CAMBODIA

Kingdom of Cambodia

Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea

CAPITAL: Phnom Penh

FLAG: The flag has a red center field with a white silhouette of the temple complex at Angkor Wat. The center field is bordered top and bottom by blue bands.

ANTHEM: Nokoreach (Royal Kingdom)

MONETARY UNIT: The new riel (cr) is a paper currency of 100 sen. cr1 = $0.00024 (or $1 = cr4,098) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: Both the metric system and traditional weights and measures are in general use.

HOLIDAYS: National Day, 9 January; New Year, April; Labor Day, 1 May; Feast of the Ancestors, 22 September; Independence Day, 9 November.

TIME: 7 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in the southwest corner of the Indochina Peninsula, Cambodia has an area of 181,040 sq km (69,900 sq mi), extending 730 km (454 mi) ne-sw and 512 km (318 mi) se-nw. It is bounded on the ne by Laos, on the e and se by Vietnam, on the sw by the Gulf of Thailand, and on the w, nw, and n by Thailand, with a total boundary length of 2,572 km (1,598 mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Cambodia is slightly smaller than the state of Okla-homa. In 1982, Cambodia signed an agreement with Vietnam on their mutual maritime frontier. A treaty delineating the land border was signed in December 1985.

Cambodia's capital city, Phnom Penh, is located in the south-central part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Cambodia is a country of forested mountains and well-watered plains. The central part of the country forms a gigantic basin for the Tonle Sap, or Great Lake, and the Mekong River, which flows down from Laos to the southern border with Vietnam. Between the Tonle Sap and the Gulf of Thailand lie the Cardamom Mountains and the Elephant Range, which rise abruptly from the sea and from the eastern plains. In the north, the Dangrek Mountains, 320 km (200 mi) long and 300–750 m (1,000–2,500 ft) high, mark the Thailand frontier. The short coastline has an important natural harbor, Kompong Som Bay (Chhâk Kâmpóng Saôm), where the port of Kompong Som (Kâmpóng Saôm, formerly Sihanoukville) is located.

The Mekong and the Tonle Sap dominate the life and economy of Cambodia. The Mekong overflows during the rainy season, deposits vast quantities of alluvial soil, and, backing toward the Tonle Sap, causes that lake to increase in size from about 2,590 sq km (1000 sq mi) to almost 24,605 sq km (9,500 sq mi).

CLIMATE

The climate is tropical, with a wet season from May through November and a dry season from December to April. Temperatures range from 10–38°c (68–97°f), and humidity is consistently high. Rainfall averages 127–140 cm (50–55 in) in the central basin to about 508 cm (200 in) in the southwestern mountains.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Cambodia, covered in its mountainous areas with dense virgin forests, has a wide variety of plant and animal life. There are palm, rubber, coconut, kapok, mango, banana, and orange trees, as well as the high sharp grass of the savannas. Birds, including cranes, pheasants, and wild ducks, and mammals such as elephants, wild oxen, panthers, and bears abound throughout the country. Fish, snakes, and insects also are present in abundance. As of 2002, there were at least 123 species of mammals and 183 species of birds in the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Deforestation and the resulting soil erosion cause significant environmental problems in Cambodia. By 1985, logging activities, the clearing of the land for agricultural purposes, and the damage from the Vietnam war resulted in the destruction of 116 square miles of forest land. Between 1983 and 1993, the nation's forest and woodland were reduced by an additional 11.3% to 11.7 million ha. In 1995, there were only 9 million ha. The nation has 121.6 cubic km of renewable water resources with 94% used for farming activity and 1% used for industrial purposes. Most rural dwellers do not have access to pure water.

Three-fourths of Cambodia's wildlife areas have been lost through the destruction of its forests, and strip mining for gems in the western part of the country poses an additional threat to the nation's biodiversity and wildlife habitats. Natural fisheries have been endangered by the destruction of Cambodia's mangrove swamps. In 2003, about 18.5% of the total land area was protected. There are three Ramsar wetlands sites.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 23 types of mammals, 24 species of birds, 10 types of reptiles, 3 species of amphibians, 12 species of fish, and 31 species of plants. Endangered species in Cambodia include three species of gibbon (pileated, crowned, and caped), several species of wild dog and wild cat, leopard, tiger, Asian elephant, Sumatran rhinoceros, Thailand brow-antlered deer, kouprey, giant catfish, Indian python, Siamese crocodile, and estuarine crocodile.

POPULATION

The population of Cambodia (Kampuchea) in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 13,329,000, which placed it at number 66 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 37% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 94 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population growth rate for 2005–10 was expected to be 2.2%, a rate the government viewed as too high. In 2004, the government launched a National Population Policy, aimed at educating the population on the connections between high fertility, high population growth, and poverty. The government reported that 30% of women of reproductive age wanted to plan their pregnancies, but lacked the information and resources to do so. The projected population for the year 2025 was 18,939,000. The population density was 74 per sq km (191 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 15% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 5.18%. The capital city, Phnom Penh, had a population of 1,157,000 in that year. Other cities include Băttâmbâng, Kâmpóng Cham, Kâmpôt, Siĕmréab, Kâmpóng Saôm, and Krâchéh. A great majority of the people live in rural areas, with 90% of the rural population living in the plains of the central third of the country.

Estimates of Cambodia's population vary with the assessment of the impact of the 1970–75 war and the millions killed in its tumultuous aftermath. At the war's end, in April 1975, the population of the capital, Phnom Penh, had swollen to nearly 3 million because of a mass influx of refugees. The new government immediately embarked on a forced evacuation of all urban areas, and by March 1976, only 100,000–200,000 were thought to remain in Phnom Penh. After the installation of the PRK in 1979, the population of Phnom Penh began to increase. As of 2005, Cambodia had one of the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection in Asia.

MIGRATION

The first migration of persons in independent Cambodia took place during the 1950s and 1960s, when ethnic Chinese were permitted to settle in the mountainous and wasteland areas and cultivate land that otherwise would have remained unproductive. After 1970, about 200,000 Vietnamese living in Cambodia were repatriated to the Vietnam ostensibly as a security measure. With the insurgent victory in April 1975, most of the country's remaining Vietnamese were reported to have emigrated to Vietnam. In addition, thousands of refugees, including many former officials and military personnel, fled across the Thai border or were evacuated by US aircraft.

The new government launched a sweeping nationwide resettlement program under which some 2.5–3 million persons were moved from Phnom Penh and other cities into the countryside, where they were organized into work brigades. The food shortage in rural areas was only slightly less critical than in the cities, and widespread starvation led to the deaths of an estimated one million people during the transition. After the installation of the new government in January 1979, continued fighting and political instability resulted in a new exodus of refugees. About 630,000 Cambodians left the country between 1979 and 1981, of which about 208,000 were able to resettle in other countries, including 136,000 in the United States. Most of the rest remained in camps on the border with Thailand, but they were repatriated to Cambodia in May 1993.

Between 1979 and 1987 there was a new migration of ethnic Vietnamese into Cambodia. Official sources insisted that the total number was under 60,000, and was comprised, for the most part, of residents who had left in the early 1970s; opposition groups contended that the number totaled over 500,000 and was intended to consolidate Vietnamese control over the country.

In 1997, the conflicts between government forces and the National Army of Democratic Kampuchea (Khmer Rouge) drove rural populations from their homes. In 1997 and 1998, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) assisted up to 60,000 Cambodian refugees who had fled the fighting in north-west Cambodia. Also in 1997, the UNHCR helped several thousand ethnic Vietnamese fisher families return to their Cambodian homes after having camped on the Vietnam border. Following the peace settlement between the government of Cambodia and resistance forces in December 1998, the repatriation of approximately 36,000 refugees remaining in camps in Thailand was rapidly implemented. By April 1999, all of the camps were closed, and by June 1999 some 47,000 refugees had returned home. In 2000 there were 211,000 noncitizen residents living in Cambodia.

In Cambodia as of 2004, 382 people were registered as refugees and another 316 were registered as asylum seekers. Also in 2004, over 14,00 Cambodians sought refuge in France. The net migration rate for Cambodia in 2005 was estimated as zero. The government continued to view the emigration level as too high.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Over 90% of the entire population are ethnic Khmers, descendants of the original population in the area. The largest minority groups are the Vietnamese, estimated at 5% of the population, and the Chinese, estimated at 1%. Groups designated as other comprise the remaining 4% of the population. National minorities are the Cham and a number of small tribal groups.

LANGUAGES

Khmer, the national language, is spoken by about 95% of all inhabitants. Unlike Thai or Vietnamese, Khmer is a nontonal language; most words are monosyllabic. French, the second language, is often used in commercial and official circles. The Vietnamese and the Chinese use their own languages, as do other minorities. English is also spoken.

RELIGIONS

Buddhism has been the state religion since 1989. About 93% of all inhabitants practice either Hinayana or Theravada Buddhism. It is believed that most people also practice some forms of animism. The Chinese and most Vietnamese in Cambodia practice a traditional mixture of Mahayana Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, ancestor worship, and animism. In 2004, there were about 700,000 Muslims, representing the four branches: Shafi, Wahhabi, ImanSan, and Kadiani. The ethnic Chams are predominantly Muslim. Less than 1% of the population is Christian, with over 100 separate organizations represented. There are also small groups of the Vietnamese Cao Dai religion and Baha'is.

In 1975, the government virtually abolished Buddhism, defrocking some 70,000 monks and turning pagodas into warehouses. Islamic spokesmen have claimed that 90% of Cambodia Muslims were massacred after 1975. Of some 6,000 Roman Catholics left in Cambodia at the time of the revolution, only a few survived. All mosques and Catholic churches were razed. The PRK regime that came to power in 1979 permitted the return of religious practice, and hundreds of pagodas were reopened. In insurgent areas controlled by the Khmer Rouge, Buddhism was allowed after 1979, and in non-Communist resistance camps there reportedly was full freedom of religion.

The constitution provides for freedom of religion and the government reportedly respects this right in practice. All religious groups register through the Ministry of Cults and religious Affairs in order to build places of worship and freely conduct religious activities.

TRANSPORTATION

Land transport facilities suffered wholesale destruction during the 1970–75 war. Cambodia's first railway, a 385-km (239-mi) single track from Phnom Penh to Paoy Pet, was badly damaged in the fighting; moreover, a just-completed 262-km (163-mi) line from Phnom Penh to Kampong Sam was also disabled. The line to Kampong Sam was restored in November 1979, and a Phnom Penh-Băttâmbâng railway was reopened in February 1980. Rail service has been periodically disrupted by guerrilla operations. In 2004, rail trackage totaled 602 km (374 mi) of 1.000m narrow gauge track.

All major cities and towns are connected with Phnom Penh by highway, and from there roads connect to Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. The US-built 214-km (133-mi) Khmer-America Friendship Highway links Phnom Penh with Kampong Sam. As of 2002, Cambodia had an estimated 35,769 km (22,226 mi) of main roads, of which only 4,165 km (2,588 mi) were paved; most are in poor condition.

The Mekong is the most important inland waterway. Total length of navigable waterways is 3,700 km (2,300 mi) for craft drawing 0.6 meters, but only 282 km (175 mi) for craft with a draft of 1.8 meters. The river port of Phnom Penh has been upgraded. Until 1975, Saigon was the major transshipment point for outgoing and incoming Cambodian goods; the opening of the deepwater port of Kompong Som made Cambodia largely independent of Vietnam for oceangoing shipping. In 2005, Cambodia's merchant fleet totaled 479 ships (1,000 GRT or over) with a capacity of 1,913,910 GRT.

As of 2004, Cambodia had an estimated 20 airports, of which 6 had paved runways, and two heliports (as of 2005). The main airport is at Phnom Penh; there are regular flights between Phnom Penh, Hanoi, Vientiane, and Ho Chi Minh City. In 2003, airline passenger traffic totaled about 116,000 passengers.

HISTORY

Most Cambodians are descendants of the Khmers, who in the 6th century established the Indian-influenced Angkor Empire, and for the next 900 years ruled the area of present-day Cambodia. According to legend, the founder of the Khmer dynasty was Kampu Svayambhuva, from whose name "Kampuchea" derives. From the 10th to the 14th century, after years of military expansion, the Khmers reached their apogee. Their empire extended over most of Southeast Asia (from central Vietnam south-west into the Malay Peninsula, and from Thailand north to the border of Burma, now known as Myanmar). Angkor, the capital city, was a flourishing complex of great temples, palaces, and shrines. In the subsequent centuries, however, continuing attacks by the Thai (who captured Angkor in 1431) and the Vietnamese weakened the empire, and by the end of the 18th century much of Cambodia had become a Thai and Vietnamese condominium. In 1863, the king of Cambodia placed the country under French protection. The French, joining Cambodia to Laos and Vietnam to form French Indochina, ruled the protectorate until the end of World War II. Cambodian nationalism received its greatest impetus during the World War II period, while Japan controlled Indochina. King Norodom Sihanouk, who had ascended the throne in 1941 and had been held a virtual prisoner under the Japanese occupation, proclaimed Cambodia independent in 1945, but yielded before a temporary resumption of the French protectorate, enforced by Allied troops, which occupied Phnom Penh. Cambodia became a constitutional monarchy on 6 May 1947, and was granted nominal independence within the French Union on 9 November 1949. King Sihanouk, meanwhile, had assumed leadership of Cambodia's growing nationalist movement. On 17 October 1953, during the height of the Franco-Indochinese war, he was granted full military control of his country by France. Sihanouk, a skilled politician, abdicated in March 1955 in favor of his father and mother, King Suramarit and Queen Kossamak, and then emerged as prime minister with the unanimous support of the national legislature. King Suramarit died on 31 April 1960, but Prince Sihanouk, although retaining the title of chief of state, did not return to the throne. During the Franco-Indochinese war, Communist-controlled Viet-Minh troops from Vietnam operated in Cambodia (1954), and gave support to a small Khmer Communist movement.

The Geneva agreements of July 1954, which ended the Fran-co-Indochinese war, secured the withdrawal of French and Viet-Minh troops from Cambodia and the surrender of most of the Khmer rebels. During the next 15 years, Sihanouk sought to keep Cambodia neutral in the deepening Vietnam conflict. This proved increasingly difficult, however, as the National Liberation Front (also known as the Viet-Cong) used Cambodian border areas as bases from which to launch attacks on the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, or South Vietnam), and as the United States in 1969 launched an undeclared air war against the guerrilla sanctuaries. On 18 March 1970, Marshal Lon Nol, prime minister and army chief, overthrew the chief of state, Prince Sihanouk, while the prince was on a visit to the USSR; the right-wing coup ended 1,168 years of rule by Khmer monarchs. Sihanouk thereupon took up residence in Beijing, where, on 5 May, he announced formation of the Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea (GRUNK) under the political auspices of the National United Front of Kampuchea. In the interim, on 30 April, US president Richard M. Nixon announced an "incursion" into Cambodia of 30,000 US and 40,000 Vietnamese troops, with the object of destroying their opponents' strongholds along the Vietnam border. The operation was terminated on 30 June with its military objectives apparently unfulfilled, and bombing of the region continued, to devastating effect on Cambodia's economy.

Formal diplomatic relations with the United States, severed by Sihanouk in 1965, were resumed on 2 July 1970, and Sihanouk was condemned to death (in absentia) three days later. On 9 October, the Lon Nol government in Phnom Penh abolished the monarchy and changed Cambodia's name to the Khmer Republic. In elections held during June 1972, Lon Nol was elected president of the republic. Pressures from GRUNK insurgents continued to mount, especially following the conclusion of a ceasefire in Vietnam in January 1973 and the withdrawal of the last US troops from that country in March. US aid to the Lon Nol government had been substantial, totaling $1.18 billion in military supplies and $503 million in economic assistance for the whole of the 1970–75 period, but with most of the aid concentrated in the early years of direct involvement. With the reversal of US policy in Vietnam, however, support for the Khmer Republic began to taper off, and by the start of 1975, the Lon Nol government was plunged into a struggle for survival. In January, GRUNK military forces, generally referred to as the Khmer Rouge, launched a major offensive aimed at gaining control of the Mekong River and isolating Phnom Penh. Fierce and costly fighting ensued over the next three months, with the United States undertaking a massive airlift to Phnom Penh in February to fend off starvation and military collapse. On 1 April, the strategic Mekong ferry crossing at Neak Luong fell to the insurgents, clearing the way to a direct, final assault on the capital. On that day, Lon Nol fled the country, to be followed by much of the ruling hierarchy. On 17 April, the Khmer Republic government officially capitulated to GRUNK forces, commanded by Khieu Samphan.

The GRUNK government reported in March 1976 that the war had resulted in one million casualties, including 800,000 killed. On 5 January 1976, the country was officially renamed Democratic Kampuchea (DK). On 20 March, the first general elections were held for a new 250-member People's Assembly. The Assembly on 14 April named Khieu Samphan chairman of the State Presidium, replacing Prince Sihanouk, who had returned to the country in September 1975, as head of state. Pol Pot was named prime minister. Even before these political reforms were undertaken, the GRUNK government had undertaken a massive—and perhaps unprecedented—reorganization of the country's economic and social life. As an initial step, the new government ordered the neartotal evacuation of Phnom Penh, where food, shelter, and medical resources had been stretched to the limit by the press of some 2.5 million refugees. The country was thereupon plunged into almost complete isolation, even from its neighbors in Vientiane and Hanoi. Currency was abolished, social relations completely overhauled, religion almost eradicated, education suspended, and families divided. From two million to three million people may have died from starvation, exhaustion, disease, or massacre under the Pol Pot (Cambodian Communist leader Saloth Sar) regime.

Meanwhile, tensions with Vietnam (traditional enemy of Cambodia until 1976 and again after 1989) were growing, and there were border clashes during 1977 and 1978. In December 1978, Vietnam invaded Cambodia with a force of more than 100,000 troops; by January 1979, they had installed a pro-Vietnamese government, the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK), headed by Heng Samrin, a former division commander in the GRUNK army. The PRK had to contend with resistance from the very beginning, and the Khmer Rouge rebels, who had fled to the jungles in the west and south, continued to harass the government despite Vietnamese counteroffensives. In order to improve its international standing, the Khmer Rouge began in 1981 to pursue a united-front strategy; Pol Pot, branded with the 1975–79 atrocities, reportedly withdrew into the background, and Khieu Samphan, supposedly the most moderate of the Khmer Rouge leaders, emerged as chief spokesman. In 1982, the Khmer Rouge formed the Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK), with two noncommunist factions led by Prince Sihanouk and a former politician, Son Sann. The fighting during 1982–83 reflected a pattern of PRK and Vietnamese dry-season offensives alternating with an upsurge of guerrilla operations during the wet season. Militarily, the PRK and Vietnam appeared firmly in control at the end of 1987; diplomatically, however, the PRK had won recognition only from Vietnam, the former USSR, and their allies, with most nations joining the United States and China in giving qualified support to the CGDK. In March 1986, an eight-point plan to settle the Cambodian conflict was issued by the leaders of the coalition.

Progress towards a peaceful settlement had an uneven course in 1988. Prince Sihanouk resigned, retracted his resignation, and resigned again as president of the Democratic Kampuchean Government-in-exile. Informal meetings in Indonesia, one in July shunned by Prince Sihanouk and the other in October ignored by the Khmer Rouge, made no progress on peace plans. However, a subsequent announcement supported the creation of an international peacekeeping force. A conciliatory statement made in August 1988 indicated the Khmer Rouge was ready to reduce its armed forces to the level of the other Cambodian factions. Vietnam announced the repatriation of 50,000 troops from Cambodia in 1988 and the complete withdrawal of troops by late 1989, or early 1990. In January of 1989 Heng Samrin pledged that, if a political settlement could be achieved, all Vietnamese troops would be repatriated by September. Further encouraging gestures were made by Vietnam, China, and Thailand: Thai and Vietnamese officials met in Hanoi; Vietnamese and Chinese ministers met in Beijing; and, Thailand abandoned its policy of isolating the Heng Samrin government and invited talks with them. In 1989 Prince Sihanouk resumed leadership of the Democratic Kampuchean Government-in-exile, later resigning from leadership of the National Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCINPEC). In protest of Thaiand's contact with the Heng Samrin government, Sihanouk refused to attend a second "informal meeting" in Jakarta. This meeting still failed to resolve two outstanding major issues: the make-up of an international force to oversee troop withdrawals and the composition of an interim government before elections. As a further sign of its commitment to change, in April 1989 an extraordinary session of Cambodia's National Assembly ratified amendments to the Constitution: the name of the country was changed to the State of Cambodia (SOC), a new national flag, emblem and anthem were introduced; Buddhism was reinstated as the state religion; and the death penalty abolished. Hun Sen met in Bangkok with the Thai prime minister who appealed for a ceasefire among the four Cambodian factions [The government of the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP) installed by the Vietnamese (the Heng Samrin government), and three antigovernment groups that comprised the umbrella organization, the national Government of Cambodia (NGC): FUNCINPEC, the Khmer Rouge, and the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF)]; the Khmer Rouge rejected this suggestion. In July 1989 Hun Sen and Prince Sihanouk met in Paris prior to the Paris International Conference on Cambodia (PICC). In September 1989 Vietnam completed the timely withdrawal of its forces from Cambodia. Throughout 1988 and 1989 the Khmer Rouge forces continued to make military gains in Cambodia. The UN adopted a resolution supporting the formation of an interim government that included the Khmer Rouge, although past atrocities of the Khmer Rouge were alluded to indirectly.

In January 1990 the UN Security Council approved an Australian peace initiative—UN monitored ceasefire, the temporary assumption of executive powers by the UN secretary-general, formation of a national supreme council, and the holding of internationally supervised elections. Prince Sihanouk resigned as Supreme Commander of the High Council of National Defense and leader of the resistance coalition, but retained his position as President of Democratic Kampuchea. In February 1990 the Government-in-exile of Democratic Kampuchea was formally renamed by Sihanouk as the National Government of Cambodia and restored the traditional flag and anthem. This change distanced the coalition from association with the Khmer Rouge's former regime, Democratic Kampuchea (DK). (The DK had been named the Khmer Rouge by Sihanouk.) In a third meeting held in Jakarta in February the four Cambodian factions as well as representatives of Vietnam, Laos, ASEAN, France, and Australia met and agreed to the main principles of the UN plan. Prince Sihanouk resumed the presidency of the resistance coalition in May and in June he and Hun Sen signed a conditional ceasefire in Bangkok. In June a meeting in Tokyo was attended by representatives of all four Cambodian factions including Hun Sen and Prince Sihanouk. The Khmer Rouge, however, refused to sign a ceasefire agreement and proposed that each faction should have equal representation on a supreme national council. Prince Sihanouk offered support for the Khmer Rouge proposal, despite his previous agreement with Hun Sen; the discussions collapsed. In June and July reformist political allies of Hun Sen were dismissed or arrested for alleged attempts to establish a new party. Supporters of conservative Chea Sim, Chairman of the National Assembly, replaced them. Also in July the United States withdrew its support for the National Government of Cambodia's occupation of Cambodia's seat at the UN and indicated willingness to provide humanitarian assistance for the Phnom Penh regime. The UN Security Council in late August endorsed a plan for a comprehensive settlement in Cambodia: UN supervision of an interim government, military arrangements for the transitional period, free elections, and guarantees for the future neutrality of Cambodia. In addition, a special representative of the UN secretary-general would oversee the proposed United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC). The UN would also assume control of government ministries. Both China and the former USSR subsequently pledged to cease providing supplies of military equipment to their respective allies, the Khmer Rouge and the Phnom Penh regime. In reversals of previous policy the United States announced it would hold talks with the Phnom Penh regime, and the USSR declared that it would hold talks with Prince Sihanouk. The four Cambodian factions accepted the UN proposals at an "informal meeting" in Jakarta in September 1990. In addition, they agreed to the formation of the Supreme National Council (SNC), with six representatives each from the National Government of Cambodia and Phnom Penh regime. The SNC was to occupy the Cambodian seat at the UN General Assembly. At its first meeting in September the SNC failed to elect a chairman. The Khmer Rouge heightened military action in the northern provinces. Even as the final draft of the peace plan was prepared by the UN Security Council the Phnom Penh regime continued to oppose the principal provisions of the plan. In December all 12 members of the SNC attended another meeting of the PICC and all factions endorsed most components of the UN plan.

The SOC replaced three of its six SNC members in February 1991. In May a temporary cease-fire was agreed upon by the four factions in order to facilitate discussions. In June the Khmer Rouge refused to discuss SNC leadership issues, requiring the Phnom Penh regime's prior acceptance of the full terms of the UN peace plan, and the Khmer Rouge refused to comply with a proposed extension of the temporary cease-fire. Prince Sihanouk became an ordinary member of the SNC chairing a meeting in Thailand where all four factions resolved several issues: implementation of an indefinite cease-fire, pledges not to receive further foreign military aid, approval of a flag and anthem for the SNC, and establishment of Phnom Penh as the headquarters for the SNC. Prince Sihanouk was elected to the chairmanship of the SNC and resigned as leader of the resistance coalition and as president of the National Government of Cambodia. His replacement in both positions was Son Sann. From August through October the SNC worked out the details of the armed forces reduction and election procedures. Elections would be held to establish a constituent assembly comprised of 120 seats, which would subsequently become a legislative assembly. The electoral system would be proportional representation based on the 21 provinces. The constituent assembly would be empowered to adopt a new constitution. In October the SOC released hundreds of political prisoners including associates of Hun Sen arrested in 1990 for starting a political party. The Kampuchean (or Khmer) People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP), the communist party aligned with the Vietnamese communist movement, changed its name to the Cambodian People's Party (CPP), removed the hammer and sickle from the party emblem, and replaced Heng Samrin as Chairman of the Central Committee with the conservative Chea Sim. Reformist Hun Sen was elected vice-chairman of the CPP.

On 23 October 1991 what was hoped to be an end to 13 years of war in Cambodia was achieved with the signing of the Comprehensive Political Settlement for Cambodia by the 4 Cambodian factions and 19 participating countries. The agreement called for the creation of a United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) to carry out the peacekeeping operations which included the demobilization of 70% of each faction's army and enforcement of a cease-fire; verifying the withdrawal of foreign forces; administering the country until an election in 1993 by taking over certain portfolios; assuring that human rights were maintained; and the repatriation of 600,000 refugees and internally displaced people. In November a threat to the tenuous peace process occurred when a mob attacked Khmer Rouge leaders Khieu Samphan and Son Sen in a Phnom Penh villa. The SNC government's response was slow, and it was alleged that Hun Sen sanctioned this incident and that Vietnamese officials were involved in it. In December violent student demonstrations protesting against high-level corruption and in support of human rights were suppressed by the armed forces and in later demonstrations several protestors were killed. Several high-level government officials were dismissed based on the corruption charges.

In January 1992 the four factions approved the formation of political associations and the promotion of freedom of expression. However, on 22 January, Tea Bun Long, minister for religious affairs and an outspoken critique of corruption, was killed. On 28 January, Oung Phan, organizer of a new political party emphasizing anticorruption, was shot but survived. These and other arrests, threats, and disappearances were viewed as intimidation by the secret police geared at undermining the peace process and free elections, and served to intimidate government critics. Yasushi Akashi, the Japanese UN Under Secretary-General for Disarmament Affairs, was appointed as the UN Special Representative to Cambodia in charge of UNTAC. The UN Security Council authorized mine clearing operations, the dispatch of a 22,000 member peace keeping force to establish UNTAC, at an estimated cost of $2 billion.

In September 1991 approximately 5% of the Cambodian population was in refugee camps along the Thai-Cambodian border, 340,000 refugees in border area camps, and another 190,000 refugees within Cambodia. The plan was to move refugees to transit camps in Thailand, then on to six reception centers in Cambodia, and finally to villages. In October the Khmer Rouge began to forcibly repatriate tens of thousands of civilians in UN refugee camps to areas under its control in Cambodia. International reaction prevented the Khmer Rouge from forcibly repatriating inhabitants of the Khmer Rouge controlled camp, Site 8, just one of the eight refugee camps. The UNTAC refugee repatriation program began in March, in spite of ceasefire violations between the Khmer Rouge and the State of Cambodia forces. Throughout 1992 the Khmer Rouge denied free access to the zones it controlled, refused to comply with the disarmament phase, violated the cease-fire agreement, played upon long-standing racial/ethnic tensions by contending that Vietnamese soldiers were concealed in Cambodia, complained that the UN peacekeepers were not impartial to them, failed to attend meetings, and demanded the dismantling of the Phnom Penh regime as a precondition for the implementation of the peace accords, amongst other demands.

In May 1992 the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF), the political and military party formed by Son Sann for the purpose of resisting the Vietnamese, was transformed into a political party called the Buddhist Liberal Democracy Party (BLDP) and still headed by Son Sann. FUNCINPEC also became a party, headed by Prince Ranariddh. At a Ministerial Conference on the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia held in Tokyo in June, the application of economic sanctions against the Khmer Rouge was considered and 33 donor nations and 12 nongovernmental organizations attending the conference pledged $880 million to finance the peacekeeping operation. In August Akashi, the head of UNTAC, approved elections, and the registration of parties began. He also affirmed that the elections would proceed without the participation of the Khmer Rouge if it continued to refuse to cooperate. The demands of the Khmer Rouge were impossible to meet and were viewed as efforts to gain territory in order to increase its representation in the proposed national assembly, perhaps with as much as 35% of the population (a tactic laid down by Pol Pot in a 1988 speech). In September the Khmer Rouge made two new demands: the resignation of Akashi and a redrawn border between Cambodian and Vietnam. This latter demand referred to territory allegedly annexed by Vietnam that would make the elections incomplete if not returned to Cambodia. The Khmer Rouge protested an electoral law drafted by UNTAC that enfranchised citizens aged more than 18 years whose parents or grandparents were born in Cambodia, effectively permitting Vietnamese immigrants to take part in the election.

October 1992 UNTAC began voter registration. The Khmer Rouge boycotted voter registration and escalated destruction of bridges and roads, effectively cutting off its territory in the northeast from the rest of the country. The UN Security Council set a November deadline for the Khmer Rouge's compliance with the terms of the peace accord, but eventually extended the deadline to 31 January 1993 as the Khmer Rouge's last chance to participate in the elections. The Security Council also approved an embargo on supplies of petroleum products to the Khmer Rouge and a ban on timber exports (a principal source of income for the Khmer Rouge). The Khmer Rouge announced the formation of the Cambodian National Unity Party to contest the elections on the day the UN resolution was adopted. Ethnic and racial tensions were increasing as the Khmer Rouge incited and escalated actions against the Vietnamese based on deep-rooted Cambodian sentiments towards the Vietnamese. In December the KPNLF joined the Khmer Rouge in the ethnic cleansing of the "Vietnamese germs." Six members of the UN peacekeeping forces were seized and held for a few days by the Khmer Rouge in December 1992.

In January 1993 Prince Sihanouk ceased cooperation with UNTAC and suggested that a presidential election be held prior to the legislative election, but in February he reversed his position. Voter registration was completed in February; registered voters numbered 4.5 million and 20 political parties were registered. The election was set for May 23–25, 1993. The CPP intimidated its political rivals with attacks and stopped the gradual expansion of the Khmer Rouge into Phnom Penh government territory. In a dry season offensive the SOC attacked three of four of the Khmer Rouge's most important zones.

In early 1993 the Khmer Rouge refused to disarm and attacked UN offices, cars, helicopters, and personnel. In addition to the Khmer Rouge's accusations of collusion between UNTAC and the SOC, the presence of the UN forces was a source of growing tension and dissatisfaction in Cambodia. Inflation, official corruption, and crime were increasing and UNTAC's presence and policies were blamed. The Khmer Rouge issued their own currency, thus emphasizing steps toward further partition. In a secret speech a year earlier (6 February 1992), Pol Pot had set out an incremental approach by which the Khmer Rouge could gain popular strength which he considered more important than land: develop local autonomy; set up a money economy with their own banks which would hold the surplus earnings of farmers (projected to be 30% of earnings); distribute land, sell land in order to support the army, and continue to fight the yuon (savage), or Vietnamese. As the Khmer Rouge again refused to disarm and take part in the elections, it appeared to follow this program as it also increased attacks on Vietnamese fishermen and their families, killing 34 and injuring 29 in March at the floating village of Chong Kneas. Furthermore, citing its allegations that UNTAC colluded with the Vietnamese aggressors and rubber stamped the Vietnamese occupation, the Khmer Rouge refused to cooperate with the peace process. The UN goal was to have all refugees back in Cambodia by mid-April for elections. By 19 March, some 330,000 refugees were repatriated. A cash inducement had been added as incentive ($50 for adults and $25 for children) and this rapidly accelerated the process. Roughly 87% had taken the cash option, nearly one–third going to Phnom Penh; 80–85% of the returnees chose areas under Phnom Penh government (Hun Sen) control, (about 85% of the country's) territory; 10% chose areas controlled by the Khmer People's National Liberation Front; 2% chose zones controlled by forces loyal to Prince Sihanouk; and 1% chose Khmer Rouge areas. In April the Khmer Rouge closed its office in Phnom Penh and slipped out of the city; it pledged to prevent the planned elections. A Japanese UN worker was killed and eventually 30 of the 460 volunteers for the election work resigned. In May the Khmer Rouge mounted its boldest offensives yet with targets defined for maximum political impact including major cities; they took briefly the Siem Reap airport. Under these pressures UNTAC abandoned 400 of its 1800 polling places.

