Americans arriving without an appropriate Vietnamese visa will not be permitted to enter, and will be subject to immediate deportation. Vietnamese visas are usually valid for only one entry. Persons planning to leave Vietnam and re-enter from another country should be sure to obtain a visa allowing multiple entries.

Even with a valid visa, some travelers have been refused entry to Vietnam. U.S. citizens are cautioned that the Vietnamese immigration regulations require foreigners entering Vietnam to undertake only the activity for which their visas were issued. Change of purpose requires permission from the appropriate Vietnamese authority in advance. U.S. citizens whose stated purpose of travel was tourism but who engaged in religious proselytizing have had religious materials confiscated and have been expelled from Vietnam.

An American whose U.S. passport is lost or stolen in Vietnam must obtain both a replacement passport and a replacement visa. The U.S. Embassy and Consulate General can issue limited validity emergency replacement passports in as little as one day, but the Vietnamese government requires three (3) working days to issue a replacement visa. Neither the U.S. Embassy nor the Consulate General can expedite replacement Vietnamese visas.

Current information on visa and entry requirements may be obtained from the Vietnamese Embassy, 1233 20th Street, Suite 400, NW, Washington, DC 20036, tel: 202-861-0737, fax: 202-861-0917, Internet: http://www.vietnamembassy-usa.org/; the Vietnamese Consulate General, 1700 California Street—Suite 430, San Francisco, CA 94109, tel: (415) 922-1707, fax: 415-922-1848, Internet: http://www.vietnamconsulate-sf.org, or from the nearest Vietnamese Embassy or Consulate overseas.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated special procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Dual Nationality: In addition to being subject to all Vietnamese laws affecting U.S. citizens, individuals who also possess the nationality of Vietnam may also be subject to other laws that impose special obligations on citizens of that country. For additional information, see the Consular Affairs home page on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov for our Dual Nationality flyer.

U.S. citizens born in Vietnam, former citizens of Vietnam and their children are required to obtain visas to enter Vietnam. In criminal matters, however, Vietnamese authorities treat them as Vietnamese nationals, and they also may be subjected to laws that impose special obligations upon Vietnamese nationals, such as military service and taxes. U.S. citizens of Vietnamese origin may be charged with offenses allegedly committed prior to their original departure from Vietnam. U.S. citizens of Vietnamese origin should refer to the paragraph on consular access regarding their rights. Specific questions on Vietnamese citizenship should be directed to the Vietnamese Embassy. Questions on dual nationality may be directed to the Office of Overseas Citizens Services, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, telephone: 202-647-5226.

Safety and Security: Following the bombings in Bali and Jakarta, Indonesia, in 2002 and 2003, the U.S. Department of State is concerned that similar attacks may occur in other Southeast Asian nations. American citizens traveling to Vietnam should therefore exercise caution, especially in locations where Westerners tend to congregate, such as clubs, discos, bars, restaurants, hotels, places of worship, schools, outdoor recreation venues, tourist areas, beach resorts, and other places frequented by foreigners. American travelers in Vietnam—as in any other country—should remain vigilant with regard to their personal security.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up to date information on security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the United States, or, for callers outside the United States and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

In recent years, the Central Highland provinces have been the scene of ethnic minority protests. Official U.S. personnel and tourists are sometimes not authorized to travel to the Central Highland areas without prior consent from the Government of Vietnam. These travel limitations hinder the ability of the U.S. government to provide assistance to private U.S. citizens in those areas.

Vietnamese security personnel may place foreign visitors under surveillance. Hotel rooms, telephone conversations, fax transmissions, and email communications may be monitored, and personal possessions in hotel rooms may be searched. Large gatherings, such as those forming at the scene of traffic accidents, can become violent. Taking photographs of anything that could be perceived as being of military or security interest may result in problems with authorities. Tourists should be cautious when traveling near military bases and avoid photographing in these areas.

Foreign visitors to Vietnam have been arbitrarily arrested, detained or expelled for activities that would not be considered crimes in the United States. Visitors deemed suspicious by Vietnamese security personnel may be detained, along with their Vietnamese contacts, relatives, and friends. Local security officials have called in some U.S. citizens of Vietnamese origin for "discussions" not related to any suspected or alleged violation of law. These meetings normally do not result in any action against the traveler, but are nevertheless intimidating. Foreign visitors are not permitted to invite Vietnamese nationals of the opposite sex to their hotel rooms, and police may raid hotels without notice or consent.

An American traveling with a spouse who is a U.S. citizen of Vietnamese origin may be asked to present a Marriage Certificate to local authorities in order to stay together in a hotel or family residence. Involvement in politics, possession of political material, business activities that have not been licensed by appropriate authorities, or non-sanctioned religious activities (including proselytizing) can result in detention. Sponsors of small, informal religious gatherings such as bible-study groups in hotel rooms, as well as distributors of religious materials, have been detained, fined and expelled.

Travel in Border Areas: U.S. citizens have been detained after traveling in areas close to the Vietnamese borders with China, Cambodia, and Laos. These areas and other restricted areas are not always marked, and there are no warnings about prohibited travel. Travelers should avoid such areas unless written permission is obtained in advance from local authorities.

Travel Information for U.S. Veterans: Increasing numbers of U.S. military personnel who served in the armed forces during the Vietnam War have returned to Vietnam on personal travel. Neither the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi nor the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City is aware of any Vietnamese government restrictions on former U.S. military personnel visiting Vietnam. Neither the U.S. Embassy nor the Consulate General provides assistance in reaching battlefield sites. Visitors should understand that some battle sites are relatively inaccessible, and the Vietnamese government may deny access to battle sites.

Accounting for U.S. armed forces personnel reported as prisoners-of-war or missing-in-action (POW/MIA) during the Vietnam War is one of the U.S. government's highest priorities. Military or civilian personnel with any knowledge of the location of possible personnel missing or killed in action are encouraged to contact the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) at: Detachment Two, JPAC; 58 Xuan Dieu Street; Hanoi; Telephone: (84-4) 719-8301; Fax: (84-4) 719-8304. You may contact the Casualty Resolution Office at Detachment 2 in Hanoi directly at JPAC, Det 2, email:vpmia@fpt.vn.

Crime: Cities in Vietnam have the typical crime problems of other large cities throughout the world. Pick-pocketing and other petty crimes occur regularly and appear to be increasing. Although violent crimes such as armed robbery are still relatively rare in Vietnam, perpetrators have grown increasingly bold and the U.S. Consulate General has received recent reports of knives and razors being used in attempted robberies in Ho Chi Minh City. Thieves congregate around hotels frequented by foreign tourists and business people, and assaults have been reported in outlying areas. The evolving nature of incidents warrants caution on the part of the U.S. traveler. Travelers are advised not to resist theft attempts, and to report them both to police and to the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi or the U.S. Consulate in Ho Chi Minh City.

Motorcyclists, mostly carrying passengers, frequently grab bags, cameras, and other valuables from pedestrians or passengers riding in "cyclos" (pedicabs) or on the back of rented motorcycles. Serious injuries have resulted when thieves snatched purses or bags, which were strapped across their victims' bodies, leading to the victim being dragged along the ground by the thief's motorcycle. In November 2003, an American citizen victim of a drive-by purse snatching was dragged to the ground and seriously injured in this manner.

Passengers in cyclos may be especially prone to thefts of personal possessions by snatch-and-grab thieves, because they ride in a semi-reclining position that readily exposes their belongings and does not allow good visibility or movement. As some cyclo drivers have reportedly kidnapped passengers and extorted money, it may be risky to hire cyclos not associated with reputable hotels or restaurants.

Travelers are strongly advised to keep passports and other important valuables in hotel safes or other secure locations. Travelers are advised to carry a photocopy of their passport with them when going out. The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the U.S. Embassy or the U.S. Consulate General. U.S. citizens must obtain a police report from the local police office in order to apply for a replacement passport and a Vietnamese exit visa.

There have been occasional reports of incidents in which an unknown substance was used to taint drinks, leaving the victim susceptible to further criminal acts. Travelers are advised to avoid leaving drinks or food unattended, and should avoid going to unfamiliar venues alone. Travelers should also avoid purchasing liquor from street vendors, as the quality of the contents cannot be assured.

Recreational drugs available in Vietnam can be extremely potent, and more than one American has died of an accidental overdose. Penalties for possession of drugs of any kind are severe (please refer to the Criminal Penalties section below).

In Ho Chi Minh City, some U.S. citizens have reported threats of death or physical injury related to personal business disputes. The U.S. Embassy and the U.S. Consulate General do not provide personal protection services. U.S. citizens who do not have confidence in the ability of the local police to protect them may wish to depart the country expeditiously.

If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the U.S. Embassy or the U.S. Consulate General for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, help you find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlet, A Safe Trip Abroad, for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC 20402, on the Internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/, on the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page, http://travel.state.gov/ or at the U.S. Embassy or the U.S Consulate General.

Medical Facilities: Government medical facilities in Vietnam do not meet international standards, and frequently lack medicines and supplies. Medical personnel in Vietnam, particularly outside Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, may speak little or no English. Doctors and hospitals expect immediate cash payment for health services. International health clinics in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City can provide acceptable care for minor illnesses and injuries, but more serious problems will often require medical evacuation to Bangkok or Singapore. Although many medications can be purchased at pharmacies without prescriptions, many common U.S. medications are not available in Vietnam. Travelers may obtain lists of local English-speaking physicians from the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi or the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City. Travelers are reminded that neither office may recommend specific medical practitioners or hospitals.

Medical Insurance: The U.S. Department of State strongly urges U.S. citizens to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, U.S. citizens should consider that doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the U.S. may cost well in excess of $50,000 (payable through insurance or credit card). Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas healthcare provider or whether you will be reimbursed later for expenses you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.

Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure, Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad, available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page.

Other Health Information: Travelers should be cautious when drinking non-bottled water and in using ice cubes in drinks. Travelers may wish to drink only bottled or canned beverages, or beverages, which have been boiled (such as hot tea and coffee).

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect-bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Vietnam is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Safety of Public Transportation: Poor
Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor to Average
Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Availability of Roadside/Ambulance Assistance: Poor

Traffic in Vietnam is chaotic. Traffic accidents, mostly involving motorcycles and resulting in traumatic head injury, are an increasingly serious hazard. At least 30 people die each day from transportation-related injuries.

Traffic accident injuries are the leading cause of death, severe injury, and emergency evacuation of foreigners in Vietnam, and are the single greatest health risk that U.S. citizens will face in Vietnam.

Traffic moves on the right, although drivers frequently cross to the left to pass or turn, and motorcycles and bicycles often travel (illegally) against the flow of traffic. Horns are used constantly, often for no apparent reason. Streets in major cities are choked with motorcycles, cars, buses, trucks, bicycles, pedestrians and cyclos (pedicabs). Outside the cities, livestock compete with vehicles for road space. Sudden stops by motorcycles and bicycles make driving a particular hazard. Nationwide, drivers do not follow basic traffic principles, vehicles do not yield right of way, and there is little adherence to traffic laws or enforcement by traffic police. There are an increasing number of traffic lights in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, but red lights are often not obeyed. Most Vietnamese ride motorcycles, and an entire family often rides on one motorcycle.

Road conditions are poor nationwide. Numerous tragic accidents have occurred due to poor road conditions that resulted in landslides, and American travelers have lost their lives in this way. Travelers should exercise extra caution in the countryside, as road conditions are particularly poor in rural areas.

Driving at night is especially dangerous and drivers should exercise extreme caution. Roads are poorly lit, and there are few road signs. Buses and trucks often travel at high speed with bright lights that are rarely dimmed. Some motor vehicles may not use lights at all, vehicles of all types often stop in the road without any illumination, and livestock are likely to be encountered.

Motorcyclists and bicyclists are strongly urged to wear helmets. Passengers in cars or taxis should use seatbelts when available, but should be aware that Vietnamese vehicles often are not equipped with working seatbelts. The Vietnamese government began mandating the use of motorcycle helmets on major roads leading to large urban centers in January 2001, but application and enforcement of this law have been slow and sporadic at best. New laws have been promulgated concerning the use of motorcycle helmets in urban areas as well, but have not been enforced. Child car seats are not available in Vietnam.

Penalties for driving under the influence of alcohol or causing an accident resulting in injury or death can include fines, confiscation of driving permits or imprisonment. U.S. citizens involved in traffic accidents have been barred from leaving Vietnam before paying compensation (often determined arbitrarily) for property damage or injuries.

Emergency roadside help is theoretically available nationwide by dialing 113 for police, 114 for fire brigade and 115 for an ambulance. Efficiency of these services is well below U.S. standards, however, and locating a public telephone is often difficult or impossible. Trauma care is not widely available.

The urban speed limit ranges from 30 to 40 km/h. The rural speed limit ranges from 40 to 60 km/h. Both speed limits are routinely ignored. Pedestrians should be careful, as sidewalks are extremely congested and uneven, and drivers of bicycles, motorcycles and other vehicles routinely ignore traffic signals and traffic flows, and even drive on sidewalks. For safety, pedestrians should look carefully in both directions before crossing streets, even when using a marked crosswalk with a green "walk" light illuminated.

International driving permits and U.S. drivers' licenses are not valid in Vietnam. Foreigners renting vehicles risk prosecution and/or imprisonment for driving without a Vietnamese license endorsed for the appropriate vehicle. Americans who wish to drive in Vietnam should contact any office of the Provincial Public Transportation Service of the Vietnamese Department of Communications and Transport to obtain a Vietnamese driver's license. The U.S. Embassy in Hanoi and Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City cannot assist U.S. citizens in obtaining Vietnamese driver's permits or notarize U.S. drivers' licenses for use in Vietnam.

Most Vietnamese travel within Vietnam by long-distance bus or train. Both are slow, and safety conditions do not approach U.S. standards.

For additional information about road travel in Vietnam, see the U.S. Embassy Hanoi web site at http://hanoi.usembassy.gov, or the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City's web site at http://hochiminh.usconsulate.gov. For additional general information on road safety, including links to foreign government sites, consult http://travel.state.gov/travel/abroad_roadsafety.html.

Seasonal Flooding: Heavy rainfall during Vietnam's annual rainy season, usually June through September, and again during the typhoon season from October to December, coupled with outdated and poorly maintained infrastructure, places much of Vietnam at high risk for seasonal flooding and landslides. Northern Vietnam is most likely to experience seasonal flooding and landslides during the rainy season, while Central and Southern Vietnam are most likely to experience seasonal flooding and landslides from August to November.

While minor flooding is fairly common in Hanoi, the source of any major flood in Hanoi is the Red River. In the event of a major flood, Vietnamese authorities would destroy a portion of the protective dike around the river well upstream from Hanoi. U.S. citizens living near the Red River upstream of Hanoi, should be aware of this potential risk. If a major flood is not diverted before striking Hanoi, experts predict the flood would be devastating. There is also a serious risk of flooding in Central Vietnam and in the Mekong River delta regions in Southern Vietnam.

U.S. citizens living in flood prone areas are urged to plan a route to escape from rising water levels, stock drinking water and canned food at home, keep a fully stocked first aid kit, keep passports and other important documents in a safe place, and keep informed of weather conditions during the rainy season.

Prior to the onset of a flood, Vietnamese television channel VTV One (which broadcasts in Vietnamese) is a good source for weather information. The UN Development Program (UNDP) maintains an English-language flood web site at http://www.undp.org.vn/dmu/latest/en/frame.htm.

The U.S. Embassy in Hanoi and the Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City will make available any information they have on possible flood situations that could affect U.S. citizens residing in Vietnam.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. and Vietnam signed a bilateral Air Services Agreement in December 2003 that will enable direct flights between the two countries. These services have not yet begun and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Vietnam's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with international aviation safety standards. For further information, travelers may contact the U.S. Department of Transportation at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's web site, http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm. For information on air security, travelers may contact the TSA at 1-866-289-9673, or visit the TSA's web site, http://www.tsa.gov/public/index.jsp.

Passport Seizures/Exit Bans: The Vietnamese government has occasionally seized the passports and blocked the departure of foreigners involved in commercial disputes. The U.S. Embassy or Consulate General may issue a new passport to a U.S. citizen in such a situation, but the Vietnamese exit ban could remain in effect, preventing departure. It is common for hotels to retain a passport until checkout, but passports should never be used as security for rental of vehicles, collateral for hotel payments, etc.

Customs Regulations: Vietnamese government authorities have seized documents, audio and video tapes, compact discs, literature, and personal letters they deem to be religious, pornographic, or political in nature or intended for religious or political proselytizing. The authorities are also increasingly detaining and expelling individuals believed to be engaged in such activities. Individuals arriving at airports with videotapes or materials considered to be pornographic have been detained and heavily fined (up to U.S. $2,000 for one videotape). Authorities may search rooms and luggage without notice or consent. It is illegal to import all kinds of weapons, ammunition, flammable and explosive materials, military equipment and tools, narcotics, drugs, toxic chemicals, pornographic and subversive materials, firecrackers, children's toys that have "negative effects on personality development, social order and security," and cigarettes exceeding the stipulated allowance.

Vietnamese law prohibits the export of antiques, but the laws on the subject are vague and unevenly enforced. Antique objects are subject to inspection and seizure by customs authorities with no compensation made to owners/travelers. The determination of what is an "antique" can be arbitrary. Purchasers of non-antique items of value should retain receipts and confirmation from shop owners and/or the Ministry of Culture and the Customs Department to prevent seizure upon departure. Travelers are advised to contact the Embassy of Vietnam in Washington, DC or the Vietnamese Consulate General in San Francisco for specific information regarding customs requirements.

In many countries around the world, counterfeit and pirated goods are widely available. Transactions involving such products are illegal and bringing them back to the United States may result in forfeitures and/or fines. A current list of those countries with serious problems in this regard can be found here.

Currency: The Vietnamese currency is Vietnamese Dong (VND). Banks and hotels in Vietnam will exchange dollars, and there is an exchange facility at the airport. ATMs are available in Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi, but are rare outside of these cities. Traveler's cheques are not commonly accepted in Vietnam.

