ARMENIA

Republic of Armenia

Hayastani Hanrapetut 'Yun

CAPITAL: Yerevan

FLAG: Three horizontal bands of red (top), blue, and gold.

ANTHEM: Mer Hayrenik.

MONETARY UNIT: The dram (introduced 22 November 1993) is a paper currency in denominations of 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, and 500 drams. The dram (d) replaced the Armenian ruble and the Russian ruble (r). Currently d1 =$0.00225 (or $1 = d445) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is in force.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1–2 January; Christmas, 6 January; Day of Remembrance of the Victims of the Genocide, 24 April; Peace Day, 9 May; Anniversary of Declaration of First Armenian Republic (1918), 28 May; Public Holiday, 21 September; Day of Remembrance of the Victims of the Earthquake, 7 December; New Year's Eve, 31 December.

TIME: 4 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Armenia is a landlocked nation located in southeastern Europe/southwestern Asia. Comparatively, the area occupied by Armenia is slightly smaller than the state of Maryland with a total area of 29,800 sq km (11,506 sq mi). Armenia shares boundaries with Georgia on the n, Azerbaijan on the e and s, Iran on the s, and Turkey on the w and has a total boundary length of 1,254 km (778 mi). Armenia's capital city, Yerevan, is located in the west-central portion of the country on the Hrazdan River.

TOPOGRAPHY

The topography of Armenia features the high Armenian Plateau and three primary mountain ranges, the Lesser Caucasus Mountains in the north, the Vardenis Range in central Armenia, and the Zangezur Range in the southeast. There is little forest land and a few fast flowing rivers. The Aras River Valley contains good soil. Mount Aragats, an extinct volcano in the plateau region, is the highest point in Armenia at 13,425 ft (4,095 m). The nation occasionally suffers from severe earthquakes. In December 1988, a massive earthquake struck near the city of Kumayri, killing over 25,000 people.

CLIMATE

Armenia's climate ranges from subtropical to alpine-like in the mountains. The mean temperature in midsummer is 25°c (77°f). In midwinter, the mean temperature is 0°c (32°f). Rainfall is infrequent. The capital city receives 33 cm of rain annually (13 in), though more rainfall occurs in the mountains.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Armenia is located in what geographers call the Aral Caspian Lowland. The country has broad sandy deserts and low grassy plateaus. The region is home to European bison, snow leopards, cheetahs, and porcupines.

ENVIRONMENT

In 2000, Armenia's chief environmental problems resulted from natural disasters, pollution, and warfare. A strong earthquake in 1988 resulted in 55,000 casualties. Radiation from the meltdown of the nuclear reactor facility at Chernobyl in the former Soviet Union also polluted the environment. The nation's soil has also been polluted by chemicals including DDT and the Hrazdan and Ares rivers have also been polluted. The war between Armenia and Azerbaijan has strained the country's economy, limiting the resources that can be devoted to environmental preservation. It has also led to an energy blockade that has caused deforestation as trees are cut for firewood. Yet another environmental hazard is the restarting of the Metsamor nuclear power plant, which has been brought online without the safety systems recommended by the IAEA.

From 1990–1995, deforestation occurred at an average annual rate of 2.69%. However, some reforestation projects have been initiated. As of 2003, 7.6% of the total land area in Armenia is protected, including two sites protected as Ramsar wetlands: Lake Sevan and Lake Arpi. As of 2002, 11 of the nation's 84 species of mammal were threatened, as were 4 species of bird and 1 higher plant species. Endangered species include the Barbel sturgeon, Dahl's jird, and the field adder.

POPULATION

The population of Armenia in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 3,033,000, which placed it at number 133 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 11% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 22% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 87 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 0.3%; this low rate, attributed to a decline in fertility rates and migration, was considered too low by the government. The projected population for the year 2025 was 3,258,000. The population density was 102 per sq km (264 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 65% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that population in urban areas was changing at an annual rate of -0.43%. The capital city, Yerevan, had a population of 1,079,000 in that year. Other urban centers and their estimated populations include Kumayri (206,600) and Kirovakan (170,200). Most of the cities and towns are located along the river valleys in the north and west.

MIGRATION

Independent Armenia is only a portion of historic Armenia, which at its greatest extent also included lands now in Turkey, Iran, and Azerbaijan. There are Armenian communities in these countries and also in Russia, Georgia, Lebanon, Syria, and the United States. Between 1988 and 1993 around 360,000 ethnic Armenians arrived in Armenia from Azerbaijan as a result of the conflict over the disputed territory of Nagorno-Karabakh. In 1995 a citizenship law, which included special provisions making naturalization much easier for refugees from Azerbaijan, was enacted. By the end of January 2004, the number of refugees from Azerbaijan obtaining Armenian citizenship topped 65,000. One of the largest naturalizations of refugees in recent decades, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) supported the process with financial and material assistance. In 2003, there were 50,000 internally displaced persons (IDP) within the country. The UNHCR reported that at the end of 2004 there were 235,235 refugees in Armenia and 68 asylum seekers, of which over 50,000 refugees were assisted by UNHCR. From 1998 to 2003, except for 2000, remittance flows to Armenia grew by 20% per year.

Armenia has a net migration rate of -6.1 migrants per 1,000 population as of 2005. The government views both the immigration and emigration levels as too high.

ETHNIC GROUPS

A 2004 report indicates that Armenians comprise an estimated 98% of the population. Minority groups include the Azeri, Russians, Ukrainians, Belarussians, Jews, Assyrians, Georgians, Greeks, and Yezidi Kurds. As of 1993, most of the Azeris had emigrated from Armenia.

LANGUAGES

Armenian is spoken by about 97% of the population. Armenian belongs to an independent branch of the Indo-European linguistic family. It is a highly inflective language, with a complicated system of declensions. It is agglutinative, rich in consonants, and has no grammatical gender. The vocabulary includes many Persian loan words. There are two main dialects: East Armenian, the official language of Armenia, and West, or Turkish, Armenian. The alphabet, patterned after Persian and Greek letters, has 38 characters. Armenian literature dates from the early 5th century ad. Yezidi is spoken by about 1% of the population; Russian and other various languages are spoken by the remaining 2%.

RELIGIONS

In 2005, about 90% of the population were nominally members of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Catholic churches, both Roman and Mekhitaris (Armenian Uniate), had an estimated 180,000 adherents. The next largest group was the Yezidi, a Kurdish ethnic and religious group that practice a mixture of beliefs from Islam, Zoroastrianism, and animism; they had an estimated 30,000 to 40,000 members. Other Christian denominations include Pentecostals, Greek Orthodox, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Armenian Evangelical Church, Baptists, Seventh-Day Adventists, the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints (Mormons). Most Jews, Muslims, and Baha'is are located in Yerevan.

Armenia became a Christian country in the 4th century ad. In 1991, the Law on Freedom of Conscience established the separation of church and state but granted the Armenian Apostolic Church status as the national church. All religious denominations and organizations outside of the Armenian Apostolic Church must be registered in order to operate. Those that are not registered are prohibited from publishing newspapers or magazines, sponsoring television or radio broadcasts, and renting meeting space. In 1997 amendments tightened registration requirements by raising the minimum number of adult members to qualify for registration from 50 to 200. The laws also indicate that a petitioning organization must adhere to a doctrine that is based on "historically recognized Holy Scriptures." Registration and monitoring of religious groups was originally under the jurisdiction of a government-based Council of Religious Affairs. In 2002 the president abolished the council and announced that a new office, under the prime minister, would handle matters of religion. The National Minorities and Religious Affairs Department was also established by the government.

The Armenian Apostolic Church is a member of the World Council of Churches.

TRANSPORTATION

As of 2004, there were 825 km (513 mi) of 1.520-m (broad) gauge railroad, not including industrial lines. An estimated 828 km (515 mi) are electrified. Supplies that arrive from Turkey by rail must be reloaded, due to a difference in rail gauges. Goods that cross Georgia or Azerbaijan are subject to travel delay from strikes and blockages and may be interdicted.

As of 2003, the highway system included 7,633 km (4,748 mi) of roads, all of which are paved. Of that total, 1,561 km (971 mi) are expressways.

There were an estimated 16 airports as of 2004, 11 of which had paved runways (as of 2005). The Zvartnots airport at Yerevan is fairly well maintained and receives scheduled flights from Moscow, Paris, New York, London, Amsterdam, Athens, Beirut, Dubai (UAE), Frankfurt, Istanbul, Prague, Tehrān, Vienna, Zürich, and Sofia. In 2003, 367,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

Cargo shipments to landlocked Armenia are routed through ports in Georgia and Turkey.

HISTORY

Armenian territories were first united into an empire under Tigranes the Great (95–55 bc), whose extensive lands included parts of Syria and Iraq. Defeated by the Roman general Pompey, Armenia became a client state of the Roman Empire. Rome and Sasanian Persia partitioned Armenia, and after them Byzantium and the Ummayed and Abbasid caliphates controlled parts of Armenia. Armenia adopted Christianity at the beginning of the 4th century ad. The Seljuk Turks invaded Armenia in the 11th century, followed by Genghis Khan and Timur, leading to mass emigrations. Persia and Ottoman Turkey divided Armenia into eastern and western portions in the 16th–18th centuries. Russia took over Persia's holdings in 1828, and during the latter part of the 19th century both Russia and Turkey carried out harsh repression against nationalist activities among Armenians under their sway, leading to many deaths and mass emigrations. During World War I, Ottoman Turkey carried out forced resettlement and other harsh policies against Armenians, which Armenians term their national genocide. The historical experience remains a contentious issue in Armenian-Turkish relations.

After the Bolshevik revolution in Russia in 1917, Armenia declared independence in May 1918. Armenia's population of 750,000 included as many as 300,000 who had survived flight from Turkey, and the heavy burden of independence among hostile neighbors (it clashed with Turkey, Georgia, and Azerbaijan) and an inhospitable climate may have led to as many as 150,000 deaths from famine and disease. Although the August 1920 Treaty of Sevres accorded international recognition of Armenian independence, the Russian Red Army conquered Armenia in November 1920. In 1922, Armenia was named part of a Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, which encompassed lands now in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, but it became a separate union republic in 1936. During the 1920s, Moscow drew internal borders in the Caucasus, which resulted in Nagorno-Karabakh (NK), then a mostly ethnic Armenian region, being incorporated into Azerbaijan, separated from the rest of Soviet Armenia by a few miles of Azerbaijani territory. NK was given the status of an "autonomous republic."

Following a February 1988 call by the Nagorno-Karabakh (NK) legislature for unification with Armenia, the Armenian Supreme Soviet in December 1989 declared that NK, a largely ethnically Armenian-populated enclave within Azerbaijan, was part of Armenia. It also proclaimed Armenia's sovereignty over its land and resources. A popular referendum on independence was held in Armenia on 21 September 1991, in which 94% of the eligible population reportedly participated and which was approved by 99%. The Armenian legislature declared Armenia's independence two days later. Armenia received worldwide diplomatic recognition upon the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991.

Beginning in 1988, conflict engulfed NK, with Azerbaijan resisting the secession or independence of its enclave. Casualties were estimated at over 5,000. Emigration of 350,000 Armenians residing in Azerbaijan and over one million Azerbaijani residing in Armenia or NK followed pogroms in both states and conflict in NK and surrounding areas. In December 1991, a referendum in NK (boycotted by local Azerbaijani) approved NK's independence and a Supreme Soviet was elected, which on 6 January 1992, declared NK's independence and futilely appealed for world recognition. In 1993, Armenian forces gained control over NK and surrounding areas, occupying over 20% of Azerbaijani territory, which they continued to hold despite an Azerbaijani offensive in 1993–1994 that reportedly cost 6,000 Azeri casualties. A ceasefire has held fitfully since May 1994, but talks on a political settlement remain inconclusive. In the six-year period of conflict from 1988 to 1994, more than 35,000 people were killed and nearly one million have been left homeless.

In November 1989, Levon Ter-Petrosyan became a leader of the Armenian National Movement (ANM), which grew out of the Karabakh Committee to push for Armenia's independence, and its chairman in March 1990. ANM and other nationalist deputies cooperated to elect him chairman of the Armenian Supreme Soviet in August 1990, inflicting a serious blow on the Armenian Communist Party. Following Armenia's declaration of independence, presidential elections were held on 16 October 1991. Ter-Petrosyan was supported by the ANM, winning 83% of the vote against six other candidates, including internationally famous dissident Paruir Hairikian of the Association for National Self-Determination and Sos Sarkisyan of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF; called Dashnaktsutyun in Armenian, meaning "federation"). Ter-Petrosyan was sworn into office on 11 November 1991, for a five-year term. His suspension of the activities of Armenian Revolutionary Federation party in December 1994 and a trial of its leaders raised concerns among some observers about possible setbacks to democratization.

Elections to Armenia's unicameral 190-member National Assembly (legislature) were held in June 1995, at the same time as a referendum in which Armenian voters adopted the country's first post-Communist new constitution. International observers reported many campaign and voting irregularities. Observers from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) judged the elections "free but not fair," in part because the main opposition party, the ARF, was banned from participation, the government dominated campaigning, the CEC appeared heavily pro-government in its decisions, and security officers constituted a chilling presence in many voting places. Voting irregularities reported on election day by the international observers included the violation of secret voting and pressure in voting places to cast a ballot for certain parties or candidates. In all, the Republic Bloc and other pro-government parties won 166 out of 190 seats, while the opposition won only 18 and independents four (two seats were undecided).

Ter-Petrosyan won reelection as president on 22 September 1996, by garnering 51.75% of the vote, a far smaller majority than in 1991, barely avoiding runoff balloting. Ter-Petrosyan's main opponent in the presidential race was Vazgen Manukian, head of the National Democratic Union (NDU) party. He garnered 41.3% of the presidential vote. Manukian had worked closely with Ter-Petrosyan in the Karabakh Committee. Following the presidential election, followers of Manukian's electoral coalition demonstrated against what they and many international observers termed irregular voting procedures. On 25 September 1996, tens of thousands of protesters stormed the legislative building in Yerevan and assaulted the legislative speaker and deputy speaker, both belonging to the ANM. The crowd was dispersed by police with few injuries or deaths.

In March 1997, in an attempt to garner greater public support for his regime, Ter-Petrosyan appointed a highly popular war hero of the NK conflict, Robert Kocharian, to the post of prime minister of Armenia. Ter-Petrosyan and others viewed Kocharian as having the leadership abilities necessary to help revive the slumping economy and to increase tax collection. In accepting the prime ministership, Kocharian resigned as president of NK.

Ter-Petrosyan announced in September 1997 that he had accepted an Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) peace plan as a basis for resolving the NK conflict that would require "compromises" from Armenia. The two-stage plan called for NK Armenians to withdraw from most territories they had occupied outside of NK and for international peacekeepers to be deployed, followed by discussion of NK's status. The announcement brought open criticism from Kocharian and other Armenian and NK officials. On 1 February 1998, Yerkrapah, a legislative faction and militia group composed of veterans of the NK conflict, and headed by the country's defense minister, called for Ter-Petrosyan to resign. Many members of Ter-Petrosyan's ANM legislative faction defected, leading to the resignation of the parliamentary speaker. Heated debate in the legislature culminated with Ter-Petrosyan's resignation on 3 February 1998. Ter-Petrosyan denounced the "bodies of power" for demanding his resignation, referring obliquely to Kocharian, Defense Minister Vazgen Sarkisyan, and Minister of the Interior and National Security Serzh Sarkisyan. Although the constitution called for the legislative speaker to assume the duties of acting president pending an election, the resignation of the speaker caused these duties to devolve upon Prime Minister Kocharian. A special presidential election was scheduled for 16 March 1998.

Twelve candidates succeeded in registering for the March presidential election. The main contenders were Kocharian, Vazgen Manukyan (who had run against Ter-Petrosyan in 1996 and was head of the National Democratic Union), and Karen Demirchyan (head of the Armenian Communist Party from 1974 to 1988). Since none of the candidates won the required "50% plus one" of the 1.46 million votes cast (in a 64% turnout), a runoff election was held on 30 March. In the runoff, acting President and Prime Minister Kocharian received 59.5% of 1.57 million votes cast (in a 68.5% turnout). The OSCE concluded that "this election showed improvement in some respects over the 1996 election," but did "not meet OSCE standards to which Armenia has committed itself." Observers alleged ballot box stuffing, discrepancies in vote counting, and fraud perpetrated by local authorities that inflated the number of votes for Kocharian. Nevertheless, he was inaugurated on 9 April 1998. The legislature selected Demirchyan as its speaker on 10 June.

On 27 October 1999, gunmen entered the legislature and opened fire on deputies and officials, killing Prime Minister Vazgen Sarkisyan and Speaker Karen Demirchyan, two deputy speakers, and four others. The purported leader of the gunmen claimed they were targeting the prime minister and were launching a coup to "restore democracy" and end poverty, and took dozens hostage. President Robert Kocharian rushed to the legislature and helped negotiate the release of the hostages, promising the gunmen a fair trial. The killings appeared the product of personal and clan grievances. Abiding by the constitution, the legislature met on 2 November and appointed Armen Khachatryan (a member of the majority Unity bloc) as speaker, and Kocharian named Sarkisyan's brother Aram the new prime minister the next day, seeking to preserve political balances. Political infighting intensified. The military prosecutor investigating the assassinations detained a presidential aide, appearing to implicate Kocharian in the assassinations. The Unity and Stability factions in the legislature also threatened to impeach Kocharian in April 2000. Seeking to counter challenges to his power, Kocharian in May 2000 fired his prime minister and defense minister. In October 2001, on the second anniversary of the shootings in parliament, thousands of protesters staged demonstrations in Yerevan to demand Kocharian's resignation. In December 2003, six individuals were sentenced to life imprisonment for their roles in the 1999 assassinations. The death penalty in Armenia had been abolished that August. Protests against Kocharian's presidency continued in 2004, despite his reelection in 2003.

Although Armenia has the highest economic growth rate of any country in the former Soviet Union, more than 50% of the population lives in poverty. Unemployment and emigration remain problems, and Armenia is under a trade blockade from Turkey and Azerbaijan over the dispute in Nagorno-Karabakh—goods are transported only through Georgia. However, US and European companies interested in tapping oil and gas reserves in the Caspian Sea have been planning the construction of a pipeline through the Caucasus to Turkey. In September 2001, Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Armenia, the first Russian president to do so since independence. Armenia and Russia negotiated a 10-year economic cooperation package, and an agreement was reached on expanding a Russian military base in Armenia.

Presidential elections were held on 19 February 2003, with no candidate receiving 50% of the votes; a runoff election was scheduled for 5 March. Kocharian took 48.3% of the first-round vote, with Stepan Demirchyan—son of Karen Demirchyan, the former parliamentary speaker assassinated in 1999—taking 27.4% of the vote. Artashes Geghamian came in third with 16.9%. The opposition called the election fraudulent and said it would not recognize the vote, and observers from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) declared the election "flawed." Stuffing of ballot boxes allegedly took place, although many ballots were cast in transparent boxes, in an attempt to have a fair vote. Also, Kocharian received five times as much television coverage as all of his opponents combined. In the runoff election held on 5 March, Kocharian was reelected president with 67.5% of the vote; Demirchyan received 32.5%.

GOVERNMENT

Armenia adopted its post-Soviet constitution by public referendum on 5 July 1995 by 68% of the voters. A commission headed by Ter-Petrosyan had drawn up the draft constitution. It provides for a strong presidential system of government with a weak legislative system, granting the president power to appoint and remove the prime minister, judges, and prosecutors. It also gives him liberal grounds for dissolving the legislature, declaring martial law, and limiting human rights by declaring a state of emergency. The president serves a five-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and is subject to legislative approval. The prime minister with presidential and legislative approval appoints the Cabinet of Ministers. The unicameral National Assembly has 131 members, who serve four-year terms; 75 members are elected by party list, and 56 by direct vote.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Armenia held elections to a new single-chamber 131-seat legislature on 30 May 1999, with 75 deputies elected by party list and 56 elected by direct vote. Twenty-one parties and blocs fielded candidates on the party list vote, but only six passed a 5% vote hurdle. The Unity bloc garnered 42% of over two million votes cast, gaining 29 seats, followed by the Communist Party of Armenia with about 12% of the vote. In constituency balloting, the Unity Bloc (which included the country's two largest parties, the People's Party and the Republican Party) garnered the most seats (35), followed by nonparty-affiliated candidates (29). Other major parties that received at least 7% of the party list vote in the 1999 legislative race include the National Democratic Union, Armenian Revolutionary Federation-Dashnaktsutyun, Law-Governed Country Party, Communist Party of Armenia, the Armenian Pan-National Movement, Law and Unity bloc, and the Mission Party. The other registered parties included both those newly created for the legislative race and more traditional parties. They were the Mighty Motherland, Homeland bloc, Ramkavar Azatakan Party (Liberal Democratic Party), Freedom Party, Democratic Party of Armenia, Union of Socialist Forces and Intelligentsia bloc, Union of Communist and Socialist Parties, Youth Party of Armenia, Decent Future, National State Party, Free Hayk Mission Party, Shamiram Party, and ONS+ bloc (the National Self-Determination and Homeland-Diaspora).