The election took place 23–28 May 1993; four million Cambodians or 85% of those registered voted. FUNCINPEC won the election with 45% of the vote, or 58 of 120 seats in the constituent assembly; the CPP took 38% of the votes, or 51 seats in the assembly; the BLDP had over 3% of the votes, which gave them 10 seats; and, MOULINAKA (Movement for the Liberation of Kampuchea, a proSihanouk group formed in 1979 by Kong Sileah, considered an offshoot of FUNCINPEC) took one seat. The constituent assembly had three months within which to draft a constitution and form a new government. To the CPP its political defeat was an unacceptable surprise and it demanded a revote and threatened riots; the Khmer Rouge denounced the CPP for contesting the election. The CPP's 51 assemblymen were technocrats and education officials (people who never wielded power within the party); this supported the belief that the CPP paid only lip service to constitutional arrangements as it maintained its grip on power. The CPP's two leaders, hardliner Chea Sim and reformer Hun Sen, were foci of an internal struggle. In a move towards cooperation FUNCINPEC leader Prince Norodom Ranariddh and CPP Primer Minister Hun Sen served as cochairmen of the government, and control of the major ministries was divided, with FUNCINPEC getting the finance and foreign affairs portfolios while the CPP retained the Information Ministry. The CPP had 200,000 armed forces and 40,000 national police; FUNCINPEC's armed forces numbered 5,000. In August for the first time the three government factions, royalist FUNCINPEC, former Phnom Penh ruling regime CPP, and the BLDP, agreed to joint military operations. The Khmer Rouge would not be allowed to enter the political mainstream until it agreed to unconditionally join the unified armed forces and open up areas under its control, estimated to be 20% of Cambodia.

Cambodia's new constitution was adopted on 21 September 1993. Prince Norodom Sihanouk was crowned king, resuming the title first bestowed on him in 1941. In an attempt to restore central control of the economy to the government on December 28 the National Assembly passed a national budget and financial laws. These new laws stripped individuals of the power to collect taxes independently and by law all revenue would be channeled to the national treasury. Minister of Economics and Finance, Sam Rainsy, set about to root out official corruption and centralize Cambodia's budget. The entrenched businesses protested, but Rainsy received the backing of Sihanouk and international lending institutions. The two co-prime ministers, First Premier Norodom Ranariddh and Second Premier Hun Sen, asked King Sihanouk for sanction to fire Rainsy, but instead received a statement praising Rainsy, who was becoming a popular hero. King Sihanouk also urged the government to grant total freedom to the domestic and foreign press.

Within the SOC there was significant difference of opinion on how to deal with the Khmer Rouge. FUNCINPEC's Ranariddh counted on diplomacy to isolate the Khmer Rouge while using development aid and investment for poverty reduction and infrastructure improvement. On the other hand, many of his counterparts in Hun Sen's CPP sought a military solution to the Khmer Rouge problem. There was consensus, however, that Cambodia should look to Malaysia's experience with the Malayan Communist Party, which consisted of marginalizing the Malaysian communists. UNTAC's failure to disarm the Khmer Rouge was a burden for the new government. The Khmer Rouge was emerging with its prestige enhanced, territory expanded, and weaponry intact. Cambodia had been critical of the role Thailand played in supporting the Khmer Rouge, and renewed its appeals to Thai neutrality. The Khmer Rouge presence benefited Thailand by aiding in securing its border, and with lucrative trade in gems, timber, and armaments. The Khmer Rouge radio station was located inside Thai territory.

The government captured Pailin, official headquarters of the Khmer Rouge on 19 March 1994, but the Khmer Rouge retook it one month later. The dry season campaign by the government against the Khmer Rouge was a failure. Both sides were scheduled to resume peace negotiations during 2–7 May. The Khmer Rouge looked to its military successes as leverage for a power sharing compromise with the government; Sihanouk sought to make deals that gave the Khmer Rouge some key posts in return for laying down its arms and opening areas under its control. One year after the elections major problems were security, corruption, and the economy. Corruption included national assembly members keeping their seats while serving in other branches of government; parties swelling the number of senior officers and civil servants as they vied to match each other in number and in rank; and the National Assembly voting themselves a raise equal to 100 times that of a typical soldier. The economy was undermined by continuing military activity, and privatization was stalled by lack of capital and skilled workers, and political instability.

On 3 July 1994 there was a coup attempt. Less than 300 troops were involved and it was directed against FUNCINPEC, and possibly Hun Sen as well, by hard line figures at the highest levels of the CPP attempting to take over the government. After the coup attempt the National Assembly voted to outlaw the Khmer Rouge and seize its assets, a move that was partly directed at Thailand. The Khmer Rouge's response was to announce the formation of a parallel government, with its headquarters in northern Cambodia and Khieu Samphan as president.

In July 1994, it was estimated that 55,000 Cambodians were again fleeing Khmer Rouge attacks in the western provinces. For the first time since the 1970s, the United States provided military aid to Cambodia. The need to remove the land mines infesting the fields of Cambodia became a high priority. Mines may have inflicted more wounds than any other weapon, and Cambodia has the world's highest percentage of physically disabled persons. As foreign advisors sought to strengthen the country's human rights laws, ethnic considerations were raised. Cambodia's constitution fails to guarantee basic rights for racial groups other than ethnic Cambodians. The definition of Cambodians does include ethnic minority Chams and Chinese, but excludes ethnic Vietnamese.

The Khmer Rouge began to weaken in 1995, with mass defections of guerrilla fighters. The government remained worried by the hard core of dedicated Khmer Rouge rebels and their leaders, who remained at large in northern and western strongholds. Tensions continued within the fragile coalition government, with the CPP fighting off royalist political movements wherever they cropped up. There were also factional disputes within each of the coalition parties. Sam Rainsy's role as an opponent of foreign aidto Cambodia's "undemocratic" government earned him the condemnation of FUNCINPEC and the CPP. The Khmer National Party, formed by Sam Rainsy, was officially unrecognized. Internal rivalries essentially disbanded the government's third partner, the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party.

Marginalization of the Khmer Rouge continued in 1996, as the group split between the leadership of ailing Pol Pot and a breakaway faction headed by Ieng Sary. In late 1996, Ieng Sary received a royal pardon, and his force became the object of courtship by CPP and FUNCINPEC. The government parties sought the votes and arms of Ieng Sary's supporters, plotting against each other in the process. This jockeying for position, accompanied by political violence and rumors of coups, continued into 1997.

In February 1997, FUNCINPEC's Ranariddh began an alliance with Sam Rainsy in strong opposition to Hun Sen's CPP. Hun Sen announced in March that he would seek to amend the constitution to prevent members of the royal family from involvement in politics, a direct hit at Ranariddh, Prince Sihanouk's son. Hints of negotiations between Ranariddh and the Khmer Rouge fueled Hun Sen's fears about his government "partner." A demonstration on 30 March, by Sam Rainsy's supporters, was attacked with hand grenades, which killed several protesters and wounded scores. The violence and tensions came to a head on 2 July, with open fighting between forces loyal to FUNCINPEC and CPP. A brief coup d'etat set up Hun Sen as the sole power in charge. Ranariddh fled Cambodia and Hun Sen's forces killed many of Ranariddh's party leaders and supporters in the days immediately following the coup.

Hun Sen moved to establish CPP legitimacy, with the party winning a flawed national election in July 1998 with 41.4% of the vote to FUNCINPEC's 31.7%. Ranariddh was able to return as an opposition leader, and he, along with Sam Rainsy, whose party gained 14.3% of the vote, condemned the election as rigged. Foreign aid, suspended due to the coup, resumed. Throughout 1998, the Khmer Rouge continued to disintegrate, as Pol Pot, the architect of their genocidal regime, died on 15 April and other leaders surrendered or were captured.

With the entire top echelon of living Khmer Rouge leaders in custody, Cambodian government concerns from 1999 through 2001 centered on how to bring them to justice. Hun Sen's preference was for a series of trials conducted within Cambodia's own legal system, while the UN, fearing mere "show trials," called for an international tribunal. Compromises involving foreign judges participating in the Cambodian trials were proposed.

In August 2001, King Sihanouk signed legislation creating a special tribunal to prosecute the Khmer Rouge members responsible for the deaths of an estimated 1.7 million people through execution, torture, starvation, and hard labor. The trials were to be presided over by three Cambodian judges and two foreign judges, but further negotiations with the UN were necessary to finalize the details of the court. The UN insists that international standards of justice are met for the Khmer Rouge leaders living freely in Cambodia. In February 2002, the UN concluded that the independence, impartiality, and objectivity of the proposed court could not be guaranteed, and pulled out of the negotiations. The Cambodian government indicated it would proceed with plans for the tribunal, with or without support from the UN. The issue of the trials was divisive in Cambodia, with some fearful that they would reopen old wounds and set the country back on the path of civil war. In December 2002, the UN passed a resolution authorizing negotiations on the tribunal to begin again, and in 2004 an agreement between the UN and the Cambodian government on a tribunal system was formalized. UN members pledged $38 million to fund the trials in August 2005.

GOVERNMENT

Cambodia was a constitutional monarchy from 6 May 1947 until 9 October 1970, when Marshal Lon Nol formally established the Khmer Republic. On 30 April 1972, a new constitution was passed by a national referendum. It provided for a directly elected president and a bicameral legislature consisting of an elective 126-member National Assembly and 40-member Senate. Upon the surrender of the Lon Nol government to insurgent forces on 17 April 1975, rule by the Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea (Gouvernment Royal de l'Union Nationale de Kampuchea—GRUNK) was installed in Phnom Penh, with Prince Norodom Sihanouk as titular head of state. A new constitution, effective 5 January 1976, provided for a unicameral, 250-member People's Assembly, elected for a five-year term by universal suffrage of citizens over age 18. The PRK government, installed in January 1979, enacted a new constitution in June 1981. Under this constitution, an elected National Assembly was the supreme organ of state power; it was headed by a 7-member Council of State, which the Assembly elected from among its own members.

On 23 October 1991 the UN peace accord was signed by Cambodia's four factions. From 23–28 May 1993, a six-day election, the first multiparty election in more than 20 years, was held to determine the 120 members of the National Assembly. FUNCINPEC took 45.5% of the votes amounting to 58 seats in the assembly; the Cambodian People's Party (CPP), formerly the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP), received 38.2% of the votes equaling 51 assembly seats; and Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party (BLDP) had 3% of the votes giving them 10 seats; and Moulina-ka (Movement for the Liberation of Kampuchea, a pro-Sihanouk group formed in 1979 by Kong Sileah, considered an offshoot of FUNCINPEC) took one seat. This newly elected National Assembly was authorized to draft a constitution. In June 1993 FUNCINPEC and the Cambodian People's Party agreed to joint control of the defense and interior ministries, while FUNCINPEC controlled the foreign and finance ministries; Hun Sen and Prince Ranariddh served as co-chairmen of the interim government. The National Assembly ratified a new constitution on 21 September 1993. The monarchy was reestablished and commitments to liberal democracy, the rule of law, and women's rights were included. Prince Norodom Sihanouk ratified the constitution and again became King of Cambodia. The government of the State of Cambodia was an extremely fragile coalition after the elections, with enormous rivalries between Hun Sen's CPP, and Ranariddh's FUNCINPEC, as well as opposition from Sam Rainsy's unrecognized Khmer Nation Party. Much of the tension centered on attempts to win over factions of the Khmer Rouge, which were "coming out of the cold" en masse, their fighters and votes up for grabs by the rival political parties. In July 1997 Hun Sen's forces defeated FUNCINPEC in a brief but violent coup d'etat. In 1998, the number of seats in the National Assembly was increased to 122 (as of 2003, it stood at 123). July 1998's national election legitimized Hun Sen's CPP dominance of the nation, but FUNCINPEC won a high percentage of seats as well, and Ranariddh became Speaker of the National Assembly. The CPP took 64 seats, FUNCINPEC held 43, and the Sam Rainsy Party (SRP) took 15 seats in the National Assembly.

In March 1999, amendments to Cambodia's 1993 constitution allowed the formation of an unelected 61-seat Senate. Two Senate seats are appointed by the king, two elected by the National Assembly, and 57 are elected by "functional constituencies." Members serve five-year terms.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Under Sihanouk, the People's Social Community Party (Sang Kam) was the most important political group. In the 1955, 1958, 1962, and 1966 elections, with a platform of nonalignment, economic aid, and development, it captured all seats in the National Assembly. Exiled in Beijing following his overthrow by Lon Nol in March 1970, Sihanouk allied himself with Cambodia's leftist insurgents under a group called the National United Front of Kampuchea (Front National Uni de Kampuchea—FNUK). Under the Khmer Republic government headed by Lon Nol, five political groups came to the fore. The Socio-Democratic Party (SDP), Lon Nol's own group, was quickly established as the most powerful political organization. Centrist opposition groups included the Republican Party and the Democratic Party. In the presidential elections held in June 1972, Lon Nol, the SDP's candidate, won by a relatively narrow margin of 55%.

With the victory of their forces in April 1975, leaders of the pro-communist FNUK became the dominant political power in Kampuchea. The leading element in FNUK was the Khmer Communist Party (KCP), founded in 1951 and now dominated by radicals Pol Pot (previously known as Saloth Sar) and Khieu Samphan. Khieu Samphan was named prime minister of the new regime, while Pol Pot remained party head. During the next few years the Pol Pot faction systematically purged all suspected pro-Vietnamese members of the party organization. In late 1978, opposition elements, headed by Heng Samrin, formed the Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation (KNUFNS) in an effort to overthrow the Pol Pot regime. Following a Vietnamese invasion in December, Heng Samrin became the head of the pro-Vietnamese PRK government installed in January 1979. In 1981, the KNUFNS was renamed the Kampuchean United Front for National Construction and Defense, the primary mass organization in the PRK. Popularly known as the Khmer Rouge, the movement allied during the 1980s with two non-Communist factions, the Sihanoukists and Son Sann's KPNLF.

The Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (CGDK), the tripartite, anti-Vietnamese resistance group formed in June 1982, changed is name to the National Government of Cambodia (NGC) in 1990. Autonomous coalition members were the Sihanoukist FUNCINPEC, the KPNLF, and the Khmer Rouge. Prince Sihanouk's main political organization, formed in 1981, was known as the National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia, or its French acronym, FUNCINPEC; he resigned as its head in 1989. In 1992 the Front was registered as a political party for the 1993 elections and Prince Norodom Ranariddh was elected president.

In 1992 the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF), headed by Son Sann, formed the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party (BLDP), also headed by Son Sann. The military wing of the KPNLF was the KPNLAF, the Khmer People's National Liberation Army formed under Son Sann in 1979. Although it boycotted the elections and attempted to undermine the peace process, the Khmer Rouge had also formed a party to contest the elections, the Cambodian National Unity Party, headed by Kieu Samphan and Son Sen.

The Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP), the Communist Party originally installed by Vietnam in 1979 as the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK), was also known as the Heng Samrin Government in the late 1980s. In 1991 the KPRP dropped the word "Revolutionary" from the party name, becoming the Khmer People's Party or Cambodian People's Party (CPP). Hun Sen remained chairman of the Council of Ministers of the government of the State of Cambodia a position he had held since 1985. At an extraordinary party congress, 17–18 October 1991, Chea Sim was elected party president, replacing Heng Samrin, and Hun Sen was elected party vice president; these events signaled a shift from hardline communist ideology to a reformist position prior to the UN-supervised elections. Chea Sim remained president of the National Assembly.

In the coalition government following the 1993 election, Hun Sen was made second premier, and FUNCINPEC's Ranariddh became first premier. Hun Sen was able to push Ranariddh out of that position with 1997's brutal coup d'etat, and the CPP won enough seats in the 1998 election to establish Hun Sen as sole prime minister.

Perennial opposition leader and anticorruption crusader Sam Rainsy transformed his unrecognized Khmer Nation Party into the eponymous Sam Rainsy Party, which won significant assembly seats in the 1998 election. Sam Rainsy has repeatedly stooped to racebaiting directed against Cambodia's Vietnamese population during his political career. At the same time, he is an eloquent spokesman for increased democratization and openness in Cambodia, and a persistent antiauthoritarian thorn in Hun Sen's side. When his parliamentary immunity was stripped by the National Assembly in February 2005, he fled the country in fear of arrest for defamation. Within months he had returned to Cambodia, assured by the CPP that he would not be arrested.

In May 2002, Prince Ranariddh's half-brother formed a new party, the Prince Norodom Chakrapong Khmer Soul party, to contest the national elections in July 2003, in which the CPP won the most votes and eventually formed a coalition government with FUNCINPEC. Hun Sen continued as prime minister. Violence again marred the election, with more than a dozen political killings during the campaign and voting.

In December 2002, Prime Minister Hun Sen declared that he wished to rule for another 10 years. He was the sole candidate for prime minister of the CPP following the 27 July 2003 general election. The next general election was scheduled to take place in 2008. FUNCINPEC and the CPP formed an alliance in September 2005 for mutual support in the 2008 general election, with CPP potentially backing Prince Ranariddh as prime minister. In October 2005, following controversy over a border pact with Vietnam, Hun Sen launched a sudden, severe crackdown on dissent, with arrests and arrest warrants targeting government critics, journalists, trade unionists, and opposition political figures.

King Sihanouk abdicated the throne in October 2004, after a 60-year reign. Prince Norodom Sihamoni (not previously involved in politics) was chosen as the new monarch of Cambodia by a Throne Council, becoming King Norodom Sihamoni on 29 October 2004.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Under the Lon Nol government, Cambodia was divided into 20 provinces (khet ), 7 sub-provinces (anoukhet ), 147 districts (srok ), and more than 1,200 townships (sangkat or khum ) and villages (phum ). Under the Pol Pot regime, administration was essentially decentralized into several major regions. Regions were divided into 41 districts, and the population as a whole was organized in massive rural communes. Under the PRK regime, the pre-1975 system of administration has been restored. Based on the People's Republic of Kampuchea's new constitution of June 1981 Local Assemblies, popularly elected by the respective localities—province, district, subdistrict, ward—were instituted with the number of representatives fixed by law, and People's Revolutionary Committee's chosen by the respective assemblies. In 1987 Cambodia was divided into 18 provinces, two special municipalities (krong ), and Phnom Penh and Kâmpóng Saôm, which were under direct central government control. The provinces were subdivided into about 122 districts, 1,324 communes, and 9,386 villages. Municipalities were subdivided into wards (sangkat ). The same system of assemblies and committees remains in place. The new constitution of the State of Cambodia was adopted on 21 September 1993. People's Committees established in all provinces, municipalities, districts, communes, and wards were responsible for local administration, public security, and local order. Within this system provincial officials and the governor effectively controlled the armed forces and security services, tax collection, civil service—and through them 80% of the Cambodian population. The country's provinces remained under the sway of the Cambodian People's Party (CPP) and responded to the old political loyalties rather than the central authority of the State of Cambodia. To alter this system the National Assembly passed laws to secure central control of the economy. Effective 1 January 1994 a national budget and financial laws were enacted to try to ensure that all revenues came totally and directly to the national treasury. Provincial corruption and lawlessness remain severe problems, as communications and infrastructure are extremely underdeveloped within Cambodia and smuggling is rife.

In February 2002, Cambodia held its first local elections in 23 years. The CPP claimed victory in all but 23 of the 1,621 communes. FUNCINPEC won only seven of the village communes. At least 20 political activists, mostly from opposition parties, were killed in the run-up to the elections. The proportion of female candidates in the elections was 16%.

As of October 2005, there were 20 provinces (khett ) and 4 municipalities (krong ).

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The 1993 constitution of the Kingdom of Cambodia provides due process protections such as presumption of innocence and also guarantees an independent judiciary. Efforts are still being made to train judicial personnel to implement these principles, and to ensure basic human rights for Cambodians.

Prior to 1989, the constitution of 1976 provided for a supreme judicial tribunal whose members were to be appointed by a People's Assembly. Because of the civil and military turmoil, however, this system was never fully implemented. The judicial system that was outlined in the constitution of 1989 provided for provincial court judges named by state officials. In practice, the judiciary was controlled by the government.

The legal system consists of lower courts, an appeals court and a Supreme Court. There is also a military court system. The 1993 constitution provides for a Constitutional Council, and a Supreme Council of Magistrates, which appoints and disciplines judges. With low revenues and high crime rates plaguing Cambodia, the justice system is burdened by substandard police procedures. Many serious crimes, notably political killings, go unsolved. Judicial and police corruption and abusive imprisonment conditions remain endemic.

ARMED FORCES

Cambodia in 2005, had 124,300 active personnel in the armed forces. The Army consisted of 75,000 personnel with over 150 main battle tanks, more than 20 light tanks, an undisclosed number of reconnaissance vehicles, 70 armored infantry fighting vehicles, over 190 armored personnel carriers, and more than 428 artillery pieces. The Navy numbered around 2,800, including 1,500 naval infantry personnel. Equipment included 10 patrol/coastal craft. Cambodia's Air Force in 2005 totaled 1,500 personnel with 24 combat capable aircraft that included 14 fighter aircraft. Provincial forces number some 45,000. There is a paramilitary of 67,000 police including gendarmerie. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $73.8 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Cambodia has been a member of the United Nations since 14 December 1955 and participates in ESCAP and several nonregional specialized agencies. Cambodia was admitted to the WTO 13 October 2004. Cambodia is also a member of the Asian Development Bank, the World Federation of Trade Unions, and G-77. Cambodia was accepted as the tenth member of the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN) in May 1998. The country is part of the Nonaligned Movement and a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration. In environmental cooperation, Cambodia is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Cambodia's economy has been based traditionally on agriculture. About 85% of the cultivated area is devoted to the production of rice, while rubber trees account for a major part of the remainder. Prior to the war years, Cambodia's rice crop was usually ample enough to permit exports. The Tonle Sap is one of the major fishing reservoirs in Asia, and its products have played a key role in the Cambodian economy and diet. Cattle breeding is another important source of income. During the 1970–75 period, Cambodia's economy came to rely critically on US assistance, as the expansion of the war caused widespread damage and limited economic activity. The Pol Pot regime, which came to power in April 1975, was determined to emphasize the growth of agriculture and restore national self-sufficiency. The entire population was mobilized in a mass labor campaign to improve agricultural production through massive irrigation projects in the countryside. The cities were virtually emptied, and industrial production drastically declined. Private ownership of land was disallowed, and landholdings were transferred to the state or to state-organized cooperatives. All industrial enterprises were similarly transferred to state ownership. Sparse food supplies were distributed through a system of government food rationing and other forms of allotment.

When the PRK government took over in 1979, it was faced with a major challenge in restoring the national economy. The first problem was to end the threat of famine. A massive international campaign to feed the population took place during 1979–82. In the meantime, similar efforts were undertaken to stimulate the industrial sector and expand exports in order to obtain needed foreign exchange. Reliable sources note that the infrastructure was so severely degraded that it had only 40–50% of prewar capacity. By the mid-1980s, the economy had essentially returned to the level of the pre-1975 period, although the regime was still vitally dependent on foreign aid, chiefly from Vietnam and the former USSR. In July 1986, the PRK issued an emergency appeal to international organizations for rice.

Rule by the Khmer Rouge, 20 years of civil war, economic isolation, and a centrally planned economy imposed heavy burdens on Cambodia. Serious damage to basic infrastructure, industrial and agricultural production, and human resources required massive rehabilitation and reconstruction. Market-oriented reforms have been introduced which dismantle the centrally planned economy. Since 1989 Cambodia passed legislation to restore the right to own and inherit property, freed prices, passed a liberal foreign investment code, began to privatize state assets, and property, decontrolled the official exchange rate, and liberalized foreign trade. Reforms generated increased agricultural production and foreign investment. Phnom Penh and other urban areas received the greatest benefit from this economic activity.

In the 1990s Cambodia remained predominantly agricultural with more than 80% of workers employed in agriculture. Inflation rose steadily, the price of domestic commodities increased at least 140% in 1990, but by only 15% in 1998. In 1991 Cambodia halted the free trade of gold as part of an effort to stabilize the value of the currency, the riel. Triple-digit inflation made currency worthless in 1992 and it was pulled from circulation. In 1994 the riel was stabilized at 2,400–2,600 riel to one US dollar. In 1991–1993, the transition period from a command to a market-driven system, the presence of 22,000 UN personnel aided the Cambodian economy, although the growth was mainly urban, barely affecting rural areas. Western consumer goods such as motor vehicles, tinned food, alcohol, and cigarettes, were readily available in Phnom Penh and other cities. On 4 January 1992 President Bush announced the lifting of the US trade embargo against Cambodia shortly after the signing of the Paris Peace Agreement on Cambodia in 1991.

One outcome of the May 1993 elections was a division of government portfolios between the winning party, FUNCINPEC, and the surprised runner-up, the Cambodian People's Party (CPP). FUNCINPEC took over the financial and economic portfolios. An aggressive campaign was mounted to restructure tax, investment, banking and currency laws. As part of the battle against official corruption some contracts signed by the previous government were revised or abrogated. The government moved to strengthen the currency and provide new banking legislation. Effective 1 January 1994 were Cambodia's national budget and financial structure laws aimed at establishing central control of the economy. In August 1994, the government adopted a new liberalized foreign investment law with protections against nationalization and guarantees of national treatment except in matter of land ownership. The economy propelled into a period of strong growth, with real GDP increasing at an average annual rate of 7.2% 1993–97. The peak was reached in 1995, when real growth reached 8.4%. Inflation was only 3% in 1995, falling from 17.9% in 1994. During the next year two years, real growth declined, to 3.5% and 3.7%, respectively, while inflation rose, to 9% for both years. A more serious slowdown occurred in 1998 the Asian financial crisis; drought, civil violence, and political squabbles all conspired to slow growth to a barely discernable 1%, while inflation surged to 13.5%.

Cambodia's admission into ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), scheduled for 1998, ended up being delayed until April 1999 due to a breakdown into factional violence in July 1997. The after-effects of the Asian financial crisis were also felt, reducing GDP growth to 1% in 1998, and spiking inflation to 12.6%. Recovery in 2000 was propelled by a 29% growth in industrial production, but moderated by a contraction in agricultural output of -2.7% due to the worst flooding in 70 years. Services grew 3.1% in 2000, producing an overall GDP growth rate of 5.4%. Inflation was completely eliminated as prices showed a slight decline of -0.8%. Flooding continued to be a problem in 2001, keeping agricultural growth to 4.4%, while growth in services slumped to 2.4% primarily due to a decline in tourism. Industrial growth was again the main propellant, growing 12.5%, producing an overall GDP growth of 5.3% in 2001. Estimates for 2002 were a 3% growth in GDP with 3% inflation, up from a -0.6% rate in 2001. In November 2001, Cambodia was removed for the US list of Major Drug-Transit Countries by executive action of President George W. Bush because of lack of evidence in recent years of any heroin transiting Cambodia coming to the United States.

Economic growth has been steady in previous years, the GDP registering growth rates of 5.4% in 2002 and 2003, and 4.8% in 2004; in 2005, the economy was expected to experience a slight recession, with a growth rate of only 1.9%. Inflation and unemployment remained at unthreatening levels. The economy environment remained fragile, Cambodia still being dependent on donor aid and having more than 75% of its population engaged in subsistence farming. Another problem for the country was its skewed demographics—more than 50% of its population is 20 year old or younger, for which proper jobs have to be created.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Cambodia's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $28.7 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $2,200. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 4.3%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 32.9% of GDP, industry 29.2%, and services 37.9%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $138 million or about $10 per capita and accounted for approximately 3.3% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $508 million or about $38 per capita and accounted for approximately 12.5% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Cambodia (Kampuchea) totaled $3.41 billion or about $254 per capita based on a GDP of $4.1 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 4.4%. It was estimated that in 2004 about 40% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2003, Cambodia's workforce was estimated at seven million, of which 75% were estimated in 2004 to be in the agricultural sector. The estimated unemployment rate in 2000 was 2.5%.

Although Cambodia's labor law provides the right for workers to form unions and bargain collectively, civil servants such as military personnel, judges and teachers are excluded, along with household servants. In addition aviation and maritime transport industry personnel are limited as to coverage, but can form unions. Enforcement of labor laws is spotty and with the exception of government employees, wages are set by the market place. Forced or compulsory labor is also prohibited, but again, enforcement is inadequate and involutary overtime is widespread. It is estimated that unions account for less than 1% of the country's labor force and are concentrated in the footwear and garment industries.

By law, the minimum legal working age was 15 years, with 18 as the minimum age for hazardous work. Minors between 12 and 15 can participate in light work that is not dangerous to their health and does not affect school attendance. However, enforcement once again remains inconsistent. Of all minors between the ages of 5 and 17, more than half (53%) were employed, of which one-third were over 14. About 71% were employed in the agricutural or forestry sectors, 21% in services or sales and 7% in production.

A 48-hour workweek and minimum safety and health standards are provided by law. However, these rules are not effectively enforced. Separate minimum wages are established for each sector of the economy but average wages are so low that second jobs and subsistence agriculture are usually necessary. The minimum wage in the garment industry is $45.00 per month. Many children are engaged in work activity, generally within the agricultural sector.

AGRICULTURE

Because of the lack of natural resources and the primitive industrial base in Cambodia, agriculture is the key sector in the economy. Arable land amounted to 3,807,000 hectares (9,007,000 acres) in 2002, or 22% of the total land area. In 2004, agriculture accounted for 36% of GDP and engaged 69% of the economically active population.

Rice provides the staple diet and prior to 1970 was Cambodia's major export, along with rubber. Production peaked at 3,200,000 tons in 1968; it began falling because of the expansion of the war and by 1974 had declined to 635,000 tons, but had risen back to 2,155,000 tons in 1990. Production in 2004 totaled 4,170,000 tons from 2,094,000 hectares (5,174,000 acres).

Upon coming to power in April 1975, the Pol Pot regime embarked on a major rice production program, but the highest output achieved was only 1,800,000 tons in 1976 and in 1977; civil war, holocaust, and the Vietnamese invasion lowered the rice harvest in 1979 to one million tons. During the 1980s, rice production gradually increased, from about 1,564,000 tons in 1980–81 to an estimated 1,680,000 tons in 1985/86. During the mid–1980s the Khmer Rouge government attempted to stimulate production by delaying its plans for collectivization of the countryside. In 1989, the new government returned agricultural land to the tiller, which significantly boosted food production; average annual production in 1989–91 was 2,524,000 tons.

Rubber has traditionally been the second most important agricultural crop. However, rubber plantings, which covered 48,000 hectares (119,000 acres) in 1969, were almost completely destroyed by the end of 1971. Production, up to 51,100 tons in 1969, declined to virtually nil in 1971, recovering to about 16,000 tons in 1974. The Pol Pot and Khmer Rouge governments continued efforts to revive the rubber industry, the latter with aid from the former USSR and GDR. Recovery has been uneven and slow, however, and reached 46,000 tons in 2004. Other crops, with 2004 production levels, were coconuts (71,000 tons), corn (256,000 tons), soybeans (39,000 tons), sweet potatoes (34,000 tons), beans (24,000 tons), cassava (140,000 tons), tobacco (7,400 tons), and peanuts (10,000 tons).

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Livestock, raised primarily by private households, traditionally supplied an important supplement to the Cambodian diet. The Pol Pot regime placed heavy stress on cattle and poultry breeding, but thousands died during the chaotic years of the late 1970s. Estimated livestock levels in 2004 were cattle, 3,000,000 (as compared with 700,000 in 1979), and pigs, 2,180,000 (as compared with 100,000 in 1979). Cambodia also had 625,000 head of buffalo, 14.5 million chickens, and 7 million ducks in 2004. In 2004, Cambodia produced an estimated 193,550 tons of meat, with pork accounting for 53%; poultry, 8% beef, 28%; and other meats, 11%.

FISHING

Production of freshwater fish, the main protein element in the Cambodia diet, traditionally ranked next to rice and rubber in the national economy. About half of Cambodia's freshwater catch came from the Tonle Sap. Offshore fishing grounds present a potential resource not yet fully exploited.

Marine fishing developed significantly developed during the 1980s; the saltwater catch totaled 3,015 tons in 1982 and 64,021 tons in 2003. In 2003, inland fishing amounted to 326,636 tons, up from 72,640 tons in 1994.