Foreign currency (including cash and travelers cheques) in excess of US$3,000, cash exceeding Vietnamese Dong (VND) 5,000,000, and gold exceeding 300 grams must be declared at customs upon arrival and departure. There is no limitation on either the export or import of U.S. dollars or other foreign currency by U.S. citizens, provided that all currency in excess of US$3,000 (or its equivalent in other foreign currencies) or in excess of VND 5,000,000 in cash is declared upon arrival and departure, and supported by appropriate documentation. If excess cash is not declared, it is confiscated at the port of entry/exit and the passenger may be fined.

Vietnamese Civil Documents and Procedures: U.S. citizens who plan to marry a Vietnamese national in Vietnam should contact the Vietnamese Embassy in Washington, D.C., or the Vietnamese Consulate General in San Francisco concerning documentary requirements. Several documents will require notarization at the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi or the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City.

Obtaining a Vietnamese marriage certificate normally takes 45 days or more. For additional information about documentary requirements for getting married in Vietnam, see the U.S. Embassy Hanoi web site at http://hanoi.usembassy.gov, or the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City's web site at http://hochiminh.usconsulate.gov.

Children born in Vietnam to one or two U.S. citizen parents may apply for an adjudication of their child's claim to U.S. citizenship at the U.S. Embassy or the U.S. Consulate General. Parents are required by Vietnamese law to choose citizenship for their child in order to obtain the child's Vietnamese birth certificate, but this choice has no effect under U.S. law on the child's potential eligibility for U.S. citizenship. There have been some instances in which parents have faced difficulties in choosing not to have Vietnamese citizenship for their child.

Vietnamese law requires an autopsy before a death certificate may be issued for a deceased foreigner. In some cases this requirement may be circumvented with a diplomatic note from the U.S. Embassy or the U.S. Consulate General, particularly if the deceased was elderly or in documented poor health and the cause of death can reasonably be ascribed to age or ill health. For assistance regarding this or any other issue relating to the death of a U.S. citizen in Vietnam, family members may contact the U.S. Embassy or Consulate General.

Immigration through the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in Vietnam: U.S. citizens living in Vietnam who wish to file immigrant visa petitions should contact the U.S. Department of Homeland Security in Ho Chi Minh City at 65 Le Loi, Saigon Center, District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, telephone (84-8) 821-6237, fax (84-8) 821-6241.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Vietnam's laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Vietnam are strict, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines.

Foreigners have been executed for drug smuggling. The death penalty applies to anyone caught possessing 100 grams of heroin or five kilograms of opium. A Canadian national of Vietnamese origin was executed in early 2000 for drug smuggling. Both the sentencing and execution were carried out swiftly, without what would be considered due process in the United States. In 2004, a U.S. citizen was sentenced to death for trafficking in ecstasy tablets.

Vietnamese authorities often detain foreign nationals for lengthy periods—months, if not years—before concluding their investigation into an alleged crime and sending the case forward for prosecution. The criminal justice process is also lengthy. Authorities may detain individuals under investigation for up to one year before filing charges, and are not required to provide access to a lawyer until charges are filed.

U.S. citizens should be aware that many charges involving business or driving offenses that are considered civil charges in the U.S. are considered criminal charges in Vietnam. U.S. citizens of Vietnamese origin who left Vietnam may be subject to charges for any crimes they allegedly committed prior to their original departure from Vietnam, even if that departure was many decades ago.

Under the PROTECT Act of April 2003, it is a crime, prosecutable in the United States, for a U.S. citizen or permanent resident alien, to engage in illicit sexual conduct in a foreign country with a person under the age of 18, whether or not the U.S. citizen or lawful permanent resident alien intended to engage in such illicit sexual conduct prior to going abroad. Under the Protection of Children from Sexual Predators Act of 1998, it is a crime to use the mail or any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transmit information about a minor under the age of 16 for criminal sexual purposes that include, among other things, the production of child pornography. This same law makes it a crime to use any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transport obscene materials to minors under the age of 16.

Consular Access: A 1994 agreement between the United States and Vietnam provides for immediate notification of and reciprocal access within 96 hours to each other's detained citizens. Bearers of U.S. passports who enter Vietnam with a Vietnamese visa, including those of Vietnamese origin, are regarded as U.S. citizens by the U.S. Government for purposes of notification and access. Therefore, U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry photocopies of passport data and photo pages with them at all times so that, if questioned by Vietnamese officials, proof of U.S. citizenship is readily available.

Despite the 1994 agreement, U.S. consular officers in Vietnam are rarely notified in a timely manner when a U.S. citizen is arrested or detained. There have also generally been very significant delays in obtaining access to incarcerated U.S. citizens. This has been particularly true when the U.S. citizen is being held during the investigatory stage that Vietnamese officials do not consider as covered by the bilateral agreement. The investigatory stage can last up to one year, and often proceeds without the formal filing of any charges. Americans should note that the problem of access has been particularly evident when the U.S. citizen is considered by the Vietnamese government to be a citizen of Vietnam, irrespective of proof of U.S. citizenship. U.S. citizens, even dual citizens, have the right, according to the 1994 agreement, to consular access if they were admitted into Vietnam as a U.S. citizen with their U.S. passport, and should insist upon contact with the U.S. Embassy or the U.S. Consulate General.

Property Issues and Lifting of Sanctions: On January 28, 1995, the U.S. and Vietnam signed agreements resolving diplomatic property issues and settling outstanding claims between the two countries. For more information, contact: The Assistant Legal Adviser for International Claims and Investment Disputes, Department of State, SA-44, Room 205, Washington, DC 20520, telephone 202-776-8360.

Pursuant to the February 3, 1994, lifting of sanctions against Vietnam, U.S. visitors to Vietnam are no longer subject to spending limitations. U.S. visitors must comply with all normal Commerce Department export requirements. For additional information contact: The Bureau of Export Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1400 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20230, telephone 202-482-4811.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children, international parental child abduction, and international child support enforcement issues, please refer to our Internet site at http://travel.state.gov/family/index.html or telephone Overseas Citizens Services at 1-888-407-4747. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Registration/Embassy and Consulate Locations: U.S. citizens traveling to or residing in Vietnam are encouraged to register online at https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs. This free internet-based registration service allows U.S. citizens to record information about themselves, their emergency contacts, and their travel itinerary. The U.S. Embassy and Consulate General can use this information to assist travelers in case of an emergency.

The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi is located at 6 Ngoc Khanh, Ba Dinh District, Hanoi, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, telephone: (84-4) 831-4590; after hours emergency telephone number: (84-4) 772-1500; fax: (84-4) 831-4578, Internet home page: http://hanoi.usembassy.gov

The Consular section's business hours are 8:00 am to 5:00 pm. The Consular Section provides the full range of services for U.S. citizens (passport services, consular reports of birth abroad, notarial services) and non-immigrant visa services (except K-1 fiancée visas).

The U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City is located at 4 Le Duan, District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, telephone: (84-8) 822-9433; fax: (84-8) 822-9434; web site, http://hochiminh.usconsulate.gov. The Consulate General's business hours are 8:00 am to 5:00 pm. The Consulate General provides the full range of consular services for U.S. citizens (passport services, consular reports of birth abroad, notarial services) and the full range of immigrant and non-immigrant visa services. All immigrant visa processing in Vietnam, including visas for adopted children and fiancé/e visas, is conducted solely at the Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City. It is advisable to check the Consulate's web page to see which services require an appointment, and for a list of holiday closings and public hours, at http://hochiminh.usconsulate.gov/wwwhcits.html

Callers from the U.S. should note that Vietnam is 12 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time and 11 hours ahead of Eastern Daylight Time.

A copy of the U.S. citizen registration form is on the Embassy website and may be downloaded and faxed to the Embassy's Consular Section or to the Consulate General, along with a copy of the traveler's U.S. passport biographic page.

International Adoption

January 2005

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this circular relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign counsel.

Important Information: Irregularities in the methods used to identify children for adoption in Vietnam make it difficult to classify some children as orphans under U.S. immigration law. Several instances of payment to birth mothers to induce them to give up a child have been documented. As a result of these irregularities, you are advised that if you proceed to finalize an adoption of a Vietnamese child you wish to immigrate as an orphan, you should be prepared for a lengthy wait before a thorough investigation is concluded. Further, if it is uncovered that the child does not meet the orphan definition under U.S. law, your orphan petition to classify the orphan as an immediate relative (I-600) will be denied by the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services in the Department of Homeland Security.

Availability of Vietnamese Children for Adoption: The total number of visas issued to Vietnamese orphans adopted by U.S. citizens has steadily increased since the United States and Vietnam normalized relations in 1995.

Year: IR-3 Immigrant Visas Issued to Vietnamese Orphans Adopted Abroad, IR-4 Immigrant Visas Issued to Vietnamese Orphans Adopted in U.S.

FY-1995: 2, 316
FY-1996: 54, 300
FY-1997: 283, 142
FY-1998: 465, 138
FY-1999: 516, 151
FY-2000: 609, 115

Regulations: U.S. citizens may legally adopt in Vietnam. All adoptions must be initially submitted to the adopted child's home province. In cases where the adopting parents have not yet identified a child for adoption, the adoption request must be submitted directly to the Ministry of Justice in Hanoi. The Ministry will assist in locating a suitable child and then refer the case to the provincial Justice Department of that child's home province. Both the provincial Public Security Bureau and the provincial People's Committee must also review and approve the adoption following its review by the provincial Justice Department. Final approval (Decision on Adoption) is issued by the People's Committee. The child is formally handed over to the adopting parents in a ceremony at the provincial Justice Department office, in accordance with the Vietnamese Office of the President's November 30, 1994 Decree No. 184-CP Regarding Procedures for Marriages, Adoption and Patronage for Vietnamese Children by Foreign Nationals. U.S. citizens can adopt orphaned children or from private individuals but all adoptions must be processed through a government facility, i.e. from an orphanage or a hospital.

According to the Vietnamese "Law on Marriage and the Family" adoptive parents must be at least 20 years older than the children they wish to adopt. Children up to and including the age of 15 can be adopted. If over nine years of age, a child must consent in writing to his or her adoption under Vietnamese law.

Vietnamese law does not define "orphaned" or "abandoned". Children with two living parents are sometimes placed in orphanages by families who claim not to have the economic wherewithal to support their offspring. The decision to accept such children rests chiefly with the orphanage director, and often depends whether space is available in the orphanage.

Documentation: Vietnamese documents are not generally reliable and regulations regarding civil documentation are frequently not followed. Births are to be registered within 30 days, but often are not, especially in the countryside. Late registration is legal. Births are supposed to be registered with the local People's Committee. The birth certificate format is standardized, but non-standard "birth certificates" made by the orphanages themselves are sometimes submitted with orphan cases. These are inevitably late registered. All abandoned children are supposed to have their births registered by the local People's Committee. Please review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family for more details.

Procedure: When an adoption agency receives a request from a client to identify a child available for adoption, the agency contacts an orphanage (generally an orphanage it supports). When an agency has identified a child acceptable to the adopting parent(s), the agency asks the orphanage to release the child for foreign adoption. If one was not already on file, the orphanage obtains an unconditional release for foreign adoption from the child's parents or guardian or from whoever has legal custody of the child. The orphanage director then signs a document stating that the orphanage consents to release the child, either to the adoptive parents or their agents. The adoptive parents' names should be specified in the Vietnamese version of this document.

After the agency or adopting parents have obtained all the documents required for the adoption, the case is presented to the provincial Justice Department. The Justice Department coordinates with the local Public Security Bureau (police) to review the application. The Public Security Bureau must investigate the proposed adoption within 30 days from the date of the initial request from the Justice Department. This limit can be extended by 15 days if additional investigation is required. Following its review of the case, the Justice Department gives the completed paperwork to the provincial People's Committee for review, together with its recommendation. The People's Committee decides within 60 days to accept or reject the application for adoption. If further investigation of the case is needed, the People's Committee can delay its decision an additional 30 days. Please note that, in actual practice, these general time periods may vary greatly from province to province.

Once the provincial People's Committee approves the adoption, the child is formally relinquished in a "giving and receiving" ceremony held at the provincial Justice Department attended by at least one of the adopting parents, and by representatives of the orphanage, the People's Committee and the Justice Department. A "Giving and Receiving" document signed by the Justice Department is issued and the adoption is recorded in an adoption registration book.

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family

Issues: Vietnam has a rapidly-growing population and a per capita income of about $200 a year. In these circumstances, families may be tempted to release their children inappropriately for adoption.

The Vietnamese appear to have a more elastic definition than the U.S. of what constitutes an "orphaned" or "abandoned" child. Children are sometimes relinquished to orphanages by two living, healthy parents who claim they are not economically able to care for the child.

At present, Vietnamese law requires foreigners adopting Vietnamese children to adopt a child from a government facility, such as an orphanage or hospital. In many cases in which a child has been adopted directly from a natural parent or parents, he is not eligible under U.S. immigration law to receive an immigrant visa. Therefore, the Consulate would not encourage prospective adoptive parents to attempt such direct adoptions.

Although U.S. citizens are not required by Vietnamese law to work through an adoption agency, the Vietnamese bureaucracy is difficult to navigate, and the required paperwork may take months to complete.

For this reason, the Consulate and the Vietnamese government both recommend that families wishing to adopt a child from Vietnam use the services of an adoption agency having experience in Vietnam. Agencies are able to locate an orphan and complete the necessary paperwork on their clients' behalf up to the last stages of the process.

U.S. Adoption Procedures: Comprehensive information regarding international adoptions by U.S. citizens is available through the State Department's Consular Affairs Bureau and through the U.S. Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services in the Department of Homeland Security (BCIS).

For U.S. citizens who adopt in Vietnam, BCIS notice of approval is sent from the BCIS Office in Ho Chi Minh City to the IV Unit of the Consular Section of the U.S. Consulate in Ho Chi Minh City. If an I-600A was filed in the U.S., an I-600 may be filed with the BCIS Office in Ho Chi Minh City once a child has been identified. Once the I-600 has been approved, the child is eligible for an immigrant visa interview at the Consulate.

Questions regarding procedures for filing these forms should be directed to the BCIS Office in Ho Chi Minh City: Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services in the Department of Homeland Security; Saigon Centre, 9th Floor; 65 Le Loi Street; Tel: (84-8) 821-6237, (84-8) 821-6238,; Fax: (84-8) 821-6241.

American citizens seeking to adopt a child in Vietnam should feel free to contact the American Citizen Services (ACS) unit of the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City if they encounter difficulties in completing Vietnamese government procedures or have other serious problems.

Upon arrival in Vietnam, U.S. adoptive parents should also register at the American Consulate, Consular Section, American Citizens Services. The Consulate will be able to provide information about any outstanding travel advisories and to provide other information about Vietnam, including lists of physicians, attorneys, interpreters and translators.

Questions: Specific questions regarding adoptions in Vietnam may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy or Consulate. You may also contact the Office of Children's Issues with specific adoption questions.

Contacting the U.S. Consulate in Ho Chi Minh City: While in Vietnam, inquires should be addressed to: U.S. Consulate General; Immigrant Visa Unit; #4 Le Duan St.; District 1; Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; Tel: (84)(8) 822-9433; Fax: (84)(8) 822-0938. U.S. Mailing Address: U.S. Con-Gen; PSC 461; P.O. Box 5400; FPO AP 96521-0002; Home page: http://usembassy.state.gov/vietnam/

Contacting the Vietnamese Embassy in the U.S.: Embassy of Vietnam; 1233 20th Street, N.W.; Suite 400; Washington, D.C. 20036; Tel: (202) 861-2293 or (202) 861-0694; Home page: http://www.vietnamembassy-usa.org/

VIETNAM

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Major Cities:
Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Haiphong, Da Nang, Hué

Other Cities:
Dalat, Nha Trang, Qui Nhon

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report 1999 for Vietnam. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

VIETNAM is a land of beautiful plains, mountains, and coastline and the site of a once-powerful and rich civilization. Throughout history, Vietnam has been invaded and occupied by various foreign powers. Many Americans were unfamiliar with Vietnam until the mid-1960s, when the Untied States became embroiled in a conflict between Communist North Vietnam and non-Communist South Vietnam. The United States, an ally of South Vietnam, launched a series of air strikes against North Vietnam in 1965 and sent the first group of combat troops to South Vietnam during that same year. Over the next several years, the United States became increasingly involved in the conflict. By 1969, 543,000 American combat troops were serving in Vietnam. From 1965-1973, the United States and its South Vietnamese allies fought many bitter and bloody battles against the powerful North Vietnamese Army. On January 27, 1973, the United States and North Vietnam signed a peace agreement which allowed the United States to withdraw its troops from Vietnam. The last American troops left Vietnam on March 29, 1973. The United States involvement in the Vietnam War claimed the lives of 58,000 Americans. The war between North Vietnam and South Vietnam resumed in early 1974, with the North Vietnamese quickly gaining the upper hand. The South Vietnamese army, suffering from high casualties and a lack of ammunition and spare parts, was soon defeated. On April 30, 1975, North Vietnamese Army troops entered Saigon, South Vietnam's capital, to accept the surrender of the South Vietnamese government. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam, created from the former Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam), was established as a new nation in July 1976.

Relations between the United States and Vietnam have been deeply strained since the war. Following the fall of South Vietnam in 1975, the United States imposed an economic embargo against Vietnam which prevented trade between the two countries or American business investment in Vietnam. The demise of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989 and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 deprived Vietnam of vital export markets and economic aid and prompted the Vietnamese to seek new economic ties with the United States. Throughout 1992 and early 1993, the United States and Vietnam have begun negotiations to relax or lift the American embargo and establish diplomatic relations. The United States has stated that it will not lift the embargo until the fate of American servicemen missing since the Vietnam War is known. The Vietnamese government has agreed to cooperate in this endeavor.

MAJOR CITIES

Hanoi

Hanoi is the capital of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and has a rapidly increasing population of approximately 3,000,000. It is located in the north of the country along the Red River. It is in an alluvial plain approximately 150 kilometers from the coast and is surrounded by rural countryside consisting largely of rice paddies.