Legislative elections were held on 25 May 2003. The Republican Party won 23.5% of the vote (23 seats) for deputies elected by party list, followed by Justice Bloc, 13.6% (14 seats); Rule of Law, 12.3% (12 seats); ARF (Dashnak), 11.4% (11 seats); National Unity, 8.8% (9 seats); United Labor Party, 5.7% (6 seats). However, seats by party change frequently as deputies switch parties or declare themselves independent.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The regional governmental structure is closely modeled after the national structure. The president appoints governors to Armenia's 11 provinces (marzer ), including the mayor of the capital of Yerevan, which has the status of a marz. Each province has both executive and legislative bodies that control the provincial budget and businesses within the region. Regional governments do not have authority to pass laws independent of national legislation. Marzer are divided into rural and urban communities (hamainkner ), and Yerevan is divided into 12 districts. The communities and Yerevan districts are governed by community chiefs and legislative bodies called councils of elders (avakani ). In the cities, community chiefs hold the title of mayor. In 1997 a law on self-government was passed calling for decentralization in some areas and some fiscal independence for local governments. Elections for mayors, community chiefs, and local councils in 654 constituencies were held 20 October 2002, with a 46% voter turnout rate (an increase of close to 20% from the turnout in 1999). Local elections are held every three years. There were fewer complaints of electoral irregularities than in previous elections. The ruling Republican Party fielded the most candidates, and 18 other parties, in addition to independents, participated. The Law-Governed Country Party came in second, and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation was third. Local elections were held once again in October 2005, and voters decided not to return many incumbents to office.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but in practice courts are vulnerable to pressure from the government, though legal reforms are resulting in some changes. The court system consists of district courts of first instance, an Appeals Court, and a Court of Cassation. Judges for the local courts of first instance and the Court of Appeals began operating under a new judicial system in January 1999. Judges were selected for their posts based on examinations and interviews by the Minister of Justice, approval of a list of nominees by the Council of Justice, and approval by the president. Unless they are removed for malfeasance, they serve for life. About one-half of Sovietera judges have been replaced. Prosecutors and defense attorneys also began retraining and recertification. A military bureaucracy continues to follow Sovietera practices.

A Constitutional Court has the power to review the constitutionality of legislation, approves international agreements, and settles electoral disputes. Its effectiveness is limited. It only accepts cases referred by the president, two-thirds of the members of the legislature, or election-related cases brought by candidates in legislative or presidential races. The president appoints four of the nine judges of the Constitutional Court.

The constitution establishes a Council of Justice, headed by the president and including the prosecutor general, the minister of justice, and 14 other members appointed by the president. The Council appoints and disciplines judges in courts of first instance and the Court of Appeals. A Council of Court Chairs has been created to reduce the power of the Ministry of Justice and increase the independence of the judicial system. It is responsible for financial and budgetary issues involving the courts, and consists of 21 senior judges.

A criminal procedure code entered into force in January 1999 specifies that a suspect may be detained for no more than 12 months pending trial, has the right to an attorney, right to a public trial and to confront witnesses, and the right to appeal.

ARMED FORCES

The active armed forces numbered 48,160 in 2005. There were 45,000 personnel in the Army, organized into five corps that would include a mix of motorized and standard rifle regiments, armored and other support units. Equipment in 2005 included 110 main battle tanks, 104 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 140 armored personnel carriers, and 229 artillery pieces. The Air and Defense Aviation Forces numbered 3,160 personnel with 16 combat capable aircraft (one fighter and 15 fighter ground attack aircraft) and 12 attack helicopters. Paramilitary forces numbered 1,000 and were made up of border troops and Ministry of Internal Affairs personnel. The military budget in 2005 totaled $135 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Armenia was admitted to the United Nations on 2 March 1992. The country serves as a member of several specialized agencies within the United Nations, such as FAO, IAEA, ICAO, IDA, IFC, IFAD, ILO, IMF, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, WIPO, and WHO. Armenia is a member of the CIS and the Council of Europe. The country was admitted to the OSCE on 30 January 1992 and serves as an observer in the OAS. It became a full member of the WTO on 5 February 2003. Armenia is one of 12 members of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Zone, which was established in 1992. It is also a part of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council and the EBRD. Armenia is a member of the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons and the NATO Partnership for Peace. The country ratified the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty in July 1992. The Armenia government supports the cause of the ethnic Armenian secessionists in the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan. The OSCE is serving as a mediator in what has been a sometimes violent struggle.

In environmental cooperation, Armenia is part of the Basel Convention, the Conventions on Biological Diversity and Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution, Ramsar, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

As part of the Soviet Union, the Armenian economy featured largescale agro-industrial enterprises and a substantial industrial sector that supplied machine tools, textiles, and other manufactured goods to other parts of the USSR in exchange for raw materials. Trade with its neighbors, on which resource-poor Armenia relies heavily, was jeopardized by the outbreak of conflict over the Nagorno-Karabakh enclave in 1988, and by political instability in Georgia and Azerbaijan. Also, in December 1988, a severe earthquake did considerable damage to Armenia's productive capacity, aggravating its regional trade deficit. The physical damage had not been repaired when the economy suffered the implosion that accompanied the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.

With independence, as real GDP fell 60% from 1992–93, small-scale agriculture came to dominate in place of the former agro-industrial complexes, with crops of grain, sugar beets, potatoes, and other vegetables, as well as grapes and other fruit. Growth was not registered until 1994, at 5%, when, in July, a ceasefire was signed by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Nagorno-Karabakh, and, in December, the government embarked on a comprehensive IMF-monitored program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform. By 1996, growth was in double digits and inflation in single digits, although setbacks, which began in late 1996, reduced real GDP growth to 3% in 1997, while inflation surged to 27%. In 1998, real growth reached 7.3% while inflation fell to a single digit 8.7%, despite the negative impacts of the Russian financial crisis and a continuing Azerbaijanled economic blockade over the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh issue.

Growth in the first nine months of 1999 was at an annual rate of 6%, but this was reduced to 3% for the year in the disruptions following the hostage-takings and assassinations of the prime minister and parliamentary speaker in October, a stated motive for which was the large proportion of Armenians living in poverty (at 55% in 2001 by CIA estimates). Inflation was held to 0.7% in the crisis, due to policy changes that have continued to keep inflation at a low level. Moderate GDP growth of 6% was achieved in 2000 while prices, as measured by the consumer price index, actually declined an estimated 0.8%.

In 2001, targeted real growth under the IMF-guided program was 6% but actual growth was about 10% (CIA est.) as the effects of economic reforms, the privatization of small and medium-sized enterprises, and increased foreign investment began to impact performance. IMF and CIA estimates for 2002 were for real growth between 12.5% and 12.9%, with stable price levels. Barring major disruptions (only too likely as the war in Iraq, launched 19 March 2003, added another source of instability to the region), Armenia was expected to attain its pre-independence level of percapita income by 2005. Growth sectors include telecommunications, assembly of electric and electronic appliances, agriculture and food processing, energy generation and distribution, construction, coal and gold mining, and international air communications.

The IMF-sponsored economic liberalization program encouraged remarkable GDP growth rates: 13.9% in 2003, 10.1% in 2004, and a predicted 8.0% in 2005. Rising investment levels, exports, and real incomes also contributed to this growth. Inflation, tamed in 2002, was on the rise in 2003 and 2004, at 4.7% and 7.0% respectively. For the most part however, the government has done a good job of keeping the inflation in check, and stabilizing the local currency. Despite encouraging economic figures though, unemployment remains fairly high (at around 14%) and poverty is a critical issue that needs to be dealt with immediately.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Armenia's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $15.3 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $5,100. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 8%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 2.4%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 24.9% of GDP, industry 34.6%, and services 40.5%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $168 million or about $55 per capita and accounted for approximately 6.0% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $247 million or about $81 per capita and accounted for approximately 8.5% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Armenia totaled $2.35 billion or about $768 per capita based on a GDP of $2.8 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 1.8%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 52% of household consumption was spent on food, 18% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 15% on education. It was estimated that in 2003 about 43% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

As of 2004, Armenia's labor force numbered 1.2 million. In 2002, an estimated 25% were involved in industry, 45% in agriculture, and 30% in services. The unemployment rate was estimated at 30% in 2003.

Legislation passed in 1992 guarantees workers the right to bargain and organize collectively. An independent labor federation was created in 1997. However, organized labor remained weak as of 2005, because of high unemployment and a slow economy. Collective bargaining does not occur because most large employers are still under state control. Labor disputes are generally settled in economic or regular courts of law. According to the Confederation of Labor Unions (CLU) an estimated 290,000 workers belonged to 25 labor unions in 2005.

Armenians are guaranteed a monthly minimum wage which was set at around $26.00 as of 2005. The standard legal workweek was 40 hours, with mandatory overtime and rest periods. Children under the age of 16 are prohibited by law from full-time labor, although children at age 14 can be employed if permission is given by the child's parents and from the labor union. Due to the dire economic situation, none of these legal standards are relevant. Although the government is required to promulgate minimum occupational health and safety standards, as of end 2005, such standards have yet to be implemented. In addition, a lack of government resources and general worker insecurity prevent any effective enforcement of the nation's labor laws.

AGRICULTURE

Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, about 16% of Armenia's land was cultivated. As of 2002, there were an estimated 560,000 hectares (1,384,000 acres) of arable cropland (20% of the total land area), of which 65,000 hectares (160,600 acres) were planted with permanent crops. Agriculture engaged about 45% of the economically active population in 2003. That year, agricultural production was 13% higher than what it had been during 1999–2001.

Production for 2004 included tomatoes, 222,047 tons; potatoes, 575,942 tons; wheat, 296,000 tons; and grapes, 148,892 tons. In 2002, there were some 18,300 tractors and 4,000 harvester-threshers in service.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Over one-fifth of the total land area is permanent pastureland. In 2004, the livestock population included: sheep, 580,000; cattle, 565,800; pigs, 85,300; goats, 48,300; and horses, 12,500. There were also some 3.6 million chickens. In 2004, some 54,000 tons of meat were produced, including 33,400 tons of beef and veal, 7,200 tons of mutton and lamb, 4,300 tons of poultry, and 8,500 tons of pork. In 2004, 535,800 tons of milk, 31,500 tons of eggs, 4,500 tons of cheese, and 1,200 tons of greasy wool were also produced. Meat, milk, and butter are the chief agricultural imports.

FISHING

Fishing is limited to the Arpa River and Lake Sevan. Commercial fishing is not a significant part of the economy. The total catch in 2003 was 1,633 tons. Trout and carp are the principal species.

FORESTRY

Forests cover an estimated 12.4% of Armenia. Soviet mismanagement, the 1988 earthquake, hostilities with Azerbaijan, and fuel shortages have impaired development. Available timber is used for firewood during the harsh winters. Imports of forestry products totaled $12.2 million in 2003.

MINING

Mineral resources in Armenia are concentrated in the southern region, where several operating copper and molybdenum mines were located. Armenia had been mining one-third of the former Soviet Union's (FSU) output of molybdenum (2,073 metric tons in 2002, down from 3,100 metric tons in 2000). Copper mines were located at Kapan, Kadzharan, Agarak, Shamlugh, and Akht'ala; the latter two were not in operation in 2002. Kadzharan and Agarak also had molybdenum mines. Despite relative proximity to rail and port facilities that supplied European markets, the mineral sector's ability to compete on the world market was inhibited by infrastructure problems. Armenia's production of perlite has been estimated at a steady 35,000 metric tons annually, from 1998 through 2002.

In 2002, Armenia produced industrial minerals such as clays, diatomite, dimension stone, limestone (12.5 million short tons), salt (30,300 metric tons), and semiprecious stones. It mined copper (16,641 metric tons of copper concentrate), copperzinc, and native gold deposits. The Zod and Megradzor gold mines ceased operations in 1997. The government hoped to revive the gold industry through the recovery of gold tailings at the Cuarat gold mill. Significant by-product constituents in the nonferrous ores in 2002 included barite, gold (estimated at 3,200 kg), lead, rhenium, selenium, silver (5,500 kg), tellurium, and zinc.

Armenia's exports of mineral products in 2002 accounted for around 70% of its total exports by value. In that year, total exports were valued at $507.2 million.

ENERGY AND POWER

With only negligible reserves of oil, natural gas, and coal, and with no production, Armenia is heavily reliant on foreign imports. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, oil consumption has declined from 48,400 barrels per day in 1992 to 38,630 barrels per day in 2002. Natural gas consumption in 2002 was 38.49 billion cu ft. Total electrical consumption in 2002 was 4.446 billion kWh.

Net electricity generation in 2002 totaled 5.215 billion kWh, primarily from the reopened Medzamor nuclear plant at Yerevan (815,000 kW capacity), the Hrazdan (near Akhta) oil/natural gas plant (1,110,000 kW capacity), the Yerevan heat/power plant (550,000 kW capacity), and the Sevan-Hrazdan hydroelectric plant and smaller plants (925,000 kW capacity). Of total electricity generated in 2002, some 31% came from hydroelectric plants, 40% from nuclear power, and 29% from thermal power. Total capacity in 2002 was 3.341 million kW. The Medzama plant, reopened in 1995, increased electricity generation by 40% and has enabled electricity to be supplied around the clock for the first time in years. However, the Armenian government has promised to decommission the plant by 2004 to save money on maintenance if enough alternative power sources can be found by that time. As of 2002 three major and 38 smaller hydroelectric projects were planned, at a total cost of $300 million, with backing by the World Bank.

As of 1999, the domestic distribution grid for electric power was scheduled for restructuring and privatization, with assistance from the World Bank and the US Agency for International Development (USAID). A December 1988 earthquake disrupted the Yerevan nuclear power plant, creating almost total dependence on imported oil and natural gas for power. When ethnic hostilities with Azerbaijan again resurfaced in 1992, Azerbaijan discontinued service of its pipeline to Armenia (with natural gas from Turkmenistan). The only other supply routes passed either through Turkey (which was sympathetic to Azerbaijan) or through Georgia (which was dealing with its own civil chaos). Since the 1994 ceasefire with Azerbaijan, the revival of energy supplies has helped start the recovery of Armenia's economy. If Armenia and Azerbaijan ever resolve their disputes, the transit of oil and gas from the Caspian Sea region abroad will become possible.

INDUSTRY

Before the earthquake in 1988, Armenia exported trucks, tires, electronics, and instruments to other republics. A number of these plants were destroyed by the earthquake. Armenia was also a major producer of chemical products, some 59% of which were exported to other republics. Armenia has the highest number of specialists with higher education and second highest number of scientists of all the former Soviet republics. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, industrial production has been severely disrupted by political instability and shortages of power. Much of Armenia's industry is idle or operating at a fraction of its capacity.

Economic blockades by Turkey and Azerbaijan as part of the continuing dispute over Nagorno-Karabakh have cut Armenia off from an old direct gas pipeline from Azerbaijan, as well as precluded it from participation in any of the east–west pipelines being built in the post-Soviet era. The alternative Armenia has pursued is a gas pipeline from Iran delivering Turkmenistan gas (to avoid sanctions on customers of Iran, which were renewed by the US Congress in August 2001). Intergovernmental agreements on the project were signed in 1992 and 1995. In December 1997 the Korpezehe-KurtKwi pipeline feeding Turkmen natural gas directly into the Iranian system was opened. In December 2001 agreement was reached on a route that bypassed the Azeri exclave of Nakhichevan, running from Kadzharan to the southern border at Megri. Work on the Armenian section of the Iran-Armenian gas pipeline was to have begun in 2002 but was delayed until 2003 by disputes over the price Iran was intending to charge.

Light industry dominates Armenia's industrial sector and is striking for its diversity. The leading industries in 2002 included metal-cutting machine tools, forging-pressing machines, electric motors, tires, knitted wear, hosiery, shoes, silk fabric, chemicals, trucks, instruments, microelectronics, gem cutting (in 2002, 53 diamond-polishing companies exported $150 million worth of diamonds), jewelry manufacture (up 200% in 2002), software development, food processing, and brandy. Most of the country's small and mediumsized enterprises have been privatized, spurring the recovery of industrial growth.

Progress has been slower with larger industries often due to the lack of viable bidders. About 70% of the larger operations had been privatized by 1998, the year Armenia passed legislation for the sale of the country's electricity transmission and distribution networks, retaining government control over power generation. To support the privatization, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) bought a 20% share in each of Armenia's four distribution companies in an agreement preserving the government's right to buy back the shares should the agreement be abrogated. In 2002, after two failed offerings, management of the electricity distribution network was won by Daewoo Engineering. In 2001, Armenia reached a debt-to-equity agreement with Russia to exchange the debt it owed Russia—at almost $100 million and requiring about $20 million a year to service, the largest and only nonconcessional part of Armenia's external debt—for five nonperforming staterun enterprises. The center-piece was the Hrazdan Thermal Power Plant, valued at about $100 million, but also including the "Mars" Electronics Factory established in 1986 for making robots, and three research institutes. Under the debt for property agreement the Russian government will turn the operations over to private entrepreneurs.

Armenia has the highest number of cooperatives (per capita) in the Commonwealth of Independent States. By CIA estimates for 2000, industry accounted for 32% of GDP, but employed about 42% of the labor force. In 2002, with 12.5% overall GDP growth, industry grew 16%, including a 42% growth in construction. The country is projecting growth along with partnership opportunities in areas such as power generation, aviation, construction, electronics, apparel, tourism, food processing, industrial property acquisition, banking, and other areas.

In 2004, industry accounted for 36.1% of the overall GDP; agriculture made up 22.9% of the economy, while services came in first with 41.1%. What is remarkable though, is the fact that only about 25% of the working population was employed by the industry, whereas around 45% worked in agriculture. This indicates a high productivity rate in the industrial sector, and a low one in agriculture. The industrial production growth rate was, at 15%, higher than the GDP growth rate, indicating that industry is the main engine of the Armenian economy. Particularly metallurgy, energy, and machine building managed to attract new investment and helped boost the industrial sector output.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Armenian National Academy of Sciences, founded in 1943 and headquartered in Yerevan, has departments of physical, mathematical, and technological sciences; and natural sciences; and 32 research institutes in fields such as agriculture; biological, mathematical, physical, and earth sciences; and technology. Yerevan State University (founded in 1919) has faculties of mechanics, mathematics, physics, radiophysics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, and mathematical cybernetics and automatic analysis. Also in Yerevan are the State Engineering University of Armenia (founded in 1930), the Yerevan State Medical University (founded in 1922), the Yerevan Zootechnical and Veterinary Institute (founded in 1929), and the Armenian Scientific and Technical Library. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 29% of college and university enrollments.

As of 2002, there were 1,606 researchers and 147 technicians per million people, actively engaged in research and development (R&D). Spending on R&D accounted for $24.25 million, or 0.25% of GDP in 2002. Of that amount, government accounted for 55.2% of R&D spending, while foreign sources accounted for 11.2%. The remainder was undistributed. In 2002, high technology exports totaled $3 million, 2% of the country's manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

As of 1999, there were about 23,128 wholesale and retail companies registered in Armenia, accounting for over 54% of the total registered businesses. The main retail center is in Yerevan. A majority of retail establishments are small food and specialty item shops. Many of these work with wholesalers and sell items on a consignment basis. There are also large open markets in Yerevan and other cities offering a wide variety of food, clothing, housewares, and electronics.

Beginning in 1996, the government launched a major privatization drive. By 1999, over 80% of small businesses and over 60% of medium and large corporations were in private hands. Nearly all farmland is privately owned. Seasonal openair food markets are also popular. Some of these markets still engage in bartering.

FOREIGN TRADE

Armenia's main trading partners are Belgium, Russia, the United States, Iran, Switzerland, Israel, Georgia, the United Kingdom, the UAE, and the EU. Exports include gold and diamonds, aluminum, transport equipment, electrical equipment, and scrap metal. Imports

include grain and other foods, fuel and energy. Inter-republic trade has suffered as a result of border hostilities, particularly the ongoing conflict over the Armenian enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan, which may prevent the proposed Caspian Sea oil pipeline from passing through Armenia. As of 2003, recent talks between the leaders of Armenia and Azerbaijan represented a positive step toward resolving the dispute.

Due to its delicate geographic placement, Armenia scores modest foreign trade figures. In 2004, exports totaled only $850 million (FOB—Free on Board), while imports climbed to $1.3 billion (FOB). Main export commodities were precious or semiprecious stones and metals (accounting for 42.5% of total exports), base metals (19.5%), mineral products (11.7%), prepared foodstuffs (9.7%). Principal imports included precious or semiprecious stones and metals (22.5%), mineral products (16.2%), machinery and equipment (10.1%), and prepared foodstuffs (7.0%). These last figures indicate that while Armenia has a vibrant industry, it is not exploiting it to its fullest potential. Existing trade barriers probably hinder the export of manufactured goods, so it has to resort to trading mainly natural resources.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Although the government is working to reduce Armenia's large trade deficits by improving export performance, the conflict over the Armenian enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh in Azerbaijan continues to weaken the economy by disrupting normal trade and supply links. Armenia receives large amounts of humanitarian assistance.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2001 the purchasing power parity of Armenia's exports was $338.5 million while imports totaled $868.6 million resulting in a trade deficit of $530.1 million.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Armenia had exports of goods totaling $353 million and imports totaling $773 million. The services credit totaled $187 million and debit $204 million.