FORESTRY

About 53% of the country was forested in 2000. Forestry has been limited because of transportation difficulties and damage from war. The main products of the forest industry are timber, resins, wood oil, fuel, and charcoal. Production of roundwood, averaging about 4 million cu m (141 million cu ft) in the late 1960s, fell off sharply during the 1970–75 war, but increased to almost 9.7 million cu m (342 million cu ft) in 2003. Exports of sawn wood were valued at $14 million. Fuel wood production was 9.6 million cu m (337 million cu ft) in 2003.

MINING

Cambodia's mineral resources, though limited, had not been extensively explored and developed in the past two decades because of war, internal conflict, and the lack of appropriate legislation and policy to attract foreign investors. The mining sector, the smallest in the economy, contributed 0.3% to the country's GDP in 2004 and employed about 11,000 people in that year. In 2004, the country produced aggregates, laterite blocks (estimated at 230,000 metric tons), phosphate rock, quartz sand (1,000 metric tons in 2003), salt (estimated at 40,000 metric tons), sand (estimated at 500,000 metric tons), gravel (estimated at 10,000 metric tons), and stones (estimated at 600,000 metric tons). Other metallic minerals identified in the country were antimony, bauxite, chromium, copper, lead, manganese, molybdenum, silver, tin, tungsten, and zinc. In addition, Cambodia had resources of such industrial minerals as carbonate rocks, fluorite, quartz, silica sand, and sulfur. Iron deposits and traces of gold, coal, copper, and manganese have been reported in the Kampong Thum area. Substantial deposits of bauxite, discovered in the early 1960s north of Băttâmbâng and southeast of Phnom Penh, have yet to be worked. Potter's clay was common, and deposits of phosphates, used for fertilizer, existed in southern Kâmpât province and near Phnom Sampou. Precious gems were mined in the Pailin area and smuggled to Thailand. High-quality cornflower-blue sapphires are highly valued gemstones and high-quality rubies also have been found. It was un-likely that exploitation of the nation's mineral resources could be undertaken without continued removal of landmines.

ENERGY AND POWER

Several new power-generating facilities were installed in the mid-1960s, but total capacity was reduced by about one-third in the course of the 1970s war, reaching 41,000 kW by 1973/74; in that period, production stood at 150 million kWh. Total generating capacity was 35,000 kW in 2002, with output for that same year at 0.108 billion kWh, of which 67.5% was from fossil fuels and 32.5% from hydropower. Electricity consumption was 0.101 billion kWh in 2002.

Offshore oil was reportedly discovered by a French firm in August 1974 in the vicinity of the Wai Islands. In 1995 a total of 17 foreign companies submitted bids to explore for oil and gas both onshore and offshore; the offshore areas are near Sihanouksville on the Gulf of Thailand.

INDUSTRY

Industrial activity has traditionally centered on the processing of agricultural and forestry products and on the small-scale manufacture of consumer goods. Rice milling has been the main food-processing industry. Industrial expansion came to a virtual halt in 1970 with the outbreak of war. A few sectors (such as textiles and beverages) enjoyed a short wartime boom due to military orders, but losses in territory and transport disruptions had caused a rapid decline in activity by 1973. The Pol Pot government placed all industries under state control in 1975. In the course of the next four years, some 100 industries were abolished or destroyed. When the PRK took over in 1979, industrial plants began to reopen. By late 1985 there were a reported 60 factories in the state sector producing household goods, textiles, soft drinks, pharmaceutical products, and other light consumer goods. Most plants operate below capacity because of poor management and shortages of electricity, raw materials, and spare parts. There is little information on the small Cambodian private sector. The overall value of local and handicrafts industries in 1984 was estimated at about 50% of the output value in state industry.

Efforts at recovery continued in the early 1990s, but were hampered by dilapidated equipment and shortages that continued to affect industrial production, principally textiles and rubber production. For instance, following the cutback of assistance from the former Soviet Union in 1990, Cambodia's primitive industrial sector suffered from raw material shortages; three of six government-owned textile mills shut down because of shortages of cotton. When major Soviet oil supplies were depleted local companies imported oil, but the cash-strapped state companies suffered electricity brownouts daily. Major industries include rice milling, fishing, wood and timber products, rubber (largely abandoned since 1975), cement, and gem mining. Cambodia has significant mineral deposits of gold, silver, iron, copper, marble, limestone and phosphate, and a gem industry. Construction in urban areas boomed with the signing of the Paris peace accords in 1991. After Cambodia opened oil fields to foreign investors in February 1991, sixteen companies expressed interest in oil exploration. In January 1994 it was reported that five oil companies were conducting offshore oil and gas exploration.

In 1996, clothing industry exports more than doubled. Some 36 factories employed around 20,000 people. The average annual industrial growth rate for 1988 through 1998 was 8.5%, but growth slumped to 7.7% in 1998 due to the effects of the Asian financial crisis, civil, drought, and political disruptions. However, recovery was rapid in the industrial sector as it posted growth output of 12%, 29%, and 12.5% for 1999 to 2001. The garment industry grew by 50% during this period. In 2000, industry constituted 20% of total GDP.

By 2002, the industrial production growth rate was 22%, well above the overall rate of growth of the economy. In 2004, industry made up 30% of the economy, but it employed only a fraction of the working population; agriculture was by far the biggest employer and an important contributor to the economy—35%.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Since 1979, foreign technicians have been helping to revive the economy. Aside from a School of Medicine and Pharmacy, there is virtually no opportunity within Cambodia to pursue scientific training or research. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 13% of college and university enrollments.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Phnom Penh has traditionally been Cambodia's principal commercial center. Formerly, most wholesale and retail business was in the hands of French, Chinese, and Vietnamese. In April 1975 all private shops in the country were closed and virtually all domestic trade fell under the control of the state. official currency was abolished in favor of barter. Following the installation of the PRK, currency was reestablished and some private trade resumed with official encouragement. After 1983, private shops resumed operation in Phnom Penh. Most of these shops are owned directly or subsidized by wholesalers. Goods are also sold from traveling vans or through newspaper advertisements.

In 1986, the government began collecting license fees, rents, and utility fees from private businesses and substantially increased their taxes. In the early 1990s the Heng Samrin government fell behind in its payments to government troops and bureaucrats, printing more money to meet these obligations. Without revenue this vicious cycle peaked in triple-digit inflation by 1992, when the currency was rendered worthless and pulled from circulation. Market prices rose as the currency value dropped meaning poorer Cambodians could not afford their staple food, rice. The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) introduced imported rice and sold it at a fixed price in an effort to halt the inflationary spiral.

Despite the economic benefits of the UN presence, political disruptions, and violence in 1997 and 1998 reversed economic growth. In Cambodia depressed economic output is supplemented by goods smuggled in from Thailand and Singapore. Economic reforms became in earnest in 1999, which marked the first full year of peace for the nation in about 30 years.

As of 2001, about 80% of the population was employed in agriculture; however, the service sector is beginning to grow as the nation attempts to expand tourism. The economy was still heavily reliant on international aid.

FOREIGN TRADE

Cambodia has traditionally been an exporter of primary products and an importer of finished goods. The country's normal trade patterns virtually disintegrated during the war as exports declined, and Cambodia was largely sustained by US-subsidized imports. Under the Pol Pot regime, foreign trade virtually ceased. According to Western estimates, total trade (excluding trade with China) was $3 million in exports and $22 million in imports in 1977. With the installation of the PRK government, foreign trade began to rise in volume. The value of total exports rose from an estimated $3–4 million in 1982 to approximately $10 million in 1985; imports in that year came to about $120 million. The main import categories were food, vehicles, fuels, and raw materials. Cereal imports dropped from 223,000 tons in 1974 to 60,000 tons in 1985. Foreign trade is legally restricted to licensed private sector firms and government agencies, although there is considerable smuggling between Cambodia and Thailand. In 1985, Cambodia and Vietnam signed an agreement to double their mutual trade in 1986.

In 1986 major export and import trading partners with Cambodia were Vietnam, the USSR, Eastern Europe, Japan, and India. Assistance to Cambodia from the USSR ceased in 1991, when that country broke apart. The US trade embargo against Cambodia was lifted in January 1992 by President George H. W. Bush. As of 1992 Cambodian exports were mostly agricultural, comprised of timber mainly and rubber. Logging is a ready source of badly needed export revenues for both the government and the other political factions. The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) estimated that the forest cover had fallen to as little as 40% of the land area by 1992. Cambodia's own forestry department figured that in 1969 forests covered 73% of the country's land area. The UNDP concluded that deforestation was a major threat to Cambodia's development.

In 2000, major export commodities were timber, garments, rubber, rice, and fish. Major import commodities were cigarettes, gold, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery, and motor vehicles.

In 2004, exports reached $2.3 billion (FOB—free on board), while imports grew to $3.1 billion (FOB). The bulk of exports went to the United States (55.9%), Germany (11.7%), the United Kingdom (6.9%), Vietnam (4.4%), and Canada (4.2%). Imports included petroleum products, cigarettes, gold, construction materials, machinery, motor vehicles, and pharmaceutical products; these mainly came from Thailand (22.5%), Hong Kong (14.1%), China (13.6%), Vietnam (10.9%), Singapore (10.8%), and Taiwan (8.4%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Cambodia's balance-of-payments position showed a deficit every year during the period 1954–74. Payments transactions with other countries virtually ceased under the Pol Pot regime, when China conducted Kampuchea's external financial dealings. From 1979, Kampuchea continued to run a substantial trade deficit, much of which had been financed by grant aid and credits extended by the USSR and Vietnam. The current account deficit, which stood at 11.5% of GDP in 1999, was mainly financed by official development assistance grants and loans, and foreign direct investment. The country's official reserves at the end of 1999 were able to cover the equivalent of 3.5 months of imports.

In 2000, the country's foreign debt stood at approximately $1.3 billion, the majority of which it owed to Russia; as of that date, it

had yet to reach agreement with the Russia on repayment of the debt.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2000 the purchasing power parity of Cambodia's exports was $1.05 billion while imports totaled $1.4 billion resulting in a trade deficit of $350 million.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Cambodia had exports of goods totaling $1.38 billion and imports totaling $1.73 billion. The services credit totaled $257 million and debit $244 million.

Exports of goods and services reached $3.2 billion in 2004, up from $2.6 billion in 2003. Imports grew from $3.0 billion in 2003, to $3.7 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative in both years, reaching -$400 million in 2003, and -$500 million in 2004. The current account balance was also negative, deteriorating from -$105 million in 2003, to -$262 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (including gold) grew to $890 million in 2004, covering less than three months of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

All banking institutions were nationalized by the Sihanouk government on 1 July 1964. The National Bank of Cambodia, a semi-autonomous government agency functioning as the sole currency authority, was charged with central banking responsibilities, including the control of credit. The decision by then Premier Lon Nol to permit foreign banks to do business in the country in early 1970 was a factor leading to his break with Prince Sihanouk and to the latter's overthrow in March 1970.

In April 1975, the Pol Pot government assumed control of the National Bank, and virtually all banking operations in Kampuchea were liquidated. The PRK government reintroduced a money economy, and by 1983 the National Bank of Cambodia (NBC) and a Foreign Trade Bank had been established. In 1991 the government created a state commercial bank to take over the commercial banking operations of the national bank. Banks in Cambodia include the Cambodian Commercial Bank, Cambodian Farmers Bank, and the Cambodian Public Bank. There were at least 50 commercial banks operating in 2001. The NBC has implemented new regulations for licensing banks, causing two banks to be closed. There is no securities trading in Cambodia.

The riel resumed its fall against the dollar in January and February of 1997 after briefly strengthening in December of 1996. It fell about 2% against the dollar in 2000 alone, trading at about 3,916.3 riels per dollar in 2001.The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $155.7 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $562.7 million.

INSURANCE

All insurance companies were "Cambodianized" in 1960; 16 companies were in operation prior to 1975. Under the Pol Pot government, normal insurance operations were suspended. No current information is available concerning insurance in Cambodia.

PUBLIC FINANCE

All government budgets of the two decades preceding 1975 were marked by an excess of expenditures over domestic revenues; foreign aid and treasury reserves made up the difference. There probably was no domestic public finance system during 1975–78; any public funds in that period came from China. During the 1980s, public expenditures were financed by the former USSR, either directly or through Vietnam. From 1989–91, the public deficit nearly tripled as a result of falling revenue collection. As assistance from the Soviet bloc ceased after 1990, monetary expansion soared to cover the deficit. By the middle of 1992, with hyperinflation imminent, the government began a series of stabilization efforts to halt the fiscal deterioration. With only limited international aid, however, public expenditures for the necessary reconstruction and development of Cambodia have been restricted.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Cambodia's central government took in revenues of approximately $559.4 million and had expenditures of $772 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$212.6 million. Total external debt was $800 million.

TAXATION

Until 1975, indirect taxes were the most profitable source of domestic revenue, especially such monopoly excises as the sales tax on salt. Other indirect taxes included those on alcohol, tobacco, sugar, radios, and livestock. Taxes ceased to exist with the abolition of currency during the Pol Pot regime and were replaced by payments in-kind. In 1984, the PRK introduced an agricultural tax to soak up profits earned by private farmers. The tax reportedly amounted to about 10% of total output. In 1986, taxes on private business were increased, which forced some shopkeepers out of business. In 2002, there was a general corporate tax of 9%, except for in the fields of resource exploitation.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Cambodia has simplified its tariff system in recent years and eliminated most nontariff barriers to trade. Customs duties are now divided into four simple categories. Luxury goods, such as automobiles, alcohol, tobacco, and cosmetics have a rate of 70%. Finished products such as electronics, paint, and furniture carry a tariff of 35%. Machinery and capital equipment have a rate of 15%, and raw materials carry a tariff of 7%. A few products, such as agricultural equipment and pharmaceutical products, are exempt from import tariffs, but are still subject to the 10% value-added tax (VAT). The United States resumed diplomatic ties with Cambodia in September 1993. Cambodia joined ASEAN in 1998.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

There was little private foreign capital in pre-1975 Cambodia. French capital in rubber plantations represented more than half of the total investment. Foreign investment was prohibited under the Pol Pot regime and was not resumed under its successor, the People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK). As part of Cambodia's economic reforms the July 1989 Foreign Investment Law and the regulations implementing the law contained in the May 1991 sub-decree on foreign investment created a favorable foreign investment climate in Cambodia. From 1989 to 1991 there were over 200 investment applications, 20 being granted and 70 given tentative approval. Foreign investors from Thailand, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, France, and the United States accounted for over half these applications; overseas Khmers accounted for 30%, and 10% were from local investors. By 1993 it was reported that final contracts had been signed for 45 of these 200 applications. The value of these proposals is small, $1–5 million, and the proposals are concentrated in services, tourism, and textiles. The most visible projects are the 380-room Cambodiana Hotel in Phnom Penh, a satellite earth station project that provides international direct dial service, and a cellular telephone system in Phnom Penh. The primary hindrance to foreign investment is the lack of infrastructure—roads are in dismal condition, bandits roam, power outages are common, and phone service is inadequate.

The new foreign investment law was adopted by the National Assembly on 4 August 1994. It guarantees that investors shall be treated in a nondiscriminatory manner, except for land owner-ship; that the government shall not undertake a nationalization policy which adversely affects private properties of investors; that the government shall not impose price controls on the products or services of an investor who has received prior approval from the government; and that the government shall permit investors to purchase foreign currencies through the banking system and to remit abroad those currencies as payments for imports, repayments on loans, payments of royalties and management fees, profit remittances, and repatriation of capital.

In October 1999, the government entered into a three-year IMF-monitored program that included as a priority goal, making the country more attractive for foreign direct investment. In February 2000 this program was complemented by a World Bank program aimed at revising Cambodia's 1994 Law on Investment (LOI). Foreign investment commitments averaged over $800 million in the period 1996 to 1998, but fell to $482 in 1999. Actual foreign investment in 1999, the latest data available, was $160 million. In 2002, over 100 US companies and companies representing US products and services were active in Cambodia. Inflows of foreign capital have receded in subsequent years, reaching $77 million in 2003 and $83 million in 2004.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Until 1975, Cambodian governments sought aid from public and private foreign sources and attempted to improve the climate for private foreign capital investment, although the volume of investment was small. Both Sihanouk and Lon Nol also increased local control of economic activities within the country. Aliens were prohibited from engaging in 18 professions or occupations, including those of rice merchant and shipping agent. The Sihanouk government promoted economic development through two five-year plans designed to improve the nation's light industrial sector and its educational and technological infrastructure. Progress was mixed. Strained economic conditions were a factor leading to the overthrow of Sihanouk in 1970. The outbreak of war following his fall brought almost all major production to a halt. The economic objectives of the 1975–79 Pol Pot regime were centered almost entirely on agriculture and the improvement of the irrigation network. Self-sufficiency was stressed, and foreign aid was almost nil except for an estimated $1 billion from China. When the PRK government took over, it inherited a shattered economy and a depleted population. The 1986–90 five-year plan stressed growth in the agricultural sector, the restoration of light industry (which faces shortages of raw materials and electrical supply), gradual socialist transformation of ownership, dependence upon the former USSR and its allies for foreign assistance, and an increase of economic cooperation with its Indochinese neighbors. The PRK signed a number of aid, trade, and cooperation agreements with the former USSR and other Eastern European countries and was receiving substantial technological aid from neighboring Vietnam. Development assistance from the CMEA bloc totaled an estimated $700 million between 1980 and 1984.

The PRK moved slowly on its plan to transform the Cambodian economy to full socialist ownership, in recognition of the relatively low socialist awareness of the population. A small private manufacturing and commercial sector was recognized by the constitution in 1981, and farmers were being introduced to collectivization through the formation of low-level "solidarity groups" which combined socialist and private ownership. PRK plans were to advance more rapidly toward socialist transformation during the 1990s. However, since the mid-1980s the emphasis has been placed on private sector economic activities. Newly introduced market-oriented reforms dismantled the old central planning regime. However, the structural underpinnings of a capitalist system—legal, financial, and institutional—exist only in rudimentary form.

Many of Cambodia's nationalized industries were allowed to operate with limited autonomy from the state planning system, but the lack of capital and management expertise, as well as institutionalized corruption and bureaucratic red tape have mired this recovery process. In 1991 at the Tokyo Conference on the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Cambodia, $880 million in assistance was pledged to Cambodia by donor countries and multilateral institutions. An additional $80 million in aid was pledged by the Asian Development Bank, and the World Bank planned a $75-million assistance program. Under Sam Rainsy, Minister of Finance and Economy, the national assembly passed a budget and new Financial Structure Laws effective 1 January 1994. The government's aim was to establish central control of the economy and at the same time strike out at corrupt practices. About 48% of the budget was made up of international assistance; there was no land or income taxes with tax revenues providing only 6% of GDP, and customs duties provided 54% of total revenue.

In October 1999, after the disruptions caused by civil unrest and the Asian financial crisis, the government entered into a three-year arrangement with the IMF under its Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). The program focused on bank restructuring; reform of the Foreign Trade Bank; reform of forestry policy; and strengthening the public sector accounting and expenditure management. Concurrently, a Structural Adjustment Credit (SAC) loan program under the World Bank was approved in February 2000. The SAC program included conditionals related to the pilot military demobilization program, public expenditure management, forestry policy and revisions to the 1994 Law on Investment (LOI). Development in Cambodia is inextricably linked to the government's ability to maintain peace.

The economy has expanded at impressive rates in the late 1990s and early 2000s. This growth was fueled by a strong manufacturing sector, especially the garment industry; a textiles factory opened in 1996. However, the fact that the economy seems to be pulled ahead by just one engine (the textiles industry, since agriculture suffered a recess due to droughts in 2004), it seemed unlikely that these growth rates would be sustained.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The Sihanouk and Lon Nol governments enacted limited social legislation regulating hours of work, wages, and workers' compensation. During the Pol Pot period, the social fabric of the country was severely damaged. Although installation of the PRK government brought an end to the wide-ranging trauma of 1975–79, overall social conditions in Cambodia remained among the worst in Southeast Asia. Unstable conditions have also limited improvement in the standard of living, still one of the lowest in the region.

Cambodia's constitution provides equal rights for women in areas including work and marriage. Women have property rights equal to those of men and have equal access to education and certain jobs. However, traditional views of the roles of women act to prevent women from reaching senior posts in government and business. Domestic violence against women remained a wide-spread problem. Domestic abuse victims rarely issue formal complaints. Trafficking in women and children for prostitution continued both domestically and across the nation's borders.

Cambodia's human rights record includes a number of abuses, including extrajudicial killings, and other uses of excessive force by security forces. Impunity for such abuses remained a problem. Discrimination against the ethnic Vietnamese persists.

HEALTH

One of the most impoverished countries in Southeast Asia, Cambodia is prey to the health problems that arise from malnutrition and inadequate sanitation, including diarrhea, respiratory infections, and dengue fever, as well as those that could be prevented by an adequate vaccination program, such as tuberculosis. The 1970–75 war and the 1975–79 upheaval exacerbated many of these problems. Malnutrition became widespread among the millions driven to Phnom Penh in the wake of the fighting and who were driven out of that city when the Khmer Rouge took over. Tens of thousands died from shortages of food and medical facilities and supplies. Cambodia had only 50 physicians in 1979.

In 1995 the government mapped out a new public health program, which was only partly implemented as of 2000. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 6.9% of GDP.

Life expectancy in Cambodia in 2000 was 54 years, and increased to 71 years by 2005. In that year the infant mortality rate was still high at an estimated 58 per 1,000 live births. Dysentery, malaria, tuberculosis (in 1999, 560 reported cases per 100,000 people), trachoma, and yaws are widespread. In 2000, 30% of the population had access to safe drinking water and only 18% had adequate sanitation. Prior to 1975 there were 3 hospitals, with 7,500 beds (about 1 bed for every 893 persons). During 1979–81, 7 large hospitals and 3 pharmaceutical factories opened. As of 2004, there were an estimated 16 physicians, 61 nurses, 2 dentists, and 4 pharmacists per 100,000 people.

AIDS spread rapidly in Cambodia during the latter half of the 1990s. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 2.60 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 170,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 15,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003. Eighty percent of the urban population and only 50% of the rural population had access to health services. As of 2000, an estimated 53% of children under five were malnourished. The immunization rates for children up to one year old were diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 49%, and measles, 55%.

HOUSING

Cambodia's housing traditionally compared favorably with that of other countries in Southeast Asia. The most common type of dwelling consists of one or more rooms raised on mangrove piles some 3 m (10 ft) above the ground; it is generally crowded. Some homes in more remote rural areas consist simply of a conical roof-like structure which reaches almost to the ground, leaving an entrance opening. Many houses in the cities are larger and of better quality.

Mass emigration from the cities during the period 1975–76 resulted in many dwellings being left vacant, in contrast to the dire overcrowding that occurred in the last years of the war. In the countryside, meanwhile, the waves of new migrants placed inordinate pressures on existing facilities, with much of the transplanted population forced to reside in improvised shelters. By the early 1980s, this pattern had been reversed somewhat and Phnom Penh was once again experiencing population growth.

In 1998, there were about 2,188,663 households with an average of 5.2 people per household. According to a 2004 intercensal survey, there were about 2.3 million dwellings in the country; 2.03 million of which were located in rural areas. Only 11% of all homes had access to all three of the basic amenities: safe drinking water, electricity, and an in-home toilet. Nationwide, only 44% of the population have access to safe drinking water, 17% have electricity in their home, and 5% have indoor toilets. Firewood and charcoal are the primary heating fuels. About 93% of all dwellings are owner occupied. Only 26.9% of the total population live in permanent structures; in urban areas, only 66% or the population have permanent housing.

EDUCATION

Under the Pol Pot regime, education was virtually abolished, as all children were sent to work in the fields; education was limited to political instruction. Most of the educated class had been killed by 1979. According to PRK sources, only 50 of 725 university instructors and 307 of 2,300 secondary-school teachers survived the Pol Pot era.

Currently, the educational system is being rebuilt and is recovering. All schooling is public, and six years of primary education (ages 6–12) is compulsory. Following this, children may go through six years of secondary education, of which only the first three are compulsory. The academic year runs from October to July. The primary language of instruction is Cambodian.

In 2001, about 7.4% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 93% of age-eligible students; 96% for boys and 91% for girls. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 24% of age-eligible students; 30% for boys and 19% for girls. It is estimated that about 80% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 56:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 24:1.

Institutes of higher education include the University of Phnom Penh, the Institute of Technology of Cambodia, the Royal University of Agriculture, Royal University of Fine Arts, and Maharishi Vedic University. In 2003, about 3% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 73.6%, with 84.7% for males and 64.1% for females. Many students continue their higher education at foreign universities.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 1.8% of GDP, or 14.6% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Library is located in Phnom Penh and holds about 103,635 volumes in a variety of languages, including Khmer, French, English, Russian, Vietnamese, and Thai. The national document collection comprise 8,327 documents. Also in the capital is the Buddhist Institute (25,000 volumes), which contains collections on religion, philosophy, literature, linguistics, history, and art. The École Française de l'Extrême-Orient, which previously had charge of all archaeological research in the country, also had its own research library in Phnom Penh. The Hun Sen Library of the Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP) opened in January 1997 and now houses a collection of at least 50,000 items in Khmer, English, and French. The Toshu Fukami Library of the University of Cambodia is open to the public, offering over 30,000 volumes.

Cambodia, in effect, is a museum of the cultural achievements of the Khmer Empire. Surviving stone monuments, steles, temples, and statuary attest to a formidable and unique artistic heritage. Particularly imposing are the world-famous temple of Angkor Wat and the Bayon of Angkor Thom. In the chaotic years of the 1980s and early 1990s, there were many press reports of pillaging of these historic sites. The PRK government established museums in what it portrayed as GRUNK death camps, with exhibits on atrocities committed during 1975–79. The National Museum of PhnomPenh (1917), an excellent repository of national art, has an extensive collection of Khmer art from the 5th through 13th centuries.

MEDIA

As of 2002, the telephone service was said to be adequate for government needs and for residents of Phnom Penh and other main provincial cities. Rural areas generally had very little access to land-line phone service. In 2003, there were an estimated three main-line telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 35 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

TV-Kampuchea began color transmission in 1986. In 2004, there were seven television stations, all of which were controlled by the government. In 2003, there were 2 AM and 17 FM radio stations. Foreign radio broadcasts are received from neighboring countries. In 2003, there were an estimated 113 radios and 8 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 2.3 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 2 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were two secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

There are two daily newspapers, Rasmei Kampuchea (2002 circulation 15,000) and The Cambodia Daily (2,000). The Phnom Penh Post is a weekly publication. There are over 50 newspapers in all, including weeklies, bi-weeklies, and monthlies, mostly in the Khmer language. The official news agency is the Agence Khmer de Presse (AKP). Most newspapers are nominally independent, but many receive significant funding from political parties and the government. English language weeklies were launched in July 1997.

The constitution provides for freedom of speech and press, but the government is said to sometimes limit the press in practice. The intimidation of journalists is said to be declining. The government, political forces and the military dominate the broadcast media.

ORGANIZATIONS

There is a Chamber of Commerce in Phnom Penh. The Cambodian Federation of Employers' and Business Associations was established in 2000. Other major worker organizations include the Free Trade Union of Workers of the Kingdom of Cambodia, Workers' Union for Economic Development, Cambodian Union Federation, Cambodian Federation of Independent Trade Unions, and the National Independent Federation Textile Union of Cambodia. There are professional organizations, including the Cambodia Medical Association.

The Khmer Youth Association, founded in 1992, has been very active in promoting education and job training, as well as the championing the rights of women and children. There is an organization of Girl Guides in the country and well as an independent national scouting groups that are partly affiliated with political parties. Several sports associations are present as well, representing such pastimes as tennis, badminton, weightlifting, and track and field.

The Cambodian Human Rights and Development Association, established in 1991, promotes respect for human rights and the rule of law by providing legal services and educational materials to the public.

There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, Caritas, UNICEF, and Habitat for Humanity. Volunteer service organizations, such as the Lions Clubs International, are also present.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Until the encroachments of war in the late 1960s, Angkor Wat and other remains of the ancient Khmer Empire were the major attractions for visitors to Cambodia. Under the Pol Pot regime, tourism was nonexistent, and it was not substantially revived under Vietnamese occupation. However, since the 1992 UN peace plan, tourism rebounded, spurred by the opening of hundreds of new facilities and scores of new diplomatic missions. Tourists are attracted to the Independence Monument and National Museum in Phnom Penh. The beaches of Sihanoukville and the temples of Preah Vihear and Banteay Chhmar are also popular. A valid passport and visa are required for visitors from all countries except Malaysia and the Philippines. Visa applications are distributed on the airplane and can be processed upon arrival at the Phnom Penh and Siem Reap International Airports. Visas are valid for one month after arrival in Cambodia.

In 2003, about 701,000 tourists visited Cambodia and tourist receipts totaled $441 million. There are two government-run tourist agencies and a number of private tour groups. Dozens of hotels have opened in the capital. As of 2002, the country had 11,426 hotel rooms with 19,398 beds and an occupancy rate of 50%.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in Phnom Penh at $162. Travel expenses in Sihanoukville were estimated at $103 per day.

FAMOUS CAMBODIANS

Foremost among ancient heroes were Fan Shihman, greatest ruler of the Funan Empire (150–550), and Jayavarman II and Jayavarman VII, monarchs of the Khmer Empire who ruled between the 10th and 13th centuries. Prince Norodom Sihanouk (b.1922), who resigned the kingship and won Kampuchea's independence from France, is the best-known living Cambodian. In exile in China during 1970–75, he founded the GRUNK government, from which he resigned in April 1976. In July 1982, he became president of the CGDK. In 1993, he once again became king, until his abdication in 2004. Sihanouk was succeeded by his son Norodom Sihamoni (b.1953). Khieu Samphan (b.1931), a former Marxist publisher and leader of the insurgency in Kampuchea, was named chairman of the State Presidium in the GRUNK government in April 1976, replacing Sihanouk as chief of state. The de facto head of the GRUNK regime during 1975–79 was Pol Pot, the nom de guerre of Saloth Sar (1925–98), who presided over the drastic restructuring of Kampuchean society that left as many as 2–3 million dead in its wake. Heng Samrin (b.1934) became president of the Council of State of the PRK in 1979; he lost his position in 1992. Photographer Dith Pran (b.1943), whose ordeal with the Khmer Rouge was portrayed in the film The Killing Fields, helped chronicle the atrocities of the Pol Pot regime.

DEPENDENCIES

Cambodia has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Altbach, Philip G. and Toru Umakoshi (eds.). Asian Universities: Historical Perspectives and Contemporary Challenges. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.

Coates, Karen J. Cambodia Now: Life in the Wake of War. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2005.

Cook, Susan E. (ed.). Genocide in Cambodia and Rwanda: New Perspectives. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2005.

Corfield, Justin J. Historical Dictionary of Cambodia. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2003.

Higham, Charles. The Civilization of Angkor. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.

Hinton, Alexander Laban. Why Did They Kill?: Cambodia in the Shadow of Genocide. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.

Leibo, Steven A. East and Southeast Asia, 2005. 38th ed. Harpers Ferry, W.Va.: Stryker-Post Publications, 2005.

Marston, John and Elizabeth Guthrie (eds.). History, Buddhism, and New Religious Movements in Cambodia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2004.

Roberts, David W. Political Transition in Cambodia 1991–1999: Power, Elitism and Democracy. Richmond, Va.: Curzon, 2001.

Ross, Russell R. (ed.). Cambodia: A Country Study. 3rd ed. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1990.

Solomon, Richard H. Exiting Indochina: U.S. Leadership of the Cambodia Settlement and Normalization of Relations with Vietnam. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2000.

U Sam Oeur, with Ken McCullough. Crossing Three Wildernesses: A Memoir. Minneapolis: Coffee House Press, 2005.

Wagner, Carol. Soul Survivors: Stories of Women and Children in Cambodia. Berkeley, Calif.: Creative Arts, 2002.

Wenk, Brian. The Work of Giants: Rebuilding Cambodia. Geneva: International Labor Organization, 2002.

CAMBODIA

Major City:
Phnom Penh

Other Cities:
Angkor, Battambang, Kampong Cham, Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Saom, Kampot, Koh Kong, Kratie, Pursat, Siem Reap

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated October 1994. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

CAMBODIA is a shattered nation that is struggling to find peace and stability. For nearly 25 years, Cambodia has been torn apart by civil war, genocide, and an invasion from neighboring Vietnam. Cambodia's troubles began in 1969 when American planes bombed North Vietnamese bases in eastern Cambodia during the Vietnam War. In 1975, the Khmer Rouge, a radical Communist group, overthrew Cambodia's pro-Western regime. Immediately after its victory, the Khmer Rouge evacuated all cities and towns. Virtually the entire population was sent into the countryside to clear jungle and till the land. Approximately two million Cambodians died from executions, disease, or starvation at the hands of the Khmer Rouge. Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1978 and drove the Khmer Rouge from power in 1979. The Khmer Rouge and three non-Communist groups formed a military coalition to force Vietnamese troops from Cambodia. The Vietnamese fought against the Khmer Rouge and its coalition allies until September 1989, when it announced that it had withdrawn all of its forces from Cambodia. Following the withdrawal of the Vietnamese, the coalition disintegrated and a bloody civil war erupted between the Khmer Rouge and the three non-Communist groups. Several international attempts to end the fighting were unsuccessful until October 1991, when a United Nations peace plan was signed in Paris by the Khmer Rouge and the three non-Communist groups.