Utilities

Electricity in Hanoi is 220v/50-cycle AC (with two round pin electrical plugs). Voltage regulators are recommended for most appliances, especially computers, as electrical power in Hanoi is unstable and prone to voltage fluctuations, which could damage sensitive electronic equipment. Small UPS (uninterrupted power supply) units and a full range of transformers are available on the local market.

Food

Fresh meat and dairy products are not considered safe, as the Vietnamese have no adequate inspection system and processing facilities are often crude. However, a number of employees do consume meat and seafood purchased from the local open-air markets without any health problems. Imported seafood and meat, primarily from Australia and New Zealand, are always available fresh or frozen at, of course, a much higher price. Long life UHT milk (whole, low fat and skim) from New Zealand, powdered milk, and butter are readily available.

Most other basic foodstuffs are available in the supermarkets and delicatessens. The limited selection of Western fruits and vegetables varies from season to season. Principal items which must be imported are traditional holiday foods, ethnic foods, dietary products, baby foods, cereals (those locally available are often stale), snack foods, sports drinks, and treats for children and pets. Personal care and cleaning products are generally available, but U.S. products or equivalents are sometimes scarce and sell at twice the average U.S. price. Seldom will you find a wide selection of products available at one location. Thus, from time to time, you will need to shop around before you find a certain item on your grocery list.

There is also a duty free shop operated by the Vietnamese Government for foreign officials, amply stocked with a variety of canned sodas, liquor, a limited variety of food items, and small appliances.

Clothing

By and large, dress in Hanoi is very similar to that in the U.S. for both business and recreational activities. A word of warning-even though the temperature may not indicate it, winters in Hanoi can be very chilly. Include some warm jackets, sweaters, scarves and hats in your luggage. Also, bring an adequate supply of dress and sports shoes for everyone.

Women: There are a number of reputable women's clothing shops, which sell off the rack or made to order clothes in a variety of material.

Supplies and Services

Stock up on toiletries, particularly sunscreen lotion and mosquito repellent, paper and plastic products, vitamins, makeup, prescription medicines, and cooking and baking spices and seasoning.

Dry cleaning is good and relatively inexpensive. Shoe repairs are fair. You can get a replacement battery for your watch, but it won't last more than 6 months. Men can get their hair cut on the streets with a head and shoulder massage thrown in for less than $2. Women's hair cuts range from $3 to $20. There are several good unisex beauty shops in town with both Vietnamese and "international" hair stylists offering a complete range of services. Automobile servicing is good, especially for Japanese cars. Picture framing is good and inexpensive.

Domestic Help

Below are examples of staff responsibilities and average salaries (as of January 1999). Salaries are stated in U.S. dollar equivalents and usually are paid in U.S. dollars. Domestic employees usually put in a 6-day workweek. At the higher end of the salary range are staff who speak good English, demonstrate initiative, and have several years experience working for Westerners. Giving your staff a "TET bonus"-equivalent to one month's salary is standard practice in Vietnam. Locally employed domestics do not live in.

Cook/Housekeeper : $120-220 per month. Plans the meals with you; shops for food; supervises any work done in your house; supervises other household staff; keeps a kitchen account book; does the laundry; and cleans the house.

Maid: $100-120 per month. Cleans the house; washes dishes; irons clothes; may prepare meals on the cook's day off; may do some marketing. It is possible to have part-time domestic help for one-two days per week for well under $100/month.

Nanny: $100-120 per month. Takes care of the children. May help with some light cooking and general housecleaning if the family is small.

Driver: $100-130 per month. Acts as chauffeur. Purchases the gas and oil. Keeps your car in good operating condition. May also tend the garden and help out during social functions.

Day/Night Watchmen: $75-80 per month. Screens visitors and guards your house.

Religious Activities

Hanoi has a large Catholic cathedral, but the regular services are only in Vietnamese and French. However, a nondenominational Christian service in English is held every Sunday at 10:30 a.m. on the Van Phuc Diplomatic Compound. Protestant services in English are conducted every Sunday in the Daewoo Hotel. Islamic services are held every Friday. Jewish services are not available.

Education

United Nations International School (UNIS). Children from kindergarten (prep-1) through grade 12 attend the United Nations International School. Student enrollment for the 19992000 school year is 346. The curriculum does not follow any specific national system, but is similar to American elementary and middle school programs. The school has based its curriculum on that used by the United Nations School in New York, as a lead-in to the International Baccalaureate (IB) Program. Currently more than half of the 49 full-time teachers are American or Canadian. The high school is fully accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges and the European Council of International Schools. All instruction is in English. Students are not required to wear uniforms.

Address: Lower School 2C Van Phuc Kim Ma Road, Hanoi Tel: (84-4) 823-0820 Fax: (84-4) 846-1285. Upper School, Hanoi Amsterdam Giang Vo, Hanoi Tel: (84-4) 823-4910 or 823-5782 Fax: (84-4) 846-3635. E-mail: UNIS@netnam.org.vn

Hanoi International School (HIS): In its third year of operation, HIS offers an academic program to meet the individual needs of students from pre-school through high school. The Pre-School program for 3 and 4-year-olds offers a balanced day of free and structured play, storytime, and directed group time. The school's International Baccalaureate (IB) program is divided into IB Early-Years (kindergarten to fifth grade), IB Middle-Years (grades six to ten), and the two-year pre-university IB diploma curriculum (grades eleven to twelve). The school year begins in October and ends in June. All students speak and study in English. The newlyrenovated campus includes a library, computer center, science laboratory, music room, sports facilities and playing fields. HIS has an international staff of 13 full-time and 7 part-time teachers from the U.S., Canada, Europe and Asia.

Address: (Local) Lieu Giai Street Hanoi, Vietnam Tel: (84-4) 832-7379 Fax: (84-4) 832-7535. In the U.S., PO. Box 2876, Reston, Virginia 20195 No E-mail.

Morning Star International Kindergarten (MSIK): Opened in 1995, MSIK is a bilingual/multicultural education center for children ages 15 months to 5 years old. The teaching staff encourages the kids to develop basic skills in learning through playing and to develop confidence in themselves and their heritage. The regular year begins in early September and ends in mid June. The summer program begins in June and ends in late August. Lunch is served at 11:30 a.m. Snacks are available both in the morning and in the afternoon.

Located in the Thanh Cong area, the campus facility includes a number of large sunlit air-conditioned rooms and a spacious outdoor area. A variety of playground equipment and indoor activity materials are provided for recreation and learning.

Schedule Options: 2-1/2 to 5 years old. Full Time, Full Day, Monday to Friday 8:00a.m. to 4:00p.m.; Full Time, Half Day, Monday to Friday 8:00a.m. to 12:30p.m.

15 months to 2-1/2 years old. Full Time, Monday to Friday 9:00a.m. to 12:00p.m; Part Time, Monday, Wednesday, Friday 9:00a.m. to 12:00p.m.

Address: G 6 Thanh Cong Ba Dinh District Hanoi, Vietnam Tel: (84-4) 831-0879 Fax: (84-4) 835-0955. E-mail: mornings@netnam.org.vn Home page: http://www.destinationvietnam.com/morningstar.htm

Lycee Francais Alexandre Yersin : Recognized by the French Ministry of National Education and operated in collaboration with the French Embassy in Hanoi, the French International School of Hanoi (FISH) provides an academic curriculum in French for pre-school to high school aged children. FISH has a teaching staff of 35. Enrollment for the 1998-99 school year was approximately 300 (which includes 31 nationalities with the majority being French). Classrooms are large and fully air-conditioned. The cafeteria offers a choice of Vietnamese or Western food. The kindergarten has a well-equipped playground with flowers and trees. The new school building houses a gymnasium, two state-of-the-art laboratories, a well equipped library, and a research and information center with multimedia computer equipment.

Classes begin in September and finish around June 20.

Address: Truong Phap Quoc Te Ptth Hanoi Amsterdam Giang Vo, Hanoi Vietnam. Tel: (84-4) 843-6779 Fax: (84-4) 823-2023 E-mail: yersin@netnam.org.vn or lfay@hn.vnn.vn.

Special Educational Opportunities

Language training is available through a number of local resources.

The Hanoi Fine Arts Institute offers instructions in a variety of art mediums, including Vietnamese lacquer ware and the application of water-color on silk.

UNIS offers a number of evening courses. You can study art, learn a foreign language, play tennis, do aerobics, surf the Internet, and lots more.

Sports

Tennis: There are plenty of tennis courts in Hanoi, but the demand still exceeds the supply, unless you are able to play during the week in the daytime. Most courts are in good condition and adequately-maintained. Court surfaces are either hard or carpeted. There are, unfortunately, no indoor tennis facilities. Bring a supply of shoes and socks, tennis balls, strings, grips, etc. Tennis equipment and clothes are locally available, but there isn't much of a selection and what is acceptable is more expensive than in the U.S. Court fees vary between $3 and $5 during the day, with evening hours (5:00-10:00 p.m.) at double rates. If you provide the string, you can get your racquet restrung in Hanoi for $1.00. Most Vietnamese tennis coaches will charge $10/hour. All service apartments, major hotels, and some of the diplomatic missions have tennis courts.

Golf: About 35km west of Hanoi is Kings Island-a scenic 18-hole golf course. The golf club is situated at the base of Ba Vi National Park and is surrounded by historic temples and pagodas, natural caves, waterfalls, hiking trails, hot springs, and ethnic minority villages. A new highway to the course is almost finished, making it about an hour's drive from Hanoi on Highway #11. Facilities include a swimming pool, tennis courts, a fully-stocked pro shop with golf club and shoe rentals, and a clubhouse which serves both Asian and Western food. Membership fee is US $15,000. Special package day tours allow non-members to play for $55 during the week and $80 on the weekend.

Swimming: Most of the larger hotels and service apartments have swimming pools. The schools do not. Avid swimmers usually join a health club with swimming privileges included in the package. One of the larger hotels in the city has the only indoor swimming pool with a retractable roof.

Bowling: There are three large bowling centers. One is located in a hotel just across from the U.S. Embassy (24 lanes) and another is within walking distance. A game costs $3.00 and bowling shoes rent for $1.00.

Health Clubs: Virtually every hotel and apartment complex has an exercise room with state-of-theart equipment, showers, saunas, and whirlpools. Annual fees range from $550-1200.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

Several scenic and historic sights, including national parks and pagodas, can be done via a day trip from Hanoi. Although road conditions and traffic flow are steadily improving, travel can be a bit uncomfortable and stressful, due to poor road conditions. There are also several craft villages within a one-hour drive from Hanoi to view paper making, snake farming, noodle-making, and silk weaving. Also a popular attraction are the nearby factories for making costume jewelry, ceramics, lacquer ware and crystal.

Halong Bay: A five hour drive from Hanoi, Halong Bay is considered by many to be one of the most scenic areas in Asia. The bay consists of hundreds of small islands filled with caves and grottoes full of stalactites and stalagmites. Cat Ba, one of the largest islands in Halong Bay, is home to one of Vietnam's national parks and includes a large seven acre freshwater lake in the center of the island.

Sapa: Built originally as a hill station, Sapa now is one of Vietnam's major tourist attractions in the northernmost part of the country. By road (and some of it very bumpy), Sapa is a 12-14 hour scenic drive from Hanoi. For those travelers who prefer a more comfortable, faster ride up north, the overnight train from Hanoi to Sapa and back is perfectly safe and hassle free. During the weekend, you can mingle with the colorfully dressed hill tribe people (mostly women) who come into Sapa to peddle their home-made garments and textiles. Using Sapa as a base, you can also hike to several minority tribe villages, while taking in the panoramic view of Vietnam's Hoang Lien Mountains.

Vietnam is a photographer's paradise. Camera shops are everywhere. Film can be developed inexpensively in a couple of hours.

Entertainment

There are enough Western restaurants in town to titillate the gourmet's taste buds, ranging from traditional French cuisine to nouveau California fare. There are also some very good Asian restaurants for Vietnamese, Japanese, Korean, and Chinese food. For fast-food lovers, Hanoi offers several restaurants/delis for pizzas, hamburgers and hotdogs, and sub-sandwiches. Hanoi even has a Baskin-Robbins ice cream store.

American Club: The American Community Association (ACA) supervises the operations of the American Club and the Video Club. Patrons and their guests can enjoy an informal meal in the air-conditioned restaurant/bar area or outdoors in the bamboo pavilion. Also on the premises are areas set up for a variety of sports, including darts, billiards, badminton, basketball, and sandlot volleyball. Next to the pavilion is a newly-constructed playground for the younger children. Membership is open to all Embassy employees (American and Vietnamese) and to the expatriate business and diplomatic community ($60 for singles/$100 for families). An additional $50 fee is charged to join the Video Club, which offers a good selection of movies for both adults and children at a rental fee of $1.00 per tape.

Social Activities

American Chamber of Commerce (AmCham): The largest business group in Vietnam, AmCham offers opportunities to help international corporations operate and thrive here. There are 230 members in the Hanoi Chapter and 300 in HCMC. Through its committees, AmCham adopts positions on a variety of general business issues in Vietnam. These committees work on such issues as reducing tax burdens for U.S. companies, individuals and their staff. Efforts have also been made to improve access to foreign exchange and to reduce bureaucracy and red tape in business dealings with the Vietnamese Government. Both the chapters in Hanoi and HCMC host a number of working luncheons with keynote speakers throughout the year. AmCham also organizes social activities, including an annual formal dinner/dance.

The Hanoi International Women's Club (HIWC): Open to all foreign women, the Club has approximately 325 members. The IWC promotes goodwill between the host country and the expatriate community through its annual Christmas Charity Bazaar and work throughout the year with local orphanages and rural support systems. The IWC also organizes monthly luncheons, coffee mornings, and orientation programs for newcomers. A non-profit organization, the annual membership fee is $10 (which basically covers the cost of sending out the IWC monthly newsletters).

International Business Women's Club: A fledgling group of Hanoi's working women-expatriate and Vietnamese-exchange thoughts and network during an informal luncheon meeting once a month.

Ho Chi Minh City

Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) is Vietnam's largest city and river port, covering an area of 761 square miles on the Right Bank of the Saigon River, stretching from the shores of the South China Sea to within a couple miles of the Cambodian border. With a teeming population of 6 million, it is also the economic capital and cultural trendsetter of Vietnam. There are 22 districts (15 urban and 7 rural) with 75% of the population in the urban districts. Only a few degrees above the Equator, the city has a tropical, monsoon climate with an average annual temperature of 83°F.

April is the hottest month with an average temperature of 86°F. There are two seasons-rainy (from June to November) and dry (from December to April). Average number of rainy days annually is 159, with 90% of the rainfall occurring in the rainy season.

Food

The information on food in Hanoi generally applies also to HCMC. There is, however, a wider selection of fruits and vegetables available in HCMC, due to the proximity of HCMC to Dalat, where most of the fruits and vegetables are cultivated.

Clothing

See Hanoi for general information on clothing, but note that HCMC does not have a cold season.

Religious Activities

Houses of worship are available for Buddhists, Catholics, Muslims, and Protestants, but services for most are conducted in Vietnamese. Protestant worshipers can attend services in English on Sunday conducted for foreigners only. There is also a small international Jewish community that observes Jewish holidays. Our Lady Cathedral has a bilingual Vietnamese-English Mass on Sunday mornings.

Education

Fundino Kids Club (FKC): FKC provides high quality, innovative childcare and recreation for children 1 to 5 years old. The eye-pleasing, up-beat Clubhouse and grounds are all on one level and colorfully and cleverly decorated with lots of primary colors using a dinosaur theme. There are currently 52 kids enrolled, including one physically handicapped and one developmentally-disabled child. All students are required to wear the Club uniform-T-shirt with a Fundino dinosaur emblem and denim shorts. Fundino's staff consists of 3 full-time expatriate teachers (one with special education training) and 8 Vietnamese assistants. Indoor facilities include a large floor and wall-padded playroom for the tots, a small kitchen for lunch and snacks, a library, and individual rooms for art, music, reading, computer and dance instruction. The spacious outdoor area includes an elaborate playground and wading pool for the older kids. FKC is open after hours to their kids as well as non-registered children, e.g. older siblings who attend other schools. Parents can sign up a child as a "Club Member" and pay a $5.00 fee (which covers cost of general program, food and drink). Fundino's also caters birthday parties and special events.

Class Schedule: Play & Learn and Mums & Bubs (younger kids attended by a parent or nanny pay a reduced fee) operate Monday through Friday, except for Vietnamese Public Holidays.

Play & Learn 8:30 a.m.-5:00 p.m. (Age 2-3yrs and 3-5yrs) Mums & Bubs 8:30 a.m.-11:30 a.m. (Age 1-2yrs) 1:00 p.m.-4:00 p.m. Address: 11B Nguyen Gia Thieu, Ward 6 District 3, HCMC. Tel: 930-0514 Fax: 930-0513 E-mail: none.

Saigon South International School (SSIS): This is a pre-kindergarten through 6th grade, coeducational school located in District 7 (the industrial zone). SSIS is the only school in HCMC which provides an American-based curriculum, with modifications made to accommodate the school's non-American population. In its first year of operation, the school currently shares a building and spacious school grounds with two other schools (Vietnamese and Japanese). Even though the three schools occupy the same campus, they do operate autonomously. Shared facilities include a library media center, a swimming pool, two playgrounds, and a grass soccer field. Students are required to wear uniforms. Potable water is available on campus. However, students must bring their lunches, snacks and beverages to school. At the moment, SSIS does not have any programs for children with special needs.

Address: Phu My Hung Corp. Saigon South Parkway Tan Phu Ward, District 7, HCMC Tel: (84-8) 872-8410 Fax: (84-8) 872-5580 E-mail: none.

Class Schedule: Monday through Friday 8:30 a.m.-3:00 p.m.

International School Ho Chi Minh City (IS): Operating in two locations, the Senior Campus for grades 2 through 11 (grade 12 was added for the 1999-2000 term) is located in An Phu. The Junior Campus for pre-school to grade 1 is in District 3. The combined teaching staff totals 59 expatriate and 3 Vietnamese teachers for approximately 350 students. IS is a privately-owned co-educational, non-denomi-national institution. It operates an international curriculum with the International Baccalaureate diploma program offered in grades 11 and 12. All students (except for grade 11) are required to wear uniforms. Lunch can be purchased from the School's canteen. For recess the School provides its students with nutritional snacks. Potable drinking water is available on both campuses.