Exports of goods and services continued to grow in the following years, reaching $696 million in 2003, and $738 million in 2004. Imports followed a similar path, totaling $1.1 billion in

2003, and $1.2 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative in both years, at around -$400 million. The current account balance was also negative, dropping to -$190 million in 2003, and recuperating to -$161 million in 2004. Reserves of foreign exchange and gold reached $555 million in 2004, covering almost six months of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of Armenia is charged with regulating the money supply, circulating currency, and regulating the commercial banks of the country. Commercial banks in Armenia include the Ardshinbank, Armagrobank, Armeconombank, Armimplexbank, Arminvestbank, Bank Armcommunication, Bank "Capital," Bank "Haykap," Central Bank of Armenia, Commercial Bank "Ardana," Commercial Bank Anelik, "Gladzor" Joint Stock Commercial Bank, Masis Commercial Bank, and the State Specialized Savings Bank of the Republic of Armenia. Leading foreign banks include: Mellat Bank (Iran) and Midland Armenia (UK).

The IMF has been concerned about the direction of policy taken by the National Bank of Armenia and the slow pace of financial reform. Armenia's financial sector is overbanked and beset with nonperforming credits, mainly to large state enterprises. Armenia has been a model reforming country among the former Soviet republics, and multilateral creditors are worried that public pressure may now force the government to loosen monetary and fiscal policies.

It was revealed in January 1997 that the central bank's credits to finance the government's budget gap has surpassed their $100 million limit in the first 10 months of 1996. The bank has been forced to intervene in the domestic markets, selling foreign exchange reserves to maintain the stability of the dram. The dram has lost some 14% in value since September 1996, when it stood at d412:$1. By the end of June1997 the rate had gone down to almost d500:$1. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $141.6 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $310.3 million. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 19.4%.

There are three stock exchanges in Armenia the largest of which is the Yerevan Stock Exchange which listed 91 companies in 1999 and had total capitalization of $17 million. The next largest is the "Adamand" Yerevan Commodity and Stock Exchange which listed 45 companies.

INSURANCE

Insurance is largely controlled by government organizations inherited from the Soviet system, although private insurance companies are not unknown.

PUBLIC FINANCE

In 1994, the government began a three-year effort to privatize the national industries. Loans from the IMF, World Bank, EBRD, and other financial institutions and foreign countries aimed at eliminating the government's budget deficit. However, by 1996, external public debt exceeded $353 million with annual debt service payments exceeding $55 million. Loans to Armenia since 1993 total over $800 million.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Armenia's central government took in revenues of approximately $786.1 million and had expenditures of $930.7 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$144.6 million. Total external debt was $1.868 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2002, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were d338,463 million. The value of revenues was us$590 million, based on an exchange rate for 2002 of us$1 = d573.35 as reported by the IMF.

TAXATION

Armenia's complex tax system was revised in 1997 and again in 2001. The top corporate profit tax rate was lowered from 30% to 20%. As of 1 July 2001 a single rate was applied to all taxable profits, defined as the difference between revenues and the sum of wages, amortization payments, raw and intermediate purchases, social security contributions, insurance fees, and interest expenses. Newly formed enterprises are exempt from taxes for the first two years, but there is no provision for carrying forward losses.

Individual income taxes are withheld by enterprises and are paid to the Ministry of Finance monthly. The personal income tax has been reduced from three bands to two: 10% for monthly taxable income up to d80,000 ($144) and 20% plus a payment of d8,000 ($14.40) for taxable income between d120,000 and d320,000 ($1,892) for monthly taxable income above d80,000. Armenians also pay taxes to social security and pension funds. In 1992, Armenia introduced a value-added tax, which stood at 20% in 2003. Excise taxes are applied to diesel fuel, oil, spirits, wine and beer at various rates. There are also land taxes and property taxes. Achieving a higher level of tax collection has been an important part of Armenia's economic reform programs. The fiscal deficit was projected at 2.4% of GDP for 2003.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

All exports are duty-free. Minor customs duties (up to 10%) are imposed on certain imports. Imports of machinery and equipment for use in manufacturing by enterprises with foreign investment are exempt from all customs duties.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Armenia's investment climate is regulated by the bilateral investment treaty (BIT) signed with the United States on 23 September 1992 and by the law on foreign investment adopted by Armenia on 31 July 1994. Armenia has also concluded BITs on investment and investment protection with 15 other countries: Georgia, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine, Iran, Egypt, Romania, Cyprus, Greece, France, Germany, Canada, Argentina, China, and Vietnam. Its investment policy is geared to attract foreign investment, with foreign investors accorded national treatment and any sector open to investment. As of 2003, under the law of profit tax, two-year tax holidays are accorded foreign investors whose equity investment in a resident company is at least 500 million drams, or a little less than one million dollars. There are no limits on the repatriation of profits, or on the import and export of hard currency, so long as the currency is imported or earned in Armenia. Otherwise there is a $10,000 limit on the export of cash.

In late 1997, the government initiated the privatization of 11 of the larger state owned enterprises (SOEs), including the energy sector. It was not until 2002, however, that a suitable and willing foreign investor, Daewoo Engineering, was found to manage privatized electricity distribution. Operations at the Zvartnots International Airport have also been successfully leased. The 2001 debt-for-equity swap with Russia, whereby five unproductive SOEs (Hrazdan Thermal Power Plant, the "Mars" Electronics Factory established in 1986 to build robots, and three research labs) were exchanged for the cancellation of Armenia's debt with Russia (about $100 million of nonconcessional lending that was costing almost $20 million/year to service) promised to increase Russian private investment in Armenia as the Russian government passed the assets on to private investors.

From 1998–2000 annual inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) ranged from $120 million to $230 million, though it fell to $75.9 million in 2001 in the wake of the global contraction of foreign investment following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the US World Trade Center. In 2002, FDI increased 12% to about $85 million. A large share of FDI comes from the Armenian diaspora in the United States, Russia, Iran, France, Greece, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Syria. Since 1998, the Lincy Foundation of Armenian American Kirk Kirkorian has made available about $165 million to support small and medium enterprise (SME) development (offering concessional loans for businesses that are at least 51% Armenian owned), assistance for tourism development ($20 million in 2000), and infrastructure repair ($60 million in 2002 and $80 million in 2003). Armenia's accession to the World Trade Organization in 2000 has helped improve the investment climate as a consequence of meeting the WTO's strictures for membership.

The flow of foreign capital into Armenia continued to grow steadily, reaching $155 million in 2003, and $300 million in 2004. The main FDI sources have been Russia, the United States, Greece, France, and Germany. Unfortunately, only a small part of the capital inflows were geared towards green field investments. At the end of 2003, the accumulated stock of FDI amounted to 32% of the GDP.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Development planning in Armenia has been aimed at counter-acting the effects of three devastating blows to its economy: the earthquake of 1988; open warfare and economic blockade over Nagorno-Karabakh; and the combination of hyperinflation and industrial collapse following its separation from the Soviet Union. The government has been aggressive in launching economic reform, beginning with its privatization of agricultural land in 1991, which boosted crop output 30% and resulted in a 15% increase in agricultural production. In December 1994, Armenia embarked on a series of ambitious programs of economic reform guided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that have resulted in nine years of positive growth rates. On its present course, Armenia will achieve its pre-independence level of per capita income by 2005. By 1997, privatization of most small industry, as well as an estimated 70% of larger enterprises, was complete. Progress has been slower with larger state-owned enterprises (SOEs), not least because the government has had difficulty finding bidders at its cash sales auctions. In 1997, the ministries controlling the SOEs were merged, and their functions changed from direct control to general supervision and special support. The Ministry of Industry and the Ministry of Trade, and certain parts of the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Privatization and Foreign Investment were also merged in order to streamline the bureaucracy.

In late 1997, 11 large enterprises were offered for sale and in 1998 the parliament passed a law allowing for the sale of the state electricity transmission and distribution networks. Viable bidders were not immediately forthcoming and on 5 December 2000, as a means of supporting the privatization program, the European Bank of Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) agreed to take 20% shares in each of Armenia's four electricity distribution companies, with provision for the Armenian government's right to buy back the shares if the agreements were abrogated. The privatization process of the distribution networks stalled in 2001 and 2002 as twice the government failed to attract any final bids. To make the offer more attractive, the government merged the four distribution companies into one closed-end joint stock company, Electricity Networks of Armenia, and on 31 October 2002, 100% of the shares were acquired by the English company, Midland Resources Holding, Ltd. Midland in turn contracted with Daewoo International of South Korea to manage the newly privatized company. By 2002, only a small fraction of a total 100 larger SOEs had been privatized, according to the US Agency for International Development (USAID).

The republic has substantial deposits of gold, copper, zinc, bauxite, and other minerals, which could be developed with Western capital. The government is currently exploring alternative trade routes, and seeking export orders from the West to aid production and earn foreign exchange. Much of Armenia's industry remains idle or operating at low capacity utilization in large part because of the country's political isolation from oil and gas supplies.

Armenia's determination to create a market-oriented economy and democratic society has engaged (in addition to the IMF) the World Bank and EBRD as well as other financial institutions and foreign countries. Nevertheless, Armenia continues to remain economically isolated in comparison with its Caucasian neighbors.

The Armenian economy is expected to grow strongly in the coming years, based on increased domestic consumption, which in turn is fueled by higher wages and remittances from abroad. In addition, further investments are expected to come in the country as a result of economic restructuring and trade-oriented policies. Armenia boasts a highly educated work force, a diverse and dynamic industrial base, and a strategic geographic location. However, as long as the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict will not be resolved, the economy will find it hard to reach its fullest potential.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Pension and disability benefit systems were first introduced in 1956 and 1964. More recent legislation was passed in 2002 and implemented in 2003. Retirement is set at age 63 for men and age 59.5 for women, although earlier retirement is allowed for those engaged in hazardous work. The cost is covered by employee, employer, and government contributions. Work injury legislation provides 100% of average monthly earnings for temporary disability and a proportion of wages up to a maximum of 100% for permanent disability, depending on the extent of incapacity. Unemployment, sickness, and maternity benefits and family allowances are also provided under Armenian law.

Women in Armenia largely occupy traditional roles despite an employment law that formally prohibits discrimination based on sex. Women do not receive the same professional opportunities as men and often work in low-level jobs. In 2004 women earned approximately 40% less than men. Societal attitudes do not view sexual harassment in the workplace worthy of legal action. Violence against women and domestic violence is widespread and underreported. According to a recent survey, 45% of women were subject to psychological abuse, and 25% of women were physically abused. Most women do not report domestic abuse due to fear of reprisal and embarrassment.

The constitution protects the freedom of assembly and the freedom of religion. The government allows minorities, such as the Russians, Jews, Kurds, Yezids, Georgians, Greeks, and Assyrians, the right to preserve their cultural practices, the law allows them to study in their native language. Discrimination is prohibited on the basis of race, sex, religion, language disability, or social status. Human rights abuses appear to be widespread. Prison conditions fail to meet international standards and accusations of police brutality are not uncommon.

HEALTH

The infant mortality rate was 23.28 per 1,000 live births in 2005, an increase over the previous five years. The estimated maternal mortality rate was 35 per 100,000 live births as of 1999. Life expectancy in 2005 averaged 71.55 years. There were 7,000 warrelated deaths from 1989 to 1992; the death rate was estimated at 10 per 1,000 people in 2002. The incidence of tuberculosis was 58 per 100,000 people. Immunization rates declined as of 1994 due to war and earthquakes but have begun to recover. In 1999, the immunization rates were as follows for a child under the age of one: tuberculosis, 72%; polio, 95%; and measles, 92%. In the same year, the estimated immunization rate for DPT was 91%. In 2000 the total fertility rate was 1.3 births per woman and the maternal mortality rate was an estimated 35 per 100,000 live births.

As of 2004, there were an estimated 352 physicians and 473 nurses per 100,000 people and the country spent an estimated 7.8% of its GDP on health care. In this former republic of the Soviet Union, health care has undergone rapid changes in the last few years. The break from the Soviet Union has meant a disruption of the system that once provided member states with equipment, supplies, and drugs. Out-of-pocket payments by individual are now required for most health care services. However, the health care delivery itself is still largely organized as it was during the Soviet era, with regional clinics and walkin centers delivering most primary health care services.

The incidence of heart disease is high compared to other moderately developed countries. There is nearly a 50% chance of dying of heart disease after age 65 for both women and men. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 2,600 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Housing throughout Armenia has been somewhat scarce for the past two decades due to a number of factors, including a history of state control, a devastating earthquake in 1988, and civil conflicts. Since the 1993 passage of a law on privatization for previously state and public-owned housing, about 96% of apartments were privatized and transferred to ownership by the existing tenants.

A large number of buildings are neglected and in serious disrepair and utilities are limited and expensive. The total number of housing units in 2001 was at about 750,719. Nearly 59% were multiunit dwellings, most of which are in urban areas. About 25% of all multi-unit homes were built before 1960; another 52% were built between 1960 and 1980. Only about 85% of the population have access to improved water supplies. Only 9% have central heating. About 50% of the population rely on wood burning stoves as a primary heating source.

Overcrowding and homelessness is a great concern, particularly among the population of refugees and displaced persons. In 2001, about 11% of all households lived in one-room homes. In 2001, it was estimated that about 40,000 families (5% of all households) had no permanent shelter. Nearly 40% of these people lived in temporary shelters called domics within the earthquake zone. Another 40,000 families were on waiting lists for new permanent housing because of overcrowding. About 1,200 new housing units were completed in 2001. The same year, there were about 29,000 unfinished housing units (4,487 buildings). Most of these were started in the late 1980s and early 1990s within the earthquake zone, and were simply left incomplete because of lack of funds and materials.

EDUCATION

Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 14 years and is free at both the primary and secondary levels. The system is broken into three levels. Primary school lasts for three years, followed by intermediate school, which lasts for five years. This is followed by two years of general secondary education. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 94%; 95% for boys and 93% for girls. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 83%; 82% for boys and 85% for girls. The pupil to teacher ratio for primary school was at about 17:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 10:1.

Since the early 1990s, increasing emphasis has been placed on Armenian history and culture. The school year runs from September to July. Instruction is available in Armenian and Russian. The education system is coordinated through the Ministry of Education and Science and the Council of Rectors of Higher Educational Establishments. About 3.2% of the GDP was given to education in 2003.

The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 99%, with a fairly even rate between men and women. There are two universities in Yerevan: the Yerevan State University (founded in 1919) and the State Engineering University of Armenia. Seven other educational institutions are located in the capital. There are several other institutes of higher education throughout the country. About 25% of all age-eligible students were enrolled in tertiary education programs in 2003.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

There are two branches of the National Library, with the main branch in Yerevan comprising 6.2 million volumes as of 2002. The main library of the Armenian Academy of Sciences in Yerevan has 4.4 million volumes. The Armenian Academy of Sciences and the universities each have research libraries. The Armenian Library Association was established in 1995.

Yerevan's museums include the National Gallery of Arts; the Yerevan Children's Picture Gallery, a unique collection of children's art from Armenia and around the world; the Museum of Modern Art; the House Museum of Ovanes Tumanjan, Armenia's most renowned poet; and the Museum of Ancient Manuscripts. There are also museums devoted to the composer Aram Khachaturian (including his piano) and the filmmaker Sergei Paradjanov, Armenia's most famous sons. The Genocide Memorial and Museum at Tsitsernakaberd is in Yerevan. The Matenadaran Manuscript Museum, also in Yerevan, was established to preserve the ancient written culture of the region.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were an estimated 148 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 60,800 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 30 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people. Communications are the responsibility of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications and are operated by Armental, a 90% Greek-owned company. Yerevan is linked to the Trans-Asia-Europe fiber-optic cable through Iran. Communications links to other former Soviet republics are by land line or microwave, and to other countries by satellite and through Moscow.

A majority of citizens rely on radio and television as a primary source of news and information. Armenian and Russian radio and television stations broadcast throughout the country. In 2004, there were over 20 radio stations and over 40 television broadcasters, most of which were privately owned and operated. In 2003, there were an estimated 264 radios and 229 television sets for every 1,000 people. Though cable television service is available, only about 1.2 of every 1,000 people are subscribers. In 2003, there were 15.8 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 37 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were four secure Internet servers available in 2004.

The three largest newspapers as of 2002 were Golos Armenii (The Voice of Armenia, circulation 20,000), Hayastani Hanrapetutyun (a joint publication of the parliament and the newspaper's staff), and Respublika Armenia, (the Russian-language version of Hayastani Hanrapetutyun). According to the Yerevan Press Club, the total newspaper circulation in the country in 2004 was 60,000, an increase of 20,000 from 2003. There were about 27 newspapers available in the capital.

Armenia's constitution provides for freedom of expression, and is said to generally uphold freedom of speech and press. However, journalists seem to adhere to an unspoken rule of self-censorship, particularly when reporting on political issues, since they traditionally depend on the government for funding and access to facilities. The government has, it is noted, begun to shed itself of the state publishing apparatus, and it has dissolved the Ministry of Information.

ORGANIZATIONS

Important political movements in Armenia include the Armenian National Movement and the National Self-Determination Association. Armenian trade unions belong to the umbrella organization Council of Armenia Trade Unions. The Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Republic of Armenia promotes the economic and business activities of the country in world markets.

The National Academy of Sciences of Armenia encourages the public interest in science and seeks to ensure availability and effectiveness of science education programs. The Armenian Physical Society serves a similar role. The group also works with various research programs. The Independent Media Center promotes the freedom and accuracy of press and other media. The Armenian Medical Association promotes research and education in the field; there are also several professional associations for specialized fields of medicine.

There are a number of national sporting organizations, including the Athletic Federation of the Republic of Armenia, the Armenian National Paralympic Committee, and other groups sponsoring football (soccer), baseball, skiing, and the Special Olympics. The National Youth Council of the Republic of Armenia coordinates youth organizations through the support of the Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Youth. An affiliate of the United Nations of Youth (UNOY), a foundation based in the Netherlands, was established in Armenia in 1994. Other youth groups include the Aragast Youth Club and the Armenian Euro Club Unipax. There are active chapters of the Girl Guides and Girls Scouts; the World Organization of Scouting is represented by the Armenian National Scout Movement. The Armenian Junior Chamber is a national leadership development organization. The YMCA is also present.

Organizations representing the rights and role of women in society include the League of Armenian Women, the Union of the Protection of Women's, Children and Family Rights, and the Women's Alliance. There is a national chapter of the Red Cross Society, World Vision, and Habitat for Humanity. The Armenian Relief Society supports local community health development programming.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Although there is a shortage of resources, Armenia has been investing in new hotels to increase tourism. Outdoor activities and scenery seem to be the primary attractions. Lake Sevan, the world's largest mountain lake, is a popular summer tourist spot. The Tsakhador ski resort is open year round for skiing in the winter and hiking and picnicking the rest of the year. Mt. Ararat, the traditional site of the landing of Noah's Ark, is located along the border with Turkey. Yerevan, Armenia's capital, also boasts theaters; the casinos in Argavand are popular with tourists and Albanian citizens.

In 2003, there were about 206,000 visitor arrivals, as compared to 45,000 in 2000. Tourist receipts totaled $90 million in 2003.

In 2002, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Yerevan at $184.

FAMOUS ARMENIANS

Levon Ter-Petrosyan was president of Armenia from 1991 until 1998. Gagik G. Haroutunian has been prime minister, vice president, and chairman of the Council of Ministers since November 1991. Gregory Nare Katzi, who lived in the 10th century, was Armenia's first great poet. Nineteenth-century novelists include Hakob Maliq-Hakobian (1835?–1888) whose pen name is "Raffi" and the playwright Gabriel Sundukian (1825–1912). G. I. Gurdjieff (1872?–1949) was a Greek-Armenian mystic and teacher. Soviet aircraft designer Artem Mikuyan (1905–70) served as head of the MiG design bureau. Arshile Gorky (1904–48) was an Armenian-American abstract expressionist painter.

DEPENDENCIES

Armenia has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abrahamian, Levon and Nancy Sweezy (eds.). Armenian Folk Arts, Culture, and Identity. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.

Adalian, Rouben Paul. Historical Dictionary of Armenia. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2002.

De Waal, Thomas. Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. New York: New York University Press, 2003.

Karanian, Matthew. Edge of Time: Traveling in Armenia and Karabagh. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Stone Garden Productions, 2002.

Kohut, David R. Historical Dictionary of the "Dirty Wars." Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2003.

Libaridian, Gerard J. Modern Armenia: People, Nation, State. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004.

Seddon, David (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.

Suny, Ronald Grigor. Looking Toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.

Transcaucasia, Nationalism and Social Change: Essays in the History of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996.

Walker, Christopher J. Armenia: the Survival of a Nation, Rev. 2nd ed. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.

World Bank. Public Expenditure Review of Armenia. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2003.

ARMENIA

Republic of Armenia

Major City:
Yerevan

Other Cities:
Arzni, Ashtarak, Echmiadzin, Kumayri

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report 1999 for Armenia. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

Armenia is one of the great cradles of human civilization. The archeologists tell us that wine was invented in its sheltered valleys, and, perhaps, even the wheel. According to Armenia's librarians, more than a decade before the Emperor Constantine turned Rome into a Christian Empire, Armenia's King Trdat declared his kingdom Christian, making Armenia into the world's very first Christian state.

Certainly, Armenia is home to one of the world's oldest and most durable continuous cultures. Its 3,000 years of history tell a powerful tale of conquest, foreign domination and resurgence. And throughout it all, the country's remarkable people have sustained a clear sense of national, ethnic, and religious identity.