In March 1992, the United Nations sent its first contingent of peace-keeping troops to Cambodia. The mission of the United Nations troops during 1992 was to disarm all warring factions, repatriate 375,000 Cambodian refugees living in camps in Thailand, and prepare the country for democratic elections. However, the Khmer Rouge refused to disarm and launched attacks against civilian targets and United Nations troops. Opponents of the Khmer Rouge have also refused to give up their weapons. By early 1993, several thousand refugees had returned to Cambodia but many others have stayed in Thailand out of fear that the civil war may resume. At press time, the Khmer Rouge continued to ignore the peace agreement it signed in October 1991. Also, attacks by Khmer Rouge guerrillas on United Nations peacekeepers increased in number and ferocity. Several U.N. soldiers had been killed or taken prisoner since their arrival in Cambodia in early 1992. The United Nations had nearly 19,000 soldiers in Cambodia in February 1993.

MAJOR CITY

Phnom Penh

Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia since the mid-15th century and the country's largest city, has a population of approximately 1 million. The city lies at the confluence of the Mekong River, the Bassac River, and the Tonle Sap, and consists of four urban districts and three suburban districts. Phnom Penh is a sprawling city, with a mix of wide, tree-lined boulevards and narrow dirt roads, large French-colonial houses, apartment buildings, and small wooden thatch-roofed dwellings. The city is laid out in a rough grid system, with odd numbered streets running basically north/south and even numbered streets running east/west. However, streets are not always numbered sequentially, and a map is frequently helpful in locating streets and addresses. The Phnom Penh Post, a local English-language newspaper published semimonthly, prints a useful city map in each issue. The streets have been renamed and renumbered several times in recent years, and to avoid confusion, people frequently use both the old and the new street names and numbers when giving directions or listing addresses. Most of the posted street numbers reflect an old numbering system.

Ninety percent of Cambodia's population live in rural communities, but in recent years, an increasing number of residents have relocated to the capital city, most to try and make a better living and some to attend school or receive technical training. Like all of Cambodia, Phnom Penh is a city struggling to overcome the ravages and neglect of civil war and the city's basic infrastructure is in various states of dis-array and disrepair. Phnom Penh is hot and humid year round, with a rainy monsoon season from June to October, cooler at the turn of the year and hot from February to May. September and October are the months of heaviest precipitation.

Food

Food shortages are not a problem in Phnom Penh, and a variety of locally grown fresh fruits and vegetables are always available. There are four markets that stock supplies of imported meat, both fresh (imported from Australia and New Zealand) and frozen (imported from the U.S.). Available types of meat vary but usually consist of various cuts of beef, pork, and chicken. Prices for imported meat are higher than in the U.S. Locally produced meat is available but is not recommended as there are no standards for quality control or hygienic handling or processing. Locally produced milk should be avoided, but imported fresh pasteurized milk is sometimes available at two markets, and four markets stock UTH milk, dried milk, and canned condensed milk. Imported western-type foods are available at several markets, but selection and availability vary. Imported processed baby food is available at two markets.

Clothing

Cambodian culture and custom dictate modesty in dress, particularly for women. Very short skirts and shorts should be avoided, although sleeveless tops are acceptable for women (shoulders should be covered when visiting temples and wats). Many Cambodians wear western-style clothing, particularly in Phnom Penh, but traditional skirts and sarongs are also common. Clothing appropriate for a tropical climate is worn year round, and most occasions call for casual attire.

Local markets stock a wide supply of inexpensive secondhand western clothing, including an abundance of children's clothing. Clothing can also be made locally at very low cost (the material—cotton, silk, polyester—is more expensive than the labor), and local tailors are adept at copying favorite articles of clothing. Good quality shoes are difficult to find. Leather shoes and sandals, for adults and children, can be custom made locally at relatively inexpensive prices.

During the raining season, rubber boots, a long, lightweight raincoat, and a rainhat are desirable. Umbrellas are also a necessity during the rainy season.

Men: At work, men are most comfortable in short-sleeved dress shirts and cotton pants. Long-sleeved dress shirts and neckties are appropriate for more formal occasions. Cotton material is available locally and dress shirts can be made inexpensively. Personnel should bring tropical-weight suits for formal occasions, although for most situations shirt and tie is adequate. Formal entertaining is rare in Cambodia.

Women: Women are most comfortable at work wearing at or below the knee lightweight skirts and dresses, or appropriate slacks. Shorter styles are acceptable for Westerners but are not customary in Cambodian culture. Tight, scanty, or otherwise revealing clothing should be avoided. In Cambodia's tropical climate, natural fiber clothing, especially cotton, is usually the most comfortable. Sandals or other casual shoes are appropriate for work; for more formal occasions, pumps or dress sandals are appropriate. At more formal functions, women should wear skirts or dresses rather than dress pants. Women should not wear black or white to Cambodian weddings (these colors are worn at funerals).

Supplies and Services

Necessary toiletries, cleaning and household supplies can be purchased locally, although selection and brand names are limited. Most available products are imported from Thailand, and some European and a few American brands are available.

Local tailors are adequate and inexpensive. Fine quality is sometimes limited by sewing machines that are very basic and frequently manually powered. Some minor shoe repairs can be done locally, and leather shoes and sandals can be custom made at inexpensive prices. Good quality repair services can be hard to find. Poor quality, dry-cleaning services are available at two hotels. Beauty-and barbershops are widely available locally, at very low prices by American standards, although services are generally limited to haircuts. There is also a more expensive French salon located at the Cambodiana Hotel.

Religious Activities

Religious facilities in Phnom Penh include two Muslim services (conducted in Arabic), a weekly Catholic mass, and several Protestant services. The Anglican Church of Christ Our Peace and the Assemblies of God both hold English-language services. Buddhist services, conducted in Khmer, are also readily available. There are no Jewish or Eastern Orthodox services currently available in Phnom Penh (although there is an Eastern Orthodox chapel located at Norodom and 352 streets).

Education

There are two suitable primary/secondary schools located in Phnom Penh. The International School of Phnom Penh, founded in 1989, is an independent coeducational school that offers an educational program from preschool through grade 10 for students of all nationalities. The school year comprises four terms extending from August through June. The curriculum is an internationally based program focusing on the academic needs of students from more than 30 countries. All instruction is conducted in English. The school is housed in four separate buildings on three interconnected compounds and includes 12 classrooms, a library, an outdoor eating area, and a theater. A basketball and volleyball court and an elementary playground comprise the outdoor facilities. The school is governed by a 7-member board, elected annually by the Parents' Association, which is automatically conferred on the parents or guardians of children enrolled in the school. About 98% of the schools income is derived from school tuition and fees.

The Ecole Francaise, operated as part of the French school system under the direction of the French Foreign Ministry, offers an educational program from kindergarten through age 15 (approximately equivalent to U.S. grade 10). The academic program emphasizes basic skill development, and American personnel who have young children in attendance feel that at the primary level the school is comparable to schools in the U.S. school system. All instruction is conducted in French. The Ecole Francaise does not have lunch facilities and students go home for 2 hours in the middle of the day. Tuition fees are about $2,000 per year.

Sports

Because of Cambodia's hot and humid weather, sports enthusiasts should take proper precautions to avoid heat stroke, sunburn, and dehydration. Tennis, swimming, boating, volleyball, soccer, and running are among the locally available sports. The International Youth Club has several hard packed tennis courts that can be reserved in advance. They also have an Olympic-sized swimming pool and a weight room equipped with a variety of free weights, weight machines, and stationary bicycles. There are plans to build a squash court in the next year.

There are several types of individual and family memberships (in various price ranges) available at the International Youth Club; non-members and guests are required to pay a small entrance fee. There is also a smaller swimming pool at the Cambodiana Hotel (entrance fee for non-hotel guests), and the Hotel is in the process of building a small fitness center.

The National Olympic Stadium has two soccer fields, several volley ball and basketball courts, and a 400-meter dirt running track. Facilities are rudimentary, but are free and open to the public. To avoid traffic, dust, smog, and curious stares, most runners prefer to run at the Olympic Stadium rather than through the streets of Phnom Penh. The Hash House Harriers, an expatriate running club, meet weekly for group runs and socializing.

Boating and fishing can be done on the Mekong and Bassac Rivers. Small, rudimentary fishing and motor boats can be rented at reasonable cost by the hour or the day (usually a driver is included in the rental cost). Local boats are not equipped with life preservers or other safety equipment. Some basic fishing tackle can be purchased locally, but anglers will be better off if they bring gear with them. For gardeners, Cambodia's lush tropical climate encourages rapid growth of a wide range of fruits, vegetables, and tropical flowers.

Spectator sports include volleyball and soccer tournaments, and Thai kick-boxing matches. Occasionally, boat and swimming races are held on the Mekong and Bassac Rivers, usually in conjunction with a local holiday or festival. Cyclo races have recently become an annual event.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

Travel by air is possible to some locations in Cambodia, and in many cases is required due to unsafe or impassable road conditions. Cambodia has eight usable airports, with daily flights to Siem Reap and the temples at Angkor Wat, and several weekly flights to Battambang (Cambodia's second largest city, located to the northwest of Phnom Penh), Stung Treng, Ratanakiri, and several other destinations. A newly available "high speed" boat service offers daily trips up the Mekong River to Kompong Cham and Kratie. Package boat tours are also available to Mekong Island, situated in the Mekong River near Phnom Penh. Visitors can see a variety of local handicraft demonstrations, visit a small zoo, and have lunch on local cuisine.

The white sand beaches at Sihanoukville, located on Cambodia's coast on the Gulf of Thailand, are approximately a 3-1/2 hour drive from Phnom Penh. Koh Kong Island, located just off of Cambodia's western coast in the Gulf of Thailand, is being developed as a tourist destination. Flights are available from Phnom Penh, and the Island can also be reached by boat from Sihanoukville.

Day trip destinations from Phnom Penh include Udong, Cambodia's capital from 1619 to 1866, located 24 miles north of Phnom Penh; Tonle Bati and Ta Prohm and Yeay Peau Temples, located 20 miles south of Phnom Penh; temples at Phnom Chisor, located 33 miles south of Phnom Penh and 13 miles south of Tonle Bati; and Koki Beach, which is not really a beach at all but a popular Khmer destination—especially on Sundays—located on the Mekong River, 7 miles east of Phnom Penh.

Entertainment

Formal and organized entertainment in Phnom Penh is limited. The French Cultural Center shows movies in French and sponsors a monthly schedule of lectures. Several times a year they bring classical musicians or theater performances to Phnom Penh. The Phnom Penh Players, an amateur acting group, put on two plays a year. Cambodian dance performances are held occasionally. Performances, ceremonies, and races are also held in conjunction with most Cambodian national festivals. There are a number of nightclubs in Phnom Penh that offer dancing (most clubs play a combination of Cambodian, Thai, and western rock music).

Social Activities

The international community in Phnom Penh is small, and it is easy to meet and get to know people of all nationalities. Although opportunities for formal socializing and entertainment are minimal, opportunities for meeting host country nationals and nationals of other friendly countries include the International Youth Club, the Hash House Harriers, socializing at local restaurants and bars, and the Women's Forum (an international group that meets monthly for brunch and socializing).

Special Information

Undetonated land mines are a hazard that travelers outside of Phnom Penh should beware of. Bombs and mines were laid throughout Cambodia during the 1970s, and many of these still remain. As skirmishes between the Khmer Rough and the Royal Government Army continue, new mines continue to be laid everyday, even in areas previously cleared and deemed safe. At the end of 1993, it was estimated that there remain 6-9 million mines yet to be cleared. Countrywide, there are nearly 100 casualties per day from mine blasts, and mine accidents rank among malaria and tuberculosis as Cambodia's greatest public health hazards. As a result of mine accidents, Cambodia has a higher percentage of amputees than any other country in the world.

OTHER CITIES

Located about 200 miles north of Phnom Penh, ANGKOR offers some of the countries most beautiful archeological sites. The Angkor was once the capital of the Great Khmer Empire, which reigned from the 9th to 15th centuries AD. The ruins of 100 or more temples and buildings are hidden beneath a stunning rain-forest canopy. Sandstone carvings on the sides of the temples tell their stories. Local tour guides can help you interpret them. One of the most magnificent sites is Angkor Wat, the temple complex built between 879-1191AD to honor the Hindu god Vishnu. The complex covers 500 acres and boasts a number of soaring towers, beautiful courtyards and galleries, and a large moat meant to symbolize the ocean surrounding the world. The Wat contains one of the largest bas relief sculptures in the world, which depicts scenes from Hindu legends.

Nearby is Phnom Bakheng Hill, the first "temple mountain" at Angkor. The temple there originally had 109 towers supporting a seven level structure, meant to symbolize the seven heavens of Hinduism. According to Hindu mythology, this temple mountain represents Mount Meru, the center of the universe.

Visitors may need to stay in Siem Reap, a town located only a few miles away from Angkor. Package tours, ranging from 2 to 5 days in duration, can be arranged through several travel agents in Phnom Penh. Prices include all ground and air transportation, hotel and meals, admission fees at all temples, and an English-speaking guide. Trips can also be arranged individually. Round-trip airfare to Siem Reap is approximately $100 (daily flights are now available from Phnom Penh), and there are government-set fees to visit the temples.

BATTAMBANG is located in western Cambodia along the banks of the Sangker River. It is approximately 160 miles (258 kilometers) northwest of Phnom Penh. The city is situated in the heart of large rice growing region and has developed into a major marketing center. Before 1975, Battambang was the site of productive textile and cigarette manufacturing industries. These industries were heavily damaged by the Khmer Rouge. Two ancient Khmer temples, Prasat Sneng and Prasat Banon, are located near Battambang. These temples date back to the 11th and 12th centuries, respectively. Within the city, the Pothiveal Museum contained many beautiful examples of Khmer art. The present condition of Prasat Sneng, Prasat Banon, and the Pothiveal Museum is unknown. With a population of approximately 195,000 in 2002, Battambang is Cambodia's second largest city.

One of central Cambodia's largest cities is KAMPONG CHAM . It is located roughly 45 miles (75 kilometers) northeast of Phnom Penh. Kampong Cham is situated near a heavily forested region of Cambodia where several varieties of trees, particularly rubber trees, are found. Several large rubber plantations have been constructed near the city. Kampong Cham's location on the Mekong River has led to the development of a productive fishing industry. The soil around Kampong Cham is extremely fertile and supports the growth of corn, cassava, beans, tobacco, sugarcane, cotton, rice, and potatoes. An 11th century Buddhist shrine, Wat Nokor, is located on the outskirts of the city. Kampong Cham has a population of over 35,000. Current population figures are unavailable.

KAMPONG CHHNANG , with a population of approximately 56,000, is situated on the Tonlé Sap River and is the home of a large fishing industry. The city is central Cambodia's transportation hub and is linked by rail, road, and river ferry with Phnom Penh. The residents of Kampong Chhnang and the surrounding region are noted for the creation of beautiful Cambodian pottery.

KAMPONG SAOM is Cambodia's major port city. The city was constructed in 1960 with French assistance. By 1966, Kampong Saom had developed into a modern city with parks, schools, and hospitals. The city was heavily damaged during years of civil war and all port facilities were closed by the Khmer Rouge. All port facilities were reopened in late 1979. In 1984, Kampong Saom's port handled 2.5 tons of cargo per day.

The coastal city of KAMPOT is located in southern Cambodia near the border with Vietnam. Kampot is located in a rich agricultural region and is a trading center for the rice, bananas, coconuts, and pepper grown near the city. Kampot is also noted for the population of durian, a tropical fruit whose seeds are roasted and eaten like chestnuts. The city is connected by road and rail with Phnom Penh. Road conditions near Kampot are extremely poor. Kampot was heavily damaged by the Khmer Rouge and many areas of the city need to be rebuilt. Kampot has a population of approximately 19,000.

The name KOH KONG refers to the province, the town, and the island located in southwest Cambodia near the border of Thailand. The main attractions of the island are the white sand coves and lush tropical forests. Though the island has not been fully developed for tourist stays, day trips can be made for those interested in swimming, diving, or backpacking around the island. The village boarder town on the mainland offers several hotels, restaurants, and even a few night clubs for an active nightlife.

KRATIE (also spelled Kracheh) is northeastern Cambodia's largest city. The city is situated along the Mekong River in the heart of a fertile agricultural region. Rice, vegetables, bananas, potatoes, sugarcane, corn, and cotton are grown near the city. The area around Kratie is heavily forested and is an excellent source of hard-woods such as teak, mahogany, and rosewood. Vestiges of Cambodia's proud history, such as the monastery of Phnom Sambok and the ancient city of Sambor, are located on the outskirts of Kratie. The city has a population of nearly 20,000. Current population figures are unavailable.

The city of PURSAT (also spelled Pouthisat) is located on the Pursat River in western Cambodia. The region around Pursat is one of Cambodia's largest rice-growing regions. Corn, potatoes, bananas, cotton, and vegetables are grown near Pursat. Other economic activity in the city revolves around distilling and trading in horns and hides. Pursat has an estimated population of 42,000 in 2002.

SIEM REAP is one of northwestern Cambodia's largest cities. The city is Cambodia's largest producer of pharmaceuticals. Located north of Siem Reap are the remains of Angkor Wat, an ancient temple city complex constructed in the 12th century. The largest religious edifice in the world, Angkor Wat is considered the greatest architectural work in Southeast Asia. Siem Reap has a population of approximately 142,000 in 2002.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Kingdom of Cambodia covers an area 181,040 sq. km. (69,900 sq. mi.), approximately the size of Missouri. It is bordered on the northwest by Thailand, on the north by Laos, and on the east and southeast by Vietnam. Cambodia has a short coastline on the Gulf of Thailand.

The country terrain is largely flat, low-lying plains that are drained by the Tonle Sap (Lake) and the Mekong and Bassac Rivers. The Mekong River flows 189 miles through Cambodia; in places it is up to 3 miles wide. The rich sediment deposited during the rainy season when the Mekong River swells and floods each year adds to the very fertile growing conditions that exist throughout the Upper Mekong Delta. The Tonle Sap, located in western central Cambodia, connects with the Mekong River at Phnom Penh via a 60 miles long channel.

During the dry season when the water level of the Mekong is low, water flows southeast out of the Tonle Sap into the Mekong River. However, during the wet season when the level of the Mekong rises, an extraordinary phenomena takes place. The swollen Mekong River actually causes the flow of the Tonle Sap to reverse, forcing water to drain back into the Tonle Sap and over time causing the Lake to more than double in size. As a result of this unique occurrence, the Tonle Sap is one of the richest sources of freshwater fish in the world. The central lowlands are characterized by seemingly endless, flat rice paddies, fields of reeds and tall grass, and fields of cultivated crops such as corn, tobacco, sesame, and tapioca. Sprinkled throughout are tall sugar palm trees and occasional wooded areas. Rice is grown in 90 percent of the cultivated land. However, only two-thirds of the land cultivated before 1970 is cultivated today, largely as a result of dangerous land mines and a lack of equipment and irrigation.

There are heavily forested areas located away from the Lake and Rivers and mountainous areas in the southwest (the Cardamom Mountains), the south (the Elephant Mountains), and the north (the Dangrek Mountains). Most of the country lies at an elevation of less than 100 meters above sea level. The highest elevation, Phnom Aoral (60 miles northwest of Phnom Penh) is 1,813 meters. The mountainous areas are largely forested, with virgin rain forests in the southwest, evergreen and mangrove forests along the coastal strip, and towering broadleaf evergreen forests in the north. Much of the north and northeast is covered by a thick jungle of vines, bamboo, palm trees, and assorted other ground plants. The southwest provinces support large (although old) rubber plantations.

Phnom Penh, the capital of Cambodia since the mid-15th century and the country's largest city, has a population of approximately 1 million. The city lies at the confluence of the Mekong River, the Bassac River, and the river flowing from the Tonle Sap and consists of four urban districts and three suburban districts. Phnom Penh is a sprawling city, with a mix of wide, tree-lined boulevards and narrow dirt roads, large French-colonial houses, apartment buildings, and small thatch-roofed wooden dwellings. Many residents have relocated to the capital from rural provinces, most to make a better living and some to attend school or to learn English. Phnom Penh is a city struggling to overcome the ravages and neglect of civil war, and most of the city's basic infrastructure is in disarray.

Upon leaving Phnom Penh, the scenery immediately becomes very rural. Cambodia's second largest city, Battambang (population approximately 200,000), is located 175 miles to the northwest. Approximately 3 hours (by road) to the southwest of Phnom Penh is the port of Sihanoukville on the Gulf of Thailand, with white-sand beaches. In the far northeast, Ratanakiri province is the home of Cambodia's ethnic minorities.

The climate in Cambodia is consistent throughout the country—hot and humid. There are two distinct seasons: a cooler dry season that last from November to May, and a hotter rainy season lasting from June to October. The country has an average annual rainfall of between 50 and 75 inches with the southwestern mountains, the area with the highest rainfall, receiving nearly 200 inches per year. October-December are the coolest months of the year, when temperatures can fall to the mid to upper 60°F (25-27°C). April is the hottest month, when temperatures regularly exceed 100°F (40°C). The average relative humidity is 81 percent. Although the heat and humidity, particularly during April and May, can be uncomfortable and fatiguing, all U.S. Embassy housing and offices are equipped with air-conditioning. During the rainy season, periodic flooding is a problem, as are increased mosquitoes, silver-fish, and vermin infestation. High levels of humidity and moisture encourage damage caused by mildew and rust.

Population

The population of Cambodia is approximately 12 million, with an annual growth rate of 2.25% (2001 est.). Cambodia is the most homogeneous of the Southeast Asian nations, with ethnic-Khmers comprising nearly 90% of the population. There are small percentages of ethnic-Chinese and ethnic-Vietnamese, and a small Cham Muslim population that was nearly wiped out by the Khmer Rouge during the 1970s. Cambodia's ethno-linguist minorities (hill tribes), numbering fewer than 100,000, reside in the country's mountainous regions and are concentrated primarily in the northeast. As sporadic fighting continues between the Khmer Rouge and Royal Government forces, a fluctuating population of Cambodians seek refuge in Thailand. Years of violent and bloody civil war have taken their toll on the population and are reflected in the demographics of the country. Nearly 65 percent of the population are women, and 40% (4 million) is under age 15.

Cambodia's population is mostly rural with approximately 80 percent employed in agriculture or fishing. Nearly 90 percent of the population resides in the central lowlands. The average population density in Cambodia is 61 people per square kilometer.

The official language of Cambodia is Khmer, and it is spoken throughout the country. Unlike Thai and Vietnamese, Khmer is a nontonal language with many disyllabic words. The Khmer language descends from Sanskrit and borrows a number of words from Pali. It is not directly related to either Thai or Vietnamese. For over a century during the period of French colonization, educated Cambodians also learned French. Today, however, the second language of choice is fast becoming English. Young people crowd English-language classes and practice their language skills with foreigners at every chance they get.

Buddhism is the state religion in Cambodia, and the vast majority of Cambodian people are Buddhist. Cambodians practice Theravada Buddhism, an earlier form of the religion that originated in India. Every male Buddhist is expected to become a monk for at least a short period of his life. Under the Khmer Rouge, the practice of Buddhism (and all religion) was forbidden. Monks were executed, and nearly all of the country's 3,000 wats (Buddhist temples) were severely damaged or destroyed. In recent years, despite a critical lack of resources, great emphasis has been placed on restoring and rebuilding the wats.

Cambodia's small Muslim community was nearly annihilated by the Khmer Rouge. There are several mosques in Phnom Penh, however, and in a number of villages to the north and east along the Mekong River.

Public Institutions

The Kingdom of Cambodia is struggling to overcome decades of civil war, isolation, and massive destruction by the Khmer Rouge of its population, infrastructure, and national identity and culture. Historically, however, the Khmer nation has been both powerful and influential throughout the region. From the 9th to the 14th century, the Khmer Empire successfully ruled much of the area that is today Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam. During the 14th and 15th centuries the power of the Khmer Empire waned, and a succession of Kings alternately fought with neighboring Vietnam and Thailand. In 1863, Cambodia signed a treaty of protectorate with France, and over the course of the next century became established as a French colony. Cambodia, under the leadership of King Norodom Sihanouk, declared independence from France in 1953. Shortly thereafter King Sihanouk abdicated the thrown to his elderly father in order to be elected prime minister and then Chief of State. Sihanouk severed diplomatic relations with the U.S. in 1965. In 1970, when Sihanouk was temporarily out of the country, his cousin, General Lon Nol staged a coup d'etat, and replaced Sihanouk as chief of state. Sihanouk established a government-in-exile operated out of Beijing, and became a figurehead leader of the group known as the Khmer Rouge. Meanwhile under Lon Nol, extreme levels of government greed and corruption led to violent fighting and the deaths of several hundred thousand Cambodians between 1970 and 1975.

On April 17-18, 1975, the Khmer Rouge invaded Phnom Penh and systematically and methodically emptied the city of all residents. Over the next 4 years, the Khmer Rouge attempted to implement a totally agrarian-based self-sufficient society, forcibly relocating Cambodia's citizens to rural work camps to work in the fields and perform manual labor. Under the genocidal leadership of the Khmer Rouge, nearly 1 million Cambodian people were tortured and executed and almost an entire generation of educated and professionally trained citizens was methodically annihilated. Widespread starvation, disease and despair contributed to the massive numbers of deaths that occurred during the 1975-79 reign of the Khmer Rouge regime. During this period, the country's basic infrastructure—systems of transportation, communication, education, health, economics, and government—was destroyed.

In January 1979, Vietnam invaded Cambodia and forced the Khmer Rouge westward to the Thai border, and installed a new communist government headed by Hun Sen and Heng Samrin, two former Khmer Rouge leaders. For more than a decade Vietnam presided over the chaotic situation in Cambodia, plagued by continued guerrilla warfare with the Khmer Rouge, widespread famine, international isolation, and political, social, and economic instability.

Amidst international pressure and a declining economic situation at home, Vietnam ceased its occupation of Cambodia in 1990, and a year later the 1991 Paris Peace Agreements promised to end 13 years of Cambodian civil war and establish the country as a democracy. The Cambodian peace agreement called for the deployment of the largest and most costly peace-keeping force in the history of the U.N. The U.N. Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) was created and charged with custodial administration of the country until a democratically elected constituent assembly could form a new government and ratify a national constitution. In May 1993, Cambodia held its first free and open elections (in which the Khmer Rouge refused to participate), with 95 percent of eligible voters registered to vote, and of those 90 percent casting a ballot.

The National Assembly, the leading legislative body, is made up of 120 elected members representing three major political parties. The Royalist FUNCINPEC party (the French acronym for Cambodian National Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and Cooperative Cambodia) and the Cambodian People's Party (CPP) share a majority of power in the National Assembly (with the two co-prime ministers, H.R.H. Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen representing those two political parties), and the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party (BLDP) has a smaller presence.

The main goals of the new government are national reconciliation to rebuild the country and to restore peace and stability where chaos has existed. A major obstacle confronting Cambodia is a severe lack of resources. Over the past two decades the country's infrastructure was nearly completely destroyed, and Cambodia is now faced with reestablishing basic levels of transportation, communication, food and water supplies, and government services. Poverty is a serious problem, and living standards and social indicators in Cambodia place it among the poorest countries in the world. Cambodia's new leaders have been working hard to reestablish ties with the international community and formulate a policy for foreign relations. A big part of this has been seeking desperately needed international aid and assistance. To date, Japan, France, Australia and the U.S. have been the major contributors. A key to the new government's success will be its ability to strengthen Cambodia's economy and improve living standards throughout the country.

The Kingdom of Cambodia is divided into 21 provinces that are broken down into districts, communes, and villages. Seats in the National Assembly are allocated proportionally by province.

Arts, Science, and Education

Cambodia, a country with a rich history of traditional architecture, music, dance, and handicrafts, suffered near cultural devastation under the Khmer Rouge regime. Pagodas and temples, museums, libraries, and theaters were routinely ransacked and destroyed. Between 1975 and 1979, the rich history and culture that had accumulated over thousands of years in the form of buildings, sculptures, paintings, and manuscripts was ruthlessly wiped out.

Today, the country is struggling to restore, rebuild, and resurrect its cultural institutions. Historically, Cambodia is perhaps best known for its unique and impressive architecture that climaxed during the Angkorian period (the 9th to the 14th century). At that time, Khmer art and architecture were widely influential throughout Southeast Asia. The most magnificent example of Khmer architecture can be seen at the world famous temples of Angkor, including Angkor Wat, the Bayon, and Angkor Thom. Although attacked and ransacked by the Khmer Rouge, these spectacular temples remain one of the architectural splendors of the world. With international assistance, a variety of conservation efforts are underway to protect and preserve these national monuments.

The National Museum of Khmer Art and Archaeology, located in Phnom Penh, has some of the finest examples of Khmer art and sculpture. Pagodas around the country are in various states of refurbishment and repair, and the Royal Palace and its surrounding compound including the Silver Pagoda—with its floor covered with 5,000 silver tiles—has undergone an impressive renovation and has sections that are open to the public for tours.

Cambodia's classic dance, with its graceful and controlled movements and colorful silk costumes, is performed to the accompaniment of traditional string and percussion instruments and vocalist. Under the Khmer Rouge, 90 percent of Cambodia's classical dancers were killed, and it is only recently that the government reestablished a national dancing troupe. Theater in Cambodia recently received a severe setback when the Bassac Theater, a historic site in Phnom Penh and Cambodia's national theater, caught fire and was destroyed. The country currently has no funds to replace or to rebuild the theater and is hoping for international assistance to help restore this culturally significant site.

Like most institutions in Cambodia, the educational system suffered greatly under the Khmer Rouge. By 1979, the educational system ceased to exist. In addition, the country was left with a severe lack of trained teachers, most of whom were executed during the Khmer Rouge regime. School buildings, books, supplies, and printing facilities were all destroyed. However, a major effort in the 1980s to reestablish a national school system resulted in the opening of nearly 4,700 primary schools and 440 secondary schools throughout the country. There are now over 2 million primary school students and 190,000 secondary school students, as well as a small university and technical school population in Phnom Penh. However, quality of education remains low. Primary school graduates risk lapsing into illiteracy, and secondary school graduates lack the required level of knowledge, particularly in the fields of mathematics, science, and foreign languages, to gain college admission.

One of the major problems facing the educational system in Cambodia is a continued shortage of competent and qualified teachers. For example, approximately one-third of all primary schoolteachers themselves have only a primary school education. In addition, teaching salaries are so low that new teachers are discouraged from entering the field (the World Bank recently calculated that average teacher salaries cover only half the cost of a typical household's monthly rice consumption). Educational resources of all types are lacking; only 4 percent of the projected 1994 national budget was allocated for education. Adult literacy in Cambodia is believed to be around 35 percent, a slight decline from where it was 25 years ago.

Commerce and Industry

Cambodia's economy, even before the widespread destruction and devastation brought on by the Khmer Rouge, was one of the least developed in Southeast Asia. Although with assistance from the international community, the economy has improved, Cambodia remains a poor, underdeveloped country, and its economy continues to suffer from decades of civil war and internal corruption. The average per capita income is approximately US$1,300 (2000 est.). Future economic development and growth will depend heavily on international aid and assistance and foreign investment.

Agriculture, including rice farming, livestock, forestry, and cultivation of other crops, is a primary part of the economy, involving 75% percent of the labor force. Agriculture accounted for about 37% of GDP in 1999. Excellent rice harvests in 1999 contributed to Cambodia's better-than-expected economic growth. With its large amount of arable land, ample rainfall, and close proximity to the major ASEAN markets of Thailand and Vietnam, agriculture will continue to have strong growth potential for the economy.

Industry and manufacturing remain low. Mining activities (for clay, dolomite, gold, limestone, pagodite, phosphate, quartz, sapphire, ruby, silica sand, and other precious stones) are also low. Although Cambodia's natural resources include a variety of gem-stones, the largest gemstone mines are currently not under government control, and their output remains largely unreported.

Since 1993, Cambodia has received major assistance from the IMF, World Bank, ADB, UNDP and other bilateral and multilateral donors that is earmarked for economic reform. Cambodia has already made considerable progress by improving control of the forestry industry, which had been plagued with management corruption and illegal logging operations. Timber and firewood are the main forest products (Cambodia does not have a large quantity of teak or other valuable hardwoods).