Senior Campus Address: 649A Vo Truong Toan St., An Phu, Thu Duc, HCMC Tel: (84-8) 898-9100 Fax: (84-8) 887-4022 E-mail: none.

Junior Campus Address: 236 bis Nam Ky Khoi Nghia St., District 3, HCMC. Tel: (84-8) 822-5858 Fax: (84-8) 823-0000 E-mail: none.

Sports

Tennis: All major hotels and service apartments have either hard or carpeted tennis courts. However, the current supply does not meet the demand, unless you can play during the daytime. Sports center and service apartment court fees range from $3.00 (before 5:00 p.m.) to $5.00 (after 5:00 p.m.). Hotels charge $6.00 and $12.00, respectively. Tennis pro fees range between $5-$8/hour.

Golf: There are three excellent golf clubs in the area. Dong Nai (18-hole) is approximately 1-1/2 hour drive from the city. The other two-Song Bei (18-hole) and Thu Duc (36-hole) are approximately a 45-minute drive. All three golf facilities have a clubhouse with a restaurant. Weekend greens fees are $85, with weekday specials starting at $45. Caddies are available at all three clubs. A fourth golf club-Saigon South (9-hole) opened for business in 1999.

Bowling: There are several bowling centers scattered around the city. Fees are the same as in Hanoi.

Swimming: With year-round temperatures in the mid-80s, swimming and/or lounging around the pool can be a great stress reliever. Having said that, you will still, however, need earplugs or a Walkman to deafen the cacophony of round-the-clock street and construction noise.

Jogging and biking: Unfortunately, the city's hazardous traffic conditions preclude all but the foolhardy from jogging and biking safely anywhere in town. Joggers and bikers are relegated to the safe interior facilities of health centers or travelling some distance outside the city.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

Hoi An: A 45-minute ride outside of Danang, Hoi An was once a prosperous trading town frequented by the Japanese, Portuguese, Dutch, French and Chinese, Hoi An is now a quaint, artistic tourist attraction. For architecture buffs, there are a number of well-preserved historic sites in Hoi An over 200 years old, including private homes, chapels, temples, pagodas, bridges and tombs. For the shoppers, Hoi An has lots of art and craft shops, streetside cafes, a large outdoor market, and quality garment tailors who can produce quality dresses, trousers and shirts quickly at very reasonable prices.

Dalat: Approximately 6 hours by road or one hour by plane from HCMC, Dalat enjoys year round spring weather. Dalat offers something for everyone. There is an 18-hole golf course, botanical gardens, ancient palaces and pagodas, and a large central market full of fresh vegetables, fruits and flowers. After a hearty meal, you can walk along small paths behind waterfalls or in the streets of the French Quarter up on the hill.

Hue: The former capital of Vietnam prior to WWII, Hue is surrounded by a large number of historic Imperial landmarks. Hue is a 2-hour plane ride from HCMC and is probably the largest city in Vietnam with the least amount of street traffic. Visitors to Hue can safely explore the inner city on foot. Cyclos can be used to tour the Forbidden Purple City and the Citadel. Bicycles or motor scooters can be rented from hotels for the short trips to the numerous Imperial tombs and pagodas.

Nha Trang: This sleepy little resort town has beautiful sandy white beaches with turquoise water, small outer-lying islands and coral reefs to explore, and the best fresh fruit milkshakes and ice cream in Vietnam. You can navigate around town by foot, cyclo, bicycle or motor scooter without a hassle. Nha Trang is a one-hour plane ride from HCMC.

Entertainment

HCMC has a larger variety of restaurants than Hanoi, including fast food chains (KFC and Jollibee), TexMex, European, Indian, and Asian (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai) cuisine. There are also numerous nightclubs (some with live jazz ensembles), discos, and, of course, karaokes. A couple of the numerous video rental stores in the city stock movies in English. HCMC also has three large water parks and an 18-hole miniature golf course near the airport.

Social Activities

American Chamber of Commerce (AmCham): See Hanoi section.

Saigon International Women's Club (SIWC): The Saigon Chapter has approximately 600 members. (See Hanoi International Women's Club for activities.).

Haiphong

Vietnam's third largest city, Haiphong, is located in northern Vietnam approximately 10 miles from the Gulf of Tonkin. The city is one of Vietnam's major ports and a principal industrial city. Industries in Haiphong produce a number of products, including glass, cement, cotton, and chemicals. The city's location near the Gulf of Tonkin has led to the development of a large fishing industry. Haiphong was heavily bombed from 1965 to 1972 by American warplanes, but much of the damage has been repaired. In 1992, Haiphong had a population of approximately 783,000.

Recreation and Entertainment

Recreational activities in and around Haiphong are somewhat limited. The city offers many opportunities for souvenir shopping. Markets and stores in Haiphong sell pearl jewelry, brass figurines, carpets, and products made of buffalo horns and tortoise shells. The prices for many of these souvenirs is very reasonable. Other souvenirs can be purchased in the nearby village of Bao Ha. Villagers in Bao Ha are noted for their exquisite wood carvings of religious figures, lions, dragons, and buffalo. These carvings are very well-made and reasonably priced.

Haiphong has two primary tourist attractions. The Hang Kenh Communal House is one of the city's most interesting architectural structures. It is composed of over 500 intricate wood sculptures. Also, the 300-year-old Du Hang Pagoda is open to visitors. It is considered Haiphong's finest example of Vietnamese temple architecture. The Du Hang Pagoda contains a beautifully carved altar and several interesting statues of Buddha. A stone stelae (tablet) in the pagoda lists the names of those who have served as caretakers for the pagoda over the centuries.

For tourists who enjoy sand and surf, the Do Son Beach is a pleasant place to visit. Located approximately 13 miles southeast of Haiphong, Do Son Beach is a popular resort for Vietnamese and foreigners alike. It has miles of beautiful sandy beaches and several nice hotels.

Da Nang

Da Nang is located in central Vietnam and is the country's fourth largest city. The city became the site of a major American military base during the Vietnam War. Today, Da Nang is one of Vietnam's largest ports. Several industries are located in Da Nang. These industries produce beverages, machinery, and textiles. The city is a transportation hub for central Vietnam. Roads and railways link Da Nang with Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. In 1993, Da Nang had a population of approximately 383,000.

Recreation

Da Nang has many attractions that are of interest to visitors. Among the most interesting sites are the Marble Mountains. The Marble Mountains consist of five hills composed of marble. According to local traditions, these five hills represent the five elements of the universe (water, fire, metal, wood, and earth). Several caves containing Buddhist Shrines are located on the largest of the Marble Mountains, Thuy Son. These shrines, each of them unique, are open to visitors. Tours of the caves are conducted daily. Located near the Marble Mountains is China Beach (Non Nuoc Beach). This beach was a favorite relaxation and picnic spot for American soldiers during the Vietnam War.

Da Nang's Cham Museum is well worth a visit. This museum contains sculpture from the fourth through fourteenth centuries. Each room of the museum is dedicated to sculpture and artifacts from a particular period in Vietnamese history. An English-language booklet explaining the origin and history of the museum's artifacts is available from tour guides.

Entertainment

Opportunities for entertainment in Da Nang are rather sparse. Several restaurants in the city serve good traditional Vietnamese or French cuisine. Vegetarian dishes can be found at food stalls in the city. Da Nang has many shops and handicraft markets that fulfill the needs of most souvenir shoppers. Many tourists enjoy visiting Cho Con, Da Nang's central market. Among the products available to customers include flowers, household items, fruit, stationary, and ceramics. Bamboo handicrafts, rugs, and wood carvings, sold in Da Nang, make excellent souvenirs. Nightclubs are available in downtown Da Nang. On occasion, the city's Municipal Theatre offers performances of classical Vietnamese drama.

Hué

The city of Hué is situated on the Huong River in central Vietnam. Huéserved as the capital of Vietnam from 1802 to 1945. Today, it is one of Vietnam's educational, religious, and cultural centers. The city was heavily damaged during the Vietnam War when it was a major focus of the North Vietnamese Tet offensive in 1968. Although many priceless treasures, buildings, museums, and shrines were destroyed, some of the damage has been repaired. Huéexperiences a very hot and dry climate, particularly during the summer. From September to April, the city receives heavy rainfall. Huéhad a population of approximately 220,000 in 1992.

Recreation

Huéoffers extensive opportunities for sight-seeing. Tourists may visit the Forbidden Purple City. This palace was used exclusively by emperors and their families. The entire complex was practically leveled during the Tet Offensive of 1968, but parts of the building's library have been reconstructed. Located near the Forbidden Purple City, the Thai Hoa Palace is a beautiful structure which escaped damage during the war and is open to visitors. Constructed in 1805, the Thai Hoa Palace has an ornate red lacquer ceiling with gold inlays.

The Imperial Museum is well worth a visit. Although many priceless artifacts were destroyed during the Vietnam War, some of the museum's treasures survived without damage. Among the items on display are furniture, clothing, and a sedan chair used by Vietnamese emperors.

Huéwas the final resting place of seven Vietnamese emperors. As a result, many tombs are located in the city. Most of the tombs contain not only the remains of the emperor, but also an altar containing some of the personal treasures possessed by the emperor and a temple for personal devotions. One of the most impressive of all tombs is the Tomb of Minh Mang. This tomb has beautiful architecture and magnificent stone carvings. Another tomb, the Tomb of Khai Dinh, is frequently visited by tourists. Although the exterior of the tomb is unimpressive, the interior contains magnificent frescoes made of colorful glass and ceramic fragments. The Tomb of Khai Dinh also contains a bronze statue of the emperor adorned in royal clothing.

Entertainment

Western-style entertainment in Hué is very limited. Most entertainment activity centers around shopping in the city's huge Dong Ba Market. A wide variety of products are available at this market, including the large conical hats that are worn by many Vietnamese. Hué's Gold and Silver Trade Department sells beautiful gold and silver handicrafts.

Several restaurants serving traditional Vietnamese, French, and vegetarian cuisine are located in Hué. Good food is also available at food stalls throughout the city. The prices of food in Hué is very reasonable.

OTHER CITIES

The city of DALAT is located in the central highland region of southern Vietnam. Dalat is situated in a forested region amid beautiful lakes and waterfalls. It enjoys a pleasant, cool climate, with a rainy season between July and October. The city is noted for its fresh vegetables, strawberry jam, candied plums, wine, artichokes, tea, and tropical flowers and is a popular tourist destination. Coffee, rubber, and tea plantations near the city are an important contributor to the local economy. Dalat is the home of a major university. Road and air connections link Dalat with Ho Chi Minh City. Dalat has an estimated population of 125,000.

NHA TRANG is situated at the mouth of the Cai River in southeastern Vietnam. The city's location near the South China Sea has led to its development as a major port city. Fishing is the primary industry in Nha Trang and the city is noted for its excellent seafood. The region near Nha Trang is very fertile and supports the growth of coffee, coconuts, sesame seeds, and cashew nuts. These agricultural products are exported through the city's port. Tourists are attracted to Nha Trang's beautiful, sandy beaches and the coastal waters are conducive to snorkeling, fishing, and scuba diving. The city is connected by road, air, and rail with Ho Chi Minh City. Nha Trang had a population of roughly 221,000 in 1992.

The city of QUI NHON is located in central Vietnam and is an important port city. Qui Nhon has very few industries, the largest of which are salt evaporation and fishing. The city offers weekly flights to Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. In 1992, Qui Nhon had a population of 163,400.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Area and Geography

Like a dragon floating in the sea, Vietnam winds its way some 1,030 miles up from the South China Sea to the Gulf of Tonkin, with its head caressing the border of China to the north and its back resting snugly against her Southeast Asian neighbors Laos and Cambodia-to the west. The total land area of Vietnam covers about 128,000 square miles (larger than Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina combined). Vietnam's main cities, for population and importance, are Hanoi, Haiphong, Hue, and Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon).

Vietnam's northern terrain is mostly mountainous or hilly, with some highland areas covered by a thick green blanket of jungle (about half the total land area). The Red River Delta and coastal plains in the lowland part of the North are heavily populated and intensively cultivated (almost entirely by rice fields). Although much of this Delta Region is seasonally flooded, a complex network of dikes and levees help to prevent serious flood damage.

The southern part of Vietnam is dominated by the estuary of the Mekong River system and is low, flat, and frequently marshy. The rich soil in the Mekong Delta is the most fertile in the country. Areas immediately north and east of Ho Chi Minh City in the Mekong Delta are much more varied-with lowlying tropical rain forest, upland forest, and the rugged Annamite Mountain chain.

Vietnam is largely a tropical monsoon country. In the north, a hot rainy season prevails from May to September. The average temperature in Hanoi is about 86°F during this period, with very high humidity. Due to the lack of proper drainage, flooding caused by heavy rainfall and/or typhoons can create hazardous conditions to one's health and property. Flooded streets slow down traffic and provoke accidents. Houses and furnishings can suffer as a result of leaky roofs and other sources of water damage. Food supplies are also affected. During the cooler, dry season in the north from December to March, the average temperature is 68°F, with overnight minimums sometimes around 40°-42°F. Due to the lack of heating in most shops and offices during the dry season, it will feel considerably colder.

In the south, Ho Chi Minh City and the Mekong Delta experience a year-round tropical climate with daily temperatures normally exceeding 88°F. The rainy season in Danang and Hue in the center of the country lasts from October to March.

Population

In 2000 Vietnam's rapidly growing population was estimated at nearly 80 million, making it the twelfth most populous country in the world. The population makeup is roughly 85% ethnic Vietnamese, 3% ethnic Chinese, and the remaining 12% a mixture of over 50 ethno-linguistic groups, including Khmer, Cham and Muong. The largest single minority group-the Chinese-live mostly in the Cho Lon District of Ho Chi Minh City and other large cities. Viet-nam's infant mortality rate is 36/1000. Life expectancy for males is 63 years and 67 years for females.

Vietnam has one of the most complex ethno-linguistic mixes in all of Asia. Aside from the Kinh or Vietnamese, the rest of the country's 54 nationalities inhabit the Central Highlands and the mountainous regions in the north. The official language is Vietnamese-a hybrid of Mon-Khmer, Tai and Chinese. English is increasingly favored as a second language. In addition to English, many Vietnamese officials and businessmen speak some French, Russian or Chinese.

The predominant religion practiced by 90% of the Vietnamese is Mahayana Buddhism, which is often referred to as a way of life or a philosophy rather than a religion. It advocates moderation in all facets of life and sees material objects as standing in the way of greater happiness. Buddhists believe in reincarnation, with the actions of your current life determining the role of your next life.

By living simply and selflessly, a person will be reincarnated many times over. This continues over many lifetimes until the soul reaches a stage of eternal happiness-nirvana. Other religions practiced in Vietnam are Confucianism, Taoism, Catholicism, Animism, Cao Daism, and Islam.

Culture

The Vietnamese family unit (particularly in the rural areas) is patriarchal in nature with strong familial ties. It is not unusual to find three or four generations living in the same household. Personal names are written with the family name first, middle name second, and the first name last. It is common practice to address people by their first names, e.g. a woman by the name of Nguyen Anh Tuyet would be addressed as "Miss Tuyet."

Observing the following local customs will help keep you from embarrassing yourself with the Vietnamese. Crossing your index and middle finger (our way of wishing it were so) is considered to be a lewd gesture. Direct eye contact is seen as a sign of disrespect. Touching someone, especially on the head, is not welcomed. Motioning for someone to come with your palm up is considered rude. Handing a pair of chopsticks or a toothpick to someone is considered bad luck. And, last but not least, the Vietnamese (like most other Asians) do not like to "lose face." When they don't understand a request or question, they will still respond affirmatively so as not to lose face. Although they might disagree, they will nod affirmatively just to avoid confrontation. The Vietnamese are not prone to show their emotions in public.

Public Institutions

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV) is a one-party state controlled by the Vietnamese Communist Party, with the Political Bureau (Politburo) as the central organ of the Party. Its national flag is red with a large yellow star in the center. The Party's constitutionally mandated leading role and the occupancy of nearly all the senior Government positions by Party officials ensures the primacy of Politburo guidelines. The National Assembly (chosen in quadrennial elections) elected non-Party members for the first time in 1997. But, despite some increased activism, it remains largely controlled by the Party. Party intrusion into Government operations has diminished somewhat, allowing Government officials to have more latitude in implementing policy. The Party and State have also diminished their intrusion into the daily lives of the people.

Vietnam's administrative bodies are divided into the following four levels: 1) central; 2) provincial and municipal (Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Danang, and Haiphong); 3) quarters (urban) and districts (rural); and 4) precincts (urban) and communes (rural). Vietnam has 61 provinces, 3 municipalities under central government control, one special zone, urban quarters and rural districts, and urban precincts and rural communes. All these different levels have a fair degree of independence in implementation of policy and administration of local resources.

There are a number of "mass organizations." The Women's Union (approximately half of the total labor force), the Farmer's Union, and the Youth Union are called on to represent the interests of various sectors of the Vietnamese public and serve as a political link between the people and the Communist Party on the one hand, and the Party and Vietnamese Government on the other. The Vietnam Fatherland Front, an umbrella organization under the Communist Party, coordinates and oversees the activities of these mass organizations. The Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry (VCCI) represents the commercial interests of both state-owned industries and the private sector and informally advises the Vietnamese Government on economic policy.

Vietnam obtained membership in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in July 1995 and in the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in November 1998. The SRV also belongs to the following international organizations: The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), UN Development Program (UNDP), UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), WHO (World Health Organization), World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), ADB (Asian Development Bank), INTELSAT, Mekong Committee, Nonaligned Movement, and the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council. Vietnam also has observer status in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

Arts, Science and Education

The art scene in Vietnam reflects the perception of a people surrounded by a rich cultural heritage who at the same time are striving to stake their place in the modern world. There are dozens of art galleries in Hanoi-many with high-quality paintings available, but just as many with trendy commercialized "souvenir" artwork churned out for the tourist trade. Other popular art forms include ceramics, religious wood carving sculptures and lacquer ware. Hanoi's Art Museum contains a smattering of work from different eras but probably does not have as good a collection as some of the private galleries. Also of interest are Hanoi's History Museum which contains artifacts from 1,000 years ago and the recently opened Ethno-logical Museum.