A member of the Soviet Union from 1921-1991, a newly independent Armenia is working hard to fulfill the promise of democracy and a market economy. The 1999 Parliamentary elections, for example, showed real improvement over the previous election. But, despite progress, the transition from the Soviet system has been painful. In addition to the natural hardships faced by all command economies undergoing reform, Armenia faces blockades and sanctions resulting from a complex conflict with Azerbaijan over the Nagorno-Karabakh Region.

Following independence, Armenia was virtually without electric power for 2 years. Its well-developed economy-one of the richest in the Soviet Union-was simply crushed. Recovery has been slow.

Now, however, the worst is over. The dram, the national currency, is currently enjoying relative stability. Oil and gas supplies are flowing steadily. Moreover, with U.S. help, the power sector has been reorganized to dramatically improve efficiency. As a result, the lights have been on in Yerevan for the past two years.

With traditional resilience, the country is slowly climbing out of the abyss, even though high tensions with Azerbaijan keep Armenia's borders with that country and with Turkey closed. Although the traditional economic base has been shattered, small businesses are opening all over the capital, and, to a lesser extent, in the provinces. Consumer goods are available in local markets, kiosks and stores. The metro is running; car traffic is rolling all day long. If normal life still lies in the future, some hope, at least, has returned to the present. Much, however, is contingent on creating a durable political resolution to the volatile Nagorno-Karabakh situation.

Given this dramatic backdrop, Yerevan remains an intensely busy post. The Armenians, among the best-educated people in the entire CIS, are competent and energetic. Personnel assigned to this post can expect many exciting responsibilities at work. Moreover, given the very real nature of the challenges here, there is a genuine sense of making a difference.

MAJOR CITY

Yerevan

Yerevan, the capital of Armenia, is in the west-central part of the country in the Ararat Valley, a plateau 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) above sea level. This fertile plain is ringed by an impressive range of mountains, which are capped with snow for most of the year. With the exception of the relatively flat center city, Yerevan is a town of steep hills and winding cobblestone byways. The tree-lined downtown streets retain some old-fashioned charm, as do sections of the surrounding hillsides. These are clustered with stone villas and small houses in various states of repair. There are many bars and restaurants in the safely walked center. And, in the summer especially, outdoor cafes and fountains abound. Much of the greater metropolis, however, is characterized by Soviet-style high-rise architecture, which lacks any aesthetic appeal. But Armenia's often spectacular countryside is never more than a 30-minute drive from any part of town. It should be noted that all official Embassy housing is currently in the relatively pleasant city center.

The ancient city is the cultural as well as the administrative center of the nation. There are universities, a fine, functional Opera House and many pleasant museums. With about a million people it is home to roughly a third of the country's entire population.

On clear days (and there are many) the mountains ringing Yerevan create a dramatic backdrop. Mount Ararat of Noah's Ark fame, a 16,000-foot peak crowned with eternal snow, commands the southwest horizon across the Turkish border. To the north looms Mount Aragats, Armenia's highest mountain, a rugged snow-capped peak of 13,000 feet.

Utilities

Electricity is 220v-50hz. There are frequent, sometimes extremely powerful, spikes. Bring surge protectors and uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) for computers and any other expensive or delicate electrical equipment. European-style round-prong sockets are used in all housing. Bring adapter plugs for appliances with auto power-switching properties. Non-power-switching electrical appliances with 110v-60hz input require a transformer. Some appliances like electric clocks cannot be adapted in this way, others, like turntables may require special parts from the manufacturer for full adaptation.

Outlets are not usually grounded, so extra care should always be exercised around appliances. Hand-held equipment-hair dryers, shavers-requires extra caution.

Food

For most of the year there is a good supply of inexpensive raw fruits and vegetables at the open-air markets. In summer there is an abundance of delicious local apricots, cherries, and other fruits. The dead of winter sees a dramatic reduction of selection and an increase in price for fresh produce. Still, by Western standards, prices are not high. Winter crops like cabbages, beets, potatoes, onions, carrots are readily available all the time at cheap prices. And salad greens, fresh herbs and even tomatoes can almost always be had for a price. Oranges, bananas and apples can also be obtained year round. The best places for fruits and vegetables (price and selection) are the GUM fresh market on Tigran Mets Avenue and the Central Market on Mashtots Ave. Small markets and vendors abound in the city.

Fresh pork, lamb, beef, chicken and a limited variety of freshwater fish are available year round. Eggs are available, too. Low and reduced fat UHT shelf milk and full-fat powdered milk can be purchased as well, although supplies of low-fat are sporadic. Pasteurized fresh milk is available, but the quality is low.

Dried fruits like raisins, apricots, dates and figs, as well as many kinds of salami and cured meat, can be found in abundance. A few varieties of whole-bean coffee are available. The Cafe de Paris on Abovian Street (near Tumanian Street) has fresh-roasted beans. And there is plenty of instant coffee in shops and kiosks. Also available are pasta, flour, rice, beans, lentils, a limited variety of European and Australian cheeses, local sour cream, walnuts, hazelnuts, mushrooms, yogurt, and butter. A variety of Western soft drinks, candy, cigarettes, ice-cream bars and a few brands of imported and local beer are available.

There are a few supermarkets in Yerevan, but the inventory is sometimes disappointing and quirky and they are far from Western standard. A shopping trip might include a run through all of them to find something you need. Frozen food is available at these stores, but the selection is extremely limited and there are no frozen vegetables.

The following stores are popular these days: Partez, Europe, Cash and Carry, Yeritsian and Sons, Bravo, Urartu, and the Hayastan Super Market at the Druzbah Metro stop. For meat " The Rooster " butcher on Pushkin Street is popular. The state-run GUM market is a good place to shop, but is a little intimidating at first. One will find there most of the goods carried in the supermarkets, and at much better prices.

Other than some cereal products, baby foods are not generally available. Cake mixes are not available. Pop Tarts and other breakfast bars are not available. Pet food is available, but limited as to type and very expensive. Kitty litter is not available. Beer is available but limited in variety. Wine is available, but limited in variety. Nestle breakfast cereals are available, but are limited in choice and are now selling for $6 a box. Low-fat versions of food are not available. Peanut butter, pancake syrup, and chocolate syrup are not available.

© Dave Bartruff/Corbis. Reproduced by permission.

Clothing

The supply of ready made clothes available here is limited and often not to American taste. There are some ultra-expensive designer boutiques, however. And medium quality hand tailoring is available.

The sun can be quite strong, especially in the mountains, so hats, sun block, and good sunglasses are needed. Bring some effective winter gear. It does not stay cold, but temperatures can get very low. Long underwear will be needed some days. Keep in mind that many local buildings are poorly heated.

Washable fabrics should be chosen where possible. Although drycleaning services are available here, they are pricey and not as versatile as those in the U.S.

Sturdy walking shoes are a must; walking is a good way to get around in Yerevan.

Supplies and Services

It is strongly suggested that you bring a supply of laundry detergent and fabric softener with you. But what you bring by way of supplies is mainly a matter of preference, not absolute necessity. Most household goods are available here, from cleaning supplies to paper goods. But… they seldom bear a familiar brand name and often the quality is odd or very low. Russian-made toilet paper and Barf Detergent (an Iranian brand name) are good cases in point. Prices can also be quite high for some things, such as laundry detergent. Here you might see some familiar brands, such as Tide, but make sure it is for a machine. Hand detergent is common.

The following services are available and adequate: haircutting, shoe repair, taxi, tailoring, dressmaking, upholstery and draperies, auto repair, locksmith, picture framing, etc. In short, most average needs can be met.

Domestic Help

Domestic help is available and runs about $100 per month for day help ($1 per hour). Houses do not have special facilities for live-in maids.

Religious Activities

Most churches in Yerevan are Armenian Apostolic, but there are some services for other denominations. A partial list of contacts follows.

Anglican: (Episcopalian) Monthly service in English. Contact: Philip Storventer, St. Zhoravants Church. Tel: 40-79-85, Office: 52-71-27

Catholic: The Mekhitarist Center, daily services (mornings) with Sunday Mass at 10:00 am. (Catholic Armenian rite Mass is held primarily in Armenian with readings usually in English.) Address: 7 Alikhanian St. (opposite the Chinese Embassy) Contacts: Father Serafino (speaks English, French, Italian, Armenian), Father Elia (speaks Armenian, Italian) Tel: 56-18-88, 58-98-37 E-mail: mca@acc.am

Church of the Latter-Day Saints: Services 10 am or 12 noon at 43 Pushkin St. Five different congregations and a youth group. Contact: Margie Anderson. Tel: 27-0349 or Elder Hadley Tel: 34-43-97 or Elder Reading Tel: 58-33-23.

Seventh Day Adventist: No English Service. There is an Armenian congregation of 300 and a young adult group. Contact: ADRA office. Tel: 39-27-09.

Interdenominational Bible Study and Fellowship: (In English) Sunday mornings from 9:30 to 10:30 am. at the Drummond home, Address: 39A Aigestan St. (Near Peace Corps Office) Contact: Peter or Jekke Drummond. Tel: 57-44-27.

Synagogue: Address: Nar-Dos St. 23, Yerevan. Contact: Rabbi Gersh-Meir Bourstem (Chief Rabbi of Armenia)Tel: 57-19-68 Fax: 374 3 90-69-14. e-mail:avnyer@mbox.amlink.net

Education

There is only one school in Armenia suited to the needs of the international community, and it is very well regarded. The QSI International School of Yerevan is an independent coeducational day school that offers an educational program from pre-school through grade eight for students of all nationalities. In addition, the school has the capability of coordinating correspondence education for the higher grades through a well-respected program operated out of the University of Nebraska. The school was founded in 1995 by Quality Schools International (QSI), which has 17 schools operating worldwide, many of them in the CIS. The school year comprises three trimesters. These extend from the first week in September to the second week in December; from the first week in January to the third week in March; and, lastly, from the first week in April to the second week in June.

The school is governed by the QSI Board of Directors. The board's composition is set forth in the bylaws of QSI. Additionally, an advisory board, composed of from six to ten members, assists the school in its operation. All members of the advisory board reside in Armenia. They are appointed by the president of QSI in concert with the director of the QSI International School of Yerevan.

The school offers an outcome-based educational program with a curriculum similar to that of U.S.-based public and private schools. Instruction, leading to individual mastery, takes advantage of small class sizes and the diverse educational backgrounds of the students. Instruction is in English.

The school also coordinates extracurricular activities such as ballet, karate woodcarving, jewelry making, sculpting, puppet making, etc. Swimming instruction at a pool operated by the International Federation of the Red Cross (IFRCC) is available.

There were four full-time faculty members in the 1997-98 school year, two of whom were U.S. citizens.

The school is located in the 650 square meter second floor of the CARITAS Switzerland building on Ashtarak Highway. The building will also house the school's administrative offices and the director's quarters. The facilities will be adequate for the projected enrollment for the next 3 years, and there is sufficient play and exercise space for the students, both indoors and out. The school has its own athletic field and weekly access to the IFRCC gym and pool. There are currently no facilities for handicapped or special needs students. Bus service will be provided.

In the 1998-99 school year, the school's income was derived from regular day school tuition. Annual tuition rates were as follows: Pre-school (3-4-year-olds) $5,300; Kindergarten, $8,300; grades one through eight, $10,800. The school also charges an annual capital fund fee of $1,600 per year or a capital fund deposit of $4,000 for all 5 year and older students. Accreditation: Full accreditation is expected by 1999. Currently, the school's financial system and curriculum have both received accreditation. The school has been accepted into candidacy for full accreditation by two bodies: The Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools and the Commission on International and Trans-Regional Accreditation. The Self Study and School Improvement Plan have been completed and the Accreditation Team visited the school in February 1999. The school holds a Provisional Certificate from the Department of Defense.

Contact: QSI International School of Yerevan, c/o American Embassy, Yerevan, Department of State, Washington, D.C. 20521-7020

E-mail: gsiy@arminco.com World Wide Web URL: http://www.arminco.com/gsiy International telephone and fax: 371-407656

Local mobile phone: 8-21-407656

Sports

A few sport activities are also available in Yerevan. The Armenian soccer team plays at the Hrazdan stadium in season. There are tennis courts and amateur tournaments. For a fee, the gymnasium, sauna and indoor pool operated by the International Federation of the Red Cross are accessible year round. (The IFRCC facility is about 20 minutes from the Embassy.) And the Defense Attaches Office operates a small, but well-appointed gym and sauna in the Chancery. And there is a growing number of private health clubs in the city. Aerobic exercise classes are available.

Fishing is an attractive prospect in Armenia, a country with more than 100 mountain lakes, and countless clear fast rivers. Also, Lake Sevan is only about 50 miles from Yerevan. It is one of the world's largest mountain lakes, is a popular summer tourist spot, and the home of vast numbers of fish-including brown trout. Fishing slower moving streams for carp is also popular.

The Tsakhadzor Ski Resort is a popular destination in both summer and winter. The chair lift operates year round and the overnight accommodation at the House of Writers is decent, albeit far from luxurious. There is skiing in the winter (cross country and downhill) and hiking and picnicking in the spring, summer and fall. The resort is about an hour's drive from Yerevan. Snowshoeing is also possible in many mountain areas for much of the year.

There are pristine camp recreation areas all over Armenia. Some notable ones are found on the slopes of Mt. Aragats, as well as in Hankavan, Dilijan and to the south near Yeghegnadzor.

And for those who like to jog around in strange places, that venerable running society the Hash House Harriers has an active chapter in Yerevan. The group, which is open to all, organizes camp outs from time to time.

Sightseeing

Yerevan is an excellent base for exploring Armenia's many ancient churches, monasteries, and natural wonders. Some of the oldest Christian monuments in the world can be found in Armenia. The architecture is fascinating and the settings dramatic; the mountainous Armenian landscape is unforgettable. Many people like to hike, climb and camp. The countryside is safe for overnight camping.

The Cathedral at Etchmiadzin, built in 301 A.D., is the spiritual center of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Located about 30 minutes from Yerevan by car, Etchmiadzin Cathedral can be visited for Sunday services. Tours on other days require special arrangement. The church, its grounds, and museum contain a fine collection of ancient religious artifacts.

There is much to see in Armenia. Take a trip to Mt. Aragats to see the soaring walls of the once impregnable fortress of Amberd. Or visit the Roman mosaics at the pagan temple of Garni. And do not miss the huge chambers hewn out of solid rock at the cave monastery of Gegard; or any of the scores of other churches, monasteries and ruins that hide in the country's rough, wild landscape.

Entertainment

The city of Yerevan itself has a surprising amount to offer. There is opera, ballet, and a world-class symphony. The symphony performs twice a week much of the year and tickets are very inexpensive.

The Armenian Song Theater is also splendid, as is the Chamber Ensemble. The National Art museum on Republic Square is a must see, as is the Matenadaran Manuscript Library, which houses illuminated tomes from ancient times in Armenian, Greek and Latin.

A visit to the open-air art market held near the opera house every weekend is a must, as are periodic trips to the Vermsage, the large crafts market located in the park near Republic Square.

Victory Park, overlooking the city, is a favorite place for runners and joggers, especially during the warm weather. And there is a small amusement midway in the park complete with a working Ferris wheel and other rides. There are also rowboats to rent on the park pond, which is ringed by several small cafes.

The American University of Armenia has several English-speaking clubs to which members of the American community are welcome. Several persons currently get personalized instruction from world-class musicians. The South Caucasus Study Group organizes many interesting talks and excursions. Topics range from history and archeology to natural history and biology.

Recently, a number of restaurants have opened in the city. Local interpretations of Russian, Chinese, Continental, Italian, Indian, Persian, Turkish and American (burgers and pizza) can be found. There are also, of course, many quality establishments serving Armenian cuisine. And there are scores of kabob houses, some of which have a good reputation for wholesomeness. In addition, outdoor cafe society is a vital part of the city life. During the long warm season (April to November) scores of pleasant establishments serving inexpensive coffee and pastries can be found tucked into the green patches around the city.

And, if such is your taste, small casinos abound in Yerevan. No one can vouch for their honesty or safety, however. Lastly, a few adequate bars and pubs popular with the expatriate crowd can be found. A high-tech disco has recently opened at the Armenia Hotel-now being managed by Marriott.

And there is an indoor-outdoor jazz bar and restaurant (Poplavok) by a lake in the center of the city. The music is excellent.

OTHER CITIES

ARZNI, 13 miles north of Yerevan, is noted for its mineral spring and baths, which are set in a park of pine and chestnut trees. The sanatorium was built in 1925. Regular bus service operates between Arzni and Yerevan.

ASHTARAK is on the southern slope of Mount Aragats, about 12 miles northwest of Yerevan. The surrounding area has been inhabited from prehistoric times and the villages of the area have many archaeological sites of interest.

ECHMIADZIN is a pleasant 12-mile drive from Yerevan. Mount Ararat, now in Turkey, can be seen on a clear day. It was on the peak of Mount Ararat that Noah is said to have landed after the Flood, and the mountain remains an important part of Armenian legend.

KUMAYRI, formerly Leninakan, was completely destroyed in the 1988 Armenian earthquake. It was founded by Armenian refugee artisans from Turkey in 1837. The city of 123,000 was noted for its textile industry and theater life. Kumayri is currently being rebuilt, with completion expected soon.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

Armenia is located in southwestern Asia, just east of Turkey. It covers a total land area of 29,800 square kilometers, which is slightly larger than the state of Maryland. Armenia is a landlocked country bordered by Azerbaijan, the Azerbaijan-Naxcivan Enclave, Georgia, Iran and Turkey.

The climate is highland continental. It is dry, with an average of 550mm (21.6 inches) in annual rainfall. In the Ararat Valley, where Yerevan is located, there is far less rain, with an average range of from 200mm to 250mm (7.9 to 10 inches).

Seasonal extremes are pronounced in the Ararat Valley. Temperatures can approach the record summer high of 42°C (107.67) or plunge toward the record winter low of-30°C (-227). Mean temperatures are more temperate, however. July readings give an average high range of from 25°C (77°F) to 30°C (86°F). The January low range averages from-5°C (23°F) to-7°C (19°F). Autumns are long and golden; Armenia enjoys around 2700 hours of sunshine each year. Drought, however, is a perennial problem.

The country rests on a high mountainous plateau cut by fast flowing rivers. The over-grazed hills boast little true forest, but many of the steeper slopes are dressed with scrub and second growth. Good soil is found in the Arax River Basin. And sheltered valleys across the country host fruit orchards and vineyards. The scenery along the highways is often dramatic, with high mountains shadowing green pastures ribboned with clear, cold streams.

Twenty percent of Armenia's land is given over to pasture and 17% to agriculture. Three thousand and fifty square kilometers is under irrigation.

At 4,095 meters, Mount Aragats is the highest point in the country.

The interesting geology consists mostly of young igneous and volcanic rocks including obsidian. Armenia is honeycombed with geologic faults and remains seismically active. The effects of a severe earthquake centered in Spitak in 1988 are still being felt socially and economically, particularly near the epicenter.

(See Health and Medicine for a discussion of the precautions recommended for the hot dry climate and the possibility of earthquake.)

Population

Armenia's population is officially 3.7 million, based on the 1989 census, but is probably substantially less, around 3 million, due to large scale emigration in the difficult years between 1988 and 1995. One-third of the population lives in Yerevan. Armenia retains significant Yezidi Kurdish and Russian minorities, and smaller numbers of Greeks, Ukrainians, and others. Some 300,000 ethnic Azeris fled Armenia in 1988-90, mostly from rural areas, and an approximately equal number of Armenians took refuge in Armenia from Baku and other Azeri cities.

Conditions in Armenia were so difficult from 1991 to 1993 that there was a vast emigration to the U.S., Europe, Russia and other Newly Independent States. True figures are not available, but the current population probably stands between two-and-a-half and three million.

Armenians have their own highly distinctive alphabet and language. Ninety-six percent of the people in the country speak it, while a solid majority of the population know Russian as well. Armenia was totally literate; 99% of the population could read and write Armenian and or Russian in Soviet times. Current literacy figures are not available, but the economic crisis has dramatically affected education.

Most adults in Yerevan can communicate in Russian. Russian is still taught in school, although quality has declined sharply. English is increasing in popularity, but is spoken rarely outside of educated circles. Cyrillic script can still be seen on many older street and building signs. Ninety-four percent of the population claims membership in the Armenian Apostolic Church.

Caucasian hospitality is legendary and stems from an ancient tradition. Social gatherings center around sumptuous presentations of course after course of elaborately prepared, well-seasoned (but not spicy-hot) food. The host or hostess will often put morsels on a guest's plate whenever it is empty or fill his or her glass when it gets low. After a helping or two it is acceptable to refuse politely or, more simply, just leave a little uneaten food. A cleared plate or an empty glass will get filled.

On the whole, Armenia is a safe country, close-knit and with little violent crime.

Foreigners can travel freely throughout the country and be confident of a friendly welcome. Note that Armenians are intensely curious about foreigners, particularly in rural areas. This curiosity will generally manifest itself in open-handed hospitality and ready assistance to the traveler, but can sometimes become intrusive, requiring considerable diplomatic skill to extricate oneself. Stone-throwing by local urchins or vandalism of cars is rare, but can be a problem, particularly when the foreigner is distinctively non-Armenian. Best defense is a friendly greeting in Armenian to the adults on entry to a new village.

Attitudes toward women are still shaped by Middle Eastern links and a pattern of male domination. Though violence against foreign women is rare, women traveling or dining without male escort should dress conservatively and avoid eye contact or other behavior that might attract unwanted attention.