Cambodia is a member of ASEAN and the Asian Free Trade Area. Cambodia has begun the process of accession to the World Trade Organization.

Transportation

Local

In Phnom Penh and throughout Cambodia, vehicles drive on the right-hand side of the road as they do in the U.S. However, in most locally available automobiles the driver's seat is on the right side of the vehicle. Traffic conditions in Phnom Penh can be confusing and dangerous, primarily because traffic regulations are rarely enforced. Few Khmer drivers have had any type of formal driving instruction and most do not have a license. The streets are shared by large cargo trucks, cars, a plethora of motos, bicycles, cyclos, a few ox-pulled carts, and pedestrians. The absence of stop signs at even major intersections adds to the confusion and danger of driving in Phnom Penh. Additionally, some informal but significant "rules of the road" may prove initially confusing to American drivers. For example, in Cambodia, the meaning of another car flashing its headlights is "you are in my driving path and I am not yielding my right of way to you."

Traffic conditions at night can be particularly challenging. Street lights in Phnom Penh frequently do not work, and in any case are only present on a few major roads. The roads are dark, and many cars, motos, cyclos, and bicycles travel at night without any lights. During the rainy season when roads frequently become flooded, drivers should beware of potentially slippery conditions and hidden potholes.

"Moto taxis"—small motorcycles that accept passengers to sit behind the driver—are widely available and are used regularly. Cyclos—large tricycles with a passenger seat in front and a peddler or driver behind—are also a widely used form of transportation. Both of these forms of transportation are inexpensive (usually costing between 20¢ and $1; prices are negotiable) and are readily available. Cars with drivers can be hired by the hour or by the day; rates are reasonable.

Regional

Transportation facilities available within Cambodia are limited. There are five National Highways linking Phnom Penh to other provinces. The conditions of these roads, the only main roads in the country, vary considerably and in some cases they are not passable even with a four-wheel-drive vehicle. In 1990, it was estimated that only about 20 percent of the roads in Cambodia were covered with asphalt and were in passable condition. Missing or damaged bridges also creates travel difficulties as ferry services are frequently not available. To date, the government has not allocated significant budget resources for repairing the country's roads, and little attempt has been made to find private funding for road construction and repair. The highway system is being rebuilt in stages with the help of foreign assistance projects and loans, as they become available.

The Khmer Rouge continue to mine bridges, including those recently restored and rebuilt. Incidents of banditry, robbery, and kidnapping by Khmer Rouge and government soldiers has made road travel to many destinations additionally dangerous and unreliable. Private taxi service can be arranged to some destinations outside of Phnom Penh, subject to the same dangers as previously described.

Travel by air is possible to some locations, and in many cases is required due to impassable roads, damaged bridges, and unsafe travel conditions. Cambodia has 8 usable airports with daily flights to Siem Reap (and the temples at Angkor Wat), and several weekly flights to Battambang (Cambodia's second largest city, located 175 miles to the northwest of Phnom Penh), Stung Treng, and a few other destinations. Flights to the northeast of Cambodia fly only once per week, and there is no road access to this part of the country. Organized trips to visit the temples of Angkor Wat (accompanied by an English-speaking guide) are available through local travel agencies; trips ranging from 2 to 5 days can be arranged, although prices are expensive. There are daily flights from Phnom Penh to Bangkok (a one hour flight), where connections to other international carriers can be made. Daily or weekly flights to other international destinations, including Singapore, Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong, and Kuala Lumpur, are also available directly from Phnom Penh.

Cambodia has two rail lines, both originating in Phnom Penh, and a total of 367 miles of government owned single, one-meter-gauge track. Guerrilla activities continue to disrupt service, and the railroad is not safe for travel by American by Americans for either official or personal travel.

Likewise, Cambodia has 169 miles of navigable inland waterways for boats drawing up to 1.8 meters of water. Although several cities are theoretically reachable from Phnom Penh by boat, due to high incidents of banditry and generally unsafe conditions of equipment and lack of life preservers and safety devices, transportation by boat is generally not recommended.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

In Phnom Penh and throughout Cambodia, local telephone service consists of individual mobile telephones carried by the small (but growing) percentage of individuals who can afford them. There are only a few businesses and almost no homes with installed telephone lines, and they are difficult to get. Motorola telephones cover an area 18 miles around Phnom Penh where the antenna is installed. Samart telephones service a wider area of the country including Siem Reap, Sihanoukville, and Kompong Cham.

Phnom Penh does have a limited local telephone system, but overseas calls are frequently easier to make than local ones. There are a small but growing number of pay phones located in Phnom Penh, and local emergency telephone numbers have recently been established.

Because many businesses and most individuals do not have telephones, communication frequently requires a hand-delivered message or personal visit.

Radio and TV

Post receives shortwave radio broadcasts in English from the BBC, VOA, and Radio Australia. Radio France International, a French station, can be received on FM radio. Local TV programs (news programs, sitcoms, dramas, movies) are broadcast in Khmer, the official language of Cambodia. Occasionally, programs in French, Thai, or English are shown. The French channel CFI is retransmitted over Phnom Penh by the French cultural center. A small regular TV antenna is sufficient to receive it. A Thai company also operates a TV channel out of Bangkok. Cable TV (including Star TV that transmits BBC 24 hours per day, and CNN) can be viewed in several local restaurants and hotels.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

Reasonably current news magazines are available, including international editions of Time magazine, Newsweek, and The Economist. English-language books are difficult to find in-country, but there are several well-stocked English-language bookstores in Bangkok.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

Although there are several well-trained Cambodian medical specialists in Phnom Penh, local hospitals are poorly equipped and inadequately staffed. Locally available medications and sterilization techniques are for the most part inadequate.

Community Health

A rudimentary and unsophisticated public health system exists in Cambodia, with hospitals established in most provinces and districts. In Phnom Penh there are nine hospitals (including both public and private facilities). However, throughout the country health services remain inadequate. The Ministry of Health recently began trying to rebuild a national health system, but resources are scarce and there remains a critical lack of trained doctors and nurses. In 1993, there were only 986 trained physicians in all of Cambodia, and due to very low civil service salaries there is little incentive for medical professionals to enter the public health sector.

Despite existing difficulties, the health sector has made significant progress in the past 2 years, and this trend of improvement is expected to continue. International aid and assistance has accelerated, largely in the form of direct assistance to individual facilities at the local level, and the availability of medications and supplies has increased throughout the country. Priorities facing the Ministry of Health include reestablishing functioning primary health services through a district-based health system approach, strengthening national programs aimed at the principal communicable diseases afflicting the country (including tuberculosis, malaria, immunizable childhood diseases, AIDS, diarrheal diseases, malnutrition, acute respiratory infections, and adequate birth space), and improving the capacity of the health system to perform functions and to manage resources efficiently (the public health system has become very decentralized in its management, which accounts for widely varying levels of service and unevenly distributed assistance throughout the country).

Sewage and garbage disposal facilities are generally inadequate but improving. Currently, the city of Phnom Penh has only 15 serviceable garbage trucks, and rubbish collection is notoriously bad due to a lack of government funds. Recently however, the Phnom Penh Municipality signed a tentative contract with a French company to improve the garbage collection and disposal in the city. To pay for the new services, the city has proposed new taxes for households and businesses.

Preventive Measures

Sickness is a significant problem, but with proper attention to methods of prevention and general sanitation, and by keeping immunizations current, many common diseases can be avoided. Malaria suppressants should be taken regularly when traveling up-country, but are not required within the confines of Phnom Penh where the risk of malaria is minimal. Recommended inoculations include typhoid fever, cholera, Japanese encephalitis, Hepatitis A and B, measles, mumps, rubella, and a post-childhood polio re-booster. All pets should be inoculated against rabies. To reduce the risk of mosquito-borne diseases, it is advised that insect repellent be used at night, and protective clothing be worn during the dusk to dawn hours.

Tap water in Cambodia is not potable, and for drinking purposes most people use readily available and reasonably priced bottled water. Tap water can be used if it is boiled first for 10 minutes and then filtered. Iodine is also effective in purifying water. Tap water can be used for washing and bathing. Fresh fruits and vegetables are abundant all year round, but they must be thoroughly cleaned and soaked in an iodine or chlorine solution and then rinsed with purified water before consumption. Where possible, fruits and vegetables should be peeled. All meat and seafood must be well cooked before eating. Locally produced milk should be avoided, but UTH whole milk, dried milk, canned condensed milk, and occasionally imported fresh milk is available.

The climate in Cambodia is hot and humid year round, and care must be taken to avoid prolonged sun exposure, sunstroke, heatstroke, and dehydration. Regular use of sun-screen is recommended, and individuals will appreciate having UV protective sunglasses, and a hat or sun visor. Dehydration can be a problem, particularly among children, but it can easily be prevented by consuming proper amounts of water throughout the day.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs & Duties

The normal flight pattern from Washington, D.C. to Phnom Penh leaves from Dulles International Airport and flies to the U.S. west coast, and from there flies to Bangkok with one stop over (usually in Taipei, Taiwan). It is necessary to change planes in Bangkok to fly to Phnom Penh; no U.S. carriers currently fly to Cambodia.

A passport and visa are required. Tourists and business travelers may purchase a Cambodian visa, valid for one month, at the airports in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap. Both require a passport-sized photograph.

There is a $20 local entry fee (payable in U.S. dollars), and an $8 departure tax for all international flights. There is no restriction on the amount of currency that can be imported into the country, but amounts in excess of $10,000 must be declared. Current information about entry/visa and other requirements may be obtained from the Royal Embassy of Cambodia, 4500 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20022, telephone number 202-726-7742, fax 202-726-8381. Overseas inquiries may be made at the nearest embassy or consulate of Cambodia.

All U.S. citizens in Cambodia are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Phnom Penh where they may obtain updated information on travel and security within Cambodia. The U.S. Embassy is located at no. 16, Street 228 (between streets 51 and 63), Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The telephone number is (855-23) 216-436 or 218-931; fax (855-23)-216-437. A recording of security information is available twenty-four hours a day at telephone (855-23) 216-805.

Pets

Pets are permitted entrance into Cambodia. All pets should have standard vaccinations and certificates Contact the airlines for shipping information. There is an established veterinarian in Phnom Penh.

Currency, Banking and Weights and Measures

The official currency of Cambodia is the riel; there are approximately 2500 riel to the dollar (June 1994). Paper riel notes are issued in 100, 200, and 500 denominations. There are no coins in use. The U.S. dollar serves as a widely used unofficial currency and is accepted virtually everywhere in the country. Many times prices are given in U.S. dollars instead of riels. All monetary transactions in Cambodia are conducted in cash; credit cards are accepted only at the Cambodiana Hotel and at some airlines. U.S. travelers checks can be exchanged at local banks (for a fee), but they are not accepted by local merchants or businesses as a form of currency.

Cambodia uses the metric system for all weights and measures.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 … New Year's Day

Jan. 7 … Victory Day

Jan/Feb. … Chinese & Vietnamese New Year^*

Apr. … Khmer New Year ^*

Apr/May … Royal Ploughing Ceremony^*

Apr. 17 … Independence Day

Apr./May. … Vesak Bauchea^*

May 1 … Workers Day

June 1… Children's Day

June 19… Memorial Day (Revolutionary Armed Forces founded)

June 28 … Memorial Day (Revolutionary People's Party founded)

Sept. 24 …Constitution Day

Sept/Oct. … Prachum Ben^*

Oct. 30 …King's Birthday (3 days)

Oct/Nov. … Water Festival^*

Nov. 9…Independence Day

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

These titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country. The Department of State does not endorse unofficial publications.

Ablin, David A., and Marlowe Hood, eds. The Cambodian Agony. 2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1990.

Becker, Elizabeth. When the War Was Over. Simon and Schuster: New York, 1986.

Bram, Frederick Z., ed. Rebuilding Cambodia: Human Resources, Human Rights, and Law. Public Interest Publications: Virginia, 1993.

Canesso, Claudia. Cambodia. New York: Chelsea House, 1989.

Chanda, Nayan. Brother Enemy. Collier Books: New York, 1988.

Chandler, David P. A History of Cambodia. 2nd ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992.

——. Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot. Westview Press, Inc.: Boulder, Colorado, 1992.

Chandler, David and Ben Kiernan, eds. Revolution and Its Aftermath in Kampuchea. Yale University Press: New Haven, Connecticut, 1983.

Criddle, Joan D. To Destroy You Is No Loss: The Odyssey of a Cambodian Family. New York: Anchor Books, 1989.

Haas, Michael. Cambodian Pol Pot, and the United States: the FaustianPact. New York: Praeger, 1991.

Jackson, Karl, ed. Cambodia, 1975-1978: Rendezvous with Death. Princeton, 1989.

Kiernan, Ben. How Pol Pot Came to Power. Verso: London, 1985.

May, Someth. Cambodian Witness. Random House: New York, 1986.

National Geographic. May 1982. The Temples of Angkor. National Geographic Society: Washington, D.C., 1982.

——. May 1982. Kampuchea Wakens from a Nightmare. National Geographic Society: Washington, D.C., 1982.

Neveu, Roland. The Great Little Guide: Phnom Penh and Cambodia. The Great Little Guide, Ltd.: Bangkok, 1993.

Ngor, Haing with Roger Warner. A Cambodian Odyssey. Warner Books, Inc.: New York, 1987.

Picq, Laurence. Beyond the Horizon: Five Years with the Khmer Rouge. Translated by Patricia Norland. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989.

Robinson, Daniel and Tony Wheeler. Cambodia: A Travel Survival Kit. Lonely Planet Publications: Berkeley, California, 1992.

Ross, Russell R. Cambodia: A Country Study. U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, D.C., 1990.

Sutter, Robert G. The Cambodian Crisis and U.S. Policy Dilemmas. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990.

Szymusiak, Molyda. The Stones Cry Out: A Cambodian Childhood 1975-1980. Hill and Wang: New York, 1986.

Welaratna, Usha. Beyond the Killing Fields: Voices of Nine Cambodian Survivors in America. Stanford University Press: Stanford, California, 1993.

Cambodia

Compiled from the December 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Kingdom of Cambodia

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 181,040 sq. km. (69,900 sq. mi.); about the size of Missouri.

Cities: Capital—Phnom Penh (pop. 1.2 million), Battambang, Siem Reap, Kompong Cham, Kompong Speu, Kompong Thom.

Terrain: Central plain drained by the Tonle Sap (Great Lake) and Mekong and Bassac Rivers. Forests away from the rivers and the lake, mountains in the southwest (Cardamom Mountains) and north (Dangrek Mountains) along the border with Thailand.

Climate: Tropical monsoon with rainy season June-Oct. and dry season Nov.-May.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Cambodian(s), Khmer.

Population: (2007 est.) 13,995,904.

Avg. annual growth rate: (2007 est.) 1.72%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—58/ 1,000. Life expectancy—59 years male; 63 years female.

Ethnic groups: Cambodian 90%; Vietnamese 5%; Chinese 1%; small numbers of hill tribes, Chams, and Laotian.

Religions: Theravada Buddhism 95%; Islam; animism; Christian.

Languages: Khmer (official) spoken by more than 95% of the population; some French still spoken in urban areas; English increasingly popular as a second language.

Education: Years compulsory—none. Enrollment—primary school, 91.9%; grades 7 to 9, 26.1%; grades 10 to 12, 9.3%; and post-secondary, 1.4%. Completion rates—primary school, 46.8%; lower secondary school, 20.57%; upper secondary school, 8.92%; university, 6%. Literacy (total population over 15 that can read and write, 2006)—73.6% (male 84.7%; female 64.1%).

Government

Type: Multiparty democracy under a constitutional monarchy.

Independence: November 9, 1953.

Constitution: September 24, 1993; amended March 6, 1999.

Government branches: Executive—King Sihamoni (head of state since October 29, 2004), appointed prime minister (Hun Sen since January 14, 1985), six deputy prime ministers, 14 senior ministers, 28 ministers, 135 secretaries of state, and 146 undersecretaries of state. Legislative—National Assembly, consisting of 123 elected members; Senate, consisting of 61 members. Judicial—Supreme Court and lower courts.

Political subdivisions: 20 provinces and 4 municipalities.

Political parties: Ruling parties—A coalition government of the Cambodian People's Party (CPP), led by Samdech Chea Sim, and the National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCIN-PEC), led by National Assembly President Prince Norodom Rana-riddh. Opposition parties—The Sam Rainsy Party (SRP), led by Sam Rainsy; several minor parties.

Economy

GDP: (2007 est.) $8.3 billion.

Per capita GDP: (2007 est.) $571.

Annual growth rate: (2007 est.) 9.05%.

Inflation: (2007 est.) 6.2%.

Natural resources: Timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese and phosphate, hydroelectric potential from the Mekong River.

Agriculture: (31% of GDP, 2007 est.) About 4,848,000 hectares (12 million acres) are unforested land; all are arable with irrigation, but 2.5 million hectares are cultivated. Products—rice, rubber, corn, meat, vegetables, dairy products, sugar, flour.

Industry: (26% of GDP, 2007 est.) Types—garment and shoe manufacturing, rice milling, tobacco, fisheries and fishing, wood and wood products, textiles, cement, some rubber production, paper and food processing.

Services: (43% of GDP, 2007 est.) Tourism, telecommunications, transportation, and construction.

Budget: (2006) Revenues—$814 million; expenditures—$973 million; foreign financing—$213 million.

Trade: Exports ($4.1 billion, 2007 est,)—garments, shoes, cigarettes, natural rubber, rice, pepper, wood, fish. Major partners—United States, Germany, U.K., Singapore, Japan, Vietnam. Imports ($5.3 billion, 2007 est.)—fuels, cigarettes, vehicles, consumer goods, machinery. Major partners—Thailand, Singapore, China, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Taiwan, United States.

Economic aid received: Pledges of $698.2 million in grants and concessional loans for calendar year 2007. Major donors—Asian Development Bank (ADB), UN Development Program (UNDP), World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, the EU, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, Thailand, the U.K., and the U.S., 100 percent of the $601 million pledged by donors for 2006 was actually disbursed, according to the Cambodia Aid Effectiveness Report 2007.

Principal foreign commercial investors: Korea, China, Russia, Thailand, the U.S., and Vietnam.

Exchange rate: (2007) 4,006 riel per U.S. $1.

GEOGRAPHY

Cambodia is located on mainland Southeast Asia between Thailand to the west and north and Vietnam to the east. It shares a land border with Laos in the northeast. Cambodia has a sea coast on the Gulf of Thailand. The Dangrek Mountain range in the north and Cardamom Mountains in the southwest form natural boundaries. Principal physical features include the Tonle Sap lake and the Mekong and Bassac Rivers. Cambodia remains one of the most heavily forested countries in the region, although deforestation continues at an alarming rate.

PEOPLE AND CULTURE

Ninety percent of Cambodia's population is ethnically Cambodian. Other ethnic groups include Chinese, Vietnamese, hill tribes, Chams, and Laotian. Theravada Buddhism is the religion of 95% of the population; Islam, animism, and Christianity also are practiced. Khmer is the official language and is spoken by more than 95% of the population. Some French is still spoken in urban areas, and English is increasingly popular as a second language.

Angkor Wat

Over a period of 300 years, between 900 and 1200 AD, the Khmer Kingdom of Angkor produced some of the world's most magnificent architectural masterpieces on the northern shore of the Tonle Sap, near the present town of Siem Reap. The Angkor area stretches 15 miles east to west and 5 miles north to south. Some 72 major temples or other buildings dot the area. Suryavarman II built the principal temple, Angkor Wat, between 1112 and 1150. With walls nearly one-half mile on each side, Angkor Wat portrays the Hindu cosmology with the central towers representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond. Angkor Thom, the capital city built after the Cham sack of 1177, is surrounded by a 300-foot wide moat. Construction of Angkor Thom coincided with a change from Hinduism to Buddhism. Temples were altered to display images of the Buddha, and Angkor Wat became a major Buddhist shrine.

During the 15th century, nearly all of Angkor was abandoned after Siamese attacks. The exception was Angkor Wat, which remained a shrine for Buddhist pilgrims. The great city and temples remained largely cloaked by the forest until the late 19th century when French archaeologists began a long restoration process. France established the Angkor Conservancy in 1908 to direct restoration of the Angkor complex. For the next 64 years, the conservancy worked to clear away the forest, repair foundations, and install drains to protect the buildings from their most insidious enemy: water. After 1953, the conservancy became a joint project of the French and Cambodian Governments. Some temples were carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations. Tourism is now the second-largest foreign currency earner in Cambodia's economy, and Angkor Wat has helped attract international tourism to the country.

MODERN HISTORY

Although Cambodia had a rich and powerful past under the Hindu state of Funan and the Kingdom of Angkor, by the mid-19th century the country was on the verge of dissolution. After repeated requests for French assistance, a protectorate was established in 1863. By 1884, Cambodia was a virtual colony; soon after it was made part of the Indochina Union with Annam, Tonkin, Cochin-China, and Laos. France continued to control the country even after the start of World War II through its Vichy government. In 1945, the Japanese dissolved the colonial administration, and King Norodom Sihanouk declared an independent, anti-colonial government under Prime Minister Son Ngoc Thanh in March 1945. The Allies deposed this government in October. In January 1953, Sihanouk named his father as regent and went into self-imposed exile, refusing to return until Cambodia gained genuine independence.

Full Independence

Sihanouk's actions hastened the French Government's July 4, 1953 announcement of its readiness to grant independence, which came on November 9, 1953. The situation remained uncertain until a 1954 conference was held in Geneva to settle the French-Indochina war. All participants, except the United States and the State of Vietnam, associated themselves (by voice) with the final

declaration. The Cambodian delegation agreed to the neutrality of the three Indochinese states but insisted on a provision in the cease-fire agreement that left the Cambodian Government free to call for outside military assistance should the Viet Minh or others threaten its territory.

Neutral Cambodia

Neutrality was the central element of Cambodian foreign policy during the 1950s and 1960s. By the mid-1960s, parts of Cambodia's eastern provinces were serving as bases for North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong (NVA/VC) forces operating against South Vietnam, and the port of Sihanoukville was being used to supply them. As NVA/VC activity grew, the United States and South Vietnam became concerned, and in 1969, the United States began a series of air raids against NVA/VC base areas inside Cambodia.

Throughout the 1960s, domestic politics polarized. Opposition grew within the middle class and among leftists, including Paris-educated leaders such as Son Sen, Ieng Sary, and Saloth Sar (later known as Pol Pot), who led an insurgency under the clandestine Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK).

The Khmer Republic and the War

In March 1970, Gen. Lon Nol deposed Prince Sihanouk and assumed power. On October 9, the Cambodian monarchy was abolished, and the country was renamed the Khmer Republic. Hanoi rejected the new republic's request for the withdrawal of NVA/ VC troops and began to reinfiltrate some of the 2,000-4,000 Cambodians who had gone to North Vietnam in 1954. They became a cadre in the insurgency. The United States moved to provide material assistance to the new government's armed forces, which were engaged against both the Khmer Rouge insurgents and NVA/ VC forces. In April 1970, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in a campaign aimed at destroying NVA/VC base areas. Although a considerable quantity of equipment was seized or destroyed, NVA/VC forces proved elusive and moved deeper into Cambodia. NVA/ VC units overran many Cambodian Army positions while the Khmer Rouge expanded their smallscale attacks on lines of communication.

The Khmer Republic's leadership was plagued by disunity among its members, the problems of transforming a 30,000-man army into a national combat force of more than 200,000 men, and spreading corruption. The insurgency continued to grow, with supplies and military support provided by North Vietnam. But inside Cambodia, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary asserted their dominance over the Vietnamese-trained communists, many of whom were purged. At the same time, the Khmer Rouge forces became stronger and more independent of their Vietnamese patrons. By 1974, Lon Nol's control was reduced to small enclaves around the cities and main transportation routes. More than 2 million refugees from the war lived in Phnom Penh and other cities.

On New Year's Day 1975, communist troops launched an offensive that, in 117 days of the hardest fighting of the war, destroyed the Khmer Republic. Simultaneous attacks around the perimeter of Phnom Penh pinned down Republican forces, while other Khmer Rouge units overran fire bases controlling the vital lower Mekong resupply route. A U.S.-funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia. Phnom Penh surrendered on April 17, 1975—5 days after the U.S. mission evacuated Cambodia.

Democratic Kampuchea

Many Cambodians welcomed the arrival of peace, but the Khmer Rouge soon turned Cambodia—which it called Democratic Kampuchea (DK)—into a land of horror. Immediately after its victory, the new regime ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns, sending the entire urban population out into the countryside to till the land. Thousands starved or died of disease during the evacuation. Many of those forced to evacuate the cities were resettled in new villages, which lacked food, agricultural implements, and medical care. Many starved before the first harvest, and hunger and malnutrition—bordering on starvation—were constant during those years. Those who resisted or who questioned orders were immediately executed, as were most military and civilian leaders of the former regime who failed to disguise their pasts.

Within the CPK, the Paris-educated leadership—Pol Pot, Ieng Sary, Nuon Chea, and Son Sen—was in control, and Pol Pot was made Prime Minister. Prince Sihanouk was put under virtual house arrest. The new government sought to restructure Cambodian society completely. Remnants of the old society were abolished, and Buddhism suppresse

Agriculture was collectivized, and the surviving part of the industrial base was abandoned or placed under state control. Cambodia had neither a currency nor a banking system. The regime controlled every aspect of life and reduced everyone to the level of abject obedience through terror. Torture centers were established, and detailed records were kept of the thousands murdered there. Public executions of those considered unreliable or with links to the previous government were common. Few succeeded in escaping the military patrols and fleeing the country. Solid estimates of the numbers who died between 1975 and 1979 are not available, but it is likely that hundreds of thousands were brutally executed by the regime. Hundreds of thousands more died of starvation and disease—both under the Khmer Rouge and during the Vietnamese invasion in 1978. Estimates of the dead range from 1.7 million to 3 million, out of a 1975 population estimated at 7.3 million.

Democratic Kampuchea's relations with Vietnam and Thailand worsened rapidly as a result of border clashes and ideological differences. While communist, the CPK was fiercely anti-Vietnamese, and most of its members who had lived in Vietnam were purged. Democratic Kampuchea established close ties with China, and the Cambodian-Vietnamese conflict became part of the Sino-Soviet rivalry, with Moscow backing Vietnam. Border clashes worsened when Democratic Kampuchea's military attacked villages in Vietnam.

In mid-1978, Vietnamese forces invaded Cambodia, advancing about 30 miles before the arrival of the rainy season. In December 1978, Vietnam announced formation of the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation (KUFNS) under Heng Samrin, a former DK division commander. It was composed of Khmer communists who had remained in Vietnam after 1975 and officials from the eastern sector—like Heng Samrin and Hun Sen—who had fled to Vietnam from Cambodia in 1978. In late December 1978, Vietnamese forces launched a full invasion of Cambodia, capturing Phnom Penh on January 7, 1979 and driving the remnants of Democratic Kampuchea's army westward toward Thailand.

The Vietnamese Occupation

On January 10, 1979, the Vietnamese installed Heng Samrin as head of state in the new People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK). The Vietnamese Army continued its pursuit of Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge forces. An estimated 600,000 Cambodians were displaced during the Pol Pot era and the Vietnamese invasion streamed to the Thai border in search of refuge between 1979 and 1981.

The international community responded with a massive relief effort coordinated by the United States through the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the World Food Program. More than $400 million was provided between 1979 and 1982, of which the United States contributed nearly $100 million.

Vietnam's occupation army of an estimated 180,000 troops was posted throughout the country from 1979 to September 1989. The Heng Samrin regime's 30,000 troops were plagued by poor morale and widespread desertion. Resistance to Vietnam's occupation was extensive. A remainder of the Khmer Rouge's military forces eluded Vietnamese troops and established themselves in remote regions. A non-communist resistance movement, consisting of groups that had been fighting the Khmer Rouge after 1975—including Lon Nol-era soldiers—coalesced in 1979-80 to form the Khmer People's National Liberation Armed Forces (KPNLAF), which pledged loyalty to former Prime Minister Son Sann, and Mouli-naka (Movement pour la Liberation Nationale de Kampuchea), loyal to Prince Sihanouk. In 1979, Son Sann formed the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF) to lead the political struggle for Cambodia's independence. Prince Sihanouk formed his own organization, National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCIN-PEC), and its military arm, the Armee Nationale Sihanoukienne (ANS) in 1981.

Within Cambodia, Vietnam had only limited success in establishing its client Heng Samrin regime, which was dependent on Vietnamese advisers at all levels. Security in some rural areas was tenuous, and major transportation routes were subject to interdiction by resistance forces. The presence of Vietnamese throughout the country and their intrusion into nearly all aspects of Cambodian life alienated much of the populace. The settlement of Vietnamese nationals, both former residents and new immigrants, further exacerbated anti-Vietnamese sentiment. Reports of the numbers involved vary widely, with some estimates as high as 1 million. By the end of the decade, Khmer nationalism began to reassert itself against the traditional Vietnamese enemy. In 1986, Hanoi claimed to have begun withdrawing part of its occupation forces. At the same time, Vietnam continued efforts to strengthen its client regime, the PRK, and its military arm, the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Armed Forces (KPRAF). These withdrawals continued over the next 2 years, and the last Vietnamese troops left Cambodia in September 1989.

Peace Efforts

From July 30 to August 30, 1989, representatives of 18 countries, the four Cambodian parties, and the UN Secretary General met in Paris in an effort to negotiate a comprehensive settlement. They hoped to achieve those objectives seen as crucial to the future of post-occupation Cambodia—a verified withdrawal of the remaining Vietnamese occupation troops, the prevention of the return to power of the Khmer Rouge, and genuine self-determination for the Cambodian people. A comprehensive settlement was agreed upon on August 28, 1990.

Cambodia's Renewal

On October 23, 1991, the Paris Conference reconvened to sign a comprehensive settlement giving the UN full authority to supervise a cease-fire, repatriate the displaced Khmer along the border with Thailand, disarm and demobilize the factional armies, and prepare the country for free and fair elections. Prince Sihanouk, President of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia (SNC), and other members of the SNC returned to Phnom Penh in November 1991, to begin the resettlement process in Cambodia. The UN Advance Mission for Cambodia (UNAMIC) was deployed at the same time to maintain liaison among the factions and begin demining operations to expedite the repatriation of approximately 370,000 Cambodians from Thailand.

On March 16, 1992, the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) arrived in Cambodia to begin implementation of the UN Settlement Plan. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees began fullscale repatriation in March 1992. UNTAC grew into a 22,000-strong civilian and military peacekeeping force to conduct free and fair elections for a constituent assembly.

Over 4 million Cambodians (about 90% of eligible voters) participated in the May 1993 elections, although the Khmer Rouge or Party of Democratic Kampuchea (PDK), whose forces were never actually disarmed or demobilized, barred some people from participating. Prince Ranariddh's FUNCINPEC Party was the top vote recipient with a 45.5% vote, followed by Hun Sen's Cambodian People's Party and the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party, respectively. FUNCIN-PEC then entered into a coalition with the other parties that had participated in the election. The parties represented in the 120-member assembly proceeded to draft and approve a new constitution, which was promulgated September 24, 1993. It established a multiparty liberal democracy in the framework of a constitutional monarchy, with the former Prince Sihanouk elevated to King. Prince Ranariddh and Hun Sen became First and Second Prime Ministers, respectively, in the Royal Cambodian Government (RGC). The constitution provides for a wide range of internationally recognized human rights.

On October 4, 2004, the Cambodian National Assembly ratified an agreement with the United Nations on the establishment of a tribunal to try senior leaders responsible for the atrocities committed by the Khmer Rouge. Donor countries have pledged the $43 million international share of the three-year tribunal budget, while the Cambodian government's share of the budget is $13.3 million. The tribunal plans to begin trials of senior Khmer Rouge leaders in 2008.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy, and its constitution provides for a multiparty democracy. The Royal Government of Cambodia, formed on the basis of elections internationally recognized as free and fair, was established on September 24, 1993.

The executive branch comprises the king, who is head of state; an appointed prime minister; eight deputy prime ministers, 14 senior ministers, 28 ministers, 135 secretaries of state, and 146 undersecretaries of state. The bicameral legislature consists of a 123-member elected National Assembly and a 61-member Senate. The judiciary includes a Supreme Court, lower courts, and an internationalized court with jurisdiction over the serious crimes of the Khmer Rouge era. Administrative subdivisions are 20 provinces and 4 municipalities.

Compared to its recent past, the 1993-2003 period was one of relative stability for Cambodia. However, political violence continued to be a problem. In 1997, factional fighting between supporters of Prince Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen broke out, resulting in more than 100 FUNCINPEC deaths and a few Cambodian People's Party (CPP) casualties.