The capital city of Hanoi is sometimes referred to as "Asia's architectural pearl," with its mixture of traditional Southeast Asian/Chinese Art Deco and French Colonial styles. Juxtaposed among these quaint and pastel-colored turn of the century houses and office buildings are the recently constructed hotels and high-rise buildings of shiny steel and glass. There is an international movement-Friends of Vietnam's Heritage-actively engaged in preserving the architecture of the past in the face of the temptation to tear it down to build more commercial enterprises.

The Opera House is one center of culture in Hanoi. It is the home of the Hanoi Symphony Orchestra. International cultural groups also perform at the Opera House or at Hanoi's Music Conservatory. There are several smaller theaters for traditional Vietnamese opera ("cheo") and water puppet performances.

Although the quality of education has improved significantly here, Vietnam's reputation as a highly educated country exceeds the reality. Vietnam's population is probably better educated than other countries enduring similar levels of economic development. But, for the most part, the academic curriculum in this country still focuses on rote memory and "the one right answer." Since economic reforms officially began in 1986, literacy levels have fallen due to families, particularly in the rural areas, pulling their children out of the classroom to earn money. Schools operate on double and sometimes triple shifts, meaning very little actual classroom time for many students. Educational facilities are frequently inadequate. Oftentimes families cannot afford the fees for attending school beyond the very basic levels.

The National University has many branches, the most prestigious of which is located in Hanoi. The SRV is striving to improve its comparatively low level of technological knowledge, particularly in the field of computer science.

Initiated in Vietnam in 1992, the Fulbright Program enrolls some 30 Vietnamese officials, scholars and professionals annually in graduate programs at leading American universities. Last year the program began funding American graduate student research in Vietnam. This year's Fulbright agenda included placing American lecturers at seven Vietnamese universities to teach and consult in various disciplines. In addition, there is a Fulbright run program in HCMC, which trains mostly provincial level officials in economic decision-making.

Commerce and Industry

After a decade of political isolation brought on by its invasion of Cambodia, Vietnam began to open its doors in 1986, seeking both to enter the marketplace and participate in the international community. As in China, reforms started with the agricultural sector and an opportunity for farmers to hold land for extended periods of time and decide on what crops to plant and how to sell much of what they produced. The "doi moi" (renovation) reforms also tried to create an atmosphere to attract foreign investment.

Agriculture, especially wet-rice cultivation, accounts for nearly 30% of overall production and employs the great majority of the population.

Important cash crops include coffee, rubber, tea, and mulberry (for silk production). Vietnam has significant deposits of crude oil and natural gas lying mainly off the southern coast, as well as coal and limestone. Other minerals are present, but not in marketable quantities, using locally available technology. Sixty per cent of the industrial sector is still in the hands of state-owned companies. The country's main exports are garments, textiles, crude oil, rice, seafood products, coffee, footwear, and other agricultural products. Export of light manufactured goods, especially textiles, foot-wear, and processed foods, is growing in importance. Major imports include petroleum products, industrial machinery, vehicles, consumer electronics, telecommunications equipment, fertilizers, and pharmaceuticals.

European and Asian investors came first, and remain among Vietnam's top ten investors even today. The U.S. trade embargo was not lifted until February 1994, after a long period in which the U.S. sought to strengthen Vietnamese commitments to cooperate on the humanitarian MIA issue. Vietnam also focused on re-establishing both regional and international ties, establishing diplomatic relations with over 100 countries. As a member of ASEAN, Vietnam committed itself to the ASEAN Free Trade Agreement (AFTA) as a part of the requirements for further economic reforms and tariff reductions.

Vietnam's reform process had already slowed by 1997, due to a two-year process in which Vietnam moved from a generation of 80-year-old leaders to a government and party led by men in their sixties. The new leadership pledged to continue the reform process and has not rolled back any of the earlier reform policies. But they have yet to move past the earlier stages of reform to attack the inefficiencies of a State-run system, preferring instead to sustain a lower level of growth while maintaining basic social stability and control by the Communist party.

The initial boom in foreign investment began to create the trappings of modernity in larger cities like Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC). Hanoi, Haiphong, Hue and Danang got new hotels, taxi cabs and the start of a tourism industry. The hotel boom, most notably in Hanoi and HCMC, became a bust in 1997-98 when the over supply of three, four, and five-star facilities tumbled room rates. Unfortunately, this did not fill Hanoi's 3,000 new, higher-end hotel rooms because tourist levels had already begun to fall as a result of the Asian financial crisis. This crisis has also taken a deep bite out of foreign investment levels, which have been declining since 1996. By the end of 1997, U.S. investment in Vietnam reached $1.4 billion, putting us seventh behind the French and a host of regional countries with significantly more money invested than the U.S. Two-way trade at about $700-800 million is a fraction of its potential because of the absence of normal trade relations (formerly called MFN or most favored nation status).

Negotiation of a bilateral trade agreement has been a priority for the U.S. and Vietnam since the opening of our respective embassies in August 1995 and the commitments of then Secretary of State Christopher and Foreign Minister Cam to concentrate next on economic normalization. Movement has been slow, following the U.S. presentation of a draft agreement in April 1997. However, both sides remain committed to moving forward.

Another area of mutual interest, which has yet to be realized, is the negotiation of a Civil Aviation Agreement. Thus far, U.S. proposals have not been viewed favorably by the SRV in civil aviation negotiations. On the positive side, however, we have concluded a copyright agreement, providing reciprocal protection to published works, and are hoping to conclude a counter-narcotics agreement and a framework for science and technology cooperation.

Transportation

Automobiles

Having your own car or recreational van will add a great deal of convenience and independence to your life. Retaining a full-time driver is highly recommended, particularly if you have school-aged children with extracurricular activities and active social lives. A valid U.S. driver's license is required to obtain a local driver's permit. (International driver's licenses are not valid in Vietnam.) Please note that you may not import a vehicle over four years old.

Driving in Vietnam is stressful and requires a great deal of care and vigilance to avoid accidents. Most people do not obey standard rules of the road. Traffic moves on the right, but operators sometimes do not stay on their own side of the road. There are very few traffic lights or stop signs. In principle, the bigger you are, the more right of way you have. Another basic rule of thumb for driving in Vietnam: Those behind need to watch out for those in front or alongside. If you plan on operating a motorcycle or riding a bicycle, bring a sturdy helmet. Department of Transportation approved helmets provide excellent protection; however, some people find that the limitation of peripheral vision from a full face helmet is not always a good trade off in Vietnam given the need to watch for lane intrusion from all directions. An open-faced helmet or even a bicycle helmet may be appropriate, but riding bareheaded is not.

Virtually everyone in HCMC owns a motor scooter and operates it like there's no tomorrow. With this seemingly endless stream of motor vehicles, HCMC is, without a doubt, one of the noisiest cities in the world. At first glance, one might think HCMC's mostly straight and perpendicular roads would be safer to navigate than Hanoi's winding streets, but one quickly realizes that havoc reigns supreme down south. People make U-turns wherever they please. Motor scooters dodge in and out pushing your nerves to the limit. If that weren't enough, the motor scooter operators drive significantly faster and are terrifyingly more reckless than in Hanoi. And, if the speed doesn't get to you, the abundant exhaust fumes will.

Local

Taxis are plentiful and the taxi drivers usually understand enough English to take you where you want to go. Cities still have many cyclos or pedicabs you can use for short distances and/or more scenic rides. There are also "hugging" motor scooter rides available for the more adventuresome traveler (riding behind a Vietnamese on a 100cc Honda Dream).

Regional

Using local buses is not recommended. They are not only crowded and uncomfortable, but are also considered unsafe for most foreigners. Trains in Vietnam only service coastal cities. Not only are they limited in service, but they run slowly on a narrow gauge track and, except for a special group of cars used from Hanoi to Sapa in the northwest highlands, are uncomfortable, unsafe, and noisy. Vietnam Airlines and its sister company, Pacific Airlines, monopolize the domestic air service, and enforce a double-tier price structure, which subsidizes Vietnamese travelers' fares. Suffering financial difficulties, Vietnam Airlines sometimes cancels flights without notice, often leaving passengers stranded.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

Local and international telephone service is available and reliable. International direct dial service is excellent. A 3-minute call to the U.S., however, costs approximately $15 (one of the highest rates in the world). Direct calls from the U.S. can be received in Hanoi and cost approximately $1.50 per minute.

Radio and TV

The Vietnamese Government operates two radio stations, which broadcast classical music, traditional Vietnamese music, the news in Vietnamese, and American pop music a couple of hours per day.

There are four Vietnamese television channels. With the significant increase in the expatriate population during the past couple of years, installation of satellite dishes on detached houses and service apartments has brought a myriad of international television channels to Vietnam, including but not limited to-CNN, CNBC, MTV, and Hong Kong's Star World and Star Sports (which show selected British, Australian and American programs). Other channels available come from China, France, Australia, Indonesia, India and Malaysia. In Hanoi, one can obtain cable service from Vietnam TV for an initial fee of $250.00 and a monthly fee of about $30.00.

In HCMC, the following cable channels can be viewed in all major hotels and service apartments: CNN, CNBC, DIS, HBO, MTV, TNT, National Geographic and the Cartoon Network. Other channels come from Australia, France, Japan, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the UK. Radio stations play both Vietnamese and Western music.

Locally purchased televisions and VCRs use the NTSC PAL system. Both PAL-system and multi-system televisions and VCRs are available here at reasonable prices.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

Personnel are advised to bring reading material from home because English language books and magazines are scarce. Moreover, what little supply of English language material is available in Vietnam costs two to three times what we would pay in the U.S.

The local print and broadcast media are run by the Communist Party and Government of Vietnam. Reporting of local developments is therefore heavily controlled and coverage of international events is limited.

E-mail and Internet services have recently become available but can also be censored. Because of power outages, service is often unreliable and subject to interruptions.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

The medical care available in Vietnam does not meet U.S. standards. Anything involving broken bones or other surgical procedures will entail a medevac. Medevac patients are flown either to Bangkok, Hong Kong or Singapore.

There are three medical facilities in Hanoi approved by the U.S for minor medical treatment: Dr. Kot's Clinic, AEA International, and the Hanoi International Hospital. In HCMC the three approved medical facilities are: AEA International, Columbia-Gia Dinh Clinic, and Dr. Vannort's Clinic. All of the above medical facilities have a number of qualified foreign doctors on staff who speak English. While each can treat routine illnesses and stabilize trauma, they are not full service medical facilities. Dentists are also available in Hanoi and HCMC and the caliber of general dental care is considered good.

Community Health

Tap water is not considered safe to drink. Bottled water can always be purchased in most restaurants and grocery stores. Consuming ice made from unfiltered water poses a risk when having refreshments outside the home.

All fruits and vegetables eaten raw should be thoroughly cleaned using an acceptable washing/soaking procedure. Reports by several Western doctors have noted that Vietnamese farmers rely heavily on DDT and night soil.

The sewage system is inadequate and in many places within the cities totally nonexistent. And, since the majority of Vietnamese homes in the city do not have indoor plumbing, it is not uncommon to see the Vietnamese using trees and walls as urinals, or to see the children use runoff channels in the street next to the sidewalks as toilets. Spitting, nose picking and nose blowing on the sidewalk are also common. During the rainy season, the aforementioned practices are even more of a health hazard due to flooding on the streets and sidewalks.

Shopkeepers and residents place garbage in small piles outside in anticipation of the evening garbage collector, who then hauls away the debris in an open cart. Oftentimes, people can be seen sitting along the streets sifting through a day's collection of garbage to recover recyclable material. A neighborhood site serves as the pickup point for the city's garbage trucks.

Preventive Measures

Be aware of both the medical and physical health hazards in country. Try to avoid exposure to mosquitoes and/or use mosquito repellent. Mosquitoes are the most common transmitter for dengue fever, malaria and Japanese encephalitis. Recurring parasitic infestations (e.g. worms) are a problem. Individuals usually suffer some form of intestinal disorder (from mild to severe) within a few weeks after arrival in Vietnam. Diseases prevalent in Vietnam include tuberculosis, dengue fever, Japanese encephalitis, hepatitis, STDs, and malaria. Inoculation against cholera and taking malaria suppressants are not necessary. Children should have the normal variety of immunizations, including the three-shot rabies preventive series and a tetanus booster. Local pharmacies are known to carry contraband or counterfeit medication. Bring at least a 3-month supply of medicine for chronic conditions and arrange for regular renewal of supplies to be sent through mail.

Contact lenses and solutions are available in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, though they may be difficult to find. With increasing pollution levels, those using extended wear lenses may find them inappropriate. If you wear eyeglasses, however, it is advisable to bring an extra pair. Larger (men's) size frames are not available and frame styles are quite limited. Acceptable eye care services are available in Bangkok, Hong Kong or Singapore.

Pickpocketing and handbag/camera snatching are common occurrences (much more so in HCMC than in Hanoi), particularly before the Lunar New Year-late January/early February. Fortunately, most of these petty crimes are economic and non-violent in nature. Should you be the unfortunate victim of such petty crimes, it is wise not to resist. Stolen cameras, wallets and handbags can be replaced; they are not worth risking life and limb.

While most people are more concerned with threats of infectious disease, traumatic injuries resulting from automobile or motorcycle accidents are the greatest hazard. Be sure to bring a sturdy helmet if you intend to ride either a bicycle or motor scooter in Vietnam.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs & Duties

The most direct route to Vietnam from the U.S. is by air over the Pacific. Getting to Hanoi usually requires an overnight in Bangkok or Hong Kong to connect planes.

U.S. passports are valid for travel in Vietnam. Visas are required and should be obtained from a Vietnamese Embassy or Consulate before traveling to Vietnam. Visas may be issued for one or multiple entries but are usually valid for only one entry. Visas are generally valid for one month, but increasing numbers of travelers have been successful in having their visas renewed after their arrival in Vietnam for up to three months. Entry into and exit from Vietnam is sometimes restricted to a specific port of entry.

U.S. citizens are cautioned that the Vietnamese immigration regulations require foreigners entering Vietnam to carry out only the activity for which the visas were issued. Change of purpose requires permission from the appropriate Vietnamese authority in advance. U.S. citizens whose stated purpose of travel is tourism but who engage in religious proselytizing have had religious materials confiscated and have been expelled from Vietnam.

No shots are required for entering Vietnam unless you are coming from a country that has had an outbreak of cholera, smallpox, or yellow fever.

Current entry requirements as well as other information may be obtained from the Vietnamese Embassy, 1233 20th Street, Suite 400, NW, Washington, DC 20036, telephone 202-861-0694 or 2293, Fax 202-861-1297, Internet home page: http://www.vietnamembassyusa.org; the Vietnamese Consulate General, 1700 California Street-4th Floor, San Francisco, CA 94109, telephone 415-922-1577, or from a travel agent who organizes travel to Vietnam. Overseas inquiries may be made at the nearest Vietnamese Embassy

U.S. citizens have been detained after traveling in areas close to the borders with Vietnam's neighbors. These areas and other restricted areas are not always marked, and there are no warnings about prohibited travel. Travelers should avoid such areas unless written permission is obtained in advance from local authorities

U.S. citizens living in or visiting Vietnam are encouraged to register in person or via telephone with the consular section of the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi or the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Vietnam.

The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi is located at 6 Ngoc Khanh, Ba Dinh District, Hanoi, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, telephone: (84-4) 831-4590; after hours emergency telephone number: (84-4) 772-1500; fax: (84-4) 831-4578, Internet home page: http://usembassy.state.gov/vietnam/. The consular section's business hours are 8:00 am to 5:00 pm. The Embassy's Consular Section provides the full range of services for U.S. citizens (passport services, consular reports of birth abroad, notarial services) and non-immigrant visa services (except K-1 fiancee visas).

The U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City is located at 4 Le Duan, District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, telephone: (84-8) 822-9433, fax: (84-8) 822-9434, Internet home page http://www.uscongenhcmc.org. The Consulate General's business hours are 8:00 am to 5:00 pm. The Consulate General provides the full range of consular services for U.S. citizens and the full range of immigrant and non-immigrant visa services. All immigrant visa processing in Vietnam, including visas for adopted children and fiance/e visas, is conducted solely at the Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City.

Callers from the U.S. should note that Vietnam is 12 hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time and 11 hours ahead of Eastern Daylight Time.

Pets

Pets can be brought into Vietnam. All animals must have a certificate of health issued by a veterinarian, including certification of inoculation against rabies dated between one to six months before the pet's arrival at post. Currently, no quarantine is required. Pets are usually brought in as excess baggage at the traveler's expense, rather than as cargo, to avoid long airport delays and expensive handling charges. You should notify post via telegram or fax prior to arrival to obtain an import permit. Competent veterinary services are available in Hanoi and HCMC. A limited variety of dogs, cats and birds are available in the local marketplace at very reasonable prices. Hanoi even has a bona fide pet store.

Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures

The monetary unit is the Vietnamese Dong (VND). There are no coins. Paper notes bear the portrait of Ho Chi Minh with the smallest note at VND 100 and the largest at VND 50,000. The rate of exchange fluctuates. In November 1999 it was VND 14,040 to US$1. The Vietnamese use the international metric system of weights and measures. Gasoline and other liquids are sold by the liter, cloth by the meter, and food and other weighted items by the kilogram. Distance and speed are measured in kilometers.

Taxes, Exchange, and Sale of Property

There is a 10% VAT on all locally purchased items.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan.1 … New Year's Day

Feb. 3… Communist Party Foundation Day

Jan/Feb … Tet Nguyen Dan^*

Mar. 8 … Women's Day

Mar. 26 … Youth Day

Apr. 30… Victory Day

May 1… Labor Day

May 19… Ho Chi Minh's Birthday

June 1 … Chioldren's Day

July 27… Memorial Day (war martyrs)

Sept 2 … Vietnamese National Day

Sept. 28 … Confucious Birthday

Nov 20… Teacher's Da

Dec. 22… Army Day

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

These titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country.