Government

Armenia-"Hayastan" in Armenian-is a republic. On 5 July 1995, the current constitution was adopted through a national referendum.

With the adoption of the constitution ten provinces plus the capital were designated. They are as follows: Aragatsotn, Ararat, Armavir, Gegharkunik, Lori, Kotayk, Shirak, Syunik, Tavush, and Vayots Dzor, plus the capital city of Yerevan.

The head of state is the President, in whom much power is vested.

The head of government is the Prime Minister, who is appointed and dismissed by the President. The President also appoints and dismisses the members of the Government, but at the proposal of the Prime Minister.

The unicameral legislative branch is known as the National Assembly, which now has 131 members. Under an election law passed in 1999 two methods are used to choose what is now a professional full-time Assembly; first, a proportional party-based system, and, second, a simple head-to-head majority mandate. Currently, 56 deputies are elected under the proportional party-focused system and 75 are elected under the majoritarian candidate-focused system.

After the presidential election of 1998 a new set of political parties began to coalesce out of the ashes of the previous administration. The largest plurality was for a time the "Yerkrapah" faction, a nationalistic association of Nagorno Karabakh veterans. But it has since been integrated into the Republican Party, which is headed by Defense Minister Vasgen Sarkissian. Moreover, just before the May 30, 1999, election the Republicans allied themselves with the People's Party. The People's Party is headed by Karen Demirchian, former First Secretary of the Armenian Communist Party. This powerful election alliance, the Unity Bloc-which includes Yerkrapah, the Republicans and the People's Party-won a decisive majority of National Assembly seats in the May 30, 1999, election.

The opposition is formed by several parties; notably, the Communists, the Dashnaks (a century-old nationalist party with strong ties to the Armenian Diaspora) and the National Democratic Union.

The country's legal apparatus is founded on a system of civil law. Currently, the National Assembly is very busy passing legislation in virtually every field. The system of new legislation being born is considered one generally favorable to free market business development and is in line with accepted democratic principles.

The judicial branch is headed by the Constitutional Court, which is composed of nine judges. These are appointed by the president. The term of office is for life, but a judge may be dismissed by the president. The president also appoints and dismisses the chief prosecutor.

Under international guidance the judiciary underwent a thorough legally mandated reform and retraining process. And it is now working with a completely rewritten set of legal codes that see it acting with increasing independence.

Moreover, in the past year, there have been important structural changes to the judiciary. What is more, constitutional amendments to even further increase judicial independence are being given consideration. But new laws on the judicial system, the role of judges, advocate service and the enforcement of court judgements have already been passed. Judges have been appointed to the newly created trial courts (Courts of First Instance) and the Court of Appeals. However, it will take a lot of political will to continue to make further reforms encouraging judicial independence.

Many international organizations are represented in Armenia. The United Nations is very active, as is the EU and some national governments. In addition, there are scores of non-governmental organizations. These serve a variety of needs, ranging from humanitarian aid to democratic as well as economic development.

An important national issue is the situation in Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominantly Armenian region within Azerbaijan, which declared independence in 1988. After a war lasting six years, a fragile ceasefire has held since 1994. Achieving regional stability by finding a durable settlement is a high-priority mission goal. In addition, this unresolved confrontation is an exacerbating factor in the country's severe economic crisis due to the embargo imposed by Azerbaijan and Turkey. (See Commerce and Industry for more details.)

Lastly, no discussion of public institutions would be complete without mentioning the vast Armenian diaspora, both in the U.S. and Europe. It has become a bridge to the outside world for many Armenians, particularly with the advent of the Internet, and influences the direction of the country with resources and ideas. In addition, the Diaspora has been very active in humanitarian efforts in Armenia.

Arts, Science, and Education

Education

Yerevan is the country's intellectual as well as its administrative center.

Yerevan State University, the State Medical Institute and the State Engineering University are located in the capital. The latter maintains fairly strong programs in math, engineering and architecture.

The American University of Armenia has graduate programs in Business and Law, among others. The institution owes its existence to the combined efforts of the Government of Armenia, The Armenian General Benevolent Union, USAID, and the Boalt Hall School of Law at the University of California at Berkeley. Many of the country's most successful young entrepreneurs are graduates of this institution.

The extension programs and the library at AUA form a new focal point for English-language intellectual life in the city. English-language instruction plays a large part in the AUA curriculum and many members of the American community here, including spouses of U.S. Mission employees, teach English at the university.

Arts

As might be expected from so literate a society, Yerevan is a city of culture. The Matenadaran Library contains a priceless collection of ancient manuscripts, chiefly Armenian, but also Persian, Arab, Latin, and Greek.

The city's National Art Gallery has more than 16,000 works that date back to the middle ages. It houses paintings by many European masters. The Modern Art Museum, The Children's Picture Gallery, and the Saryan Museum are only a few of the other noteworthy collections of fine art on display in Yerevan. Moreover, many private galleries are now opening. They feature rotating exhibitions and sales.

Armenia was a crossroads of the ancient and medieval world. The country is home to hundreds if not thousands of fascinating archeological sites. Medieval, Iron Age, Bronze Age and even Stone Age sites are all within a few hours drive from the city. It can be compared to Greece or Italy in terms of the numbers and quality of its historic sites. There is much to be learned and seen.

The world-class Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra performs at the city Opera House. In addition, there are several chamber ensembles and the Serenade Orchestra is also known for its high standards. In season, grand opera is performed. Fine music can also be heard at the State Music Conservatory and at the Chamber Music Orchestra Hall.

In addition, there are many drama theaters in Yerevan hosting plays in Russian as well as Armenian.

Yerevan's Vernisage (arts and crafts market)-held each weekend in the park just off Republic Square-is home to hundreds of vendors selling a variety of crafts, many of superb workmanship. From inlaid wooden backgammon sets, to the hand-knotted wool carpets that are signature to central Asia, the selection is astonishing. Obsidian, which is found locally, is crafted into an amazing assortment of jewelry and ornamental objects. And there is also an excellent selection of fine jewelry; Armenian gold smithy enjoys a long tradition. Soviet relics and souvenirs of recent Russian manufacture-nesting dolls, watches, enamel boxes, etc.-also may be found at the Vernisage. There is another popular weekend art market in the park across from the Opera House that focuses mainly on paintings.

Carpet emporiums abound in the city.

Science

In Soviet times Armenia boasted very high numbers of specialists and scientists in proportion to its population. There were many important academic institutes located here. Much of the basic research has stopped, however, due to the country's impoverished condition. For this reason many of the country's scientists have left or found more practical ways to make ends meet.

This breakdown has had an interesting consequence. Many of the English-speaking Foreign Service nationals employed at the U.S. Mission in Yerevan are drawn from this distinguished pool of intellectuals. They serve conscientiously in positions far beneath their level of training. These highly educated, self-starting Armenian partners add a great deal to the strength of the U.S. Embassy here. Yerevan has perhaps the best workforce in the entire NIS.

Commerce and Industry

Armenia's once thriving industrial economy largely collapsed with the demise of the Soviet Union. Only now is it slowly starting to recover. Once the small landlocked country was no longer an integral part of the economic structure of the Soviet central system, it lost its sources of supply as well as its markets. Historically, Armenia provided machine-building tools, textiles, and much of the Soviet military's high-tech equipment-lasers, navigation systems, etc. Energy and raw materials were supplied from other republics in a centralized system. Today, few industries from that time operate. And those that continue to run do so at greatly reduced capacity.

On top of this, the conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh has resulted in a closed border with Turkey (a natural trading partner). And Azerbaijan, which was once a main supplier of energy, is now a bitter enemy. Moreover, the expense of the occupation in Azerbaijan drains the Armenian treasury.

Over the last 5 years (1995-99) things have improved relative to the darkest days of early independence. At that time, from 1992 to 1994, Yerevan was virtually without electric power. The people survived mainly through an intensive program of international aid. The critical situation with electricity has changed owing to many of the following factors: improvements in power management, such as metering and transmission, have been made; gas supplies are coming in through Georgia; and the Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant is up and running. However, the above-mentioned chronic factors hindering Armenia's development-Nagorno-Karabakh, lack of markets and sources of supply-are still very much applicable.

Armenia's problems notwithstanding, many of its macro-economic indicators are strong. Inflation was brought down to comparatively tolerable levels during 1996 (5.9%). And it stood at 20% for 1997. In 1998 there was actually a negative inflation rate (-1.3%) (deflation). And, so far for 1999, the annualized rate of inflation stands at 11%.

The dram has enjoyed relative stability in this environment. Currently, it stands at 545 dram to the U.S. dollar. Moreover, the dram weathered the Russian financial crisis of 1998 quite well. One can expect it to remain basically stable with, perhaps, a weakening trend against the dollar. Official GDP grew at 7% in 1998.

These days, Armenia's biggest source of foreign exchange is from its trade in precious stones. There is a thriving jewelry industry, which includes the manufacture of finished jewels as well as the polishing of rough diamonds bought from South Africa. Some textiles are still produced as well, particularly leather goods. There is also a trade in high-value agricultural produce-apricots and grapes. And it must be mentioned that the country is justifiably famous for its brandy production. Some electronics manufacturing continues. And a few projects involving software development have been launched as well-one of Armenia's assets is its highly trained and educated labor pool.

Natural resources include deposits of gold, copper, molybdenum, zinc and alumina.

Also, Armenia's richness of history may be viewed as a sustainable resource. Tourism has real potential, including archeological and ecological tourism. Armenia is traditionally considered to be the first Christian state; its conversion predates that of the Roman Empire. As a result there are important monasteries and churches that date to the earliest centuries of the first millennium AD. But Armenia was also part of the cradle of civilization and important Bronze and Iron Age sites are also found here. These archeological sites, although undeveloped from a tourism perspective, are second to none in importance. Moreover, their mountain settings are often dramatic and beautiful.

Although agriculture plays an important role in the economy, Armenia still imports much of its food. Most of the raw material for its industry-hides, cotton, rough diamonds-is also imported. Consumer goods are brought in from the U.S., the United Arab Emirates, the other Newly Independent States, Russia, Eastern and Western Europe, Iran and-by way of Georgia and Iran-from Turkey.

Armenia still engages in some old, Soviet-style barter, but this is being slowly phased out.

To the extent that practical considerations allow, the government is planning and executing an aggressive restructuring of most major sectors of the economy. Transportation in the areas of roads, air and rail, is being moved forward. The energy sector has been given the highest priority. And the water system is being addressed as well.

With some exceptions, privatization is also well under way. Over 80% of small businesses are private, and over 60% of medium and large enterprises are private. The phone system has been privatized and the country's premier accommodation, the Armenia Hotel, has recently been privatized as well. It is being managed under contract by U.S.-based Marriott. In 1998 the government overcame strong opposition to privatize the world-famous brandy enterprise. And ninety percent of the country's land, including virtually all of the farmland, is in private hands.

An expanding service sector is emerging in the capital, fueled in part by the substantial amount of aid pouring into the country. The many new shops and restaurants benefit everyone posted here.

In the main, the government appears to have a good understanding of what is needed for economic development. There is a liberal trade regime. Foreigners can own any kind of property or business except land. Investment is encouraged. World Bank and IMF advice is taken seriously.

Transportation

Automobiles

A car is very desirable, but is not an absolute necessity in Yerevan. Four-wheel drive is needed if you want complete year-round mobility, but a sturdy standard car will do for Yerevan and many other destinations.

Buying a new car locally is an option. You can buy a new Lada Niva (a tough little Russian-made 4x4) for from $5,000 to $6,000. Small sedans, like Lada Zhiguli's, run a little less; big sedans, like Volgas, run a little more. There are many places to buy new Russian-made cars. It is also possible to import a car from Dubai or Russia duty free. Also, Mitsubishi Motors has established a well-run dealership in Yerevan that features both sport utility vehicles and sedans.

Used car prices are extremely variable. Buyers will undoubtedly need the help of a local person to shop Yerevan's weekend auto market where new and used models are sold. The good news is that getting a local car repaired is easier and cheaper. The bad news is that with a Russian-made car the chances that repairs will be needed are greatly increased. It should also be noted that these cars are well below U.S. safety standards.

There are no restrictions on what kind of car you can bring in. There are legal pitfalls if you buy locally, but they are easily avoided. If you buy a car here make sure to check that the registration (the technical passport) matches the vehicle in both the engine number and the body number. Also, get a dated bill of sale that names the price and the parties concerned. This may be hand written. Once the title is transferred into your name by the local authorities-a complex process that involves paying a three percent transfer tax on the value of the vehicle.

Note: Car theft is not a great problem in Yerevan, but stereo theft is known. Removable faceplates and other stereo security systems are advised.

Although engine oil can be obtained here, it is of variable quality, and name brands are sometimes counterfeited and substandard product substituted.

There is no unleaded fuel at all in Armenia so POVs should be modified to accept leaded fuel. This mainly entails removing the catalytic converter if you want to prevent this expensive part from being poisoned by the lead. A permission letter from EPA is required if this is done in the U.S.

Gasoline is available throughout the country, mainly from tanker trucks parked along the road or gas kiosks. Yerevan and larger towns boast an ever-growing number of clean, modern and even luxurious gas stations. On the roadside the quality of fuel is variable and occasionally poor enough to cause problems. Gas stations, however, seem to deliver reasonable quality. Gasoline currently costs about $1.50 per gallon. Gas prices are marked per 20 liters. Currently, gas sells for about 3500 dram (seven dollars) per 20 liters.

Roads

The streets of Yerevan are very beaten up in places, but are mostly in adequate repair. National highways vary in quality. Main routes are usually passable for moderate cruising speeds with occasional bad spots, but secondary routes are sometimes quite degraded. Drivers must remain alert for potholes, however, on all roads. As in most of the developing world, the road culture is aggressive and undisciplined. In winter, snow is cleared on main routes, but secondary roads are ignored. Constant jay-walking and poor lighting at night adds to the danger in cities and villages. Yerevan's roads are a place for skilled, confident drivers.

Local

Public surface transportation in Yerevan is crowded and the equipment is old. There are trams, buses, trolley buses and even a funicular. Taxis are available and not overly expensive. Two dollars is the average fare for a ride within the central downtown area. The taxis are not metered and passengers must negotiate, so expect to pay a stiff premium if you can't negotiate in Armenian or Russian. Tips are appreciated, but are not expected.

There are Marshrutnoi (minibus) taxis as well. They run specified routes at varied rates ranging from 50 to 200 drams (10 to 40 cents). As mentioned earlier, there is a central metro line in Yerevan. The price of a token is 40 drams (8 cents). This is also the cost of a bus or tram ride.

There are inter-city buses and mini-vans and also very few trains. The trains are unreliable and are not used by U.S. Mission employees. Most of those posted here move about by private car, on foot, or, on occasion, by charter bus.

Regional

Most internal long-distance travel is accomplished by car, minivan, or bus. The trains are very bad both internally and to nearby neighbors. For example, the train to Tbilisi, Georgia takes 14-18 hours, runs an erratic schedule, is uncomfortable and is targeted by thieves. (The same ride by car takes from 5 to 6 hours.)

Bad relations with Turkey over Nagorno-Karabakh have closed that nearby land border. And, because of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, travel to Azerbaijan is impossible from Armenia. Moreover, official Americans cannot travel to Nagorno-Karabakh itself without special permission; the road to N-K, however, is open and considered good. The highway to Tbilisi is also open. The Armenian leg is good, but the Georgian side tends to be beaten up and slow going. It is a 6-hour drive maximum. Surface routes through to southern Armenia and Iran are open most of the year. However, official Americans cannot cross the border into Iran.

The regional roads are passable for most of the year, but in the dead of winter some routes close from time to time due to snows in high mountain passes.

Currently, there are no regular commercial in-country flights operating. However, for special purposes it is possible to charter a helicopter from Armenian Airlines.

Travel to nearby and neighboring countries is generally accomplished by air. The UN World Food Program operates an eight-seat commuter plane between Yerevan, Tbilisi, and Baku on which members of the official community can purchase seats when available. In addition, there are regularly scheduled flights on Armenian Air, the national carrier, to many regional cities, including Ashgabat, Dubai, Tbilisi, Istanbul, Sofia, Tehran, Beirut, Aleppo, and Tashkent. It also flies to several cities in Europe (Paris, London, Athens, Frankfurt, Zurich and Amsterdam) as well as to several in Russia (Moscow, Kiev and Samara). The schedule is variable; most flights are weekly, while others, such as those headed for Tbilisi, leave at least three days a week.

There are flights to Moscow every day on either Aeroflot or Armenian Air. This would be a convenient route both into and out of Yerevan, as Moscow is a good-sized hub, but the arbitrary actions of immigration officials in Russia have caused problems for some travelers, even those in transit. Theoretically, holders of multiple-entry Armenian visas are allowed three days of transit time in Moscow without a Russian visa, but this appears to be poorly understood by officials there. Moreover, price gouging by Russian taxi drivers has made road travel between Moscow's airports exorbitant. Such cross-city travel is often a requirement in order to change planes. Very cheap, if very uncomfortable, transit travel by bus is an option, however. That notwithstanding, routing through Moscow is strongly discouraged.

Currently, five carriers operate out of Yerevan: Aeroflot, Armenian Air, British Air, Swiss Air and Vnukovo, a Russian carrier.

Communications

Telephone

The quality of the telephone lines is sometimes very bad. Service can be interrupted and it may take several tries to complete a call.

For modem users the data transmission speed on some of these city lines is sometimes very low. Improvements are underway, however, following the privatization of the phone company. Some city lines have been made digital allowing for decent voice and acceptable data communication. Cellular telephone service is also now available in Yerevan.

Internet

Armenia's information policy is open and Yerevan does have several Internet providers. Currently, America Online has a local dial-up number that functions fairly well, even on some city lines. AOL members who wish to keep their accounts should check for the latest Yerevan access number(s) before departing for post. Note that there is currently a $6 /hour network access surcharge for Armenia's AOL users. There are also local ISPs with rates that are competitive to AOLs. One of the better known is Arminco. Also, the Yerevan Physics Institute provides dial-up accounts. The service on the local ISP's is, like AOL, mostly adequate for home E-mail. World Wide Web surfing is also possible at the fairly low but manageable speed of about 1.0 (one) KPS-this includes AOL. Interestingly, some Internet cafes have appeared in the city lately.

Enhanced speed, giving faster access to the World Wide Web, is possible with leased lines or a radio modem. These services can run into hundreds of dollars a month. Also, there is fairly high-speed Internet access at the Hotel Armenia I Business Center. The rates are relatively steep, however. And the Armenia I charges roughly a dollar for every E-mail sent. Predictably, the Internet scene is changing all the time.

Radio and TV

There are several FM radio stations in Yerevan that play a variety of music-including Western-during the day. For English-language TV the best local option appears to be AA TV This is a line-of-site microwave "cable" system (not all residences have line of site). Installation is $100 (this includes a $50 refundable deposit on the antenna). The most popular option for expatriates is the $20 per month 24-channel deal, which includes many English-language channels such as Discovery, The Movie Channel, TNT and Cartoon Network, MTV Europe, BBC, VH1, CNBC and National Geographic, and a few others. Note that not all 24 channels are in English.

There is local Russian and Armenian programming over VHF broadcast bands. In addition there are many broadcast satellites whose footprints cover Yerevan. Most of the programming is in languages other than English, but, with the proper dish and tuner, CNN International is available, as are NBC Europe, Euro News (with a digital tuner/decoder) BBC World Service and more.

Some Americans have paid to have satellite dishes and tuners installed in their residences. The cost is $300$1,500. Employees often sell this equipment to incoming personnel. All the equipment required to receive satellite transmissions is available in Yerevan, and there is a reliable local contractor who can install it. Costs, however, must be born by the employee, both for hardware and installation.

Newspapers, Magazines, Books, and Technical Journals

There is only one local weekly paper publication that provides Armenian news in English: Noyan Tapan. However, there are more electronic options. The SNARK news service provides a daily paid E-mail subscription as do Armenpress and Azg.

The PAO Information Resource Center is a first class facility that maintains a healthy collection of current periodicals for on-site review (50 subscriptions). There are 1,000 books in the library as well as an up-to-date reference collection in hard copy and on CD. Many data bases are available. In the IRC a leased-line Internet connection may be used free of charge on a reservation basis for research and news gathering.

In addition, some Western periodicals in English may be reviewed at nearby English-language American University of Armenia Library.

Health

Hospitals

Malatia Medical Center, a general hospital with an intensive care unit and internal medicine department that meets minimum Western standards for cleanliness and, to some extent, technology. In sum, most average medical problems can be handled locally. If time allows, complex or unusual problems require medical evacuation to London for treatment.

Some dental clinics with acceptable standards have recently been identified. These clinics can provide routine cleaning, do simple procedures as well as give emergency response. For complex dental work evacuation is still an option.

An English-speaking ophthalmolo-gist has also been identified and is available for referrals. No suitable specialist in obstetrics has yet been identified.

Community Health

The city water supply is poorly treated, and tap water must be briskly boiled for 5 minutes before drinking.

A species of scorpion, which presents no serious health risk, is the source of much discussion. The truth is that for people without an allergic reaction the bite of this animal does not present a danger of death or serious injury. However, the bites of these creatures are often very painful and can cause prolonged swelling at the site of the bite as well as some systemic effects, such as nausea. These creatures have been found in some houses, particularly those in lower areas subject to moisture, but are really an outdoor pest. Store boots and shoes properly if you go camping and shake them out. Warn children not to turn over rocks. And, if you garden yourself, be careful.