Some FUNCINPEC leaders were forced to flee the country, and Hun Sen took over as Prime Minister. FUNCINPEC leaders returned to Cambodia shortly before the 1998 National Assembly elections. In those elections, the CPP received 41% of the vote, FUNCINPEC 32%, and the Sam Rainsy Party (SRP) 13%. Due to political violence, intimidation, and lack of media access, many international observers judged the elections to have been seriously flawed. The CPP and FUNCINPEC formed another coalition government, with CPP the senior partner.

Cambodia's first commune elections were held in February 2002. These elections to select chiefs and members of 1,621 commune (municipality) councils also were marred by political violence and fell short of being free and fair by international standards. The election results were largely acceptable to the major parties, though procedures for the new local councils have not been fully implemented.

National Assembly elections in July 2003 failed to give any one party the two-thirds majority of seats required under the constitution to form a government. The CPP secured 73 seats, FUNCINPEC 26 seats, and the SRP 24 seats. As a result, the incumbent CPP-led administration continued in power in a caretaker role pending the formation of a coalition with the required number of National Assembly seats to form a government.

On July 8, 2004, the National Assembly approved a controversial addendum to the constitution in order to require a vote on a new government and to end the nearly year-long political stalemate. The vote took place on July 15, and the National Assembly approved a new coalition government comprised of the CPP and FUNCIN-PEC, with Hun Sen as Prime Minister and Prince Norodom Ranariddh as President of the National Assembly. The SRP and representatives of civil society non-governmental organizations (NGOss) have asserted the addendum was unconstitutional. The SRP and representatives of civil society non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have asserted that the addendum was unconstitutional. The SRP boycotted the vote and currently is in opposition. In February 2005, the National Assembly voted to lift the parliamentary immunity of three opposition parliamentarians, including SRP leader Sam Rainsy, in connection with lawsuits filed against them by members of the ruling parties. One of the MPs, Cheam Channy was arrested and later tried, while Sam Rainsy went into self-imposed exile. In October 2005, the government arrested critics of Cambodia's border treaties with Vietnam and later detained four human rights activists following International Human Rights Day in December. In January 2006, the political climate improved with the Prime Minister's decision to release all political detainees and permit Sam Rainsy's return to Cambodia. Following public criticism by Hun Sen, Prince Ranariddh resigned as President of the National Assembly in March 2006.

On October 7, 2004, King Sihanouk abdicated the throne due to illness. On October 14, the Cambodian Throne Council selected Prince Norodom Sihamoni to succeed Sihanouk as King. King Norodom Sihamoni officially ascended the throne in a coronation ceremony on October 29, 2004. Cambodia's second commune elections were held in April 2007, and there was little in the way of pre-election violence that preceded the 2002 and 2003 elections. The CPP won 61% of the seats, the SRP won 25.5%, and FUNCINEC and Prince Ranariddh's new party combined won close to 6%. National elections are scheduled for 2008

The constitution provides for a wide range of internationally recognized human rights, including freedom of the press. While limitations still exist on mass media, freedom of the press has improved markedly in Cambodia since the adoption of the 1993 constitution, which grants a certain degree of freedom to the media. The written press, while considered largely free, has ties to individual political parties or factions and does not seek to provide objective reporting or analysis. Cambodia has an estimated 25 Khmer-language newspapers that are published regularly. Of these, eight are published daily. There are two major English-language newspapers, one of which is produced daily. Broadcast media, in contrast to print, is more closely controlled. It tends to be politically affiliated, and access for opposition parties is extremely limited.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

King: NORODOM SIHAMONI

Pres., National Assembly: HENG SAMRIN

Prime Minister: HUN SEN

Dep. Prime Min.: BIN CHHIN

Dep. Prime Min.: HOR NAMHONG

Dep. Prime Min.: KEV PUT REAKSMEI

Dep. Prime Min.: LU LAY SRENG

Dep. Prime Min.: NHEK BUNCHHAY

Dep. Prime Min.: SAR KHENG

Dep. Prime Min.: SOK AN

Dep. Prime Min.: TEA BANH

Min. of the Office of the Council of Ministers: SOK AN

Min. of Agriculture, Forestry, & Fisheries: CHAN SARUN

Min. of Cults & Religious Affairs: KHUN HAING

Min. of Culture & Fine Arts: VENG SEREIVUT

Min. of Economy & Finance: KEAT CHHON

Min. of Education, Youth, & Sport: KOL PHENG

Min. of Environment: MOK MARET

Min. of Foreign Affairs & Intl. Cooperation: HOR NAMHONG

Min. of Health: NUTH SOKHOM

Min. of Industry, Mines, & Energy: SUY SEM

Min. of Information: KHIEU KANHARITH

Min. of Interior: SAR KHENG

Min. of Justice: ANG VONG VATTANA

Min. of Labor & Vocational Training: VONG SOTH

Min. of Land Management, Urbanization, & Construction: IM CHHUN LIM

Min. of National Defense: TEA BANH, Gen.

Min. of Planning: CHHAY THAN

Min. of Posts & Telecommunications: SO KHUN

Min. of Public Works & Transportation: SUN CHANTHOL

Min. of Relations With the National Assembly, Senate, & Inspection: MEN SAM AN

Min. of Rural Development: LU LAY SRENG

Min. of Social Affairs, War Veterans, & Youth Rehabilitation: IT SAM-HENG

Min. of Tourism: THONG KHON

Min. of Trade: CHAM PRASIT

Min. of Water Resources & Meteorology: LIM KEAN-HAO

Min. of Women's Affairs: UNG KUNTHA PHAVY

Governor, State Bank: CHEA CHANTO

Ambassador to the US: EK SEREYWATH

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: SEA KOSAL

Cambodia's embassy in the United States is located at 4530 16th Street NW, Washington DC 20011; tel: (202) 726-7742; fax: (202) 726-8381.

ECONOMY

Since 2004, the economy's growth rate has averaged over 10%, with the garment sector and the growing tourism industry driving the growth. Inflation has remained relatively steady and at low levels, not rising above 6 percent since 1998. The economy is heavily dollarized; the dollar and riel can be used interchangeably. Cambodia remains heavily reliant on foreign assistance—about half of the central government budget depends on donor assistance. Foreign direct investment (FDI) has increased 12-fold since 2004 as sound macroeconomic policies, political stability, regional economic growth, and government openness towards investment attract growing numbers of investors.

Manufacturing output is concentrated in the garment sector, which started to expand rapidly in the mid-1990s and now employs more than 350,000 workers. Garments dominate Cambodia's exports, especially to the U.S. Despite predictions that Cambodia's garment sector would contract following the expiration of the Multi-fiber Agreement in 2005, the sector has actually expanded by nearly 20 percent to an estimated $2.6 billion in 2007. The other main foreign currency earner is tourism. The number of tourists coming to Cambodia is increasing by 20 – 25 percent per year, with two million visitors estimated to have visited Cambodia in 2007.

The service sector is heavily concentrated in trading activities and catering-related services. Exploratory drilling for oil and natural gas began in 2005. It is not yet clear if commercial extraction is viable or how large Cambodia's reserves are. If viable, commercial extraction is likely to start early in the next decade. In spite of recent progress, the Cambodian economy continues to suffer from the legacy of decades of war and internal strife. Per capita income and education levels are lower than in most neighboring countries. Infrastructure remains inadequate, although road networks are improving rapidly.

Most rural households depend on agriculture and its related subsectors. Corruption and lack of legal protections for investors continue to hamper economic opportunity and competitiveness. The economy also has a poor track record in creating jobs in the formal sector, and the challenge will only become more daunting in the future since 50% of the population is under 20 years of age and large numbers of job seekers will begin to enter the work force each year over the next 10 years.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Cambodia has established diplomatic relations with most countries, including the United States. The country is a member of most major international organizations, including the UN and its specialized agencies, and became a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1998.

Cambodia is a member of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). On October 13, 2004, Cambodia became the 148th member of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

U.S.-CAMBODIAN RELATIONS

In the past two years, bilateral relations between the U.S. and Cambodia have strengthened. The U.S. supports efforts in Cambodia to combat terrorism, build democratic institutions, promote human rights, foster economic development, eliminate corruption, achieve the fullest possible accounting for Americans missing from the Vietnam War-era, and to bring to justice those most responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed under the Khmer Rouge regime.

Between 1955 and 1963, the United States provided $409.6 million in economic grant aid and $83.7 million in military assistance. This aid was used primarily to repair damage caused by Cambodia's war of independence from France, to support internal security forces, and for the construction of an all-weather road to the seaport of Sihanoukville, which gave Cambodia its first direct access to the sea and access to the southwestern hinterlands. Relations deteriorated in the early 1960s. Diplomatic relations were broken by Cambodia in May 1965, but were reestablished on July 2, 1969. U.S. relations continued after the establishment of the Khmer Republic until the U.S. mission was evacuated on April 12, 1975. During the 1970-75 war, the United States provided $1.18 billion in military assistance and $503 million in economic assistance. The United States condemned the brutal character of the Khmer Rouge regime between 1975 and 1979. The United States opposed the subsequent military occupation of Cambodia by Vietnam, and supported ASEAN's efforts in the 1980s to achieve a comprehensive political settlement of the problem. This was accomplished on October 23, 1991, when the Paris Conference reconvened to sign a comprehensive settlement.

The U.S. Mission in Phnom Penh opened on November 11, 1991, headed by career diplomat Charles H. Twining, Jr., who was designated U.S. Special Representative to the SNC. On January 3, 1992, the U.S. lifted its embargo against Cambodia, thus normalizing economic relations with the country. The United States also ended blanket opposition to lending to Cambodia by international financial institutions. When the freely elected Royal Government of Cambodia was formed on September 24, 1993, the United States and the Kingdom of Cambodia immediately established full diplomatic relations. The U.S. Mission was upgraded to a U.S. Embassy, and in May 1994 Mr. Twining became the U.S. Ambassador.

After the factional fighting in 1997 and Hun Sen's legal machinations to depose First Prime Minister Rana-riddh, the United States suspended bilateral assistance to the Cambodian Government. At the same time, many U.S. citizens and other expatriates were evacuated from Cambodia and, in the subsequent weeks and months, more than 40,000 Cambodian refugees fled to Thailand. The 1997 events also left a long list of uninvestigated human rights abuses, including dozens of extra-judicial killings. Since 1997 until recently, U.S. assistance to the Cambodian people has been provided mainly through non-governmental organizations, which flourish in Cambodia.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

PHNOM PENH (E) #01, St. 96, APO/FPO Unit 8166, Box P, APO, AP 96546, (855) 23 728 000, Fax (855) 23 728 600, Workweek: 8AM-5PM, Website: http://cambodia.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

September 14, 2007

Country Description: Cambodia is a poor, developing country with a constitutional monarchy and an elected government. King Norodom Siha-moni is the constitutional monarch and head of state. Elections for Members of the National Assembly were last held in July 2003. Two parties, the CPP and FUNCINPEC, have formed a coalition government, which the CPP dominates. The country has a market economy, with approximately 80 percent of the population of 13.6 million engaged in subsistence farming. The government has good relations with its neighbors despite strains over residual border disputes and other historic antagonisms. The quality of tourist facilities varies widely in Cambodia with the highest standard found in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, and Sihanoukville.

Entry Requirements: A valid passport and a Cambodian visa are required. Cambodia offers on-line visa processing at http://evisa.mfaic.gov.kh. Tourist and business visas are valid for one month beginning with the date of entry into Cambodia. You may also apply in person at the Cambodian Embassy located at 4530 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011 Tel 202-726-7742, Fax 202-726-8381. Tourists and business travelers may also obtain a Cambodian visa at the airports in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, and at all major border crossings. Both methods of obtaining a Cambodian visa require a passport-sized photograph and a passport that is valid for a minimum of six months beyond the date of entry into Cambodia.

A departure tax is charged on all domestic and international flights. This tax must be paid in U.S. dollars. Overseas inquiries may be made at the nearest embassy or consulate of Cambodia. Travelers should note that Cambodia regularly imposes fines of USD 5.00 per day on charges of overstay on an expired visas. Visit the Embassy of the Kingdom of Cambodia web site for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: The State Department is concerned that individuals and groups may be planning terrorist actions against United States citizens and interests, as well as sites frequented by Westerners, in Southeast Asia, including in Cambodia. Extremist groups present in Southeast Asia have transnational capabilities to carry out attacks against locations where Westerners congregate.

American citizens traveling to Cambodia should therefore exercise caution in clubs, discos, bars, restaurants, hotels, places of worship, schools, outdoor recreation venues, tourist areas, beach resorts, and other places frequented by foreigners.

They should remain vigilant with regard to their personal security and avoid crowds and demonstrations. From time to time, the U.S. Embassy places local establishments off limits to Embassy personnel due to safety and security incidents. You can contact the Embassy for notification on the current restrictions in place for Embassy personnel.

Local commune elections in April 2007 were peaceful. National elections are scheduled for July 28, 2008. Political tensions have eased, and the current situation is relatively stable; however, Cambodian political activities have turned violent in the past, and the possibility for politically motivated violence remains. In November 2000, an anti-government group based in the U.S. led an attack against government buildings in Phnom Penh. During the anti-Thai riots in 2003, the Royal Embassy of Thailand and Thai-owned commercial establishments were attacked. More recently, in November 2006, police arrested six people for allegedly plotting to conduct bomb attacks in Phnom Penh during the November Water Festival.

On July 29, 2007, three improvised explosive devices (IEDs) were planted at the Vietnam-Cambodia Friendship Monument in Phnom Penh. One of the IEDs partially exploded, but the others failed to detonate and were recovered by Cambodian authorities. No one was injured, primarily because the explosion occurred during the early morning hours. Police subsequently arrested several individuals suspected of constructing the devices and planning the bombings. While there is no indication this attack was directed at U.S. or other Western interests, the possibility remains that further attacks could be carried out, harming innocent bystanders.

The U.S. Embassy advises U.S. citizens to avoid large public gatherings and crowded public areas.

Land mines and unexploded ordnance are found in rural areas throughout Cambodia, and especially in Battambang, Banteay Meanchey, Pursat, Siem Reap, and Kampong Thom provinces. Travelers should never walk in forested areas or even in dry rice paddies without a local guide. Areas around small bridges on secondary roads are particularly dangerous. Travelers should not touch anything that resembles a mine or unexploded ordnance; they should notify the Cambodia Mine Action Center at 023-368-841/981-083 or 084.

The town of Siem Reap and the vicinity of the Angkor Wat temple complex remain popular tourist sites. The Embassy advises U.S. citizens to travel to these locations by air or to exercise caution if traveling by road or boat and to limit their movements to the city of Siem Reap, the main Angkor Wat temple complexes, and the main national auto routes.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affair's Internet site at http://travel.state.gov, where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Cambodia has a high crime rate, including street crime. Military weapons and explosives are readily available to criminals despite authorities’ efforts to collect and destroy such weapons. Armed robberies occur frequently in Phnom Penh. Foreign residents and visitors are among the victims. Victims of armed robberies are reminded not to resist their attackers and to surrender their valuables, since any perceived resistance may be met with physical violence, including lethal force. Local police rarely investigate reports of crime against tourists, and travelers should not expect to recover stolen items.

The U.S. Embassy advises its personnel who travel to the provinces to exercise extreme caution outside the provincial towns at all times. Many rural parts of the country remain without effective policing. Individuals should avoid walking alone after dusk anywhere in Sihanoukville, especially along the waterfront. Some of the beaches are secluded, and post has received reports that women have been attacked along the Siha-noukville waterfront during the evening hours. Take security precautions when visiting the Siem Reap (Angkor Wat) area. Travelers should be particularly vigilant during annual festivals and at tourist sites in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap and Sihanoukville, where there have been marked increases in motorcycle “snatch and grab” thefts of bags and purses. A group of young men sexually assaulted a foreigner in Phnom Penh in November 2006 while she was taking a moto-taxi from a nightclub

Pickpockets, including some who are beggars, are present in the markets and at the tourist sites. Persons visiting Cambodia should practice sound personal security awareness by varying their routes and routines, maintaining a low profile, not carrying or displaying large amounts of cash, not wearing flashy or expensive jewelry, and not walking the streets alone after dark. In addition, we recommend that Americans travel by automobile and not use local moto-taxis or cyclos for transportation. These vehicles are more vulnerable to armed robberies and offer no protection against injury when involved in traffic accidents.

To avoid the risk of theft or confiscation of original documents, the U.S. Embassy advises its personnel to carry photocopies of their U.S. passport, driver’ license or other important documents.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate for assistance. The embassy/consulate staff can assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds can be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities and services in Cambodia do not meet international standards. Adequate care for basic emergencies is limited in Phnom Penh. Siem Reap, the major tourist attraction of Cambodia, currently has one facility that can provide basic medical care. Medical care outside the capital is almost nonexistent. Local pharmacies provide a limited supply of prescription and over-the-counter medications, but because the quality of locally obtained medications can vary greatly, travelers should bring adequate supplies of their medications for the duration of their stay in Cambodia. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747), fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad including avian influenza, consult the World Health Organizations (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith/en.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Cambodia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving at night in Cambodia is strongly discouraged. Road maintenance is sporadic in both urban and rural areas. Roads between major areas are adequate; however, roads leading to areas that are more rural are poor. During the rainy season, both urban and rural road conditions deteriorate considerably. Roadside assistance is non-existent. The safety of road travel outside urban areas varies greatly. Cambodian drivers routinely ignore traffic laws, and vehicles are poorly maintained. Intoxicated drivers are commonplace, particularly during the evening hours, and penalties for DWI offenses vary greatly. Banditry occurs even on heavily traveled roads, so all travel should be done in daylight between the hours of 7:00 a.m. and 5.00 p.m.

Serious flooding occurs in both Phnom Penh and the rest of Cambodia starting at the end of July, early August. Heavy flooding continues into November. The unimproved highways to Prey Veng, Battambang, Pailin, Stung Treng and Poipet become more difficult and dangerous during this time of the year, and travel to the provinces is virtually impossible. The highway to Sihanoukville is the only road that can be traveled, with caution, this time of the year. The U.S. Embassy advises Embassy personnel not to travel by train because of low safety standards and the high risk of banditry. Travel by boat should be avoided because boats are often overcrowded and lack adequate safety equipment. In February 2004, two American tourists were rescued when the boat on which they were traveling capsized on the Mekong River. Boat owners accept no liability for accidents. Moto-taxis and cyclos (passenger-carrying bicycles) are widely available; however, the Embassy does not recommend using them due to safety concerns and because personal belongings can be easily stolen. Organized emergency services for victims of traffic accidents are non-existent outside of major urban areas, and those available in major urban areas are inadequate.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Cambodia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Cambodia's Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet web site, http://www.faa.gov.

The U.S. Embassy strongly discourages its employees from using domestic air carriers due to safety incidents that have occurred in recent years. A PMT Air flight from Siem Reap to Sihanoukville crashed in bad weather in a coastal mountain range on June 25, 2007. There were no survivors. Incidents at the Ratanakiri airport since 2005 have included collapsed landing gear and hard landings. Embassy employees are permitted to use international carriers Siem Reap Airways and Bangkok Airways between Phnom Penh and Siem Reap.

Special Circumstances: Cambodian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Cambodia of items such as drugs, firearms, antiquities, or ivory. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Cambodia in Washington for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Dual Nationality: Dual nationality is not prohibited under Cambodia's 1996 nationality law. In addition to being subject to all Cambodian laws affecting U.S. citizens, individuals who possess Cambodian nationality may also be subject to laws that impose special obligations on Cambodian citizens.

Financial Transactions: The U.S. dollar is widely used, especially for larger transactions, and most prices are quoted in dollars. The Cambodian riel can also be used, but is less favored and is mostly given to tourists as change for dollar purchases. Ripped or torn U.S. bills are not accepted. Except in major hotels, credit cards are not widely accepted within Cambodia, although a number of banks in Phnom Penh accept Visa cards for cash advances. Credit cards are often subject to a service charge. Banks and major hotels accept travelers’ checks, but usually charge a service fee.

Several international banks operate ATM machines that allow travelers to obtain U.S. dollar currency in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap and at the international airports. Personal checks are not generally accepted. Several banks serve as Western Union agents in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, Sihanoukville and other provincial cities to which funds can be wired. Information on Western Union can be found at http://www.westernunion.com.

Photography: Taking photographs of anything that could be perceived as being of military or security interest—including government buildings, military installations, airfields, bridges- -may result in problems with the authorities and confiscation of the camera.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than those in the United States for similar offences. Persons violating Cambodian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession of, use of, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Cambodia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children, using, or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States. The police actively investigate, arrest and prosecute persons for pedophilia and debauchery. Six Americans were arrested in 2006.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Cambodia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Cambodia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the embassy or consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at No. 1, Street 96 (near Wat Phnom), Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The telephone number is (855-23) 728-000; fax (855-23) 728-600. Additional information about American Services can be found at the U. S. Embassy in Phnom Penh online at http://phnompenh.usembassy.gov.

CAMBODIA

Compiled from the June 2003 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Kingdom of Cambodia

PROFILE
GEOGRAPHY
MODERN HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
ECONOMY
ANGKOR WAT
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-CAMBODIAN RELATIONS
TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 181,040 sq. km. (69,900 sq. mi.); about the size of Missouri.

Cities: Capital—Phnom Penh (pop. 1.2 million), Battambang, Siem Reap, Kompong Cham, Kompong Speu, Kompong Thom.

Terrain: Central plain drained by the Tonle Sap (Great Lake) and Mekong and Bassac Rivers. Heavy forests away from the rivers and the lake, mountains in the southwest (Cardamom Mountains) and north (Dangrek Mountains) along the border with Thailand.

Climate: Tropical monsoon with rainy season June-Oct. and dry season Nov.-May.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Cambodian(s), Khmer.

Population: (2003 est.) 12,313,486. Avg. annual growth rate: 2.5%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—95 / 1,000. Life expectancy—54 years male; 58 years female.

Ethnic groups: Cambodian 90%; Chinese and Vietnamese 5% each; small numbers of hill tribes, Chams, and Burmese.

Religions: Theravada Buddhism 95%; Islam; animism; Christian.

Languages: Khmer (official) spoken by more than 95% of the population, including minorities; some French still spoken; English increasingly popular as a second language.

Education: Years compulsory—none. Enrollment—primary school, 93%; grades 7 to 9, 20%; grades 10 to 12, 7%; and post-secondary, 1.2%. Literacy (total population over 15 that can read and write, 1998)—
67.3% (male 79.5%; female 57.0%).

Government

Type: The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC), a constitutional monarchy formed on the basis of elections internationally recognized as free and fair, was established on September 24, 1993.

Independence: November 9, 1953.

Constitution: September 24, 1993.

Branches: Executive—King (head of state), appointed prime minister, two deputy prime ministers, and 25 ministers. Legislative—National Assembly, consisting of 123 elected members. Judicial—Supreme Court and lower courts.
Administrative subdivisions: 20 provinces and 4 cities.

Political parties and leaders: RGC Coalition—Cambodian People's Party (CPP), led by Prime Minister Hun Sen; National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCINPEC), led by National Assembly President Prince Norodom Ranariddh. Outside the RGC: Sam Rainsy Party (SRP), led by Sam Rainsy (main opposition party); several minor parties.

Flag: Two horizontal blue bands, divided by a wider red band on which is centered a white stylized representation of Angkor Wat.

Economy

GDP: (2002) $3.6 billion.

Per capita GDP: (2002) $275.

Annual growth rate: (2002) 4.5%.

Inflation: (2002) 3.0%.

Natural resources: Timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese and phosphate, hydroelectric potential from the Mekong River.

Agriculture: (37% of GDP, 2001) About 4,848,000 hectares (12 million acres) are unforested land; all are arable with irrigation, but 2.5 million hectares are cultivated. Products—rice, rubber, corn, meat, vegetables, dairy products, sugar, flour.

Industry: (22% of GDP) Types—garment and shoe manufacturing, rice milling, tobacco, fisheries and fishing, wood and wood products, textiles, cement, some rubber production, paper and food processing.

Services: (41% of GDP) Tourism, telecommunications, transportation, and construction.

Central government budget: (2002) Revenue s—$438 million; expenditure—$630 million; foreign financing—$268 million.

Trade: Exports ($1.451 billion 2001)—garments, shoes, cigarettes, natural rubber, rice, pepper, wood, fish. Major partners—United States, EU, Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Indonesia. Imports ($1.806 billion 2001)—fuels, cigarettes, vehicles, consumer goods, machinery. Major partners—United States, Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand, EU, Malaysia, Indonesia. Principle foreign commercial investors: Malaysia, Taiwan, U.S., China, Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore and Thailand.

Economic aid received: Pledges of $610 million in grants and concessional loans (2001), with disbursement rate of 77%. Major donors—Asian Development Bank (ADB), UN Development Program (UNDP), World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Australia, Canada, Denmark, the EU, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, Thailand, U.K., U.S.

Exchange rate: (2002) 3,950 per U.S.$.

GEOGRAPHY

Cambodia is located on mainland Southeast Asia between Thailand to the west and north and Vietnam to the east. It shares a land border with Laos in the northeast. Cambodia has a seacoast on the Gulf of Thailand. The Dangrek Mountain range in the north and Cardamom Mountains in the southwest form natural boundaries. Principal physical features include the Tonle Sap lake and the Mekong and Bassac Rivers. Cambodia remains one of the most heavily fo rested countries in the region, although deforestation continues at an alarming rate.

MODERN HISTORY

Although Cambodia had a rich and powerful past under the Hindu state of Funan and the Kingdom of Angkor, by the mid-19th century the country was on the verge of dissolution. After repeated requests for French assistance, a protectorate was established in 1863. By 1884, Cambodia was a virtual colony; soon after it was made part of the Indochina Union with Annam, Tonkin, Cochin-China, and Laos. France continued to control the country even after the start of World War II through its Vichy government. In 1945, the Japanese dissolved the colonial administration, and King Norodom Sihanouk declared an independent, anti-colonial government under Prime Minister Son Ngoc Thanh in March 1945. The Allies deposed this government in October. In January 1953, Sihanouk named his father as regent and went into self-imposed exile, refusing to return until Cambodia gained genuine independence.

Full Independence

Sihanouk's actions hastened the French Government's July 4, 1953 announcement of its readiness to grant independence, which came on November 9, 1953. The situation remained uncertain until a 1954 conference was held in Geneva to settle the French-Indochina war. All participants, except the United States and the State of Vietnam, associated themselves (by voice) with the final declaration. The Cambodian delegation agreed to the neutrality of the three Indochinese states but insisted on a provision in the cease-fire agreement that left the Cambodian Government free to call for out side military assistance should the Viet Minh or others threaten its territory.

Neutral Cambodia

Neutrality was the central element of Cambodian foreign policy during the 1950s and 1960s. By the mid-1960s, parts of Cambodia's eastern provinces were serving as bases for North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong (NVA/VC) forces operating against South Vietnam, and the port of Sihanoukville was being used to supply them. As NVA/VC activity grew, the United States and South Vietnam became concerned, and in 1969, the United States began a series of air raids against NVA/VC base areas inside Cambodia.

Throughout the 1960s, domestic politics polarized. Opposition grew within the middle class and among leftists, including Paris-educated leaders such as Son Sen, Ieng Sary, and Saloth Sar (later known as Pol Pot), who led an insurgency under the clandestine Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK).

The Khmer Republic and the War

In March 1970, Gen. Lon Nol deposed Prince Sihanouk and assumed power. On October 9, the Cambodian monarchy was abolished, and the country was renamed the Khmer Republic. Hanoi rejected the new republic's request for the withdrawal of NVA/VC troops and began to reinfiltrate some of the 2,000-4,000 Cambodians who had gone to North Vietnam in 1954. They became a cadre in the insurgency. The United States moved to provide material assistance to the new government' sarmed forces, which were engaged against both the Khmer Rouge insurgents and NVA/VC forces. In April 1970, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in a campaign aimed at destroying NVA/VC base are as. Although a considerable quantity of equipment was seized or destroyed, NVA/VC forces proved elusive and moved deeper into Cambodia. NVA/VC units overran many Cambodian Army positions while the Khmer Rouge expanded their small-scale attacks on lines of communication.

The Khmer Republic's leadership was plagued by disunity among its leadership, the problems of transforming a 30,000-man army into a national combat force of more than 200,000 men, and spreading corruption. The insurgency continued to grow, with supplies and military support provided by North Vietnam. But inside Cambodia, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary asserted their dominance over the Vietnamese -trained communists, many of whom were purged. At the same time, the Khmer Rouge forces became stronger and more independent of their Vietnamese patrons. By 1974, Lon Nol's control was reduced to small enclaves around the cities and main transportation routes.


More than 2 million refugees from the war lived in Phnom Penh and other cities.

On New Year's Day 1975, communist troops launched an offensive that, in 117 days of the hardest fighting of the war, destroyed the Khmer Republic. Simultaneous attacks around the perimeter of Phnom Penhpinned down Republican forces, while other Khmer Rouge units overran fire bases controlling the vital lower Mekong resupply route. A U.S. - funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia. Phnom Penh surrendered on April 17—5 days after the U.S. mission evacuated Cambodia.

Democratic Kampuchea

Many Cambodians welcomed the arrival of peace, but the Khmer Rouge soon turned Cambodia—which it called Democratic Kampuchea (DK)—into a land of horror. Immediately after its victory, the new regime ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns, sending the entire urban population out into the countryside to till the land. Thousands starved or died of disease during the evacuation. Many of those forced to evacuate the cities were resettled in new villages, which lacked food, agricultural implements, and medical care. Many starved before the first harvest, and hunger and malnutrition—bordering on starvation—were constant during those years. Those who resisted or who questioned orders were immediately executed, as were most military and civilian leaders of the former regime who failed to disguise their pasts.

Within the CPK, the Paris-educated leadership—Pol Pot, Ieng Sary, Nuon Chea, and Son Sen—was in control, and Pol Pot was made prime minister. Prince Sihanouk was put under virtual house arrest. The new government sought to restructure Cambodian society completely. Remnants of the old society were abolished, and Buddhism suppressed.

Agriculture was collectivized, and the surviving part of the industrial base was abandoned or placed under state control. Cambodia had neither a currency nor a banking system. The regime controlled every aspect of life and reduced everyone to the level of abject obedience through terror. Torture centers were established, and detailed records were kept of the thousands murdered there. Public executions of those considered unreliable or with links to the previous government were common. Few succeeded in escaping the military patrols and fleeing the country. Solid estimates of the numbers who died between 1975 and 1979 are not available, but it is likely that hundreds of thousands were brutally executed by the regime. Hundreds of thousands more died of starvation and disease (both under the Khmer Rouge and during the Vietnamese invasion in 1978). Estimates of the dead range from 1.7 to 3 million, out of a 1975 population estimated at 7.3 million.

Democratic Kampuchea's relations with Vietnam and Thailand worsened rapidly as a result of border clashes and ideological differences. While communist, the CPK was fiercely anti-Vietnamese, and most of its members who had lived in Vietnam were purged. Democratic Kampuchea established close ties with China, and the Cambodian-Vietnamese conflict became part of the Sino-Soviet rivalry, with Moscow backing Vietnam. Border clashes worsened when Democratic Kampuchea's military attacked villages in Vietnam.

In mid-1978, Vietnamese forces invaded Cambodia, advancing about 30 miles before the arrival of the rainy season. In December 1978, Vietnam announced formation of the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation (KUFNS) under Heng Samrin, a former DK division commander. It was composed of Khmer communists who had remained in Vietnam after 1975 and officials from the eastern sector—like Heng Samrin and Hun Sen—who had fled to Vietnam from Cambodia in 1978. In late December 1978, Vietnamese forces launched a full invasion of Cambodia, capturing Phnom Penh on January 7 and driving there mnants of Democratic Kampuchea's Army westward toward Thailand.

The Vietnamese Occupation

On January 10, 1979, the Vietnamese installed Heng Samrin as head of state in the new People's Republic of Kampuchea (PRK). The Vietnamese Army continued its pursuit of Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge forces. At least 600,000 Cambodians displaced during the Pol Potera and the Vietnamese invasion began streaming to the Thai border in search of refuge.

The international community responded with a massive relief effort coordinated by the United States through UNICEF and the World Food Program. More than $400 million was provided between 1979 and 1982, of which the United States contributed nearly $100 million. At one point, more than 500,000 Cambodians were living along the Thai-Cambodian border and more than 100,000 in holding centers inside Thailand.