Balaban, John. Remembering Heaven's Face. New York: Poseidon Press, 1991.

Becker, Elizabeth. America's Vietnam War: A Narrative History. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1992.

Cohen, Barbara. The Vietnam Guidebook. Houghton Mifflin: Boston, 1994.

Crawford, Ann Caddell. Customs and Culture of Vietnam. Charles E. Tuttle Co., Rutland, Vermont & Tokyo, Japan.

Davidson, Phillip B. Vietnam at War: The History, 1946-1975. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1988.

Downie, Sue. Down Highway One. Asia 2000: Hong Kong, 1993.

Downs, Frederick. No Longer Enemies, Not Yet Friends: An American Soldier Returns to Vietnam. New York: W.W. Norton, 1991.

Hammer, Mitchell R., ed. The Vietnam Experience. Worthington, OH: Renaissance Publications, 1991.

Jacobsen, Karen. Vietnam. Chicago, IL: Children's Press, 1992.

Kurnow, Stanley. Vietnam: A History. McDonald, Stuart. Vietnam For Travellers by Travellers. McPhersons Printing Group, Australia, 1995.

Maurer, Harry. Strange Ground: Americans in Vietnam, 1945-1975. New York: Avon Books, 1990.

Nepote, Jacques. Vietnam: Land of the Ascending Dragon. Passport Books: Lincolnwood, IL, 1992.

Nguyen Thi Thu-Lam. Fallen Leaves: Memoirs of a Vietnamese Woman from 1940-1975. New Haven, CT: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1989.

SanDesai, D.R. Vietnam: The Struggle for National Identity. 2nd ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992.

Seiple, Robert, and Gregg Lewis. A Missing Peace. Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press, 1992.

Sharma, Ritu. Vietnam. New York: Apt Books, 1988.

Storey, Robert. Vietnam: A Travel Survival Kit. Lonely Planet Publications: Australia, 1993.

Tai, Hue-Tam H. Radicalism & the Origins of the Vietnamese Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.

Taylor, Keith W. The Birth of Vietnam. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991.

Timberman, Thomas M.E. Vietnam: The No BS Business Guide. LOI, Inc., 1994.

Vo Nhan Tri. Vietnam's Economic Policy since 1975. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 1990.

Wang, Diane, and Steve Clark. Report from Vietnam & Kampuchea. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1991.

Wiegersma, Nancy. Vietnam: Peasant Land, Peasant Revolution. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988.

Wintle, Justin. Romancing Vietnam. Penguin Books: London, 1992.

Young, Marilyn. The Vietnam Wars 1945-1990. New York: Harper Collins, 1991.

Vietnam

PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-VIETNAM RELATIONS
TRAVEL

Compiled from the December 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 331,114 sq. km. (127,243 sq. mi.); equivalent in size to Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee combined.

Cities: (2005) Capital—Hanoi (3.145 million). Other cities—Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon; 6.24 million), Hai Phong (1.711 million), Da Nang (715,000; 2002 figure).

Terrain: Varies from mountainous to coastal delta.

Climate: Tropical monsoon.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Vietnamese (sing. and pl.).

Population: (2007 estimate) 85.2 million.

Annual growth rate: (2007 estimate) 1.004%.

Ethnic groups: Vietnamese (85%-¥90%), Chinese (3%), Hmong, Thai, Khmer, Cham, mountain groups.

Religions: Buddhism, Hoa Hao, Cao Dai, Christian (predominantly Roman Catholic, some Protestant), animism, Islam.

Languages: Vietnamese (official), English (increasingly favored as a second language), some French, Chinese, and Khmer, mountain area languages.

Education: (2006) Literacy—90%.

Health: (2007 estimate) Birth rate—16.63 births/1000 population. Infant mortality rate—17.4 /1000. Life expectancy—70.8 yrs. Death rate—6.56/1,000.

Government

Type: Communist Party-dominated constitutional republic.

Independence: September 2, 1945.

Constitution: April 15, 1992.

Government branches: Executive—president (head of state and chair of National Defense and Security Council) and prime minister (heads cabinet of ministries and commissions). Legislative—National Assembly. Judicial—Supreme People's Court; Prosecutorial Supreme People's Procuracy.

Political subdivisions: 59 provinces, 5 municipalities (Can Tho, Hai Phong, Da Nang, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh).

Political parties: Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) with over 3 million members, formerly (1951-76) Vietnam Worker's Party, itself the successor of the Indochinese Communist Party founded in 1930.

Suffrage: Universal over 18.

Economy

GDP: (2006) $61 billion.

Real growth rate: (2007) 8.3%.

Per capita income: (2006) $726.

Inflation rate: (2006) 7.5%.

External debt: (2006) 34.9% of GDP, $18.2 billion.

Natural resources: Coal, crude oil, zinc, copper, silver, gold, manganese, iron.

Agriculture and forestry: (20.4% of GDP, 2006) Principal products—rice, maize, sweet potato, peanut, soya bean, cotton, coffee, cashews. Cultivated land—12.2 million hectares. Land use—21% arable; 28% forest and woodland; 51% other.

Industry and construction: (41.5% of GDP, 2006) Principal types—mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electricity, gas, water supply, cement, phosphate, and steel.

Services: (38.1% of GDP, 2006) Principal types—wholesale and retail, repair of vehicles and personal goods, hotel and restaurant, transport storage, telecommunications, tourism.

Trade: (2006) Exports—$39.6 billion. Principal exports—garments/ textiles, crude oil, footwear, rice (second-largest exporter in world), sea products, coffee, rubber, handicrafts. Major export partners—U.S., EU, Japan, China, Singapore, Australia, Taiwan, and Germany. Imports—$44.4 billion. Principal imports—machinery, oil and gas, garment materials, iron and steel, transport-related equipment. Major import partners—China, Japan, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Thailand. Exports to U.S. (2006)—$8.6 billion. Imports from U.S. (2006) $1.1 billion.

PEOPLE

Originating in what is now southern China and northern Vietnam, the Vietnamese people pushed southward over 2 millennia to occupy the entire eastern seacoast of the Indochinese Peninsula. Ethnic Vietnamese constitute about 90% of Vietnam's population.

Vietnam's approximately 2.3 million ethnic Chinese, concentrated mostly in southern Vietnam, constitute Vietnam's largest minority group. Long important in the Vietnamese economy, Vietnamese of Chinese ancestry have been active in rice trading, milling, real estate, and banking in the south and shop keeping, stevedoring, and mining in the north. Restrictions on economic activity following reunification of the north and south in 1975 and the subsequent but unrelated general deterioration in Vietnamese-Chinese relations sent chills through the Chinese-Vietnamese community. In 1978–79, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees (many officially encouraged and assisted) or were expelled across the land border with China.

The second-largest ethnic minority grouping, the central highland peoples (formerly termed Montagnards or mountain people), comprise two main ethnolinguistic groups—Malayo-Polynesian and Mon-Khmer. About 30 groups of various cultures and dialects are spread over the high-land territory.

The third-largest minority, the Khmer Krom (Cambodians), numbering about 600,000, is concentrated near the Cambodian border and at the mouth of the Mekong River. Most are farmers. Other minority groups include the Cham—remnants of the once-mighty Champa Kingdom, conquered by the Vietnamese in the 15th century—Hmong, and Thai.

Vietnamese is the official language of the country. It is a tonal language with influences from Thai, Khmer, and Chinese. Since the early 20th century, the Vietnamese have used a Romanized script introduced by the French. Previously, Chinese characters and an indigenous phonetic script were both used.

HISTORY

Vietnam's identity has been shaped by long-running conflicts, both internally and with foreign forces. In 111 BC, China's Han dynasty conquered northern Vietnam's Red River Delta and the ancestors of today's Vietnamese. Chinese dynasties ruled Vietnam for the next 1,000 years, inculcating it with Confucian ideas and political culture. In 939 AD, Vietnam achieved independence under a native dynasty. After 1471, when Vietnam conquered the Champa Kingdom in what is now central Vietnam, the Vietnamese moved gradually southward, finally reaching the rich Mekong Delta, encountering there earlier settled Cham and Cambodians. While Vietnam's emperors reigned ineffectually, powerful northern and southern families fought civil wars in the 17th and 18th centuries.

French Rule and the Anti-Colonial Struggle

In 1858, the French began their conquest of Vietnam starting in the south. They annexed all of Vietnam in 1885, but allowed Vietnam's emperors to continue to reign, although not actually to rule. In the early 20th century, French-educated Vietnamese intellectuals organized nationalist and communist-nationalist anti-colonial movements.

Japan's occupation of Vietnam during World War II further stirred nationalism. Vietnamese communists under Ho Chi Minh organized a coalition of anti-colonial groups, the Viet Minh, though many anti-communists refused to join. After Japan stripped the French of much power in Indochina in March 1945, Ho Chi Minh announced the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on September 2, 1945.

North and South Partition

France's post-World War II unwillingness to leave Vietnam led to failed talks and an 8-year guerrilla war between the communist-led Viet Minh on one side and the French and their anti-communist nationalist allies on the other. Following a humiliating defeat at Dien Bien Phu in May 1954, France and other parties, including Britain, China, the Soviet Union, and the United States, convened in Geneva, Switzerland for peace talks. On July 29, 1954, an Agreement on the Cessation of Hostilities in Vietnam was signed between France and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The United States observed, but did not sign, the agreement. French colonial rule in Vietnam ended.

The 1954 Geneva agreement provided for a cease-fire between communist and anti-communist nationalist forces, the temporary division of Vietnam at approximately the 17th parallel, provisional northern (communist) and southern (non-communist) zone governments, and the evacuation of anti-communist Vietnamese from northern to southern Vietnam. The agreement also called for an election to be held by July 1956 to bring the two provisional zones under a unified government. However, the South Vietnamese Government refused to accept this provision. On October 26, 1955, South Vietnam declared itself the Republic of Vietnam.

After 1954, North Vietnamese communist leaders consolidated their power and instituted a harsh agrarian reform and socialization program. In the late 1950s, they reactivated the network of communist guerrillas that had remained behind in the south. These forces—commonly known as the Viet Cong—aided covertly by the north, started an armed campaign against officials and villagers who refused to support the communist reunification cause.

American Assistance to the South

In December 1961, at the request of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem, President Kennedy sent U.S. military advisers to South Vietnam to help the government there deal with the Viet Cong campaign. In the wake of escalating political turmoil in the south after a 1963 generals’ coup against President Diem, the United States increased its military support for South Vietnam. In March 1965, President Johnson sent the first U.S. combat forces to Vietnam. The American military role peaked in 1969 with an in-country force of 534,000. However, the Viet Cong's surprise Tet Offensive in January 1968 deeply hurt both the Viet Cong infrastructure and American and South Vietnamese morale. In January 1969, the United States, governments of South and North Vietnam, and the Viet Cong met for the first plenary session of peace talks in Paris, France. These talks, which began with much hope, moved slowly. They finally concluded with the signing of a peace agreement, the Paris Accords, on January 27, 1973. As a result, the south was divided into a patchwork of zones controlled by the South Vietnamese Government and the Viet Cong. The United States withdrew its forces, although U.S. military advisers remained.

Reunification

In early 1975, North Vietnamese regular military forces began a major offensive in the south, inflicting great damage to the south's forces. The communists took Saigon on April 30, 1975, and announced their intention of reunifying the country. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (north) absorbed the former Republic of Vietnam (south) to form the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on July 2, 1976.

After reunification, the government confiscated privately owned land and forced citizens into collectivized agricultural practices. Hundreds of thousands of former South Vietnamese Government and military officials, as well as intellectuals previously opposed to the communist cause,

were sent to re-education camps to study socialist doctrine. While Vietnamese leaders thought that reunification of the country and its socialist transformation would be condoned by the international community, this did not happen. Besides international concern over Vietnam's internal practices, the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia in 1978 and its growing tight alliance with the Soviet Union appeared to confirm suspicions that Vietnam wanted to establish hegemony in Indochina.

Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia also heightened tensions that already existed between Vietnam and China. Beijing, which had long backed the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia, retaliated in early 1979 by initiating a border war with Vietnam.

Vietnam's tensions with its neighbors and its stagnant economy contributed to a massive exodus from Vietnam. Fearing persecution, many Chinese in particular fled Vietnam by boat to nearby countries. Later, hundreds of thousands of other Vietnamese nationals fled as well, seeking temporary refuge in camps throughout Southeast Asia.

The continuing grave condition of the economy and the alienation from the international community became focal points of party debate. In 1986, at the Sixth Party Congress, there was an important easing of communist agrarian and commercial policies.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

A new state constitution was approved in April 1992, reaffirming the central role of the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) in politics and society, and outlining government reorganization and increased economic freedom. Though Vietnam remains a one-party state, adherence to ideological orthodoxy has become less important than economic development as a national priority.

The most important powers within the Vietnamese Government—in addition to the Communist Party—are the executive agencies created by the 1992 constitution: the offices of the president and the prime minister. The Vietnamese President, presently Nguyen Minh Triet, functions as head of state but also serves as the nominal commander of the armed forces and chairman of the Council on National Defense and Security. The Prime Minister of Vietnam, presently Nguyen Tan Dung, heads a cabinet currently composed of five deputy prime ministers and the heads of 22 ministries and agencies, all confirmed by the National Assembly. Notwithstanding the 1992 constitution's reaffirmation of the central role of the Communist Party, the National Assembly, according to the constitution, is the highest representative body of the people and the only organization with legislative powers. It has a broad mandate to oversee all government functions. Once seen as little more than a rubber stamp, the National Assembly has become more vocal and assertive in exercising its authority over lawmaking, particularly in recent years. However, the National Assembly is still subject to party direction. More than 80% of the deputies in the National Assembly are party members. The assembly meets twice yearly for 7-10 weeks each time; elections for members are held every 5 years, although its Standing Committee meets monthly and there are now over 100 “full-time” deputies who function on various committees. In 2007, the Assembly introduced parliamentary “question time,” in which Cabinet Ministers must answer often pointed questions from National Assembly members. There is a separate judicial branch, but it is still relatively weak. Overall, there are few lawyers and trial procedures are rudimentary.

The present 14-member Politburo, elected in April 2006 and headed by Communist Party General Secretary Nong Duc Manh, determines government policy, and its Secretariat oversees day-to-day policy implementation. In addition, the Party's Central Military Commission, which is composed of select Politburo members and additional military leaders, determines military policy.

A Party Congress, which most recently was comprised of 1,176 delegates at the Tenth Party Congress in April 2006, meets every 5 years to set the direction of the party and the government. The 160-member Central Committee (with an additional 21 alternate members), was elected by the Party Congress and it usually meets at least twice a year.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Vietnamese officials are addressed by the last element in their names.

President: Nguyen Minh TRIET

Vice President: Nguyen Thi DOAN

Prime Minister: Nguyen Tan DUNG

Permanent Dep. Prime Min.: Nguyen Sinh HUNG

Dep. Prime Min.: Pham Gia KHIEM

Dep. Prime Min.: Hoang Trung HAI

Dep. Prime Min.: Nguyen Thien NHAN

Dep. Prime Min.: Truong Vinh TRONG

Min. of Agriculture & Rural Development: Cao Duc PHAT

Min. of Construction: Nguyen Hong QUAN

Min. of Culture, Sports, & Tourism: Hoang Tuan ANH

Min. of Education: Nguyen Thien NHAN

Min. of Finance: Vu Van NINH

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Pham Gia KHIEM

Min. of Industry & Trade: Vu Huy HOANG

Min. of Information & Communications: Le Doan HOP

Min. of Interior: Tran Van TUAN

Min. of Justice: Ha Hung CUONG

Min. of Labor, War Invalids, & Social Welfare: Nguyen Thi Kim NGAN

Min. of National Defense: Phung Quang THANH, Sr. Lt. Gen.

Min. of Natural Resources & Environment: Pham Khoi NGUYEN

Min. of Planning & Investment: Vo Hong PHUC

Min. of Public Health: Nguyen Quoc TRIEU

Min. of Public Security: Le Hong ANH

Min. of Science & Technology: Hoang Van PHONG

Min. of Transport: Ho Nghia DUNG

Min. of Transportation: Ho Nghia DUNG

Chmn., Govt. Inspectorate: Tran Van TRUYEN

Chmn., Office of the Govt.: Nguyen Xuan PHUC

Chmn., State Ethnic Minorities Committee:Giang Seo PHU

Governor, State Bank: Nguyen Van GIAU

Ambassador to the US: Nguyen Tam CHIEN

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Le Luong MINH

Vietnam maintains an embassy in the U.S. at 1233 20th Street, NW, #400, Washington DC 20036 (tel. 202-861-0737; fax 202-861-0917); Internet home page: www.vietnamem-bassy-usa.org/. There is also a consulate general located in San Francisco at 1700 California Street, Suite 430, San Francisco, CA 94109 (tel. 415-922-1707; fax 415-922-1848; Website: www.vietnamconsulate-ca.org/home.asp.

ECONOMY

Economic stagnation marked the period after reunification from 1975 to 1985. In 1986, the Sixth Party Congress approved a broad economic reform package called “Doi Moi” (renovation) that introduced market reforms and dramatically improved Vietnam's business climate. Vietnam became one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, averaging around 8% annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth from 1990 to 1997 and 6.5% from 1998-2003. From 2004 to 2007, GDP grew over 8% annually. Vietnam's inflation rate, as measured by the consumer price index, which stood at an annual rate of over 300% in 1987, was below 4% from 1997 (except in 1998 when it rose to 9.2%) until 2003. However, in 2004 the consumer price index increased to 9.5%, dropping in 2006 to 7.5%. Average annual foreign investment commitment has risen sharply as a result of the U.S.-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement and Vietnam's drive toward membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO). In 2007, investment commitment is expected again to reach $10 billion, matching the $10 billion level of 2006. The average Vietnamese savings rate is about 30%. From 1990 to 2005, agricultural production nearly doubled, transforming Vietnam from a net food importer to the world's second-largest exporter of rice.