A more serious outdoor danger arises from snakes. There are four species of poisonous snake in Armenia: the desert rattlesnake, the Asian rattlesnake, vipera lebetina, and vipera darevsky (English common names unknown). Fifty-per-cent of all bites occur in children 12 years old or younger during the summer months of July and August. Camping is a popular recreation in the Foreign Service community here. Wear high boots and heavy long pants for treks and keep a sharp eye out. Children should be discouraged from playing in thick grass in high summer-even in some less developed parts of the city. Most large hospitals have antivenin.

Alcoholic beverages from state stores are considered safe, but throughout the CIS adulteration of bootleg alcohol (often sold in kiosks) with poisonous wood alcohol is known. Armenia is famous for its brandies: buy them, and all alcohol, from reputable sources and check the state seal carefully.

Preventive Measures

There is a very serious microbial condition known as Brucellosis that can be contracted from some hoofed animals. One vector is unpasteurized milk from goats or cows. There have been outbreaks of this disease in Yerevan. Homemade Armenian cheese from village producers is the culprit. This rustic salty cheese should be purchased from quality stores and state-run markets, not from street vendors. It should be inspected for state seals. Cheese made in state factories is generally considered safe, as is imported cheese. Be cautious about unfamiliar cheeses at parties or eateries, particularly in the country. Yogurt and sour cream from state factories is considered safe. Again, be careful of village produce.

Giardia, a water-born intestinal bug, has from time to time been detected in city water. To be absolutely safe tap water should be boiled for 5 minutes before consumption. Local sparkling mineral waters like Bjni and Jermuk are considered safe, as are the bottled non-sparkling waters.

Malaria has been reported in some rural areas, especially along the Azerbaijan border. If traveling to the countryside check with the Health Unit for an update on the situation. Prevalence is low, but travelers to these areas should use insect repellent, cover up, and, if possible, avoid outside activity at dawn and dusk.

New arrivals should be aware that strenuous exercise at Yerevan's near mile-high elevation can take one by surprise, particularly if one leaves the relatively low-lying city center for the mountainous suburbs.

Armenia is notoriously dry. Humidifiers are supplied by GSO upon request. Order one for sleeping quarters. Also, stay well hydrated in winter by drinking plenty of water or juice to help avoid upper respiratory complaints. These are common in Armenia.

Hats and sun block are a necessity for any prolonged activity outside in the summer.

Immunizations

Required immunizations for Yerevan include Typhoid, Diphtheria, Tetanus, Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B. People who expect to be out in the country, or whose activities could put them in the way of a dog bite, might want to consider a preventive rabies series, although the disease is not reported.

Medicines

Familiar brands of Western style over-the-counter and prescription pharmaceuticals are not generally available in Yerevan, although some European products are to be found here. Substitutions are possible, but you have to know what you are looking for. Aspirin, acetaminophen, and ibuprofen are available. Bring a full supply of prescription medicines, favorite over-the-counter medications, and health supplies such as corn plasters or Ace Bandages. Arrange with a U.S.-based pharmacy to mail in continuing prescriptions.

Other Measures

Armenia is in an earthquake zone. Without being overly dramatic-and with the full understanding that the possibility of an earthquake at any given place and time is statistically remote-it would nonetheless be prudent to review some materials on how to prepare for and how to behave during a seismic event. The Federal Emergency Management Agency has prepared an excellent fact sheet on the subject. Find it at the following World Wide Web address: http://www.fema.gov/library/quakef.htm

Basic precautions are to check for hazards in the home, identify safe places in each room and have disaster supplies on hand.

NOTES FOR TRAVELLERS

Five carriers currently serve Yerevan: Armenian Air, Aeroflot, British Air, Swiss Air and Vnukovo. (Vnukovo is not used for official travel). Since Aeroflot and Vnukovo flights come through Moscow-and there have been problems there-Armenian Air, British Air and Swiss Air are the only carriers generally used to get from Europe. American carriers are used, however, to get to those European cities where the flights to Armenia originate.

There are flights to Yerevan from Amsterdam, Athens, Frankfurt, Istanbul, London, Paris and Zurich. These are not daily flights. On average, each city gets served two times per week. Armenian Air changes schedules with little notice. Currently, Northwest/KLM and Austrian Airlines are negotiating to provide service to Yerevan. The agreements are still pending, however. Scheduling flights to Yerevan via Moscow is discouraged due to a variety of transit problems.

Customs, Duties, and Passage

Passport and visa required. For further information on entry requirements contact the Armenian Embassy at 2225 R St. NW, Washington, D.C. 20008 tel. (202) 319-1976; the Armenian Consulate General in Los Angeles at 50 N. La Cienega Blvd., Suite 210, Beverly Hills, CA 90211, tel. (310) 657-6102 or visit the Armenian Embassy's website at http://www.armeniaemb.org.

Be aware that certain items are proscribed for export and should not be purchased and removed from Armenia without the permission of the Ministry of Culture along with payment of a 100% duty. This includes old carpets, old manuscripts, and antiques. (Anything older than 50 years is subject to this levy and/or may be banned from export altogether.)

Pets

You may import pets to Armenia. No quarantine is imposed. Currently, a valid rabies certificate and a health certificate are required. Pets should be given a full range of inoculations before arrival. Be sure to check with all the airlines you use about requirements in transit. Be advised that pets must accompany passengers in the cabin on some Armenian Air flights. The cargo holds on the Russian jets it flies from some cities are not properly heated or pressurized for pets. Pets obtained here should be inoculated by one of the local veterinarians. Bring any specific medications for your pet.

Currency, Banking, Wrights & Measures

The dram is the official currency. It is internally convertible. Currently, one U.S. dollar equals 545 dram. This rate is fairly stable, but the trend has been to weaken slowly against the dollar.

Armenia is a cash-based economy. Banks are not generally used. There is one international bank, HSBC, which operates a few VISA ATMs around town. (One is in the Armenia Hotel.) The HSBC Bank is located next to the Armenia Hotel on Buzand Street. If you are bringing U.S. cash to Armenia, make sure it is in good condition. Torn or marked bills might be refused, as might bills older than 1989.

American Express Travelers Checks are accepted at the largest of the hotels, but there are added fees.

There are many money exchanges throughout Yerevan. They operate 7 days a week. By law all transactions must be in Armenian drams.

The metric system of weights and measures is used here. Fabric is bought by the meter, potatoes by the kilo, gasoline by the 20-liter container, and distances are measured in kilometers.

Americans who are living in or visiting Armenia are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Armenia and obtain updated information on travel and security within Armenia. The U.S. Embassy in Yerevan is located at 18 General Bagramian Street, telephone 011 (3741) 151-551 and fax 011 (3741) 151-550. The consular section is open from 9:00 AM until 5:30 PM, with time reserved for American citizen services from 2:00 PM until 5:30 PM Monday through Friday

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 & 2 …New Year's Day

Jan. 6 …Christmas (Orthodox)

Apr. 7 …Day of Beauty & Mother's

Apr. 24 …Genocide Memorial Day

Apr/May. … Easter^*

May. 1 …Labor Day

May. 9 …Victory and Peace Day

May. 28 …First Republic Day

Jul.5…Constitution Day

Sep. 23 …Independence Day

Dec. 31 …New Year's Eve

^*variable

Armenia

History & Background

Located in Asia Minor, Armenia borders Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north, Azerbaijan (including the disputed Nagorno Karabagh region) to the east and southwest, and Iran to the south. While the historic Armenian kingdom once extended into northeast Turkey and northwest Iran, from the Caspian to the Mediterranean seas, Armenia is the smallest of the 15 former Soviet Socialist republics, at only 29,800 sq km (11,490 sq mi) in size. The population is 3.8 million. Although for centuries most Armenians lived in highlands tending animals, today 68 percent occupy the nation's towns and urban areas.

Education in Armenia has long been regarded as a vital part of the nation's identity and heritage. An ancient culture and mountainous land, Armenia was located at the center of what has been called the "cradle of civilization." Unfortunately, because it was situated between Eastern and Western civilizations, the country was continually caught in the turmoil of war. At the same time, however, its seat astride trade and migration routes between Europe and Asia Minor allowed goods and ideas to pass frequently through the land. Intercourse with China, for example, may have helped bring to the west some of the tools and knowledge that aided in events of the Renaissance such as the discovery of the new world.

Over time, Armenia developed a unique language, extensive literature, and distinctive art and architecture, all the while sustaining several dynasties. In 301 A.D., it was the first nation to adopt Christianity as the official state religion; subsequently, Armenian schooling has been closely connected with the Armenian Apostolic Church at various stages of the nation's history.

Until the fifth century, Armenians wrote in Greek, Aramaic, Syriac, or other alphabets. In 406 A.D., the clergyman Mesrob Mashtots created the original Armenian alphabet of 36 letters (two more were later added). Immediately afterwards, the first Armenian schools opened. They were state-run and accessible to a large population.

In the seventh century, Anania Shirakatsi developed a primary school that marked a milestone in education. Shirakatsi's writing gained renown outside Armenia for pioneering ideas such as tailoring material according to age and emphasizing not only content but methods of teaching.

One of the first institutions of higher education, the Academy of Tatev, was founded in the ninth century. Other schools and tremendous scholarship emerged over the next 400 years in centers of education throughout Armenia. Notably, one of the historic educators and deacons of the time, Hovhannes Sarkavag, was distinguished for arguing that love of the child was central to teaching. Although an invasion by Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century caused the first large-scale emigration of Armenians, universities were founded, such as University of Gladzor in 1280. The reestablished University of Tatev, celebrated beyond the borders of the country, was referred to as a "Second Athens,"with instruction in music, aesthetics, and philosophy. These medieval Armenian institutions conferred degrees of "Archimandrite" and "Rabbi," upon passing of written examinations and defense of theses. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries, libraries issued forth and the first schoolbooks were pioneered.

Just as the West began exploring new lands and engaging new ideas in earnest, the East began to degenerate. By the sixteenth century, increasing numbers of schools were forced to close as the land was invaded repeatedly. Soon, most of Armenia was ravaged and fragmented. With no leader, its people amounted to a small Christian cluster surrounded by Muslims and nomads. For many years, the Armenian culture and its people dispersed, with their cultural life developing primarily in centers abroad, in Moscow, Venice, Tiblisi, and elsewhere.

Yet by the 1800s, Armenian intellectual life began to expand again as contact with Europe grew. Armenians helped build the first printing house in the Middle East in 1638 in Iran. The first novel ever written in spoken Armenian was produced by Khatchadour Abovian (1805-1848), making leisure reading accessible to more than solely the rich or educated. Armenians—at home and abroad—grew an extensive educational system during this time, developing schools, textbooks, teacher training, and educational policies to guide the process of learning across the lifespan.

This cultural and educational revival was aggressively dismantled, however, as Armenians fell victim to one of history's first genocides. In 1894 the Ottoman Turks began a massacre of over 200,000 Armenians which lasted for the next two years. The Russians closed Armenian schools and ordered the confiscation of church property, while the Turks wanted to move Armenians to Mesopotamia. After WWI broke out in 1915, the Young Turk party of the Ottoman Turkish Empire oversaw the systematic elimination of 1.5 million Armenians and the deportation of thousands more in a genocidal campaign that lasted until 1918.

With the advent of a brief period of statehood between 1918-1920, the first Armenian republic was established, building on the progress that had been made decades earlier—and then destroyed—to help create a foundation for today's educational system. By 1920, the institutions of school and church were separated. Over the next 20 years illiteracy was reduced drastically, from 83 percent to 16 percent between 1932 and 1940. Compulsory secondary education evolved in the 1960s with extensive construction and development of preschool, vocational, secondary and higher education systems.

After 1921, the Communist Soviet era dominated and information and literature from non-Communist nations was censored. Stalin's policy of "Russification"discouraged Armenians from preserving traditions and customs of their predecessors. By the 1980s, however, Gorbachev's rise to power brought new notions of reform, namely glasnost (openness in the media) and perestroika (rebuilding and restoring prosperity).

Just as positive change began to come to the region, however, the nation and its education system suffered the devastating blow of a massive earthquake in 1988. Some 50 villages were hit directly, and more than 500 schools were utterly destroyed. In all, estimates of as many as 50,000 Armenians were killed and 500,000 people left homeless by the earthquake. Conditions in the earthquake region continue to be dire, with tens of thousands of people still living in—and business and schools being conducted in—the temporary housing they were granted at the time of the quake.

Meanwhile, a war had ignited earlier in the year with neighboring Azerbaijan over the small region of Nagorno Karabagh ("mountainous fertile black gardens"), spawned after hundreds of Armenians were raped, maimed, and killed in Sumgait, north of Baku. Although a tenuous cease-fire has been in place since 1993, Azerbaijan and Turkey continue to impose a blockade around Armenia, leaving the nation in a crippling energy crisis and desperate economic condition.

Upon the breakup of the USSR, the Armenian people declared themselves a republic in 1991, for only the second time in nearly 700 years. While the main cities bustle with activity, they badly need modernizing due to lack of state financing for the fledgling nation.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Even amidst difficult economic times, the value of education continues to be held in high regard in Armenia. The present educational system has its roots in the brief period of independence during the formation of the first Republic of Armenia (1918-1920), and was solidified in the ensuing Soviet era of governance (1920-1990).

The significant role of education in the nation's set of priorities can be found within the first chapter of the Constitution of the Republic of Armenia, which outlines the Foundations of Constitutional Order. Article 11 charges the government with the task of supporting the development of Armenian education and cultural life. The Constitution further states that every citizen is entitled to free public secondary education, as well as free higher and specialized education as granted on a competitive basis.

The Ministry of Education and Science manages the general primary, secondary, and higher educational systems in Armenia. Included among its many responsibilities are the implementation of national education policy, the preparation of legislative bills, the enactment of reform measures, the establishment of performance indicators for decision-making, and the control of the system's resources.

During the Soviet era, the entire educational system rested under state control. Since then, the government has crafted decrees and laws to decentralize school administration. As part of the nation's Constitution, the Law of the Republic of Armenia on Education is organized into 54 articles, outlining the State's goals, objectives, and guarantees regarding the nation's educational system. In this regard, the Law defines education as the "process of training and instruction based on the interests of the person, the society, and the state, aimed at the maintenance of knowledge and its transmission to the new generation."

Article 4 situates the foundation of the state educational policy in "the national school, the main goal of which is preparation of persons with adequate professional and all-round (sic) knowledge, educated in the spirit of patriotism, state and humanity." The full system is divided into six areas: preschool, general (elementary and secondary), vocational, higher professional, supplementary education, and postgraduate professional education. Through the national school system is developed "the spiritual and intellectual potential of the Armenian people, maintenance and development of national and universal values."As an ally in these endeavors, "The Armenian Church also has a contribution in this affair."

Article 5 offers the principles embedded in the school system, including national dignity, democracy, universal values, assistance to the Diaspora, secular teaching, and equality between and access to both state and private educational offerings. For its part, the State guarantees citizens the "right to education, irrespective of nationality, race, sex, language, religion, political or other opinions, social origin, economic situation or other circumstances." Beyond these intangible, yet valuable, principles, the government goes so far as to pledge to sustain "regular functioning of the educational system, and creat(e) socioeconomic conditions" conducive to receiving a formal education. Towards this end, the system of secondary education is free, and textbooks are also made available without charge or for nominal rental fees.

In the years since independence, dramatic changes have been made to the national educational system, including new mechanisms for managing individual schools and selecting school directors. Local control over school management has shifted to city governors who appoint school councils that approve costs estimates and financial-economic reports, and also select school directors. While this has been regarded as an effective means of improving school management, the reforms have not sufficiently addressed issues of training and implementation. Steps are being taken to address these issues at the school level via a national program involving the training of school headmasters.

Educational System—Overview

Armenia's public educational system is manifested in four levels of schooling: preprimary (ages three to six), primary (grades one to three), intermediate (grades four to eight) and senior (grades nine to ten). The latter three levels are often grouped in the category of general education. Public schooling is free and compulsory until the age of sixteen, essentially through the senior level. From this point, students undergo testing to help determine their placement and financial support in either vocational study (two-year degrees) or from an extensive array of higher education institutions, both private and public. These are further broken down into baccalaureate (four-year undergraduate degrees), magistracy (two-year Master's degrees), and post-graduate (two-year scientific degrees). In sum, Armenia is home to more than 1,400 schools, not including preschools, kindergartens, and specialized institutions.

Armenian became the primary language of instruction in 1990, replacing Russian in this capacity. As with many of the changes that took hold after independence, teachers were not trained or prepared for this transition, and the quality of instructional delivery was affected. Of course, new textbooks presenting the national curriculum needed to be written and printed to reflect this departure, despite a sharp reduction in school expenditures. School construction and maintenance expenditures also dropped dramatically, and outdated laboratory and technical equipment could not be replaced.

The school year begins for all grade levels on September 1 and is divided into semesters and quarters. It lasts 30 weeks for first grade and 34 weeks for the remaining grades. Classes are held in 45-minute intervals. Armenian language and literature, mathematics, and physical education are taught at every grade level. Russian, other foreign languages, and electives are offered beginning in the second grade and continuing throughout the system. The teaching of natural sciences (including ecology, biology, chemistry, physics, and astrology) begins in grade four, and the teaching of social sciences (including history, geography, economics, political science, and law) begins in fifth grade. Courses in "culture, nature and work" (such as music, fine arts, drawing, handwork, and life skills) begin in fifth grade and continue throughout schooling. Military training is reserved for the senior school level. Grades are calculated on a five-point system. In most areas of the country, class sizes are set at 25-30 pupils per class at the secondary level, and 15-20 per class in higher education.

To be sure, the educational system continues to undergo a number of reforms, loosely geared toward addressing the quality and relevance of curricula, as well as promoting decentralization and parental involvement. This has required a major overhaul in the system, given that until 1991 the schools followed prescribed Soviet curricula and methods of teaching and learning. In essence, this meant that the same topics and methodologies were employed for all children in all settings, regardless of differences in demographics, abilities, or interests. However, new approaches have been introduced which emphasize the development of problem solving and decision making skills, as well as tailoring educational experiences for students. As one example, a senior school program with advanced study in selected subjects has been introduced.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Primary education became compulsory in 1932, helping dramatically to reduce illiteracy rates in the nation to nearly nonexistent. The Soviet system created and funded the preschool network in order to accommodate working mothers, who received 1.5 years of maternity leave before they had to return to the workforce. Parents' main contributions went towards clothing and shoes, as the cost of food in the preschools was either free or heavily subsidized. Teachers were held in the highest regard.

After the collapse of the government, funding for preprimary education fell dramatically, forcing many to close and leaving others to deteriorate. In 1997, the government sharply reduced the percentage of the education budget allocation for preschools, using the funds instead to increase spending on basic education and shifting the control of the preprimary system to local municipalities.

Article 17 of the Law on Education lists seven objectives of preschool education: aiding in physical, moral and intellectual development; laying the foundation for native and foreign language development; developing mathematical and other skills; learning rules of behavior and cultural and historical norms; nurturing respect for the Armenian nation; and preparing students for general education. The system is divided between nursery schools (which accommodate children ages one to three) and kindergartens (for children ages three to seven). The schools offer either day care or educational activities, though many combine both of these practices.

While the system relies heavily on strong preprimary schooling—since formal education does not begin until the age of seven—enrollment rates in both preschool and kindergarten began to decline in the late 1980s. Armenia's under-five population numbers approximately 232,000. Although 64,000 children attend preschool and kindergarten in Armenia, this number represents a decrease in attendance; figures show 1989 enrollment rates at 27.8 percent, while the number declined to 15 percent in 1997. Some explanations for this drop in enrollment include both insufficient resources and unprepared local governing bodies abruptly tasked with oversight, leading to a decline in the quality of the system. Further, the high rate of unemployment undoubtedly added to this trend, as many caregivers chose to keep children at home with them instead of sending them off to school. And, by introducing cost into the equation, parents had to decide whether or not it was worthwhile to send their children to preprimary institutions. In 1996, the tuition averaged about 500 dram (roughly $1 USD) a month, but the costs have since risen eight-fold. Private preschools began to emerge in 1999, with 15 schools registered nationally that year.

Secondary Education

Article 18 of the Law on Education expands upon the goals outlined for preschool education, noting that general education in Armenia seeks to develop children's knowledge of nature and the self, understanding of values and politics, and military preparation. More specifically, the focus of elementary school (grades one to three) is on the cultivation of language, mathematics, and work skills, with an eye towards character education. The middle school (grades four to eight) brings in a focus on science and healthy living, as well as helping to develop a sense of independence and self-care in the students. Senior school (grades nine to ten) brings these knowledge bases together and offers supplementary training for students with specialized academic interests. A school can offer a single grade level or multiple grade levels.

Children with special needs (including those who are without families) are either mainstreamed into the school system or are placed in schools designed to accommodate their particular needs. Evening and boarding schools, as well as orphanages, are available for this purpose.

The Armenian parliament is considering a draft law that proposes an expansion of the secondary education system, stretching it to eleven or twelve years. This is in response to additional curricula introduced into the system, increasing the number of subjects available for study by as many as 33 percent. The Ministry of Education and Science believes that this expansion is not only necessary for Armenia's school system to meet international standards, but also the rising standards of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

In total, Armenia's under-eighteen population numbers approximately 1,101,000; nearly 750,000 children attend Armenia's general school system. Elementary school enrollment remains high in Armenia, with school-children achieving literacy at this juncture. However, it is important to recognize the growing number of homeless children and child refugees in Armenia, whose lack of schooling not only adversely impacts their own lives but also affects the larger social fabric of which they are a part.