Vietnam's occupation army of as many as 200,000 troops controlled the major population centers and most of the countryside from 1979 to September 1989. The Heng Samrin regime's 30,000 troops were plagued by poor morale and wide spread desertion. Resistance to Vietnam's occupation continued. A large portion of the Khmer Rouge's military forces eluded Vietnamese troops and established themselves in remote regions. The non-communist resistance, consisting of a number of groups which had been fighting the Khmer Rouge after 1975—including Lon Nol-era soldiers—coalesced in 1979-80 to form the Khmer People's National Liberation Armed Forces (KPNLAF), which pledged loyalty to former Prime Minister Son Sann, and Moulinaka (Movement pour la Liberation Nationale de Kampuchea), loyal to Prince Sihanouk. In 1979, Son Sann formed the Khmer People's National Liberation Front (KPNLF) to lead the political struggle for Cambodia's independence. Prince Sihanouk formed his own organization, FUNCINPEC, and its military arm, the Armee Nationale Sihanoukienne (ANS) in 1981.

Within Cambodia, Vietnam had only limited success in establishing its client Heng Samrin regime, which was dependent on Vietnamese advisers at all levels. Security in some rural areas was tenuous, and major transportation routes were subject to interdiction by resistance forces. The presence of Vietnamese throughout the country and their intrusion into nearly all aspects of Cambodian life alienated much of the populace. The settlement of Vietnamese nationals, both former residents and new immigrants, further exacerbated anti - Vietnamese sentiment. Reports of the numbers involved vary widely with some estimates as high as 1 million. By the end of this decade, Khmer nationalism began to reassert itself against the traditional Vietnamese enemy. In 1986, Hanoi claimed to have begun withdrawing part of its occupation forces. At the same time, Vietnam continued efforts to strengthen its client regime, the PRK, and its military arm, the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Armed Forces (KPRAF). These withdrawals continued over the next 2 years, and the last Vietnamese troops left Cambodia in September 1989.

Peace Efforts

From July 30 to August 30, 1989, representatives of 18 countries, the four Cambodian parties, and the UN Secretary General met in Paris in an effort to negotiate a comprehensive settlement. They hoped to achieve those objectives seen as crucial to the future of post-occupation Cambodia—a verified withdrawal of the remaining Vietnamese occupation troops, the prevention of the return to power of the Khmer Rouge, and genuine self-determination for the Cambodian people. A comprehensive settlement was agreed upon on August 28, 1990.

Cambodia's Renewal

On October 23, 1991, the Paris Conference reconvened to sign a comprehensive settlement giving the UN full authority to supervise a cease-fire, repatriate the displaced Khmer along the border with Thailand, disarm and demobilize the factional armies, and to prepare the country for free and fair elections. Prince Sihanouk, President of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia (SNC), and other members of the SNC returned to Phnom Penh in November 1991, to begin the resettlement process in Cambodia. The UN Advance Mission for Cambodia (UNAMIC) was deployed at the same time to maintain liaison among the factions and begin demining operations to expedite the repatriation of approximately 370,000 Cambodians from Thailand.

On March 16, 1992, the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) arrived in Cambodia to begin implementation of the UN Settlement Plan. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees began full-scale repatriation in March 1992. UNTAC grew into a 22,000-strong civilian and military peacekeeping force to conduct free and fair elections for a constituent assembly.

Over four million Cambodians (about 90% of eligible voters) participated in the May 1993 elections, although the Khmer Rouge or Party of Democratic Kampuche a (PDK), whose forces were never actually disarmed or demobilized, barred some people from participating. Prince Ranariddh's FUNCINPEC Party was the top vote recipient with a 45.5% vote followed by Hun Sen's Cambodian People's Party and the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party, respectively. FUNCINPEC then entered into a coalition with the other parties that had participated in the election. The parties represented in the 120-member Assembly proceeded to draft and approve a new Constitution, which was promulgated September 24. It established a multiparty liberal democracy in the framework of a constitutional monarchy, with the former Prince Sihanouk elevated to King. Prince Ranariddh and Hun Sen became First and Second Prime Ministers, respectively, in the Royal Cambodian Government (RGC). The Constitution provides for a wide range of internationally recognized human rights.

Compared to its recent past, the 1993-2003 period has been one of relative stability for Cambodia. However, political violence continues to be a problem in there. In 1997, factional fighting between supporters of Prince Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen broke out, resulting in more than 100 FUNCINPEC deaths and a few CPP casualties. Some FUNCINPEC leaders were forced to flee the country, and Hun Sen took over as Prime Minister. FUNCINPEC leaders returned to Cambodia shortly before the 1998 National Assembly elections. In those elections, the CPP received 41% of the vote, FUNCINPEC 32%, and the Sam Rainsy Party (SRP) 13%. Due to political violence, intimidation, and lack of media access, many international observers judged the elections to have been seriously flawed. The CPP and FUNCINPEC formed another coalition government, with CPP the senior partner. Cambodia's first commune elections were held in February 2002. These elections to select chiefs and members of 1,621 commune (municipality) councils also were marred by political violence and fell short of being free and fair by international standards. The election results were largely acceptable to the major parties, though procedures for the new local councils have not been fully implemented.

A riot occurred in January 2003 in which the Embassy of Thailand and several Thai businesses were damaged. Following the incident, Prime Minister Hun Sen expressed the RGC's regret to the Thai Government and promised compensation.

Media

While limitations still exist, freedom of press has improved markedly in Cambodia since the adoption of the 1993 Constitution that grants a certain degree of freedom to the media. The written press is by and large free and independent of political parties. Cambodia has an estimated 20 Khmer-language newspapers that are published regularly. Of these, eight are published daily. There are two major English-language newspapers, one of which is produced daily. Broadcast media, in contrast to print, is more closely controlled. It tends to be politically affiliated, and access for opposition parties is extremely limited.

GOVERNMENT

Principal Government Officials
Last Updated: 1/2/02

The government coalition includes - the Cambodian People's Party (CPP) and the National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCINPEC)(F).

King: Norodom SIHANOUK,

Pres., National Assembly: Norodom RANARIDDH, Prince (F)

Prime Minister: HUN SEN, (CPP)

Dep. Prime Min.: SAR KHENG, (CPP)

Dep. Prime Min.: TOL LAH, (F)

Min. of State: CHHIM SIEKLENG, (F)

Min. of State: HONG SUN HUOT, M.D.(F)

Min. of State: HOR NAMHONG, (CPP)

Min. of State: KEAT CHHON, (CPP)

Min. of State: LU LAY SRENG, (F)

Min. of State: SOK AN, (CPP)

Min. of State: TIE BANH, Gen. (CPP)

Min. of State: YU HOKKRI, (F)

Min. in the Council of Ministers: SOK AN, (CPP)

Min. of Agriculture, Forestry, & Fishing: CHAN SARUN, (CPP)

Min. of Commerce: CHAM PRASIT, (CPP)

Min. of Culture & Fine Arts: Norodom BOPHA DEVI, Princess (F)

Min. of Economy & Finance: KEAT CHHON, (CPP)

Min. of Education, Youth, & Sports: TOL LAH, (F)

Min. of Environment: MOK MARET, (CPP)

Min. of Foreign Affairs & International Cooperation: HOR NAMHONG, (CPP)

Min. of Health: HONG SUN HUOT, M.D.(F)

Min. of Industry, Mines, & Energy: SUY SEM, (CPP)

Min. of Information & Press: LU LAY SRENG, (F)

Co-Min. of Interior: SAR KHENG, (CPP)

Co-Min. of Interior: YU HOKKRI, (F)

Min. of Justice: NEAV SITHONG, (F)

Co-Min. of National Defense: SISOWATH SIRIRATH, Prince (F)

Co-Min. of National Defense: TIE BANH, Gen. (CPP)

Min. of Planning: CHHAY THAN, (CPP)

Min. of Posts & Telecommunications: SO KHUN, (CPP)

Min. of Public Works & Transportation: KHY TAINGLIM, (F)

Min. of Relations with Parliament & Inspection: KHUN HANG, (F) Min. of Religious Affairs: CHEA SAVOEUN, (F)

Min. of Rural Development: LY THUCH, (F)

Min. of Social Affairs, Labor, Vocational Training, & Youth Rehabilitation: IT SAM-HENG, (CPP)

Min. of Tourism: VENG SEREYVUTH, (F)

Min. of Urbanization & Construction: IM CHHUNLIM, (CPP)

Min. of Water Resources & Meteorology: LIM KEAN-HAO, (CPP)

Min. of Women's Affairs & War Veterans: MU SOCHUA, (F)

State Sec. in the Council of Ministers: CHEA SAOPHOAN, (F)

State Sec. in the Council of Ministers: SUM MANITH, (CPP)

State Sec. of Agriculture, Forestry, & Fishing: CHAN TONG IV, (CPP)

State Sec. of Agriculture, Forestry, & Fishing: MAY SAM OEUN, (F)

State Sec. of Commerce: KHEK VANDY, (F)

State Sec. of Commerce: PEN SIMAN, (CPP)

State Sec. of Culture & Fine Arts: PEN YET, (CPP)

State Sec. of Culture & Fine Arts: SISOWATH PANARA SIRIVUT, Prince (F)

State Sec. of Economy & Finance: KONG VIBOL, (F)

State Sec. of Economy & Finance: UK RABUN, (CPP)

State Sec. of Education, Youth, & Sports: IM SOTHI, (CPP)

State Sec. of Education, Youth, & Sports: POK THAN, (F)

State Sec. of Environment: KHAN SAPHAN, (CPP)

State Sec. of Environment: SO GARI, (F)

State Sec. of Foreign Affairs &

International Cooperation: SOENG CHAMRAEUN, (F)

State Sec. of Foreign Affairs &

International Cooperation: UCH KIM AN, (CPP)

State Sec. of Health: MAM BUN HENG, M.D. (CPP)

State Sec. of Health: UNG PHIRUN, (F)

State Sec. of Industry, Mines, & Energy: ITH PRANG, (CPP)

State Sec. of Industry, Mines, & Energy: NHEP BUNCHIN, (F)

State Sec. of Information & Press: KHIEU KANHARITH, (CPP)

State Sec. of Information & Press: UM DARAVUT, (F)

State Sec. of Interior: EM SAM AN, (CPP)

State Sec. of Interior: KIENG VANG, (F)

State Sec. of Interior: PHAN SINA, (F)

State Sec. of Interior: PRUM SOKHA, (CPP)

State Sec. of Justice: LI VUOCHLENG, (CPP)

State Sec. of Justice: SUY NU, (F)

State Sec. of National Defense: CHAY SANGYUN, (CPP)

State Sec. of National Defense: PAO BUNSROE, (F)

State Sec. of Planning: LAY PROHOAH, (F)

State Sec. of Planning: U AOHAT, (CPP)

State Sec. of Post & Telecommunications: LAM PU-AN, (F)

State Sec. of Post & Telecommunications: PHAN PHIN, (CPP)

State Sec. of Public Works & Transportation: AHMAD YAHYA, (F)

State Sec. of Public Works & Transportation: TRAM IV-TOEK, (CPP)

State Sec. of Relations with Parliament & Inspection: KHOV MENG HEANG,
(F)

State Sec. of Relations with Parliament & Inspection: HONG CHHEM, (CPP)

State Sec. of Religious Affairs: CHUON IEM, (CPP)

State Sec. of Religious Affairs: IN VISA- UM, (F)

State Sec. of Rural Development: HUY KONTHUL-VORA, (F)

State Sec. of Rural Development: YIM CHHAILI, (CPP)

State Sec. of Social Affairs, Labor, Vocational Training, & Youth Rehabilitation: NIM THOT, (CPP)

State Sec. of Social Affairs, Labor, Vocational Training, & Youth Rehabilitation: PRAK CHANTHA,
(F)

State Sec. of Tourism: NUT NINDOEUN, (F)

State Sec. of Tourism: THONG KHON, (CPP)

State Sec. of Urbanization & Construction: NU SANGKHAN, (F)

State Sec. of Urbanization & Construction: TI YAV, (CPP)

State Sec. of Water Resources & Meteorology: NGO PIN, (F)

State Sec. of Water Resources & Meteorology: YU KEAHEANG, (CPP)

State Sec. of Women's Affairs & War Veterans: UNG KUNTHAVI, (F)

State Sec. of Women's Affairs & War Veterans: YU AY, (CPP)

Governor, State Bank: CHEA CHANTO, (CPP)

Ambassador to the US: ROLAND ENG, (F)

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: OUCH BORITH, (CPP)

The Embassy of Cambodia in the United States is located at 4530 - 16th Street NW, Washington DC 20011. Tel: (202) 726-7742 or FAX: (202) 726-8381.

ECONOMY

In spite of recent progress, the Cambodian economy continues to suffer from the legacy of decades of war and internal strife. Per capita income and education levels are low compared with most neighboring countries. Infrastructure remains inadequate. Most rural households depend on agriculture and its related subsectors. Manufacturing output is concentrated in the garment-manufacturing sector. This sector started to expand rapidly in the mid-1990s and now employs more than 200,000 workers but faces an uncertain future with the end of textile quotas at the end of 2004. The other main foreign currency earner is tourism. After several years of rapid growth, the tourism sector has slowed in 2002-03, mainly due to SARS-related fears. The service sector is heavily concentrated in trading activities and catering - related services.

Cambodia's real GDP grew at 6.3% in 2001 and 4.5% in 2002, with almost all of the growth coming from the garment sector. Inflation was less than 3%, and the national currency, the riel, is relatively stable. The economy is heavily dollarized; the dollar and riel can be used interchangeably. Cambodia remains heavily reliant on foreign assistance —in 2001, 58% of the central government budget depended on donor assistance. Cambodia has had trouble attracting foreign direct investment, due in part to the unreliable legal environment. New FDI levels fell steadily from 1999-2001. In 2002, FDI was a mere $135 million. The economy also has a poor track record in creating jobs in the formal sector, and the challenge will only become more daunting in the future since 40% of the population is under 15 years of age and large numbers will begin to enter the work force over the next 10 years.

ANGKOR WAT

Over a period of 300 years, between 900 and 1200 AD, the Khmer Kingdom of Angkor produced some of the world's most magnificent architectural masterpieces on the northern shore of the Tonle Sap, near the present town of Siem Reap. The Angkor area stretches 15 miles east to west and 5 miles north to south. Some 72 major temples or other buildings dot the area. Suryavarman II built the principal temple, Angkor Wat, between 1112 and 1150. With walls nearly one-half mile on each side, Angkor Wat portrays the Hindu cosmology with the central towers representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond. Angkor Thom, the capital city built after the Cham sack of 1177, is surrounded by a 300-foot wide moat. Construction of Angkor Thom coincided with a change from Hinduism to Buddhism. Temples were altered to display images of the Buddha, and Angkor Wat became a major Buddhist shrine.

During the 15th century, nearly all of Angkor was abandoned after Siamese attacks, except Angkor Wat, which remained a shrine for Buddhist pilgrims. The great city and temples remained largely cloaked by the forest until the late 19th century when French archaeologists began a long restoration process. France established the Angkor Conservancy in 1908 to direct restoration of the Angkor complex. For the next 64 years, the conservancy worked to clear away the forest, repair foundations, and install drains to protect the buildings from their most insidious enemy: water. After 1953, the conservancy became a joint project of the French and Cambodian Governments. Some temples were carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations. Angkor Wat has attracted international tourism to Cambodia, which is growing at a rapid pace. It is now the second-largest foreign currency earner in the economy.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

The Royal Government of Cambodia has established diplomatic relations with most countries, including the United States. The RGC is a member of most major international organizations, including the UN and its specialized agencies. The RGC became a member of ASEAN in 1998.

The RGC is a member of most major international organizations, including the UN and its specialized agencies such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. The RGC is an Asian Development Bank (ADB) member, a member of ASEAN, and is in the process of securing membership in the WTO.

U.S.-CAMBODIAN RELATIONS

Between 1955 and 1963, the United States provided $409.6 million in economic grant aid and $83.7 million in military assistance. This aid was used primarily to repair damage caused by the first Indochina war, to support internal security forces, and for the construction of an all-weather road to the seaport of Sihanoukville, which gave Cambodia its first direct access to the sea and access to the southwestern hinterlands. Relations deteriorated in the early 1960s. Diplomatic relations were broken by Cambodia in May 1965, but were reestablished on July 2, 1969. U.S. relations continued after the establishment of the Khmer Republic until the U.S. mission was evacuated on April 12, 1975. During the 1970-75 war, the United States provided $1.18 billion in military assistance and $503 million in economic assistance. The United States condemned the brutal character of the Khmer Rouge regime between 1975 and 1979. The United States opposed the subsequent military occupation of Cambodia by Vietnam, and supported ASEAN's efforts in the 1980s to achieve a comprehensive political settlement of the problem. This was accomplished on October 23, 1991, when the Paris Conference reconvened to sign a comprehensive settlement.

The U.S. Mission in Phnom Penhopened on November 11, 1991, headed by Charles H. Twining, Jr., who was designated U.S. Special Representative to the SNC. On January 3, 1992, the U.S. embargo was lifted, thus normalizing economic relations with Cambodia. The United States also ended blanket opposition to lending to Cambodia by international financial institutions. When the freely elected Royal Government of Cambodia was formed on September 24, 1993, the United States and the Kingdom of Cambodia immediately established full diplomatic relations. The U.S. Mission was upgraded to the U.S. Embassy, and in May 1994 Mr. Twining became the U.S. Ambassador. After the factional fighting in 1997 and Hun Sen's legal machinations to depose First Prime Minister Ranariddh, the United States suspended bilateral assistance to the Cambodian Government. At the same time, many U.S. citizens and other expatriates were evacuated from Cambodia and, in the subsequent weeks and months, more than 40,000 Cambodian refugees fled to Thailand. The 1997 events also left a long list of uninvestigated human rights abuses, including dozens of extrajudicial killings. Since 1997, U.S. assistance to the Cambodian people has been provided mainly through non-governmental organizations, which flourish in Cambodia.

The United States supports efforts in Cambodia to build democratic institutions, promote human rights, foster economic development, eliminate corruption, achieve the fullest possible accounting for Americans missing from Indochina conflict, and to bring to justice those most responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed under the Khmer Rouge regime.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Phnom Penh (E), 27 EO Street 240 • Box P, APO AP 96546, Tel [855] 23-216-436/438, Fax 23-216-811; ADM Fax 23-216437.

Last Modified: Wednesday, September 24, 2003

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet November 26, 2003

Country Description: Cambodia is a poor developing country with a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarch. In July 2003, Cambodia held National Assembly elections. No single party won a two-thirds majority required to form a government and the parliamentary parties are still negotiating the formation of a new government.

Entry and Exit Requirements: A passport and visa are required. Tourists and business travelers may purchase a Cambodian visa valid for one month at the airports in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap. Both require a passport-sized photograph. A departure tax is charged on all domestic and international flights. This tax must be paid in U.S. Dollars. Current information about entry/visa and other requirements may be obtained from the Royal Embassy of Cambodia, 4500 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20022, telephone number 202-726-7742, fax 202-726-8381, or via the Internet at http://embassy.org/cambodia. Overseas inquiries may be made at the nearest embassy or consulate of Cambodia.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Dual Nationality: Dual nationality is not prohibited under Cambodia's 1996 nationality law. In addition to being subject to all Cambodian laws affecting U.S. citizens, dual nationals may be subject to laws that impose special obligations on Cambodian citizens. For additional information, see the flyer on dual nationality on the Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Safety and Security: In the aftermath of the October 2002 terrorist bombings in Bali, Indonesia, the possibility exists that similar attacks may occur in other Southeast Asian nations. The Department is concerned that individuals and groups may be planning terrorist actions against United States citizens and interests, as well as sites frequented by Westerners. Extremist groups present in Southeast Asia have transnational capabilities to carry out attacks against locations where Westerners congregate. Increased security at official U.S. facilities has led terrorist groups and their sympathizers to seek softer targets such as clubs, restaurants, places of worship, schools, outdoor recreation events, hotels, resorts and beaches.

While the political situation in Cambodia is relatively calm, American citizens should be aware that Cambodian political activities have turned violent in the past and the possibility for politically motivated violence remains. Grenade attacks and bombings have been used as a form of retribution to settle business and personal disputes. Therefore, the U.S. Embassy advises U.S. citizens to avoid large gatherings or demonstrations.

The U.S. Embassy advises its personnel who travel to the provinces to exercise extreme caution outside the provincial towns during the day and everywhere at night. Many rural parts of the country remain without effective policing. Individuals should avoid walking alone after dusk anywhere in Sihanoukvi lle, and especially along the waterfront. Some of the beaches are secluded, and post has received reports in the past of women being attacked along the Sihanoukville waterfront during the evening hours. These security precautions should also be taken when visiting the Siem Reap (Angkor Wat) area.

Land mines and unexploded ordnance can be found in rural areas throughout Cambodia, but especially in Battambang, Banteay Meanchey, Pursat, Siem Reap, and Kampong Thom provinces. At no time should travelers walk in forested areas or even in dry rice paddies without a local guide. Areas around small bridges on secondary roads are particularly dangerous. Travelers who observe anything resembling a mine or unexploded ordnance should not touch it. They should notify the Cambodia Mine Action Center at 023-368-841/981-083 or 084.

The town of Siem Reap and the vicinity of the Angkor Wat temple complex remain officially open to tourists. The Embassy advises U.S. citizens to travel there by air and to limit their movements to the city of Siem Reap and the main Ang kor Wat temple complexes. However, those who do choose to travel by vehicle are advised that the road between Phnom Penh and Siem Reap is in very poor condition.

Local ferry boats seldom meet safety standards, are often over-crowded and may not be equipped with life jackets/life preservers.

For the latest information, Americans travelling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet website at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found.

The Overseas Citizen Services call center at 1-888-407-4747 can answer general inquiries on safety and security overseas. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use the toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328

Crime: Banditry and other crimes, including armed robbery and assault, are persistent and serious problems in many areas of the country. Many individuals are victimized while riding on motorcycle taxis or cyclos (passenger-carrying bicycles) and generally after dark, but also in broad daylight. These incidents can result in serious injury as the victim is often pulled from a moving vehicle. U.S. citizens should avoid traveling alone, especially after dark. To avoid the risk of theft or confiscation of original documents, the U.S. Embassy advises its personnel to carry photocopies of their U.S. passport, driver's license or other important documents. The U.S. Embassy advises its personnel to review their personal security practices regularly.

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to local police and to the U.S. Embassy in Phnom Penh. U.S. citizens may refer to Department of State's pamphlet A Safe Trip Abroad for ways to promote a trouble free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. 20402, via the internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov/index.html or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Medical Facilities: Medical facilities and services in Cambodia are not up to international standards. Adequate care for basic emergencies is limited in Phnom Penh. Siem Reap, the major tourist attraction of Cambodia, currently has one facility that can provide basic medical care. Otherwise, medical care outside the capital is almost non-existent.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. Serious injuries frequently require evacuation to Bangkok or Singapore. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the U.S. may cost well in excess of $50,000. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas healthcare provider or whether you will be reimbursed later for expenses you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.

Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure "Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad," available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page or autofax: (202) 647-3000.

Other Health Information: Information on vaccinations and other health precautions may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For Information about outbreaks on infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Cambodia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance:

Safety of Public Transportation: Poor
Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Availability of Roadside Assistance: Non-existent

Driving at night in Cambodia is strongly discouraged. In both urban and rural areas, road maintenance is sporadic. Roads between major areas are adequate; however, those leading to more rural areas are poor. During the rainy season both urban and rural road conditions deteriorate considerably. Roadside assistance is nonexistent. The safety of road travel outside urban areas varies greatly. Even on heavily traveled roads, banditry occurs, so all travel should be done in daylight between the hours of 8:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m.

For additional general information about road safety, including links to foreign government sites, see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov/road_safety.html. For information concerning Cambodian driver's permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance contact the Royal Embassy of Cambodia in Washington, D.C. or go the Cambodian Embassy's website at http://embassy.org/cambodia.

Other Modes of Transportation: The U.S. Embassy advises Embassy personnel not to travel by train because of low safety standards and the high risk of banditry. Travel by boat should be avoided because boats are often overcrowded and lack adequate safety equipment. Several incidents have occurred en route to Siem Reap, including a boat sinking in 1997 and an armed robbery of a number of tourists on the "fast bo at" between Siem Reap and Phnom Penh in 1999. Owners of the boats accept no liability for accidents. Moto-taxis and cyclos (passenger-carrying bicycles) are widely available; however, the Embassy does not recommend using them due to safety concerns and because personal belongings can be easily stolen.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service by local carriers at present, or economic authority to operate such service, between the U.S. and Cambodia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Cambodia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with international aviation safety standards. For further information, travelers may contact the Department of Transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's Internet website at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) separately assesses some foreign air carriers for suitability as official providers of air services. For information regarding the DOD policy on specific carriers, travelers may contact DOD at (618) 229-4801

Customs Regulations: Cambodian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Cambodia of items such as drugs, firearms, antiquities, or ivory. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Cambodia in Washington for specific information regarding customs requirements. The U.S. Customs Service may impose corresponding import restrictions in accordance with the Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act. Contact the Customs Service at (202) 927-2336 or Internet http://exchanges.state.gov/education/culprop for further information.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating the law in Cambodia, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use and trafficking in illegal drugs are strict, and convicted offenders can expect lengthy jail sentences and heavy fines.

Seasonal Flooding: Serious flooding occurs both in Phnom Penh and the rest of Cambodia starting at the end of July, early August. Heavy flooding continues into November. The unimproved highways to Prey Veng, Battambang, Pailin, Stung Treng and Poipet become more difficult and dangerous during this time of the year, and travel to the provinces is virtually impossible. The highway to Sihanoukville is the only road that can be traveled, with caution, during this time of the year.

Financial Transactions: Except in major hotels, credit cards are not widely accepted within Cambodia, although a number of banks in Phnom Penh accept Visa cards for cash advances. Banks and major hotels accept travelers' checks, but usually charge a service fee. The only ATM machines in Cambodia require a local account with the bank. Personal checks are not generally accepted. The U.S. dollar and Cambodian Riel are both widely used, although U.S. dollars are preferred, especially for larger transactions. There are Western Union offices in Phnom Penh and one in Siem Reap to which funds can be wired. Information on Western Union can be found at http://www.westernunion.com.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international child abduction please refer to our Internet site at travel.state.gov/chidrens_issues.html or telephone the Overseas Citizens Services call center at 1-888-407-4747. The OCS call center can answer general inquiries regarding international adoptions and will forward calls to the appropriate country officer in the Bureau of Consular Affairs. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use the toll -free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Note on Cambodian adoptions: On December 21, 2001, the Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services in the Department of Homeland Security (BCIS) announced an immediate suspension of the processing of adoption petitions for children from Cambodia. In addition to monitoring the above website, persons interested in adopting in Cambodia may wish to monitor the BCIS website (http://www.ins.gov).

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living in or visiting Cambodia are encouraged to register with the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Phnom Penh where they may obtain updated information on travel and security within Cambodia. The U.S. Embassy is located at No. 16, Street 228 (between Streets 51 and 63), Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The telephone number is (855-23) 216-436 or 216-438;fax (855-23) 216-437 or 218-931.

Applying for U.S. Passports Overseas: Effective April 8, 2002, U.S. citizens residing or traveling abroad who require the issuance of a U.S. passport will be issued the latest, state-of-the-art passport incorporating a photo-digitized image and other enhanced security features. U.S. embassies and consulates will achieve this goal by transferring the passport issuance function to a domestic U.S. passport facility. This will increase processing times at some U.S. embassies and consulates. The U.S Department of State is committed to ensuring that U.S. citizens receive secure documents in a timely manner. U.S. citizens are encouraged to apply early for renewal of expiring U.S. passports.

Cambodia

Compiled from the October 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Kingdom of Cambodia

PROFILE

GEOGRAPHY

MODERN HISTORY

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-CAMBODIAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 181,040 sq. km. (69,900 sq. mi.); about the size of Missouri.

Cities: Capital—Phnom Penh (pop. 1.2 million), Battambang, Siem Reap, Kompong Cham, Kompong Speu, Kompong Thom.

Terrain: Central plain drained by the Tonle Sap (Great Lake) and Mekong and Bassac Rivers. Forests away from the rivers and the lake, mountains in the southwest (Cardamom Mountains) and north (Dangrek Mountains) along the border with Thailand.

Climate: Tropical monsoon with rainy season June-Oct. and dry season Nov.-May.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Cambodian(s), Khmer.

Population: (2005) 14,071,000.

Avg. annual growth rate: (2005) 1.96%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—69/1,000. Life expectancy—57 years male; 61 years female.

Ethnic groups: Cambodian 90%; Vietnamese 5%; Chinese 1%; small numbers of hill tribes, Chams, and Laotian.

Religions: Theravada Buddhism 95%; Islam; animism; Christian.

Languages: Khmer (official) spoken by more than 95% of the population; some French still spoken in urban areas; English increasingly popular as a second language.

Education: Years compulsory—none. Enrollment—primary school, 91.9%; grades 7 to 9, 26.1%; grades 10 to 12, 9.3%; and post-secondary, 1.4%. Completion rates—primary school, 46.8%; lower secondary school, 20.57%; upper secondary school, 8.92%; university, 6%. Literacy (total population over 15 that can read and write, 2006)—73.6% (male 84.7%; female 64.1%).

Government

Type: Multiparty democracy under a constitutional monarchy.

Independence: November 9, 1953.

Constitution: September 24, 1993; amended March 6, 1999.

Government branches: Executive—King Sihamoni (head of state since October 29, 2004), appointed prime minister (Hun Sen since January 14, 1985), six deputy prime ministers, 14 senior ministers, 28 ministers, 135 secretaries of state, and 146 undersecretaries of state. Legislative—National Assembly, consisting of 123 elected members; Senate, consisting of 61 members. Judicial—Supreme Court and lower courts.

Political subdivisions: 20 provinces and 4 municipalities.

Political parties: Ruling parties—A coalition government of the Cambodian People’s Party (CPP), led by Samdech Chea Sim, and the National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCINPEC), led by National Assembly President Prince Norodom Ranariddh. Opposition parties—The Sam Rainsy Party (SRP), led by Sam Rainsy; several minor parties.

Economy

GDP: (2005) $6.2 billion.

Per capita GDP: (2005) $448.

Annual growth rate: (2005) 13.4%.

Inflation: (2005) 6.7%.

Natural resources: Timber, gemstones, some iron ore, manganese and phosphate, hydroelectric potential from the Mekong River.

Agriculture: (32.3% of GDP, 2005) About 4,848,000 hectares (12 million acres) are unforested land; all are arable with irrigation, but 2.5 million hectares are cultivated. Products—rice, rubber, corn, meat, vegetables, dairy products, sugar, flour.

Industry: (25.3% of GDP, 2005) Types—garment and shoe manufacturing, rice milling, tobacco, fisheries and fishing, wood and wood products, textiles, cement, some rubber production, paper and food processing.

Services: (37% of GDP, 2004 est.) Tourism, telecommunications, transportation, and construction.

Budget: (2005) Revenues—$642 million; expenditures—$812 million; foreign financing—$273 million.

Trade: Exports($2.9 billion, 2005)—garments, shoes, cigarettes, natural rubber, rice, pepper, wood, fish. Major partners—United States, Germany, U.K., Singapore, Japan, Vietnam. Imports ($3.8 billion, 2005)—fuels, cigarettes, vehicles, consumer goods, machinery. Major partners—Thailand, Singapore, China, Hong Kong, Vietnam, Taiwan, United States.

Economic aid received: Pledges of $601 million in grants and concessional loans for calendar year 2006. Major donors—Asian Development Bank (ADB), UN Development Program (UNDP), World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Australia, Canada, Denmark, the EU, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden, Thailand, U.K., U.S. According to the Cambodian Government, 95.2% of the $504 million pledged by donors for 2005 was actually disbursed.

Principal foreign commercial investors: Malaysia, Taiwan, U.S., China, Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Thailand.

Exchange rate: (2006) 4,114 riel per U.S. $1.

GEOGRAPHY

Cambodia is located on mainland Southeast Asia between Thailand to the west and north and Vietnam to the east. It shares a land border with Laos in the northeast. Cambodia has a sea coast on the Gulf of Thailand. The Dangrek Mountain range in the north and Cardamom Mountains in the southwest form natural boundaries. Principal physical features include the Tonle Sap lake and the Mekong and Bassac Rivers. Cambodia remains one of the most heavily forested countries in the region, although deforestation continues at an alarming rate.

People and Culture

Ninety percent of Cambodia’s population is ethnically Cambodian. Other ethnic groups include Chinese, Vietnamese, hill tribes, Chams, and Laotian. Theravada Buddhism is the religion of 95% of the population; Islam, animism, and Christianity also are practiced. Khmer is the official language and is spoken by more than 95% of the population. Some French is still spoken in urban areas, and English is increasingly popular as a second language.