Foreign trade and foreign direct investment have improved significantly. The shift away from a centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economic model improved the quality of life for many Vietnamese. Per capita income, $220 in 1994, rose to $726 in 2006 with a related reduction in the share of the population living in acute poverty. However, regional differences in average income are wide: $726 for the whole country on average but about $1,800 in Ho Chi Minh City and much lower than average in poorer provinces of the central and northern highlands.

The East Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s slowed the pace of economic growth that marked the earlier part of the decade. While a return to pre-crisis levels of growth and development has been slow, the pace has picked up in recent years, primarily as the result of ongoing economic and trade liberalization. Vietnam's economic stance following the East Asian financial crisis first emphasized macroeconomic stability, then shifted its focus toward growth. While the country has moved toward a more market-oriented economy, the Vietnamese Government still holds a tight rein over major sectors of the economy through large state-owned enterprises and the banking system. The launch of the State Capital Investment Corporation at the end of 2005 is intended to make state-owned enterprises operate more competitively. The government has plans to reform key sectors and privatize state-owned enterprises, but implementation has been gradual. Greater emphasis on private sector development is critical for job creation. Urban unemployment has been rising in recent years, and rural unemployment, estimated to be between 25% and 35% during non-harvest periods, is already at critical levels.

The December 10, 2001, entry-into-force of the Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) between the U.S. and Vietnam was a significant milestone for Vietnam's economy and for normalization of U.S.-Vietnam relations. Implementation of this agreement, which includes provisions on trade in goods, trade in services, enforcement of intellectual property rights, protection for investments, and transparency, fundamentally changed Vietnam's trade regime and helped liberalize its economy. By virtue of the BTA, normal trade relations (NTR) status was accorded to Vietnam on a conditional basis. Bilateral trade between the two countries expanded dramatically, rising more than five-fold from 2001 to $9.6 billion in 2006.

By requiring a range of reforms to Vietnam's trade and investment regime, the BTA also helped Vietnam prepare for the next major step in its integration into the world economy: membership in the WTO. Following the conclusion of bilateral negotiations with interested WTO members and completion of multilateral negotiations in 2006, the WTO General Council approved the terms for Vietnam's membership on November 7, 2006. Vietnam formally acceded to the WTO as its 150th member on January 11, 2007. Vietnam was granted unconditional normal trade relations (NTR) status by the United States through a Presidential Proclamation signed by President Bush on December 29, 2006. On January 11, 2007, the United States removed the application of quotas on textile and apparel imports from Vietnam consistent with the terms of our WTO bilateral market access agreement and treatment provided other WTO members. To meet the obligations of WTO membership, Vietnam revised nearly all of its trade and investment laws and guiding regulations. As a result, foreign investors and those seeking to sell goods and services to the increasingly affluent Vietnamese population will benefit from the improved legislative framework and lower trade barriers. Local firms that have heretofore enjoyed a range of protections, meanwhile, will experience increased competition. As 2006 drew to a close, the Government of Vietnam reasserted its goal of becoming a middle-income country by 2010. That would entail raising the average per capita income to at least $1,000 from the 2006 average of $726. Economic analysts, including those at the World Bank, believe that this goal is attainable.

A U.S.-Vietnam Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA), a bridge to future economic cooperation, was signed in June 2007 during President Triet's June 2007 visit to the United States. The first TIFA Council occurred on December 17, 2007 in Washington.

Agriculture and Industry

Land reform, de-collectivization, and the opening of the agricultural sector to market forces converted Vietnam from a country facing chronic food shortages in the early 1980s to the second-largest rice exporter in the world. Besides rice, key exports are coffee, tea, rubber, and fisheries products. Agriculture's share of economic output has declined, falling as a share of GDP from 42% in 1989 to 20.4% in 2006, as production in other sectors of the economy has risen.

Paralleling its efforts to increase agricultural output, Vietnam's industrial production has grown. Industry contributed 41.5% of GDP in 2006, up from 27.3% in 1985. State-owned enterprises are marked by low productivity and inefficiency, the result of a command-style economic system applied in an underdeveloped country. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a dynamic feature of Vietnam's industrializing economy. As of the end of 2005, cumulative implemented foreign direct investment totaled over $34 billion, helping to transform the industrial landscape of Vietnam.

Vietnam has successfully increased exports of manufactured goods, especially labor-intensive manufactures, such as textiles and apparel and footwear. Subsidies have been cut to some inefficient state enterprises. The Government is also in the process of “equitizing” (e.g., transforming state enterprises into share holding companies and distributing a portion of the shares to management, workers and private foreign and domestic investors) a significant number of state enterprises. However, to date the government continues to maintain control of the largest and most important companies. Despite reforms, the state share of GDP has remained relatively constant since 2000, at 38-39%.

Trade and Balance of Payments

From the late 1970s until the 1990s, Vietnam was heavily dependent on the Soviet Union and its allies for trade and economic assistance. To compensate for drastic cuts in Soviet-bloc support after 1989, Vietnam liberalized trade, devalued its exchange rate to increase exports, and embarked on a policy of regional and international economic re-integration. Vietnam has demonstrated its commitment to trade liberalization in recent years, and integration with the world economy has become one of the cornerstones of its reform program. Vietnam has locked in its intention to create a more competitive and open economy by committing to several comprehensive international trade agreements, including the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the U.S.-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA). Vietnam's accession to the World Trade Organization will further integrate Vietnam into the global economy.

As a result of these reforms, exports expanded significantly, growing by as much as 20%-30% in some years. In 2005, exports accounted for 63% of GDP. Imports have also grown rapidly, and Vietnam has a significant trade deficit (forecast to be $4.8 billion in 2006). Vietnam's total external debt, accounting for 32.5% of GDP in 2005, was estimated at around $17.2 billion.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

During the second Indochina war (1954-75), North Vietnam balanced relations with its two major allies, the Soviet Union and China. By 1975, tension began to grow as Beijing increasingly viewed Vietnam as a potential Soviet instrument to encircle China. Meanwhile, Beijing's increasing support for Cambodia's Khmer Rouge sparked Vietnamese suspicions of China's motives.

Vietnamese-Chinese relations deteriorated significantly after Hanoi instituted a ban in March 1978 on private trade, mostly affecting Sino-Vietnamese. Following Vietnam's December 1978 invasion of Cambodia, China launched a retaliatory incursion over Vietnam's northern border. Faced with severance of Chinese aid and strained international relations, Vietnam established even closer ties with the Soviet Union and its allies in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon). Through the 1980s, Vietnam received nearly $3 billion a year in economic and military aid from the Soviet Union and conducted most of its trade with that country and with other Council for Mutual Economic Assistance countries. However, Soviet and East bloc economic aid ceased after the breakup of the Soviet Union.

Vietnam did not begin to emerge from international isolation until it withdrew its troops from Cambodia in 1989. Within months of the 1991 Paris Agreements, Vietnam established diplomatic and economic relations with ASEAN as well as with most of the countries of Western Europe and Northeast Asia. China reestablished full diplomatic ties with Vietnam in 1991, and the two countries continue their joint efforts to demarcate their land and sea borders, expand trade and investment ties, and build political relations.

In the past decade, Vietnam has recognized the increasing importance of growing global economic interdependence and has made concerted efforts to adjust its foreign relations to reflect the evolving international economic and political situation in Southeast Asia. The country has begun to integrate itself into the regional and global economy by joining international organizations. Vietnam has stepped up its efforts to attract foreign capital from the West and regularize relations with the world financial system. In the 1990s, following the lifting of the American veto on multilateral loans to the country, Vietnam became a member of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Asian Development Bank. The country has expanded trade with its East Asian neighbors as well as with countries in Western Europe and North America. Of particular significance was Vietnam's acceptance into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in July 1995. In recent years, Vietnam's influence in ASEAN has expanded significantly. In addition, Vietnam joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) in November 1998 and hosted the ASEAN summit in 2001 and APEC in 2006. In October 2007, Vietnam was elected for the first time to the United Nations Security Council, to serve a two-year term starting on January 1, 2008.

While Vietnam has not experienced war since its withdrawal from Cambodia, tensions have periodically flared between Vietnam and China, primarily over their overlapping maritime claims in the South China Sea. Vietnam and China each assert claims to the Spratly and Paracel Islands, archipelagos in the potentially oil-rich area of the South China Sea. Several other countries (Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan) claim all or part of the South China Sea. Over the years, conflicting claims have produced small-scale armed altercations in the area; in 1988, 70 Vietnamese sailors died in a confrontation with China in the Spratlies. China's assertion of “indisputable sovereignty” over the Spratly Islands and the entire South China Sea has elicited concern from Vietnam and its Southeast Asia neighbors. Tensions escalated in the latter half of 2007, as China pressured foreign oil companies, notably BP, to abandon their oil and gas exploration contracts with Vietnam in the South China Sea. Vietnamese students staged several anti-China demonstrations in response, prompting a warning from the Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman that Hanoi's failure to quell the demonstrations was harming relations. By contrast, Vietnam has made progress with China in delineating its northern land border and the Gulf of Tonkin, pursuant to a Land Border Agreement signed in December 1999, and an Agreement on Borders in the Gulf of Tonkin signed in December 2000.

U.S.-VIETNAM RELATIONS

After a 20-year hiatus of severed ties, President Clinton announced the formal normalization of diplomatic relations with Vietnam on July 11, 1995. Subsequent to President Clinton's normalization announcement, in August 1995, both nations upgraded their Liaison Offices opened during January 1995 to embassy status. As diplomatic ties between the nations grew, the United States opened a consulate general in Ho Chi Minh City, and Vietnam opened a consulate in San Francisco.

U.S. relations with Vietnam have become deeper and more diverse in the years since political normalization. The two countries have broadened their political exchanges through regular dialogues on human rights and regional security. The annual Bilateral Human Rights Dialogue resumed in 2006 after a two-year hiatus. They signed a Bilateral Trade Agreement in July 2000, which went into force in December 2001. In 2003, the two countries signed a Counternarcotics Letter of Agreement (amended in 2006), a Civil Aviation Agreement, and a textile agreement. In January 2007, Congress approved Permanent Normal Trade Relations (PNTR) for Vietnam.

Vietnam's suppression of political dissent has been an issue of contention in relations with the U.S. and drew criticism from the Administration and Congress. In spring 2007, Vietnam's government launched a crackdown on political dissidents, and in November the same year arrested a group of pro-democracy activists, including two Americans. Despite continued suppression of freedom of expression, Vietnam did make significant progress on expanding religious freedom. In 2005, Vietnam passed comprehensive religious freedom legislation, outlawing forced renunciations and permitting the official recognition of new denominations. As a result, in November 2006, the Department of State lifted the designation of Vietnam as a “Country of Particular Concern,” based on a determination that the country was no longer a serious violator of religious freedoms, as defined by the International Religious Freedom Act. This decision was reaffirmed by the Department of State in November 2007.

As of December 14, 2007, the U.S. Government listed 1,763 Americans unaccounted for in Southeast Asia, including 1,353 in Vietnam. Since 1973, 883 Americans have been accounted for, including 627 in Vietnam. Additionally, the Department of Defense has confirmed that of the 196 individuals who were “last known alive” (LKA), the U.S. Government has determined the fate of all but 31. The United States considers achieving the fullest possible accounting of Americans missing and unaccounted for in Indochina to be one of its highest priorities with Vietnam.

Since entry into force of the U.S.-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement on December 10, 2001, increased trade between the U.S. and Vietnam, combined with large-scale U.S. investment in Vietnam, evidence the maturing U.S.-Vietnam economic relationship. In 2006, the United States exported $1.1 billion of goods to Vietnam and imported $8.6 billion of goods from Vietnam. Similarly, U.S. companies continue to invest directly in the Vietnamese economy. During 2006, the U.S. private sector committed $444 million to Vietnam in foreign direct investment. This number is expected to rise dramatically following Vietnam's accession into the WTO.

Another sign of the expanding bilateral relationship is the signing of a Bilateral Air Transport Agreement in December 2003. Several U.S. carriers already have third-party code sharing agreements with Vietnam Airlines. Direct flights between Ho Chi Minh City and San Francisco began in December 2004. Vietnam and the United States also signed a bilateral Maritime Agreement in March 2007 that opened the maritime transport and services industry of Vietnam to U.S. firms.

Cooperation in other areas, such as defense, nonproliferation, counterterrorism, and law enforcement, is also expanding steadily. In 2007, Vietnam hosted visits by five U.S. Navy vessels in 2007, including a port call to Dan-ang by the humanitarian supply ship USS Peleliu, carrying a multinational contingent of medical and engineering personnel. In June 2007, Vietnamese observers took part for the first time in the multinational naval exercise Cooperation Afloat Readiness and Training (CARAT), organized by the U.S. Navy. The Vietnamese Prime Minister has stated that the country is in the final stages of preparation to take part in international peacekeeping, as part of its contribution as a new member of the UN Security Council.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

HANOI (E) 7 Lang Ha, Dong Da District, APO/FPO PSC 461, Box 400, FPO, AP 96521-0002, (84) (4) 850-5000, Fax (84) (4) 850-5010, INMAR-SAT Tel Located off-site—contact IPC to coordinate call, Workweek: M-F, 0800-1700, Website: http://vietnam.usembassy.gov.

HO CHI MINH CITY (CG) 4 Le Duan St. District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, APO/FPO PSC 461, Box 500, FPO, AP 96521-0002, (84-8) 822-9433, Fax (84-8) 822-9434, Workweek: M-F, 8 am-5 pm, Website: http://hochiminh.usconsulate.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

May 11, 2007

Country Description: Vietnam is a developing, mainly agrarian country in the process of moving from a centrally planned to a market economy. Political control rests in the Communist Party. Tourist facilities are not well established, but are improving in certain areas, especially in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, and some beach and mountain resorts.

Entry Requirements: A valid passport and Vietnamese visa are required. A visa must be obtained from a Vietnamese Embassy or Consulate prior to traveling to Vietnam; entry visas are not available upon arrival. Americans arriving without an appropriate Vietnamese visa will not be permitted to enter, and will be subject to immediate deportation. Vietnamese visas are usually valid for only one entry. Persons planning to leave Vietnam and re-enter from another country should be sure to obtain a visa allowing multiple entries. Visit the Embassy of Vietnam web site for the most current visa information.

Even while in possession of a valid visa, some travelers have been refused entry to Vietnam. U.S. citizens are cautioned that Vietnamese immigration regulations require foreigners entering Vietnam to undertake only the activity for which their visas were issued. Change of purpose of your visit, requires permission from the appropriate Vietnamese authority in advance. U.S. citizens whose stated purpose of travel was tourism, but who engaged in religious proselytizing have had religious materials confiscated and have been expelled from Vietnam. An American whose U.S. passport is lost or stolen in Vietnam must obtain both a replacement passport and a replacement Vietnamese visa. The U.S. Embassy and Consulate General can issue limited validity emergency replacement passports in as little as one day, but the Vietnamese government requires three working days, not to include the day of application, to issue a replacement visa. Neither the U.S. Embassy nor the Consulate General can expedite replacement Vietnamese visas.

Current information on visa and entry requirements may be obtained from the Vietnamese Embassy, 1233 20th Street NW, Suite 400, Washington, DC 20036, tel: 202-861-0737, fax: 202-861-0917, the Vietnamese Consulate General, 1700 California Street—Suite 430, San Francisco, CA 94109, tel: (415) 922-1707, fax: 415-922-1848, or from the nearest Vietnamese Embassy or Consulate over-seas.

Safety and Security: Vietnam's Central Highland provinces have been the scene of ethnic minority protests and clashes with security forces as recently as 2004. Official U.S. personnel and tourists are sometimes not authorized to travel to the Central Highland areas without prior consent from the Government of Vietnam. These travel limitations may hinder the ability of the U.S. Government to provide assistance to private U.S. citizens in those areas.

U.S. citizens have been detained after traveling in areas close to the Vietnamese borders with China, Cambodia and Laos. These areas and other restricted areas are not always marked, and there are no warnings about prohibited travel. Travelers should avoid such areas unless written permission is obtained in advance from local authorities.

Large gatherings, such as those forming at the scene of traffic accidents, can become violent, and should be avoided. For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers out-side the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: Cities in Vietnam have the typical crime problems of many other large cities throughout the world. Pick-pocketing and other petty crimes occur regularly. Although violent crimes such as armed robbery are still relatively rare in Vietnam, perpetrators have grown increasingly bold and the U.S. Consulate General has received recent reports of knives and razors being used in attempted robberies in Ho Chi Minh City. Thieves congregate around hotels frequented by foreign tourists and business people, and assaults have been reported in outlying areas. The evolving nature of incidents warrants caution on the part of the U.S. traveler. Travelers are advised not to resist theft attempts, and to report them both to police and to the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi or the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City. Motorcyclists are known to snatch bags, cameras and other valuables from pedestrians or passengers riding in “cyclos” (pedicabs) or riding on the back of rented motorcycles. Serious injuries have resulted when thieves snatched purses or bags, which were strapped across their victims’ bodies, leading to the victim being dragged along the ground by the thief's motorcycle. In November 2003, an American citizen victim of a drive-by purse snatching was dragged to the ground and seriously injured in this manner.

Passengers riding in cyclos (pedicabs) may be especially prone to thefts of personal possessions by snatch-and-grab thieves, because they ride in a semi-reclining position that readily exposes their belongings and does not allow good visibility or movement. As some cyclo drivers have reportedly kidnapped passengers and extorted money, it may be risky to hire cyclos not associated with reputable hotels or restaurants.

Travelers are strongly advised to keep passports and other important valuables in hotel safes or other secure locations. Travelers are advised to carry a photocopy of their passport with them when going out. The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the U.S. Embassy or the U.S. Consulate General. U.S. citizens must obtain a police report from the local police office in order to apply for a replacement passport and a Vietnamese exit visa.