Two examinations are administered at the end of fourth grade in Armenian and mathematics. Students are re-tested in these content areas at the end of intermediate school, at which time they are also tested in a foreign language. Upon completion of these grade levels and exams, students then choose to pursue either the third level of general education—known as senior school—or else to attend a more specialized vocational school.

Significant curriculum reforms have occurred in the post-Soviet era, offering students (and teachers) new paths of inquiry into subjects and topics they had not previously considered—the most notable of which can be found in the arenas of civics and history. In addition to the scope of the new curricula and textbook materials, these texts offer colorful photos and maps as well as space-appropriate passages, which are radical departures from the previously bland, overcrowded, and imageless layout of books from the Soviet era.

In this spirit, a new civics book was introduced in 1999, dealing with issues including human rights, the Armenian constitution, and the workings of the branches of government. The book, supported by funds from Junior Achievement of Armenia as well as USAID, has attained a formal place in the curriculum and is in its second edition.

In addition, significant changes have been made in the manner which Armenian history is taught in Armenia. While the subject was always included in the curriculum, it was not given much importance, being subsumed into the broader spectrum of global and Soviet history. This approach has changed, largely due to the work of a group of academicians and educators who authored texts for seventh and eight grades as well as high school usage, which ambitiously address the beginnings of Armenian history through the 1990s.

These topics are further explored in a textbook that considers "The History of the Armenian Question,"which relates to the study of the national struggle for freedom, emancipation, and recognition of the Armenian Genocide. These issues of state and ethnic identity provide students with a rich and introspective base of knowledge that previously was inaccessible to them. Written for a ninth grade class level, the books are used in the curriculum followed by students who chose to pursue a humanities track after completing their eighth grade year. In addition to the textbook, brief (to keep costs down) but comprehensive teacher manuals and professional development seminars were created, offering educators guidance in both content and in methodology. Funding for these materials—which went through a second printing due to high demand—came from both a private donor and the Armenian Educational Foundation.

Higher Education

Higher education is widespread throughout Armenia, with the nation ranking first in educational attainment in the 1989 general census of the former Soviet Union. Adult literacy rates in Armenia remain exceptionally high, with UNICEF figures showing as many as 100 percent of the male population and 99 percent of the female population over the age of fifteen possessing the ability to read and write. Between 1920 and 1986, over 250,000 individuals were trained in the nation's universities. Armenia's private universities enroll some 20,000 students, while public higher education offers schooling to 34,000 students.

While the developing private school system is still working to streamline its accreditation with the Ministry of Education and Science, students are finding these institutions to be valuable options. Partially due to their focus on social sciences, as well as their flexibility regarding enrollment figures, these schools are driving the public universities into an era of reform as well. In this way, the state institutions are moving towards the American three-tiered system, whereby bachelor's, masters, and doctoral degrees are awarded.

Leading public institutions have achieved strong reputations for their contributions to scholarship in their respective fields, including Yerevan State University, the State Engineering University of Armenia, Yerevan State Medical University, the Armenian Academy of Agriculture, Yerevan State Institute for Russian and Foreign Languages, and Yerevan Komitas Conservatory. Funding continues to be an issue for public universities, however. Before independence, these schools were offered free of charge to Armenian students. Now, prospective students must pass an examination to gain entry to the schools, and based upon their scores they are either granted free admission or required to pay tuition. As such, students compete in large numbers for a select few scholarships. With annual tuition in some specialized departments running as high as $1500 USD, students are under great pressure to try to obtain—and maintain—these scholarships. Recipients are reevaluated annually and are only able to continue studying under scholarship if they display academic excellence.

A vital addition to the higher education landscape in Armenia has been the American University of Armenia (AUA). Opened in 1991, AUA offers English-taught graduate-level programs in Business, Engineering, Political Science, Health Sciences and Law, as well as providing training in English as a Foreign Language. Tuition runs nearly $1000 USD annually. Russia followed with a university in Armenia in 1998, and, in 2000, France also opened an Armenian university.

The National Academy of Sciences of Armenia represents the nation's brightest scholars and researchers and includes over fifty scientific and miscellaneous organizations. Founded in 1943, the Academy boasts 116 academicians, 337 doctors of sciences, and 1,152 candidates of sciences. As with other former Soviet republics, however, Armenian universities, technical institutes and research centers suffered a "brain drain" after independence. While this certainly continues to be a concern, the Ministry of Education and Science is taking steps to keep the nation's intelligentsia working in Armenia. In this regard, the Ministry is trying to encourage and develop links and connections to the international research community that allow scholars to integrate their work in the global landscape without having to leave the country to do so. To help support their efforts, the diasporan organization Fund for Armenian Relief has funded over $100,000 in grants to help foster the research projects of Armenian scientists and scholars.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

The 1996 decentralization of school and community governance brought additional economic challenges as well as influence by special interest groups. Initially, regional government offices managed all educational activities and appointments, and were given discretionary funds by the central treasury. All of this fell under the supervision of the Ministry of Education and Science. A revised decree in 1997 shifted control to the local Council which oversees spending and appointments.

The financial constraints upon the educational system prove to be perhaps the most daunting issue facing education in Armenia. Alarmingly, per-pupil public expenditures fell from $600 USD in 1985 to an estimated $36 USD in 1998. As a result, various programs have been enacted in an attempt to address the financial needs of the nation's schools and families.

At the same time, a great deal of assistance comes from outside Armenia. Organizations and individuals from the Armenian Diaspora have contributed funds for the construction of school buildings, for example. The Armenian Educational Foundation has created scholarship programs for students and is helping to renovate approximately 100 schools. The Children's Television Workshop includes Armenia on its list of countries that air "Open Sesame," which provides culturally neutral episodes of "Sesame Street" dubbed into the Armenian language. In addition, many international organizations offer their support via the purchase of computers and professional development. Further, outside funds have come from organizations such as UNHCR, UNDP, UNICEF, World Bank, Catholic Refugee Services, the Norwegian government, the Armenian Relief Society, the Fund for Armenian Relief, and Aznavour pour L'Armenie. A notable UNICEF-assisted program established textbook rental policy, wherein students pay a nominal fee (150 drams or approximately $.25 USD) to rent each book, which is returned at the end of the school year. Rental fees are banked by the schools and allowed to accrue interest to be used towards the purchase of additional texts every four years.

Teaching Profession

As with nearly every other aspect of the educational system in Armenia, the teaching profession has undergone dramatic changes since the fall of the Soviet Union. While teachers continue to be respected as professionals, and 80 percent hold degrees from institutions of higher education or professional pedagogical institutes, the post-Soviet corps tends to be less motivated, undergo fewer hours of professional development training, and hold lower status in their communities.

These problems are exaggerated in the rural areas, where conditions are poorer and fewer opportunities exist for educators to supplement their salaries. The workweek averages between twelve and eighteen hours, although many teachers work the low end of the spectrum because they hold other jobs. Their salaries declined from $200 USD a month in the 1980s, down to as low as $10 USD a month in 1993. Further, the teaching force—of which women comprise the vast majority—often goes unpaid for several months on end. As a result, private tutoring has become an unavoidable sideline business for many teachers. In an attempt to address the pressing concern over teacher salaries, the government decided in 1998 to exempt educational institutions from paying income tax, with the intent that some of the funds that would be retained could be used towards increasing teacher salaries at the school level.

Deteriorating conditions in the schools also adversely affect the profession, both in terms of motivation and efficacy. Until 1990, building renovations were completed every five years in all schools. By the 1993-1994 school year, the percentage of schools undergoing repair fell from twenty to five percent. Minor needs often go neglected, leading to the complete disrepair of many buildings. This deprioritization is reflected in the budget, which in 1997 allocated only $2 USD per pupil for renovations and did not allow for any repair in 1998 other than in disaster areas.

Another issue of concern lies in the discrepancy in the student-teacher ratio, in that the number of trained teachers is increasing while the student population declines due to a decreasing birth rate and financial pressures that force some children (mostly boys) to leave school to help support their families. This results in a pupil-teacher ratio that is too small for the system to sustain—averaging around 1:10—and had led to measures by the government to rationalize the system and decrease the overall number of teachers.

Summary

Since Armenia acquired independence from the Soviet Union in 1991, funding for education declined drastically as costs rose. The nation decentralized school and community governance in 1997 and shifted control of spending and appointments to local councils to attempt to address financial needs of families. But annual preprimary tuition for a single student now can cost as much as the annual salary of a teacher. Consequently, many children do not enroll in formal schools until age seven. Unfortunately, the teaching profession suffers too, due to decreases in training opportunities, status, salaries, and overall motivation in the post-Soviet era.

Higher education, however, boasts the highest ranking of the former Soviet states in terms of educational attainment. The finest of the nation's scholars and researchers belong to the National Academy of Sciences of Armenia. Also, adult literacy rates hovered at 100 percent through 1999.

In the midst of this period of inordinate financial strain, Armenia is striving to enact educational innovations to address the shifting sociopolitical realities it faces. Curricula and methods of teaching and learning are being reinvented anew. Many teachers, however, are skeptical of these radical changes and resistant to the reforms that are being thrust upon them. Understandably, they hesitate to simply adopt the succession of changes they have had no role in enacting, at the same time that they are teaching under increasingly difficult circumstances. As a result, there is a notable disconnect between traditional and progressive philosophies of education in Armenia, and educators' voices need to be heard as the nation struggles to resolve the tenuous, interconnected challenges facing the educational and political systems of the nation. Of course, these same teachers need to reflect upon the new and vibrant ways that they can contribute to this process in their individual classrooms—always, of course, with focus on the enrichment of the nation's educational offerings. Ultimately, this will require dialogue on the parts of all stakeholders in the system—teachers, students, parents, policymakers, and administrators—and holds the most promise for establishing a credible and thoughtful program of reform.

To this end, research in adult development has shown that for adults to make any serious life changes (such as those faced by Armenia's teachers), they need first to take ownership of their own personal development. With empathic support and inspired leadership, teachers in Armenia could take charge of recreating their own educational system. At the same time, they could utilize research by Kegan, Lauer, and Torosyan on fostering this development—for themselves as well as their students. One potential approach is to avoid treating issues as separate and disconnected (e.g. "funding," "training," "motivation" in education) and instead identify the way of thinking that brought about the issues or problems in the first place. Thus an overarching problem such as "poor teacher training" can be seen as being "caused" at least partially by individuals needing a better understanding of how to "listen," "cooperate," and "take leadership." Often, once people can see that such skills form a larger pattern, they can better transfer the abilities to manage other problems that come their way. Moreover, with globalization and the new world economy's emphasis on "ideas" and "entrepreneurs as agents of change," the Armenian people may benefit from creating such a "transformative" (rather than merely "informative") system of education more than ever before.

For its long-term future, Armenia could indeed gain from considering its current status within the Chinese definition of "crisis"—as a time of both "danger" and "opportunity." This turning point carries the stark risk that the nation may initially fall into steep decline, but also brings the very real opportunity ultimately to renew intellectual and cultural resources to meet both the mental and material demands of modern life.

Bibliography

"Armenia Set to Move to 11-year Secondary Education System."Yerevan, Armenia: Snark Newspaper, 7 February 2001.

Armenian National Commission for UNESCO. Educational Policy Making During a Situation of National Emergency, 1994.

Balian, Simon. "ANSEF Awards $110,000 for 22 Research Grants for Armenia."The Fund for Armenian Relief, 8 March 2001.

Bournoutian, George. A History of the Armenian People: Vol. II: 1500 A.D. to the Present. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1994.

Bournoutian, George. A History of the Armenian People: Vol. I: Pre-history to 1500 A.D. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1995.

Gabrielian, Richard. "Armenia."World Education Forum, EFA 2000 Assessment. UNESCO, 2000. Available from http://www2.unesco.org.

Ghazarian, Salpi Haroutinian. "Back to School: Revamping Armenia's Educational System."Armenian International Magazine, February 1998.

Government of Armenia. Law of the Republic of Armenia on Education. Yerevan, Armenia: 1 September 2000.

Government of Armenia. Situation Analysis of Women and Children. United Nations International Children's Fund (UNICEF), Save the Children Foundation (SCF), 1999.

Kasbarian, Lucine. Armenia: A Rugged Land, an Enduring People. Parsippany, NJ: Dillon/Simon & Schuster, 1998.

Kegan, Robert. In Over Our Heads: The Mental Demands of Modern Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994.

Kegan, Robert, and Lisa Lahey. How the Way We Talk Can Change the Way We Work: Seven Languages for Transformation. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2001.

Peroumian, Rubina. The History of the Armenian Question. Yerevan, Armenia: Hye Edit, 2000.

President of the Republic of Armenia. "The Constitution," 7 July 1995. Available from http://www.president.am.

Republic of Armenia Ministry of Education and Science. Indicator (Standard) for Secondary Education. Yerevan, Armenia. 3 March 1998.

Torosyan, Roben. "Encouraging Consciousness Development in the College Classroom Through Student-Centered Transformative Teaching and Learning." Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 2000. Available from http://webpage.pace.edu/rtorosyan.

Torosyan, Roben. "Applying learning to life: a theoretical framework in context."Spring 1999.

United Nations International Children's Fund (UNICEF). "Countries Affected by Armed Conflict."UNICEF Annual Report, 1996. Available from http://www.unicef.org.

—Nicole E. Vartanian and Roben Torosyan

Armenia

Compiled from the June 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Republic of Armenia

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 29,800 sq. km. (11,500 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Maryland.

Cities: Capital—Yerevan.

Terrain: High plateau with mountains, little forest land. t

Climate: Highland continental, hot summers, cold winters.

People

Nationality: Noun—Armenian(s). Adjective—Armenian.

Population: (official est.) 3,213,011 de jure (3,002,594 de facto). These figures represent the final results of the October 2001 census, as announced in January 2003.

Ethnic groups: Armenian 98%; Yezidi 1.2%; Russian, Greek, and other 0.8%.

Religions: Armenian Apostolic Church (more than 90% nominally affiliated).

Languages: Armenian (96%), Russian, other.

Education: Literacy—99%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—20/ 1,000. Life expectancy—66.6 years.

Work force: (1.24 million; 10.5% unemployed) Industry and construction—24.5%; agriculture and forestry—24.6%; trade—17.3%; education—13.4%; other—22.2%.

Government

Type: Republic.

Constitution: Approved in November 2005 referendum.

Independence: 1918 (First Armenian Republic); 1991 (from Soviet Union).

Government branches: Executive—president (head of state) with wider powers relative to other branches, prime minister (head of cabinet), Council of Ministers (cabinet). Legislative—unicameral National Assembly (parliament). Judicial—Constitutional Court.

Political subdivisions: 10 marzes (provinces) in addition to the city of Yerevan, which has the status of a province.

Political parties: Republican Party of Armenia, Prosperous Armenia, Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) Dashnaktsutyun, Country of Law (Orinats Yerkir), and the Heritage Party. Other parties include: People's Party of Armenia, National Accord Party, Republic Party, New Times Party, United Labor Party, Dashink Party, National Democratic Union, and the Armenian National Movement. In addition, there are dozens of other registered parties, many of which become active only during national campaigns, if at all.

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Economy (2005)

GDP: $4.867 billion.

GDP growth rate: 13.9%.

Per capita GDP: $1,514.

Inflation: 0.06%.

Natural resources: Copper, zinc, gold, and lead; hydroelectric power; small amounts of gas and petroleum.

Agriculture: Products—fruits and vegetables, wines, dairy, some livestock.

Industry: Types—chemicals, electronic products, machinery, processed food, synthetic rubber, and textiles.

Trade: Exports—$950.4 million: diamonds, scrap metal, machinery and equipment, brandy, copper ore. Export partners (2004)—Belgium 18%, Israel 15.3%, Russia 12.5%, U.S. 8.1%, Netherlands 7.2%, Iran 5.5%, Georgia 4.3%. Imports (2004)—$1.767.9 billion: natural gas, petroleum, tobacco products, foodstuffs, and diamonds. Import partners—Russia 11.3%, Belgium 10.1%, Israel 8.4%, Iran 7.1%, U.S. 7.6%.

PEOPLE AND HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHTS

Ethnic groups in Armenia include Armenians (95%), Kurds, Russians, Greeks, and others. More than 90% of the population is nominally affiliated with the Armenian Apostolic Church. Languages are Armenian (96%), Russian, and others.

Armenia first emerged into history around 800 BC as part of the Kingdom of Urartu or Van, which flourished in the Caucasus and eastern Asia Minor until 600 BC. After the destruction of the Seleucid Empire, the first Armenian state was founded in 190 BC. At its zenith, from 95 to 65 BC, Armenia extended its rule over the entire Caucasus and the area that is now eastern Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon. For a time, Armenia was the strongest state in the Roman East. It became part of the Roman Empire in 64 BC and adopted a Western political, philosophical, and religious orientation.

In 301 AD, Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion, establishing a church that still exists independently of both the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox churches. During its later political eclipses, Armenia depended on the church to preserve and protect its unique identity. From around 1100 to 1350, the focus of Armenian nationalism moved south, as the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, which had close ties to European Crusader states, flourished in southeastern Asia Minor until conquered by Muslim states.

Between the 4th and 19th centuries, Armenia was conquered and ruled by, among others, Persians, Byzantines, Arabs, Mongols, and Turks. For a brief period from 1918 to 1920, it was an independent republic. In late 1920, the communists came to power following an invasion of Armenia by the Red Army, and in 1922, Armenia became part of the Trans-Caucasian Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1936, it became the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. Armenia declared its independence from the Soviet Union on September 21, 1991.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Armenians voted overwhelmingly for independence in a September 1991 referendum, followed by a presidential election in October 1991 that gave 83% of the vote to Levon Ter-Petrossian. Ter-Petrossian had been elected head of government in 1990, when the Armenian National Movement defeated the Communist Party. Ter-Petrossian was re-elected in 1996. Following public demonstrations against Ter-Petrossian's policies on Nagorno-Karabakh, the President resigned in January 1998 and was replaced by Prime Minister Robert Kocharian, who was elected President in March 1998. Following the October 27, 1999 assassination in Parliament of Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsian, Parliament Speaker Karen Demirchian, and six other officials, a period of political instability ensued during which an opposition headed by elements of the former Armenian National Movement government attempted unsuccessfully to force Kocharian to resign. Kocharian was successful in riding out the unrest. Kocharian was reelected in March 2003 in a contentious election that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the U.S. Government deemed to fall short of international standards.

As a result of the May 2007 parliamentary elections, 103 seats of the 131 in the National Assembly (90 elected on a proportional basis and 41 on a district-by-district majoritarian basis) are members of pro-govern-mental parties. The Republican Party and Prosperous Armenia formed a coalition; the ARF Dashnaksutyun Party signed a cooperation agreement with this coalition. The Heritage Party and Orinats Yerkir remain opposition parties. While in the past opposition parties, despite philosophical differences, tended to vote together on key legislative issues, there has been no agreement among the opposition parties to date to do so.

The Government of Armenia's stated aim is to build a Western-style parliamentary democracy as the basis of its form of government. However, international observers have questioned the inherent fairness of parliamentary and presidential elections during each of the previous nationwide elections (1995, 1999, and 2003) as well as during the 2005 constitutional referendum, citing polling deficiencies, lack of cooperation by the electoral commission, poor maintenance of electoral lists, and access to polling places. The 2007 parliamentary elections, however, demonstrated an improvement over previous elections. The new constitution in 2005 increased the power of the legislative branch and allows for more independence of the judiciary; the executive branch nevertheless retains more power than most European countries.

The Government's human rights record remained poor in 2006; while there were some improvements in a few areas, serious problems remained. Security forces beat pretrial detainees. Impunity remained a problem. There were reports of arbitrary arrest and detention. Lengthy pretrial detention remained a problem. There were some limits on press freedom, due in part to self-censorship and denial of television broadcast licenses. The law places some restrictions on religious freedom. Societal violence against women was a problem. Trafficking of women and children was a problem, which the government took some steps to address.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Pres.: Robert KOCHARIAN

Prime Min.: Serzh SARGSYAN

Min. Chief of Staff of the Cabinet: Manuk TOPUZYAN

Min. of Agriculture: Davit LOKYAN

Min. of Culture & Youth: Hasmik POGHOSIAN

Min. of Defense: Mikayel HARUTYUNYAN

Min. of Education & Science: Levon MKRTCHYAN

Min. of Energy: Armen MOVSISYAN

Min. of Environmental Protection: Aram HARUTYUNIAN

Min. of Finance & Economy: Vardan KHACHATRYAN

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Vartan OSKANIAN

Min. of Health: Harutyun KUSHKIAN

Min. of Justice: Gevorg DANIELYAN

Min. of Labor & Social Issues: Aghvan VARDANYAN

Min. of Sport & Youth: Armen GRIGORIAN

Min. of Territorial Admin.: Hovik ABRAHAMYAN

Min. of Trade & Economic Development: Nerses YERITSIAN

Min. of Transport & Communication: Andranik MANUKYAN

Min. of Urban Planning: Vardan VARDANIAN

Chmn., National Bank: Tigran SARGSYAN

Ambassador to the US: Tatoul MARKARIAN

Permanent Representative to the UN, NewYorkk: Armen MARTIROSYAN

Armenia's embassy in the U.S. is at 2225 R Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20008; tel: 202-319-1976; fax: 202-319 -2984.