Angkor Wat

Over a period of 300 years, between 900 and 1200 AD, the Khmer Kingdom of Angkor produced some of the world’s most magnificent architectural masterpieces on the northern shore of the Tonle Sap, near the present town of Siem Reap. The Angkor area stretches 15 miles east to west and 5 miles north to south. Some 72 major temples or other buildings dot the area. Suryavarman II built the principal temple, Angkor Wat, between 1112 and 1150. With walls nearly one-half mile on each side, Angkor Wat portrays the Hindu cosmology with the central towers representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond. Angkor Thom, the capital city built after the Cham sack of 1177, is surrounded by a 300-foot wide moat. Construction of Angkor Thom coincided with a change from Hinduism to Buddhism. Temples were altered to display images of the Buddha, and Angkor Wat became a major Buddhist shrine. During the 15th century, nearly all of Angkor was abandoned after Siamese attacks. The exception was Angkor Wat, which remained a shrine for Buddhist pilgrims. The great city and temples remained largely cloaked by the forest until the late 19th century when French archaeologists began a long restoration process. France established the Angkor Conservancy in 1908 to direct restoration of the Angkor complex. For the next 64 years, the conservancy worked to clear away the forest, repair foundations, and install drains to protect the buildings from their most insidious enemy: water. After 1953, the conservancy became a joint project of the French and Cambodian Governments. Some temples were carefully taken apart stone by stone and reassembled on concrete foundations. Tourism is now the second-largest foreign currency earner in Cambodia’s economy, and Angkor Wat has helped attract international tourism to the country.

MODERN HISTORY

Although Cambodia had a rich and powerful past under the Hindu state of Funan and the Kingdom of Angkor, by the mid-19th century the country was on the verge of dissolution. After repeated requests for French assistance, a protectorate was established in 1863. By 1884, Cambodia was a virtual colony; soon after it was made part of the Indochina Union with Annam, Tonkin, Cochin-China, and Laos. France continued to control the country even after the start of World War II through its Vichy government. In 1945, the Japanese dissolved the colonial administration, and King Norodom Sihanouk declared an independent, anti-colonial government under Prime Minister Son Ngoc Thanh in March 1945. The Allies deposed this government in October. In January 1953, Sihanouk named his father as regent and went into self-imposed exile, refusing to return until Cambodia gained genuine independence.

Full Independence

Sihanouk’s actions hastened the French Government’s July 4, 1953 announcement of its readiness to grant independence, which came on November 9, 1953. The situation remained uncertain until a 1954 conference was held in Geneva to settle the French-Indochina war. All participants, except the United States and the State of Vietnam, associated themselves (by voice) with the final declaration. The Cambodian delegation agreed to the neutrality of the three Indochinese states but insisted on a provision in the cease-fire agreement that left the Cambodian Government free to call for outside military assistance should the Viet Minh or others threaten its territory.

Neutral Cambodia

Neutrality was the central element of Cambodian foreign policy during the 1950s and 1960s. By the mid-1960s, parts of Cambodia’s eastern provinces were serving as bases for North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong (NVA/VC) forces operating against South Vietnam, and the port of Sihanoukville was being used to supply them. As NVA/VC activity grew, the United States and South Vietnam became concerned, and in 1969, the United States began a series of air raids against NVA/VC base areas inside Cambodia. Throughout the 1960s, domestic politics polarized. Opposition grew within the middle class and among leftists, including Paris-educated leaders such as Son Sen, Ieng Sary, and Saloth Sar (later known as Pol Pot), who led an insurgency under the clandestine Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK).

The Khmer Republic and the War

In March 1970, Gen. Lon Nol deposed Prince Sihanouk and assumed power. On October 9, the Cambodian monarchy was abolished, and the country was renamed the Khmer Republic. Hanoi rejected the new republic’s request for the withdrawal of NVA/VC troops and began to reinfiltrate some of the 2,000-4,000 Cambodians who had gone to North Vietnam in 1954. They became a cadre in the insurgency. The United States moved to provide material assistance to the new government’s armed forces, which were engaged against both the Khmer Rouge insurgents and NVA/VC forces. In April 1970, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces entered Cambodia in a campaign aimed at destroying NVA/VC base areas. Although a considerable quantity of equipment was seized or destroyed, NVA/VC forces proved elusive and moved deeper into Cambodia. NVA/VC units overran many Cambodian Army positions while the Khmer Rouge expanded their smallscale attacks on lines of communication.

The Khmer Republic’s leadership was plagued by disunity among its members, the problems of transforming a 30,000-man army into a national combat force of more than 200,000 men, and spreading corruption. The insurgency continued to grow, with supplies and military support provided by North Vietnam. But inside Cambodia, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary asserted their dominance over the Vietnamese-trained communists, many of whom were purged. At the same time, the Khmer Rouge forces became stronger and more independent of their Vietnamese patrons. By 1974, Lon Nol’s control was reduced to small enclaves around the cities and main transportation routes. More than 2 million refugees from the war lived in Phnom Penh and other cities.

On New Year’s Day 1975, communist troops launched an offensive that, in 117 days of the hardest fighting of the war, destroyed the Khmer Republic. Simultaneous attacks around the perimeter of Phnom Penh pinned down Republican forces, while other Khmer Rouge units overran fire bases controlling the vital lower Mekong resupply route. A U.S.-funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia. Phnom Penh surrendered on April 17, 1975—5 days after the U.S. mission evacuated Cambodia.

Democratic Kampuchea

Many Cambodians welcomed the arrival of peace, but the Khmer Rouge soon turned Cambodia—which it called Democratic Kampuchea (DK)—into a land of horror. Immediately after its victory, the new regime ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns, sending the entire urban population out into the countryside to till the land. Thousands starved or died of disease during the evacuation. Many of those forced to evacuate the cities were resettled in new villages, which lacked food, agricultural implements, and medical care. Many starved before the first harvest, and hunger and malnutrition—bordering on starvation—were constant during those years. Those who resisted or who questioned orders were immediately executed, as were most military and civilian leaders of the former regime who failed to disguise their pasts. Within the CPK, the Paris-educated leadership—Pol Pot, Ieng Sary, Nuon Chea, and Son Sen—was in control, and Pol Pot was made Prime Minister. Prince Sihanouk was put under virtual house arrest. The new government sought to restructure Cambodian society completely. Remnants of the old society were abolished, and Buddhism suppressed.

Agriculture was collectivized, and the surviving part of the industrial base was abandoned or placed under state control. Cambodia had neither a currency nor a banking system. The regime controlled every aspect of life and reduced everyone to the level of abject obedience through terror. Torture centers were established, and detailed records were kept of the thousands murdered there. Public executions of those considered unreliable or with links to the previous government were common. Few succeeded in escaping the military patrols and fleeing the country. Solid estimates of the numbers who died between 1975 and 1979 are not available, but it is likely that hundreds of thousands were brutally executed by the regime. Hundreds of thousands more died of starvation and disease—both under the Khmer Rouge and during the Vietnamese invasion in 1978. Estimates of the dead range from 1.7 million to 3 million, out of a 1975 population estimated at 7.3 million.

Democratic Kampuchea’s relations with Vietnam and Thailand worsened rapidly as a result of border clashes and ideological differences. While communist, the CPK was fiercely anti-Vietnamese, and most of its members who had lived in Vietnam were purged. Democratic Kampuchea established close ties with China, and the Cambodian-Vietnamese conflict became part of the Sino-Soviet rivalry, with Moscow backing Vietnam. Border clashes worsened when Democratic Kampuchea’s military attacked villages in Vietnam.

In mid-1978, Vietnamese forces invaded Cambodia, advancing about 30 miles before the arrival of the rainy season. In December 1978, Vietnam announced formation of the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation (KUFNS) under Heng Samrin, a former DK division commander. It was composed of Khmer communists who had remained in Vietnam after 1975 and officials from the eastern sector—like Heng Samrin and Hun Sen—who had fled to Vietnam from Cambodia in 1978. In late December 1978, Vietnamese forces launched a full invasion of Cambodia, capturing Phnom Penh on January 7, 1979 and driving the remnants of Democratic Kampuchea’s army westward toward Thailand.

The Vietnamese Occupation

On January 10, 1979, the Vietnamese installed Heng Samrin as head of state in the new People’s Republic of Kampuchea (PRK). The Vietnamese Army continued its pursuit of Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge forces. At least 600,000 Cambodians displaced during the Pol Pot era and the Vietnamese invasion began streaming to the Thai border in search of refuge.

The international community responded with a massive relief effort coordinated by the United States through the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Food Program. More than $400 million was provided between 1979 and 1982, of which the United States contributed nearly $100 million. At one point, more than 500,000 Cambodians were living along the Thai-Cambodian border and more than 100,000 in holding centers inside Thailand.

Vietnam’s occupation army of as many as 200,000 troops controlled the major population centers and most of the countryside from 1979 to September 1989. The Heng Samrin regime’s 30,000 troops were plagued by poor morale and widespread desertion. Resistance to Vietnam’s occupation continued. A large portion of the Khmer Rouge’s military forces eluded Vietnamese troops and established themselves in remote regions. The non-communist resistance, consisting of a number of groups which had been fighting the Khmer Rouge after 1975—including Lon Nol-era soldiers—coalesced in 1979-80 to form the Khmer People’s National Liberation Armed Forces (KPNLAF), which pledged loyalty to former Prime Minister Son Sann, and Moulinaka (Movement pour la Liberation Nationale de Kampuchea), loyal to Prince Sihanouk. In 1979, Son Sann formed the Khmer People’s National Liberation Front (KPNLF) to lead the political struggle for Cambodia’s independence. Prince Sihanouk formed his own organization, National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia (FUNCINPEC), and its military arm, the Armee Nationale Sihanoukienne (ANS) in 1981.

Within Cambodia, Vietnam had only limited success in establishing its client Heng Samrin regime, which was dependent on Vietnamese advisers at all levels. Security in some rural areas was tenuous, and major transportation routes were subject to interdiction by resistance forces. The presence of Vietnamese throughout the country and their intrusion into nearly all aspects of Cambodian life alienated much of the populace. The settlement of Vietnamese nationals, both former residents and new immigrants, further exacerbated anti-Vietnamese sentiment. Reports of the numbers involved vary widely, with some estimates as high as 1 million. By the end of the decade, Khmer nationalism began to reassert itself against the traditional Vietnamese enemy. In 1986, Hanoi claimed to have begun withdrawing part of its occupation forces. At the same time, Vietnam continued efforts to strengthen its client regime, the PRK, and its military arm, the Kampuchean People’s Revolutionary Armed Forces (KPRAF). These withdrawals continued over the next 2 years, and the last Vietnamese troops left Cambodia in September 1989.

Peace Efforts

From July 30 to August 30, 1989, representatives of 18 countries, the four Cambodian parties, and the UN Secretary General met in Paris in an effort to negotiate a comprehensive settlement. They hoped to achieve those objectives seen as crucial to the future of post-occupation Cambodia—a verified withdrawal of the remaining Vietnamese occupation troops, the prevention of the return to power of the Khmer Rouge, and genuine self-determination for the Cambodian people. A comprehensive settlement was agreed upon on August 28, 1990.

Cambodia’s Renewal

On October 23, 1991, the Paris Conference reconvened to sign a comprehensive settlement giving the UN full authority to supervise a cease-fire, repatriate the displaced Khmer along the border with Thailand, disarm and demobilize the factional armies, and prepare the country for free and fair elections. Prince Sihanouk, President of the Supreme National Council of Cambodia (SNC), and other members of the SNC returned to Phnom Penh in November 1991, to begin the resettlement process in Cambodia. The UN Advance Mission for Cambodia (UNAMIC) was deployed at the same time to maintain liaison among the factions and begin demining operations to expedite the repatriation of approximately 370,000 Cambodians from Thailand.

On March 16, 1992, the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) arrived in Cambodia to begin implementation of the UN Settlement Plan. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees began fullscale repatriation in March 1992. UNTAC grew into a 22,000-strong civilian and military peacekeeping force to conduct free and fair elections for a constituent assembly.

Over 4 million Cambodians (about 90% of eligible voters) participated in the May 1993 elections, although the Khmer Rouge or Party of Democratic Kampuchea (PDK), whose forces were never actually disarmed or demobilized, barred some people from participating. Prince Ranariddh’s FUNCINPEC Party was the top vote recipient with a 45.5% vote, followed by Hun Sen’s Cambodian People’s Party and the Buddhist Liberal Democratic Party, respectively. FUNCINPEC then entered into a coalition with the other parties that had participated in the election. The parties represented in the 120-member assembly proceeded to draft and approve a new constitution, which was promulgated September 24, 1993. It established a multiparty liberal democracy in the framework of a constitutional monarchy, with the former Prince Sihanouk elevated to King. Prince Ranariddh and Hun Sen became First and Second Prime Ministers, respectively, in the Royal Cambodian Government (RGC). The constitution provides for a wide range of internationally recognized human rights.

On October 4, 2004, the Cambodian National Assembly ratified an agreement with the United Nations on the establishment of a tribunal to try senior leaders responsible for the atrocities committed by the Khmer Rouge. Donor countries have pledged the $43 million international share of the three-year tribunal budget, while the Cambodian government’s share of the budget is $13.3 million. The tribunal plans to begin trials of senior Khmer Rouge leaders in 2007.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy, and its constitution provides for a multiparty democracy. The Royal Government of Cambodia, formed on the basis of elections internationally recognized as free and fair, was established on September 24, 1993. The executive branch comprises the king, who is head of state; an appointed prime minister; seven deputy prime ministers, 15 senior ministers, 28 ministers, 135 secretaries of state, and 146 undersecretaries of state. The bicameral legislature consists of a 123-member elected National Assembly and a 61-member Senate. The judiciary includes a Supreme Court and lower courts. Administrative subdivisions are 20 provinces and 4 municipalities.

Compared to its recent past, the 1993-2003 period was one of relative stability for Cambodia. However, political violence continued to be a problem. In 1997, factional fighting between supporters of Prince Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen broke out, resulting in more than 100 FUNCINPEC deaths and a few Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) casualties. Some FUNCINPEC leaders were forced to flee the country, and Hun Sen took over as Prime Minister. FUNCINPEC leaders returned to Cambodia shortly before the 1998 National Assembly elections. In those elections, the CPP received 41% of the vote, FUNCINPEC 32%, and the Sam Rainsy Party (SRP) 13%. Due to political violence, intimidation, and lack of media access, many international observers judged the elections to have been seriously flawed. The CPP and FUNCINPEC formed another coalition government, with CPP the senior partner.

Cambodia’s first commune elections were held in February 2002. These elections to select chiefs and members of 1,621 commune (municipality) councils also were marred by political violence and fell short of being free and fair by international standards. The election results were largely acceptable to the major parties, though procedures for the new local councils have not been fully implemented.

National Assembly elections in July 2003 failed to give any one party the two-thirds majority of seats required under the constitution to form a government. The CPP secured 73 seats, FUNCINPEC 26 seats, and the SRP 24 seats. As a result, the incumbent CPP-led administration continued in power in a caretaker role pending the formation of a coalition with the required number of National Assembly seats to form a government.

On July 8, 2004, the National Assembly approved a controversial addendum to the constitution in order to require a vote on a new government and to end the nearly year-long political stalemate. The vote took place on July 15, and the National Assembly approved a new coalition government comprised of the CPP and FUNCINPEC, with Hun Sen as Prime Minister and Prince Norodom Ranariddh as President of the National Assembly. The SRP and representatives of civil society non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have asserted the addendum was unconstitutional. The SRP boycotted the vote and currently is in opposition. In February 2005, the National Assembly voted to lift the parliamentary immunity of three opposition parliamentarians, including SRP leader Sam Rainsy, in connection with lawsuits filed against them by members of the ruling parties. One of the MPs, Cheam Channy, was arrested and later tried, while Sam Rainsy went into self-imposed exile. In October 2005, the government arrested critics of Cambodia’s border treaties with Vietnam and later detained four human rights activists following International Human Rights Day in December. In January 2006, the political climate improved with the Prime Minister’s decision to release all political detainees and permit Sam Rainsy’s return to Cambodia. Following public criticism by Hun Sen, Prince Ranariddh resigned as President of the National Assembly in March 2006.

On October 7, 2004, King Sihanouk abdicated the throne due to illness. On October 14, the Cambodian Throne Council selected Prince Norodom Sihamoni to succeed Sihanouk as King. King Norodom Sihamoni officially ascended the throne in a coronation ceremony on October 29, 2004.

The constitution provides for a wide range of internationally recognized human rights, including freedom of the press. While limitations still exist on mass media, freedom of the press has improved markedly in Cambodia since the adoption of the 1993 constitution, which grants a certain degree of freedom to the media. The written press, while considered largely free, has ties to individual political parties or factions and does not seek to provide objective reporting or analysis. Cambodia has an estimated 20 Khmer-language newspapers that are published regularly. Of these, eight are published daily. There are two major English-language newspapers, one of which is produced daily. Broadcast media, in contrast to print, is more closely controlled. It tends to be politically affiliated, and access for opposition parties is extremely limited.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 10/24/2006

King: Norodom SIHAMONI

Pres., National Assembly: HENG SAMRIN

Prime Minister: HUN SEN

Dep. Prime Min.: HOR NAMHONG

Dep. Prime Min.: KEV PUT REAKSMEI

Dep. Prime Min.: LU LAY SRENG

Dep. Prime Min.: NHEK BUNCHHAY

Dep. Prime Min.: SAR KHENG

Dep. Prime Min.: SOK AN

Dep. Prime Min.: TEA BANH

Min. of Agriculture, Forestry, & Fisheries: CHAN SARUN

Min. in the Council of Ministers: SOK AN

Min. of Cults & Religious Affairs: KHUN HAING

Min. of Culture & Fine Arts: Sisowath PANARA SIRIVUDH, Prince

Min. of Economy & Finance: KEAT CHHON

Min. of Education, Youth, & Sport: KOL PHENG

Min. of Environment: MOK MARET

Min. of Foreign Affairs & Intl. Cooperation: HOR NAMHONG

Min. of Health: NUTH SOKHOM

Min. of Industry, Mines, & Energy: SUY SEM

Min. of Information: KHIEU KANHARITH

Min. of Interior: SAR KHENG

Min. of Justice: ANG VONG VATTANA

Min. of Labor & Vocational Training: VONG SOTH

Min. of Land Management, Urbanization, & Construction: IM CHHUN LIM

Min. of National Defense: TEA BANH, Gen.

Min. of Planning: CHHAY THAN

Min. of Posts & Telecommunications: SO KHUN

Min. of Public Works & Transportation: SUN CHANTHOL

Min. of Relations With the National Assembly, Senate, & Inspection: MEN SAM AN

Min. of Rural Development: LU LAY SRENG

Min. of Social Affairs, War Veterans, & Youth Rehabilitation: IT SAM-HENG

Min. of Tourism: LAY PROHAS

Min. of Trade: CHAM PRASIT

Min. of Water Resources & Meteorology: LIM KEAN-HAO

Min. of Women’s Affairs: UNG KUNTHA PHAVY

Governor, State Bank: CHEA CHANTO

Ambassador to the US: EK SEREYWATH

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: CHEM WIDHYA

Cambodia’s embassy in the United States is located at 4530 16th Street NW, Washington DC 20011; tel: (202) 726-7742; fax: (202) 726-8381.

ECONOMY

In spite of recent progress, the Cambodian economy continues to suffer from the legacy of decades of war and internal strife. Per capita income and education levels are lower than in most neighboring countries. Infrastructure remains inadequate. Most rural households depend on agriculture and its related subsectors. Manufacturing output is concentrated in the garment sector, which started to expand rapidly in the mid-1990s and now employs more than 250,000 workers, but faces an uncertain future following the end of textile quotas at the end of 2004. The other main foreign currency earner is tourism; Angkor Wat is one of the country’s international tourist attractions. After several years of rapid growth, the tourism sector slowed in 2002-03, mainly due to severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-related fears. There was a noticeable rebound in tourist arrivals in 2004, with foreign visitors to Cambodia topping one million for the first time. The service sector is heavily concentrated in trading activities and catering-related services.

Cambodia’s real GDP grew at 5.5% in 2002 and 5.2% in 2003, with almost all of the growth coming from the garment sector. Growth in 2004 was strong at 5.5%, with the garment sector providing the biggest input into GDP growth. Inflation steadily increased from 1.3% in 2003 to 3.9% in 2005 to 6.7% in 2005. The national currency, the riel, was relatively stable over 2002 but depreciated slightly against the U.S. dollar in 2003. The National Bank of Cambodia made a series of limited yet effective interventions in 2004 to keep the riel to dollar rate at roughly 4,000 to one. The economy is heavily dollarized; the dollar and riel can be used interchangeably. Cambodia remains heavily reliant on foreign assistance—about half of the central government budget depends on donor assistance. Cambodia has had trouble attracting foreign direct investment (FDI), due in part to the unreliable legal environment. FDI was recorded at $142 million in 2000 and gradually dropped to $121 million in 2004. In 2005, for the first time in five years, FDI increases to $216 million. The economy also has a poor track record in creating jobs in the formal sector, and the challenge will only become more daunting in the future since 50% of the population is under 20 years of age and large numbers of job seekers will begin to enter the work force each year over the next 10 years.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Cambodia has established diplomatic relations with most countries, including the United States. The country is a member of most major international organizations, including the UN and its specialized agencies, and became a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1998.

Cambodia is a member of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). On October 13, 2004, Cambodia became the 148th member of the World Trade Organization (WTO).

U.S.-CAMBODIAN RELATIONS

Between 1955 and 1963, the United States provided $409.6 million in economic grant aid and $83.7 million in military assistance. This aid was used primarily to repair damage caused by Cambodia’s war of independence from France, to support internal security forces, and for the construction of an all-weather road to the seaport of Sihanoukville, which gave Cambodia its first direct access to the sea and access to the southwestern hinterlands. Relations deteriorated in the early 1960s. Diplomatic relations were broken by Cambodia in May 1965, but were reestablished on July 2, 1969. U.S. relations continued after the establishment of the Khmer Republic until the U.S. mission was evacuated on April 12, 1975. During the 1970-75 war, the United States provided $1.18 billion in military assistance and $503 million in economic assistance. The United States condemned the brutal character of the Khmer Rouge regime between 1975 and 1979. The United States opposed the subsequent military occupation of Cambodia by Vietnam, and supported ASEAN’s efforts in the 1980s to achieve a comprehensive political settlement of the problem. This was accomplished on October 23, 1991, when the Paris Conference reconvened to sign a comprehensive settlement.

The U.S. Mission in Phnom Penh opened on November 11, 1991, headed by career diplomat Charles H. Twining, Jr., who was designated U.S. Special Representative to the SNC. On January 3, 1992, the U.S. lifted its embargo against Cambodia, thus normalizing economic relations with the country. The United States also ended blanket opposition to lending to Cambodia by international financial institutions. When the freely elected Royal Government of Cambodia was formed on September 24, 1993, the United States and the Kingdom of Cambodia immediately established full diplomatic relations. The U.S. Mission was upgraded to a U.S. Embassy, and in May 1994 Mr. Twining became the U.S. Ambassador. After the factional fighting in 1997 and Hun Sen’s legal machinations to depose First Prime Minister Ranariddh, the United States suspended bilateral assistance to the Cambodian Government. At the same time, many U.S. citizens and other expatriates were evacuated from Cambodia and, in the subsequent weeks and months, more than 40,000 Cambodian refugees fled to Thailand. The 1997 events also left a long list of uninvestigated human rights abuses, including dozens of extra-judicial killings. Since 1997, U.S. assistance to the Cambodian people has been provided mainly through non-governmental organizations, which flourish in Cambodia. The United States supports efforts in Cambodia to combat terrorism, build democratic institutions, promote human rights, foster economic development, eliminate corruption, achieve the fullest possible accounting for Americans missing from Indochina conflict, and to bring to justice those most responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed under the Khmer Rouge regime.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

PHNOM PENH (E) Address: #01, St. 96; APO/FPO: Unit 8166, Box P, APO AP 96546; Phone: (855) 23 728 000; Fax: (855) 23 728 600; Workweek: 8AM–5PM; Website: http://cambodia.usembassy.gov/.

Last Updated: 1/26/2007

The U.S. Embassy in Phnom Penh is located at #1, Street 96, Sangkat Wat Phnom; tel: (855) 23-728-000; fax: (855) 23-728-600.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : May 24, 2006

Country Description: Cambodia is a poor developing country with a constitutional monarchy and elected government. King Norodom Sihamoni is the constitutional monarch and head of state. Elections for Members of the National Assembly were last held in July 2003. Two parties, the CPP and FUNCINPEC, have formed a coalition government, which the CPP dominates. The country has a market economy, with approximately 80 percent of the population of 13 million engaged in subsistence farming. The government has good relations with its neighbors, despite strains over residual border disputes and historic antagonisms. The quality of tourist facilities varies widely in Cambodia with the highest standard found in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, and Sihanoukville.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport and visa are required. Tourists and business travelers may purchase a Cambodian visa valid for one month at the airports in Phnom Penh and Siem Reap. Both require a passportsized photograph. A departure tax is charged on all domestic and international flights. This tax must be paid in U.S. Dollars. Current information about entry/visa and other requirements may be obtained from the Royal Embassy of Cambodia, 4500 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20022, telephone number 202-726-7742, fax 202-726-8381. Overseas inquiries may be made at the nearest embassy or consulate of Cambodia. Visit the Embassy of the Kingdom of Cambodia web site at http://embassy.org/cambodia for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: In the aftermath of bombings in Indonesia in the last two years, Southeast Asia remains a possible target of terrorism. The Department is concerned that individuals and groups may be planning terrorist actions against United States citizens and interests, as well as sites frequented by Westerners. Extremist groups present in Southeast Asia have transnational capabilities to carry out attacks against locations where Westerners congregate. Increased security at official U.S. facilities has led terrorist groups and their sympathizers to seek softer targets such as clubs, restaurants, places of worship, schools, outdoor recreation events, hotels, resorts and beaches. From time to time, the U.S. Embassy places local establishments off limits to Embassy personnel due to safety and security incidents. You can contact the Embassy for notification of the current restrictions in place for Embassy personnel.

The formation of a coalition government in 2004 has eased political tensions considerably. However, American citizens should be aware that Cambodian political activities have turned violent in the past. In November 2000, an anti-government group based in the U.S led an attack against government buildings in Phnom Penh. In January 2003, there were anti-Thai riots, during which the Royal Embassy of Thailand and Thai commercial establishments were attacked. While the current situation is relatively stable, the possibility for politically motivated violence remains. Grenade attacks and bombings have been used as a form of retribution to settle business and personal disputes. Therefore, the U.S. Embassy advises U.S. citizens to avoid large gatherings or demonstrations.

Land mines and unexploded ordnance can be found in rural areas throughout Cambodia, but especially in Battambang, Banteay Meanchey, Pursat, Siem Reap, and Kampong Thom provinces. At no time should travelers walk in forested areas or even in dry rice paddies without a local guide. Areas around small bridges on secondary roads are particularly dangerous. Travelers who observe anything that resembles a mine or unexploded ordnance should not touch it. They should notify the Cambodia Mine Action Center at 023-368-841/981-083 or 084. The town of Siem Reap and the vicinity of the Angkor Wat temple complex remain officially open to tourists. The Embassy advises U.S. citizens to travel to these locations by air or to exercise caution if traveling by road or boat and to limit their movements to the city of Siem Reap, the main Angkor Wat temple complexes, and the main national auto routes.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: The Diplomatic Security Service rates the overall crime threat in Cambodia as critical. Street crime remains a serious concern in Cambodia. Military weapons and explosives remain readily available to criminals despite efforts by authorities to collect and destroy such weapons. Armed robberies occur frequently in Phnom Penh, and while not specifically targeted, foreign residents and visitors are among the victims. Victims of armed robberies are reminded that they should not resist and should surrender their valuables as any perceived resistance may be met with physical violence, including lethal force. Local police rarely investigate reports of crime against tourists and travelers should not expect to recover stolen items. The U.S. Embassy advises its personnel who travel to the provinces to exercise extreme caution outside the provincial towns during the day and everywhere at night. Many rural parts of the country remain without effective policing. Individuals should avoid walking alone after dusk anywhere in Sihanoukville, and especially along the waterfront. Some of the beaches are secluded, and post has received reports in the past of women being attacked along the Sihanoukville waterfront during the evening hours. These security precautions should also be taken when visiting the Siem Reap (Angkor Wat) area.

Pickpockets and beggars are also present in the markets and at the tourist sites. Persons visiting Cambodia should practice sound personal security awareness by varying their routes and routines, maintaining a low profile, not carrying or displaying large amounts of cash, not wearing flashy or expensive jewelry, and not walking the streets alone after dark. Travelers should be particularly vigilant at tourist sites in Phnom Penh, Siem Reap, and Sihanoukville, where there have been a marked increase in motorcycle “snatch and grab” thefts of bags and purses. In addition, we recommend that Americans travel by automobile and not use local mototaxies or cyclos for transportation. These vehicles are more vulnerable to armed robberies and offer no protection against injury when involved in traffic accidents. To avoid the risk of theft or confiscation of original documents, the U.S. Embassy advises its personnel to carry photocopies of their U.S. passport, driver’s license or other important documents.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities and services in Cambodia do not meet international standards. Adequate care for basic emergencies is limited in Phnom Penh. Siem Reap, the major tourist attraction of Cambodia, currently has one facility that can provide basic medical care. Otherwise, medical care outside the capital is almost non-existent. Local pharmacies provide a limited supply of prescription and over the counter medications, but because the quality of locally obtained medications can vary greatly travelers should bring adequate supplies for the duration of their stay in Cambodia.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad including Avian influenza, consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Cambodia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Safety of Public Transportation: Poor
Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Availability of Roadside Assistance: Non-existent

Driving at night in Cambodia is strongly discouraged. In both urban and rural areas, road maintenance is sporadic. Roads between major areas are adequate; however, those leading to more rural areas are poor. During the rainy season, both urban and rural road conditions deteriorate considerably. Roadside assistance is nonexistent. The safety of road travel outside urban areas varies greatly. Cambodian drivers routinely ignore traffic laws and vehicles are frequently poorly maintained. Intoxicated drivers are commonplace, particularly during the evening hours and penalties for DWI offenses vary greatly. Even on heavily traveled roads, banditry occurs, so all travel should be done in daylight between the hours of 8:00 a.m. and 4:00 p.m. Serious flooding occurs both in Phnom Penh and the rest of Cambodia starting at the end of July, early August. Heavy flooding continues into November. The unimproved highways to Prey Veng, Battambang, Pailin, Stung Treng and Poipet become more difficult and dangerous during this time of the year, and travel to the provinces is virtually impossible. The highway to Sihanoukville is the only road that can be traveled, with caution, during this time of the year. The U.S. Embassy advises Embassy personnel not to travel by train because of low safety standards and the high risk of banditry. Travel by boat should be avoided because boats are often overcrowded and lack adequate safety equipment. In February 2004, two American tourists had to be rescued when the boat on which they were traveling capsized on the Mekong River. Owners of the boats accept no liability for accidents. Moto-taxis and cyclos (passenger-carrying bicycles) are widely available; however, the Embassy does not recommend using them due to safety concerns and because personal belongings can be easily stolen. Organized emergency services for victims of traffic accidents are non-existent outside of major urban areas, and those that are available are inadequate.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Cambodia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Cambodia’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet web site, http://www.faa.gov. Domestic air travel from Phnom Penh to Ratanakiri has resulted in several safety incidents since 2005, and maintenance and operational procedures may be inadequate to ensure passenger safety. At present, the U.S. Government does not recommend the use of domestic air carriers for flights to Ratanakiri by Embassy personnel. No such restriction applies for flights to Siem Reap (Angkok Wat) and/or Phnom Penh, Cambodia’s two international airports.

Special Circumstances: Cambodian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Cambodia of items such as drugs, firearms, antiquities, or ivory. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Cambodia in Washington for specific information regarding customs requirements. Dual nationality is not prohibited under Cambodia’s 1996 nationality law. In addition to being subject to all Cambodian laws affecting U.S. citizens, individuals who possess Cambodian nationality may also be subject to laws that impose special obligations on Cambodian citizens. The U.S. dollar and Cambodian Riel are both widely used, although U.S. dollars are preferred, especially for larger transactions. Except in major hotels, credit cards are not widely accepted within Cambodia, although a number of banks in Phnom Penh accept Visa cards for cash advances. Bank and major hotels accept travelers’ checks, but usually charge a service fee. The only ATM machines in Cambodia require a local account with the bank. Personal checks are not generally accepted. There are Western Union offices in Phnom Penh and one in Siem Reap to which funds can be wired. Information on Western Union can be found at http://www.westernunion.com.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offences. Persons violating Cambodian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Cambodia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Cambodia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Cambodia. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at No. 1, Street 96 (near Wat Phnom), Phnom Penh, Cambodia. The telephone number is (855-23) 728-000; fax (855-23) 728-600. Additional information about American Services can be found at http://phnompenh.usembassy.gov/.