There have been occasional reports of incidents in which an unknown substance was used to taint drinks, leaving the victim susceptible to further criminal acts. Travelers are advised to avoid leaving drinks or food unattended, and should avoid going to unfamiliar venues alone. Travelers should also avoid purchasing liquor from street vendors, as the quality of the contents cannot be assured.

Recreational drugs available in Vietnam can be extremely potent, and more than one American has died of an accidental overdose of drugs. Penalties for possession of drugs of any kind are severe (please refer to the Criminal Penalties section below).

Some U.S. citizens have reported threats of death or physical injury related to personal business disputes. The U.S. Embassy and the U.S. Consulate General do not provide personal protection services. U.S. citizens who do not have confidence in the ability of the local police to protect them may wish to depart the country expeditiously.

U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlet, A Safe Trip Abroad, for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC 20402, on the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page or at the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi, or the U.S Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City.

In many countries around the world, counterfeit and pirated goods are widely available. Transactions involving such products may be illegal under local law. In addition, bringing them back to the United States may result in forfeitures and/ or fines. More information on this serious problem is available at http://www.cybercrime.gov/18usc2320.htm.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed. In Hanoi, the American Citizen Services (ACS) is located at Rose Garden Tower, #6 Ngoc Khanh, Hanoi. Telephone number is (84-4) 831-4590 Monday thru Friday and (84-4) 850-5000 Main Embassy Fax; 850-5010, after business hours and weekends. In Ho Chi Minh City, ACS+ is located at U.S. Consular Section, 4 Le Duan St., Dist. 1, Ho Chi Minh City. Telephone number (84-8) 822-9433.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities in Vietnam do not meet international standards, and frequently lack medicines and supplies. Medical personnel in Vietnam, particularly outside Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, may speak little or no English. Doctors and hospitals expect immediate cash payment for health services. International health clinics in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City can provide acceptable care for minor illnesses and injuries, but more serious problems will often require medical evacuation to Bangkok or Singapore. Although many medications can be purchased at pharmacies without having a prescription, many common U.S. medications are not available in Vietnam. Travelers should bring adequate supplies of their medications for their duration of their stay in Vietnam. Travelers may obtain lists of local English-speaking physicians from the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi or the U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City. Travelers are reminded that neither office may recommend specific medical practitioners or hospitals. Emergency medical response services are generally unresponsive, unreliable, or completely unavailable.

Travelers should be cautious when drinking non-bottled water and in using ice cubes in drinks. Travelers may wish to drink only bottled or canned beverages, or beverages that have been boiled (such as hot tea and coffee).

Travelers to Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries affected by avian influenza are cautioned to avoid poultry farms, contact with animals in live food markets, and any surfaces that appear to be contaminated with feces from poultry or other animals.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) website. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Vietnam is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Traffic in Vietnam is chaotic. Traffic accidents, mostly involving motorcycles and often resulting in traumatic head injury, are an increasingly serious hazard. At least 30 people die each day from transportation-related injuries. Traffic accident injuries are the leading cause of death, severe injury and emergency evacuation of foreigners in Vietnam, and are the single greatest health risk that U.S. citizens will face in Vietnam.

Traffic moves on the right, although drivers frequently cross to the left to pass or turn, and motorcycles and bicycles often travel (illegally) against the flow of traffic. Horns are used constantly, often for no apparent reason. Streets in major cities are choked with motorcycles, cars, buses, trucks, bicycles, pedestrians and cyclos. Outside the cities, livestock compete with vehicles for road space. Sudden stops by motorcycles and bicycles make driving a particular hazard. Nationwide, drivers do not follow basic traffic principles, vehicles do not yield right of way, and there is little adherence to traffic laws or enforcement by traffic police. The number of traffic lights in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City is increasing, but red lights are often not obeyed. Most Vietnamese ride motorcycles; often an entire family rides on one motorcycle.

Road conditions are poor nationwide. Numerous tragic accidents have occurred due to poor road conditions that resulted in landslides, and American travelers have lost their lives in this way. Travelers should exercise extra caution in the countryside, as road conditions are particularly poor in rural areas.

Driving at night is especially dangerous and drivers should exercise extreme caution. Roads are poorly lit, and there are few road signs. Buses and trucks often travel at high speed with bright lights that are rarely dimmed. Some motor vehicles may not use lights at all, vehicles of all types often stop in the road without any illumination, and livestock are likely to be encountered.

Motorcyclists and bicyclists are strongly urged to wear helmets. Passengers in cars or taxis should use seatbelts when available, but should be aware that Vietnamese vehicles often are not equipped with working seatbelts. The Vietnamese government began mandating the use of motorcycle helmets on major roads leading to large urban centers in January 2001, but application and enforcement of this law have been slow and sporadic at best. New laws have been promulgated concerning the use of motorcycle helmets in urban areas as well, but have not been enforced. Child car seats are not available in Vietnam.

Penalties for driving under the influence of alcohol or causing an accident resulting in injury or death can include fines, confiscation of driving permits or imprisonment. U.S. citizens involved in traffic accidents have been barred from leaving Vietnam before paying compensation (often determined arbitrarily) for property damage or injuries. Emergency roadside help is theoretically available nationwide by dialing 113 for police, 114 for fire brigade and 115 for an ambulance. Efficiency of these services is well below U.S. standards, however, and locating a public telephone is often difficult or impossible. Trauma care is not widely available.

The urban speed limit ranges from 30 to 40 km/h. The rural speed limit ranges from 40 to 60 km/h. Both speed limits are routinely ignored. Pedestrians should be careful, as sidewalks are extremely congested and uneven, and drivers of bicycles, motorcycles and other vehicles routinely ignore traffic signals and traffic flows, and even drive on sidewalks. For safety, pedestrians should look carefully in both directions before crossing streets, even when using a marked crosswalk with a green “walk” light illuminated.

International driving permits and U.S. drivers’ licenses are not valid in Vietnam. Foreigners renting vehicles risk prosecution and/or imprisonment for driving without a Vietnamese license endorsed for the appropriate vehicle. Americans who wish to drive in Vietnam should contact any office of the Provincial Public Transportation Service of the Vietnamese Department of Communications and Transport to obtain a Vietnamese driver's license. The U.S. Embassy in Hanoi and Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City cannot assist U.S. citizens in obtaining Vietnamese driver's permits or notarize U.S. drivers’ licenses for use in Vietnam.

Most Vietnamese travel within Vietnam by long-distance bus or train. Both are slow, and safety conditions do not approach U.S. standards. Local buses and taxis are available in some areas, particularly in the larger cities. Safety standards vary widely depending on the individual company operating the service, but are generally much lower than what would be found in the U.S.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As noVietnamese air carriers currently provide direct commercial air service between the United States and Vietnam, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed the Vietnam Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Hotels in Vietnam require that foreigners present their passports (and visas, if issued separately) upon check-in so that their stay can be registered with local police. As such, Americans should be sure to carry these documents with them when changing lodging.

Foreign currency (including cash and travelers’ cheques) in excess of US$7,000, cash exceeding Vietnamese Dong (VND) 15,000,000, and gold exceeding 300 grams must be declared at customs upon arrival and departure. There is no limitation on either the export or import of U.S. dollars or other foreign currency by U.S. citizens, provided that all currency in excess of US$7,000 (or its equivalent in other foreign currencies) or in excess of VND 15,000,000 in cash is declared upon arrival and departure, and supported by appropriate documentation. If excess cash is not declared, it can be confiscated at the port of entry/exit and the passenger may be arrested and/or fined.

Vietnamese law prohibits the export of antiques, but the laws on the subject are vague and unevenly enforced. Antique objects are subject to inspection and seizure by customs authorities with no compensation made to owners/travelers. The determination of what is an “antique” can be arbitrary. Purchasers of non-antique items of value should retain receipts and confirmation from shop owners and/or the Ministry of Culture and the Customs Department to prevent seizure upon departure.

Vietnamese government authorities have seized documents, audio and video tapes, compact discs, literature, and personal letters they deem to be religious, pornographic, political in nature, or intended for religious or political proselytizing. The authorities are also increasingly detaining and expelling individuals believed to be engaged in such activities. Individuals arriving at airports with video-tatapes or materials considered to be pornographic have been detained and heavily fined (up to U.S. $2,000 for one videotape). It is illegal to import weapons, ammunition, explosives, military equipment and tools, narcotics, drugs, toxic chemicals, pornographic and subversive materials, firecrackers, children's toys that have “negative effects on personality development, social order and security,” or cigarettes in excess of the stipulated allowance.

Vietnamese security personnel may place foreign visitors under surveillance. Hotel rooms, telephone conversations, fax transmissions, and e-mail communications may be monitored, and personal possessions in hotel rooms may be searched.

Foreign visitors to Vietnam have been arbitrarily arrested, detained or expelled for activities that would not be considered crimes in the United States. Visitors deemed suspicious by Vietnamese security personnel may be detained, along with their Vietnamese contacts, relatives, and friends. Local security officials have called in some U.S. citizens of Vietnamese origin for “discussions” not related to any suspected or alleged violation of law. These meetings normally do not result in any action against the traveler, but are nevertheless intimidating.

Foreign visitors are not permitted to invite Vietnamese nationals of the opposite sex to their hotel rooms, and police may raid hotels without notice or consent. Couples may be asked to present a Marriage Certificate to local authorities in order to stay together in a hotel or family residence. Involvement in politics, possession of political material, business activities that have not been licensed by appropriate authorities, or non-sanctioned religious activities (including proselytizing) can result in detention. Sponsors of small, informal religious gatherings such as bible-study groups in hotel rooms, as well as distributors of religious materials, have been detained, fined and expelled.

The Vietnamese government has occasionally seized the passports and blocked the departure of foreigners involved in commercial disputes. The U.S. Embassy or Consulate General may issue a new passport to a U.S. citizen in such a situation, but the Vietnamese exit ban could remain in effect, preventing departure.

Taking photographs of anything that could be perceived as being of military or security interest may result in problems with authorities. Tourists should be cautious when traveling near military bases and avoid photographing in these areas.

A 1994 agreement between the United States and Vietnam provides for immediate notification of and reciprocal access within 96 hours to each other's detained citizens. Bearers of U.S. passports, who enter Vietnam with a Vietnamese visa, including those of Vietnamese origin, are regarded as U.S. citizens by the U.S. Government for purposes of notification and access. Therefore, U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry photocopies of passport data and photo pages with them at all times so that, if questioned by Vietnamese officials, proof of U.S. citizenship is readily available.

Despite the 1994 agreement, U.S. consular officers in Vietnam are rarely notified in a timely manner when a U.S. citizen is arrested or detained. There have also generally been very significant delays in obtaining access to incarcerated U.S. citizens. This has been particularly true when the U.S. citizen is being held during the investigatory stage that Vietnamese officials do not consider as covered by the bilateral agreement. The investigatory stage can last up to one year, and often proceeds without the formal filing of any charges. Americans should note that the problem of access has been particularly evident when the U.S. citizen is considered by the Vietnamese government to be a citizen of Vietnam, irrespective of proof of U.S. citizen-ship. U.S. citizens, even dual citizens, have the right, according to the 1994 agreement, to consular access if they were admitted into Vietnam as a U.S. citizen with their U.S. passport, and should insist upon contact with the U.S. Embassy or the U.S. Consulate General.

Civil procedures in Vietnam, such as marriage, divorce, documenting the birth of a child, and issuance of death certificates, are highly bureaucratic, painstakingly slow, and often require chain authentication. Please contact the Vietnamese Embassy in Washington, DC, or the Vietnamese Consulate General in San Francisco concerning documentary requirements for these services.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ signifi-cantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Vietnamese laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or traf-ficking in illegal drugs in Vietnam are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Vietnam are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Vietnam.

Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi is located at 6 Ngoc Khanh, Ba Dinh District, Hanoi, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, telephone: (84-4) 850-5000; after hours emergency telephone number: (84-4) 850-5000; fax: (84-4) 850-5010.

The U.S. Consulate General in Ho Chi Minh City is located at 4 Le Duan, District 1, Ho Chi Minh City, Socialist Republic of Vietnam, tele-phone: (84-8) 822-9433; fax: (84-8) 822-9434.

International Adoption

August 2006

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding.

Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

U.S. Vietnam Bilateral Agreement on Intercountry Adoption: On June 21, 2005, the United States and Vietnam signed a bilateral agreement that laid the groundwork for intercountry adoptions between the two countries to recommence after a two-and-a-half-year hiatus. The agreement entered into force on September 1, 2005, and on January 25, 2006, the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi issued the first orphan immigrant visa to a Vietnamese child adopted by an American family under the agreement framework. As part of its implementation of the new agreement, the Government of Vietnam is requiring all U.S. adoption service providers (ASPs) desiring to operate in Vietnam to be licensed by the Vietnamese Ministry of Justice's Department of International Adoptions (DIA). The DIA has indicated that, with extremely rare exceptions, it will accept adoption applications (“dos-siers”) ONLY through ASPs that have received such licenses. Prospective adoptive parents considering adopting from Vietnam should consult the adoption page of the web site of the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi, http://vietnam.usembassy.gov/orphan_visa.html, where the Embassy is posting the names of American ASPs that have received DIA licenses.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: Overall authority for Vietnamese adoption policy rests with the Ministry of Justice's Department of International Adoptions (DIA) in Hanoi. In addition, however, the Public Security Department, Justice Department and People's Committee of the child's Vietnamese province of residence also have their own important roles in the process.

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: According to the Vietnamese “Law on Marriage and the Family,” adoptive parents must be at least 20 years older than the children they wish to adopt. Only one single person or one married couple may adopt. S/he or they must meet all of the following requirements: have not had their parental rights restricted by authorities, have good ethical qualities, and have the capacity to care for, support, and educate the adoptive child. If married, both persons must meet all requirements. Children up to and including the age of 15 can be adopted. Under Vietnamese law, a child over age nine must consent in writing to his/her adoption.

Civil Status of Prospective Adoptive Parents: Vietnam law permits adoption by married couples (one man, one woman) and single heterosexual persons. Vietnam law prohibits homosexual individuals or couples from adopting Vietnamese children.

Residency Requirements: None.

Time Frame: The Department of International Adoptions and the other Vietnamese government entities involved in the adoption process have established time limits for certain steps of the process, as outlined below. In practice, however, prospective adoptive parents should not be surprised if these steps surpass the stated time frames. This does not necessarily mean there is anything wrong with the case.

Adoption Fees: As of the publication date of this flyer, the Government of Vietnam has not yet posted its list of required fees in conjunction with intercountry adoptions. Currently, adoptive parents pay a 1,000,000 VND fee (approximately USD 65.00) for the submission of dossiers to the Department of International Adoptions. Please consult the adoption page of the web site of the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi, http://vietnam.usembassy.gov/orphan_visa.html, for updates.

Adoption Procedure: When a Vietnamese government-licensed adoption agency receives a request from a client to identify a child available for adoption, the agency contacts an orphanage (generally an orphanage it supports financially). Prospective adoptive parents should verify with their adoption agency whether they may reject the match made by the agency and whether they will have an opportunity to review any medical documentation for the child prior to accepting the match. When an agency has identified a child acceptable to the adopting parent(s), the agency asks the orphanage to release the child for foreign adoption.

The orphanage must demonstrate that the child's biological parent(s), guardian(s), or whoever has legal custody of the child have irrevocably released the child for foreign adoption. In some cases, the orphanage may already have such a release statement on file. Otherwise, the orphanage must obtain the release statement from the parent(s) or guardian(s). The orphanage director then signs a document stating that the orphanage consents to release the child, either to the prospective adoptive parents or their agents. The prospective parents’ names should be specified in the Vietnamese version of this document.

After the agency has obtained all the documents required for the adoption, the agency will present the “dossier” to the Justice Department of the province in which the child has been living. The provincial Justice Department in turn coordinates with the provincial Department of Public Security (police) to review the application, investigate the circumstances under which the child became an orphan, and review the adoption process to ensure than no illegal inducements were provided for the adoption. The provincial Department of Public Security must investigate the proposed adoption within 30 days from the date of the initial request from the Justice Department. This limit can be extended by 15 days if additional investigation is required.

Following its review of the case, including the findings of the Department of Public Security's investigation, the Justice Department gives the completed paperwork and a recommendation for or against the adoption to the provincial People's Committee for review. The Justice Department may disapprove the adoption if it finds that criminal acts may have occurred in the processing of the adoption, if the child does not qualify for adoption under Vietnamese law, or the if adoption is not in the best interests of the child. The People's Committee then has 60 days to decide whether to accept or reject the application for adoption. Once the provincial People's Committee approves the adoption, the agency is notified that the adoptive parents must travel to Vietnam to complete the adoption. The child is formally relinquished to the adoptive parents in a “Giving and Receiving” ceremony held at the provincial Justice Department. At least one of the adoptive parents must be present at this ceremony. Also in attendance are representatives of the orphanage, the People's Committee and the Justice Department. A “Giving and Receiving” document signed by the Justice Department is issued and the adoption is recorded in an adoption registration book. Once the adoption has been registered, the U.S. parent(s) is/ are legally the child's parent(s) under Vietnamese law.

Required Documents: Two (2) sets of the following documents are required: Adoption Application Form; Copies of Passports; Permission from the United Sates to adopt; Medical Certificates that Prospective Adoptive Parent(s) are in good health, not infected with mental diseases and/or contagious diseases; Written proof of financial ability to support the child; Prospective Adoptive Parent(s)’ criminal, judicial records. Depending upon the circumstances of the parties involved, additional documents may be required.

Embassy of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam 1233 20th Street, N.W.
Suite 400
Washington, D.C. 20036
Tel: (202) 861-2293 or (202) 861-0694
Homepage:
http://www.vietnamembassy-usa.org

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adopting parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

U.S. Embassy
Consular Section
6 Ngoc Khanh Hanoi, Vietnam
Email: HanoiAdoptions@state.gov
Tel: (84) (4) 831-4590
Fax: (84) (4) 831-4578
U.S. Mailing Address:
U.S. Embassy Hanoi PSC 461
P.O. Box 400
FPO AP 96521-0002
Home page: http://vietnam.usembassy.gov

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Vietnam may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Vietnam. General questions regarding international adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.