ECONOMY

Armenia is the second most densely populated of the former Soviet republics. It is a landlocked country between the Black and the Caspian Seas, bordered on the north by Georgia, to the east by Azerbaijan, on the south by Iran, and to the west by Turkey. Up until independence, Armenia's economy was based largely on industry—chemicals, electronic products, machinery, processed food, synthetic rubber, and textiles—and highly dependent on outside resources. Agriculture accounted for only 20% of net material product and 10% of employment before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. Armenian mines produce copper, zinc, gold, and lead. The vast majority of energy is produced with imported fuel, including gas and nuclear fuel (for its one nuclear power plant) from Russia; the main domestic energy source is hydroelectric. Small amounts of coal, gas, and petroleum have not yet been developed.

Like other New Independent States of the former Soviet Union, Armenia's economy suffers from the legacy of a centrally planned economy and the breakdown of former Soviet trading patterns. Soviet investment in and support of Armenian industry has virtually disappeared, so that few major enterprises are still able to function. In addition, the effects of the 1988 earthquake, which killed more than 25,000 people and made 500,000 homeless, are still being felt. Although a cease-fire has held since 1994, the conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh has not been resolved. The consequent closure of both the Azerbaijani and Turkish borders has devastated the economy, because of Armenia's dependence on outside supplies of energy and most raw materials. Land routes through Azerbaijan and Turkey are closed; routes through Georgia and Iran are inadequate or unreliable. In 1992-93, GDP fell nearly 60% from its 1989 level. The national currency, the dram, suffered hyperinflation for the first few years after its introduction in 1993.

Nevertheless, the Government of Armenia, helped by the cease-fire that has been in effect in Nagorno-Karabakh since 1994, has been able to carry out wide-ranging economic reforms that paid off in dramatically lower inflation and steady growth. Armenia has registered strong economic growth since 1995, building on the turnaround that began the previous year, and inflation has been negligible for the past several years. New sectors, such as precious stone processing and jewelry making, information and communication technology, and even tourism are beginning to supplement more traditional sectors such as agriculture in the economy.

This steady economic progress has earned Armenia increasing support from international institutions. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), as well as other international financial institutions (IFIs) and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans. Total loans extended to Armenia since 1993 exceed $1.1 billion. These loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit, stabilizing the local currency; developing private businesses; energy; the agriculture, food processing, transportation, and health and education sectors; and ongoing rehabilitation work in the earthquake zone.

Continued progress will depend on the ability of the government to strengthen its macroeconomic management, including increasing revenue collection, improving the investment climate, and making strides against corruption. A liberal foreign investment law was approved in June 1994, and a Law on Privatization was adopted in 1997, as well as a program on state property privatization. The government joined the World Trade Organization on February 5, 2003.

Environmental Issues

Armenia is trying to address its environmental problems. It has established a Ministry of Nature Protection and has introduced a pollution fee system by which taxes are levied on air and water emissions and solid waste disposal, with the resulting revenues used for environmental protection activities. Armenia is interested in cooperating with other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS—a group of 12 former Soviet republics) and with members of the international community on environmental issues. The Armenian Government has committed to decommissioning the Armenian Nuclear Power Plant as soon as alternate energy sources can be identified.

DEFENSE AND MILITARY ISSUES

Armenia established a Ministry of Defense in 1992. Border guards subject to the National Security Service patrol Armenia's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian Border Guards continue to monitor its borders with Iran and Turkey.

The Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty was ratified by the Armenian parliament in July 1992. The treaty establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of military equipment, such as tanks, artillery, armored combat vehicles, combat aircraft, and combat helicopters, and provides for the destruction of weaponry in excess of those limits. Armenian officials have consistently expressed determination to comply with its provisions.

Armenia has provided data on armaments as required under the CFE Treaty. There are indications that Armenia is trying to establish mechanisms to ensure fulfillment of its arms control obligations. Armenia is not a significant exporter of conventional weapons, but it has provided substantial support, including materiel, to separatists in Nagorno-Karabakh.

In March 1993, Armenia signed the multilateral Chemical Weapons Convention, which calls for the eventual elimination of chemical weapons. Armenia acceded to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state in July 1993. The U.S. and other Western governments have discussed efforts to establish effective nuclear export control systems with Armenia.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Armenia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the Commonwealth of Independent States, NATO's Partnership for Peace, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the World Trade Organization.

Nagorno-Karabakh

In 1988, the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominantly ethnic Armenian enclave within Azerbaijan, voted to secede and join Armenia. This eventually developed into a full-scale armed conflict. Armenian support for the separatists led to an economic embargo by Azerbaijan, which has had a negative impact on Armenia's foreign trade and made imports of food and fuel more expensive, three-quarters of which previously transited Azerbaijan under Soviet rule.

Peace talks in early 1993 were disrupted by the seizure of Azerbaijan's Kelbajar district by Nagorno-Kara-bakh Armenian forces and the forced evacuation of thousands of ethnic Azeris. Turkey in protest then followed with an embargo of its own against Armenia. A cease-fire was declared between Azeri and Armenian/Nagorno-Karabakh forces in 1994 and has been maintained by both sides since then in spite of occasional shooting along the line of contact. All Armenian governments have thus far resisted domestic pressure to recognize the self-proclaimed independence of the “Nagorno-Karabakh Republic,” while at the same time announcing they would not accept any peace accords that returned the enclave to Azerbaijani rule. Approximately 526,000 of the estimated 800,000 ethnic Azeris who fled during the Karabakhi offensives still live as internally displaced persons in Azerbaijan, while roughly 235,000 of 360,000 ethnic Armenians who fled Azerbaijan since 1988 remain refugees.

Negotiations to peacefully resolve the conflict have been ongoing since 1992 under the aegis of the Minsk Group of the OSCE. The Minsk Group is currently co-chaired by the U.S., France, and Russia. Negotiations have intensified since 2004.

According to Armenia's Office of the Geographer, Karabakhi Armenians, supported by the Republic of Armenia, now hold about 11% of Azerbaijan and have refused to withdraw from occupied territories until an agreement on the status of Nagorno-Karabakh is reached. Armenia and Azerbaijan continue to observe the cease-fire that has been in effect since May 1994, and in late 1995 both also agreed to OSCE field representatives being based in Tbilisi, Georgia, to monitor the cease-fire and facilitate the peace process.

U.S.-ARMENIAN RELATIONS

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and created the opportunity to build bilateral relations with the New Independent States (NIS) as they began a political and economic transformation. The U.S. recognized the independence of Armenia on December 25, 1991, and opened an Embassy in Yerevan in February 1992. The United States has made a concerted effort to help Armenia and the other NIS during their difficult transition from totalitarianism and a command economy to democracy and open markets. The cornerstone of this continuing partnership has been the Freedom for Russia and Emerging Eurasian Democracies and Open Markets (FREEDOM) Support Act, enacted in October 1992. Under this and other programs, the U.S. to date has provided nearly $1.5 billion in humanitarian and technical assistance for Armenia. U.S. assistance programs in Armenia are described in depth on the website at: http://www.usaid.am/main/en/129/.

On March 27, 2006 Armenia signed a Millennium Challenge Compact with the United States; the agreement entered into force on September 29, 2006. The agreement will provide $235 million to Armenia over five years to reduce rural poverty through the improvement of rural roads and irrigation networks.

U.S.-Armenian Economic Relations

In 1992 Armenia signed three agreements with the U.S. affecting trade between the two countries. The agreements were ratified by the Armenian parliament in September 1995 and entered into force in the beginning of 1996. They include an “Agreement on Trade Relations,” an “Investment Incentive Agreement,” and a treaty on the “Reciprocal Encouragement and Protection of Investment” (generally referred to as the Bilateral Investment Treaty, or BIT). Armenia does not have a bilateral taxation treaty with the U.S. The 1994 Law on Foreign Investment governs all direct investments in Armenia, including those from the U.S.

Approximately 70 U.S.-owned firms currently do business in Armenia, including such multinationals as Procter & Gamble, M&M-Mars, Xerox, Dell, Microsoft, and IBM. Recent major U.S. investment projects include the Hotel Armenia; the Hotel Ani Plaza; Tufenkian Holdings (carpet and furnishing production, hotels, and construction); several subsidiaries of U.S.-based information technology firms, including Viasphere Technopark, an IT incubator; a Greek-owned Coca-Cola bottling plant; petroleum exploration by the American-Armenian Exploration Company; jewelry and textile production facilities; a large perlite mining and processing plant; and Jermuk Mother Plant, which produces one of the more popular brands of mineral water in Armenia.

U.S. Support To Build A Market Economy

The U.S. continues to work closely with international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to help Armenia in its transition to a free-market economy. Armenia has embarked upon an ambitious reform program, which has allowed a gradual transition from humanitarian aid toward more developmental assistance. U.S. economic assistance programs, primarily under the administration of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), have three objectives: to help create a legal, regulatory, and policy framework for competition and economic growth in energy, agriculture, housing, and other sectors; to promote fiscal reform; and to develop a competitive and efficient private financial sector. Other agencies, including the Departments of State, Agriculture, Treasury, Defense, Commerce, Energy, Justice, and the Peace Corps sponsor various assistance projects. The U.S.-Armenia Task Force, established in 2000, is a bilateral commission that meets every 6 months to review the progress and objectives of U.S. assistance to Armenia.

Specific USAID programs focus on the development of a private sector and small and medium-size enterprises, including microcredit programs; energy sector reform, focusing on efficient management of Armenia's physical resources; democracy and good governance programs, including the promotion of a well-informed and active civil society; social sector reform, including benefits administration for vulnerable populations and targeted vocational training; health sector reform, including improvement of management and delivery of primary healthcare services with an emphasis on preventive medicine; and earthquake zone assistance, which provides housing and economic reactivation for victims of the 1988 earthquake. Under this program, more than 4,000 families who lost their homes have participated in a housing certificate program allowing them to secure permanent and adequate housing.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Caucasus Agricultural Development Initiative provides targeted and sustained technical, financial and marketing assistance to small and medium-sized agribusinesses and farmer-marketing associations.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Cochran Fellowship Program provides training to Armenian agriculturists. USDA and USAID also have launched efforts to revive production and export of Armenian vegetables, fruits, and other agricultural products.

U.S. Humanitarian Assistance

Over the past decade the U.S. has provided over $1.5 billion in assistance to Armenia, the highest per capita amount in the NIS. Humanitarian aid originally accounted for up to 85% of this total, reflecting the economic effects caused by closed borders with Turkey and Azerbaijan related to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, destruction in northern Armenia left from the devastating 1988 earthquake, and the virtual paralysis of most of the country’ factories.

As conditions in Armenia have improved, with the stabilization of the economy and increased energy production—including the restarting of the Armenian Nuclear Power Plant at Metsamor—U.S. assistance programs have moved away from humanitarian goals to longer-term development ones.

U.S. Support To Achieve Democracy

Technical assistance and training programs have been provided in municipal administration, intergovernmental relations, public affairs, foreign policy, diplomatic training, rule of law, and development of a constitution. Specific programs are targeted at promoting elections that meet international standards, strengthening political parties, and promoting the establishment of an independent judiciary and independent media. This includes financing for programs that support civil society organizations, local non-governmental organizations (NGO) capacity building, National Assembly professional development, and local and community-level governance.

State Department and USAID educational exchange programs play an important role in supporting democratic and free-market reforms. Assistance in the translation and publication of printed information also has been provided. Exchange programs in the U.S. for Armenian lawyers, judges, political party members, business people, government officials, NGO activists, journalists, and other public figures focus on a range of topics, including the American judicial and political system, privatization, specific business sectors, the media, and civil society. The State Department has funded an ongoing project to provide Internet connectivity to schools at various levels throughout the country; these centers provide both educational and community-building opportunities.

USAID has funded international and domestic groups to monitor national elections. USAID also has funded programs to educate voters and to strengthen the role of an array of civic organizations in the democratic process.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

Last Updated: 2/19/2008YEREVAN (E) 1 American Ave., (37410) 46-47-00; 49-42-00, Fax (37410) 46-47-42, INMARSAT Tel Emer. Iridium 4179 770 4310; 4179 222 9728, Workweek: Mon-Fri / 9:00am-6:00pm, Website: http://yerevan.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

August 31, 2007

Country Description: Armenia is a constitutional republic with a developing economy. Tourist facilities, especially outside Yerevan, the capital, are not highly developed, and many of the goods and services taken for granted in other countries may be difficult to obtain.

Entry Requirements: A passport and visa are required. For stays longer than 21 days, but not exceeding 90 days, an official invitation from a qualifying entity in Armenia is required. U.S. citizens may purchase visas for a stay of up to 21 days online at http://www.armeniaforeignminis-try.am/ for the fee of USD 60 or upon arrival at the port of entry for the fee of $30 US. Visas for up to 120 days may be purchased at the Armenian Embassy in Washington, D.C. or the Consulate General in Los Angeles for the fee of USD 61.

For further information on entry requirements, contact the Armenian Embassy at 2225 R St. NW, Washington, DC 20008, tel. (202) 319-1976 and (202) 319-2983; the Armenian Consulate General in Los Angeles at 50 N. La Cienega Blvd., Suite 210, Beverly Hills, CA 90211, tel. (310) 657-7320, or visit the Embassy of Armenia's web site at http://www.armeniaemb.org for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: A cease-fire has been in effect since 1994 around the self-proclaimed “Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh,” an unrecognized ethnic Armenian enclave within Azerbaijan. However, reports of intermittent gunfire along the cease-fire line and along the border with Azerbaijan continue. Because of the existing state of hostilities, consular services are not available to Americans in Nagorno-Karabakh. Travelers should exercise caution near the Armenia-Azerbaijan border and consult the Country Specific Information for Azerbaijan if considering travel to Nagorno-Karabakh from Armenian territory. Armenia's land borders with Turkey, Azerbaijan, and the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan remain closed and continue to be patrolled by armed troops who stop all people attempting to cross. There are still land mines in numerous areas in and near the conflict zones.

Several political rallies occurred in Yerevan in the spring of 2004 and in the fall of 2005. Though the majority of these demonstrations were peaceful, police forcibly removed protesters from the scene in at least one instance in 2004. Political rallies in the run-up to the May 2007 Parliamentary elections were mostly peaceful. However, some demonstrators were beaten by police during one march in central Yerevan. Americans should be mindful that even demonstrations intended to be peaceful could turn confrontational and possibly escalate into violence. American citizens are therefore urged to avoid the areas of demonstrations if possible, and to exercise caution if within the vicinity of any demonstrations.

Armenia is an earthquake and landslide-prone country. In addition to these natural disasters, there exists the possibility of chlorine gas spills and radiation poisoning due to industrial accidents; the Soviet-era Armenia Nuclear Power plant is located in Metsamor, approximately 20 kilometers southwest of Yerevan. The plant was closed temporarily in 1988 following a devastating earthquake, but reopened in 1995. Armenia is currently under international pressure to close the plant permanently, due to safety concerns.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs’ web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: Crime against foreigners is relatively rare in Armenia. Breakins, particularly of vehicles, and theft are the most common crimes, but there have been instances of violent crime as well. In May 2004, an American citizen was murdered in Yerevan; the crime remains unsolved. While the incidence of violent crime remains lower than in most U.S. cities, American citizens are urged to exercise caution and to avoid traveling alone after dark in Yerevan. Several American investors have also reported being the victims of financial scams and disputes over property ownership.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Though there are many competent physicians in Armenia, medical care facilities are limited, especially outside the major cities. The U.S. Embassy maintains a list of English-speaking physicians in the area. Most prescription medications are available, but the quality varies. Elderly travelers and those with existing health problems may be at risk due to inadequate medical facilities.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's web site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith/en

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Armenia is provided for general reference only and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Travel in Armenia requires caution. Public transportation, while very inexpensive, may be unreliable and uncomfortable. Travel at night is not recommended, and winter travel can be extremely hazardous in mountain areas and higher elevations.

Travelers should avoid the old highway between the towns of Ijevan and Noyemberyan in the Tavush region, as well as the main highway between the towns of Kirants and Baghanis/Voskevan. The U.S. Embassy has designated this portion of the road off-limits to all U.S. government personnel because of its proximity to the cease-fire line between Armenian and Azerbaijani forces, a line which has seen numerous cease-fire violations over the years.

On weekends, there are an increased number of intoxicated drivers on Armenian roads. American citizens are urged to exercise particular vigilance while traveling on the main highway from Yerevan to the resort areas of Tsaghadzor and Sevan. Traffic police will attempt to stop individuals driving erratically and dangerously, but police presence outside of Yerevan is limited.

Armenia does have emergency police and medical services, but they may take time to reach remote regions.

With the exception of a few major arteries, primary roads are frequently in poor repair, with sporadic stretches of missing pavement and large potholes. Some roads shown as primary roads on maps are unpaved and can narrow to one lane in width, while some newer road connections have not yet been marked on recently produced maps. Secondary roads are normally in poor condition and are often unpaved and washed out in places. Street and road signs are poor to nonexistent. Truck traffic is not heavy except on the main roads linking Yerevan to Iran and Georgia.

Minibuses are considered more dangerous than other forms of public transportation. Travelers who choose to ride minibuses should exercise caution because these vehicles are often overcrowded and poorly maintained, commonly lack safety measures including seatbelts, and are frequently involved in accidents.

Though crime along roadways is rare, the police themselves sometimes seek bribes during traffic stops. Drivers in Armenia frequently ignore traffic laws, making roadways unsafe for unsuspecting travelers. Pedestrians often fail to take safety precautions and those driving in towns at night should be especially cautious. In cities, a pedestrian dressed in black crossing an unlit street in the middle of the block is a common occurrence.

The quality of gasoline in Armenia ranges from good at some of the more reliable stations in cities to very poor. The gasoline and other fuels sold out of jars, barrels, and trucks by independent roadside merchants should be considered very unreliable.

Aviation Safety Oversight: Asthere is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Armenia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Armenia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Travelers on Armavia International Airways may experience prolonged delays, sudden cancellation of flights, and flights departing earlier than scheduled. In addition to frequent delays, flights are sometimes overcrowded with passengers without seats standing in the aisle along with excess unsecured cabin luggage. Even basic safety features such as seat belts are sometimes missing. Air travel to Armenia via European carriers is typically more reliable. Ticketed passengers on flights leaving Yerevan should reconfirm their reservation 24 hours prior to departure.

Special Circumstances: Armenia remains largely a cash-only economy. Credit cards are accepted at some businesses, including major hotels and restaurants in Yerevan, but rarely outside of the capital. Limited facilities exist for cashing traveler's checks and wiring money into the country. There are a number of ATMs in the center of Yerevan. Dollars are readily exchanged at market rates. Travelers may experience problems with local officials seeking bribes to perform basic duties. Armenian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Armenia of items such as firearms, pornographic materials, medication, and communications equipment. For export of antiquities and other items that could have historical value, such as paintings, carpets, old books, or other artisan goods, a special authorization is required in advance from the Armenian Ministry of Culture. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Armenia in Washington, D.C. or Consulate General in Los Angeles for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Dual Nationality: In addition to being subject to all Armenian laws affecting U.S. citizens, dual nationals may also be subject to other laws that impose special obligations on Armenian citizens. Male U.S. citizens over the age of 18 who are also considered to be Armenian citizens may be subject to conscription and compulsory military service upon arrival, and to other aspects of Armenian law while in Armenia. Since the summer of 2005, Armenian authorities have regularly detained U.S. citizens on these grounds upon their arrival in the country. In most cases, ethnic Armenian travelers who are accused of evading Armenian military service obligations are immediately incarcerated and later found guilty of draft evasion. Penalties for those convicted are stiff and, by law, include jail time. Those who may be affected are strongly advised to consult with Armenian officials and inquire at an Armenian embassy or consulate to their status before traveling.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offences. Persons violating Armenian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Armenia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines.

Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Armenia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Armenia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate.

The American Citizen Services section of the U.S. Embassy in Yerevan maintains a computer terminal in the consular waiting room available to U.S. citizens for registration. The U.S. Embassy provides Internet access to the general public through the American Corners program and through the U.S. Embassy's Information Resource Center. American Corners are located in Yerevan (2 Amiryan Street, phone: (374-10) 56-13-83) and Gyumri (68 Shirakatsi Street, phone: (312) 2-21-53). By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency.

The U.S. Embassy in Yerevan is located at 1 American Avenue, tel. 011 (37410) 46-47-00 and fax: 011 (37410) 46-47-42. The Consular Section is open from 9:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m., with time reserved for American citizen services from 2:00 p.m. until 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday, except for official U.S. Embassy holidays. For more information, see the Embassy's web site at http://yerevan.usembassy.gov.

International Adoption

April 2007

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: Armenia is a party to the Hague Convention on Inter-country adoption. The National Adoption Committee of the Republic of Armenia is the central authority under the Hague Convention. It is an advisory committee to the Prime Minister of the Republic of Armenia, chaired by the Minister of Justice and its members include representatives from different ministries. The contact information is: Ministry of Labor and Social Issues, Government building #1 Republic Square, Yerevan, Armenia. Tel. (374 10) 56-53-83, or 52-68-31.

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: Married couples and single people are eligible to apply to adopt Armenian children. The age difference between the unmarried adopter and an adopted child may not be less than 18 years.

Eligibility Requirements for Children to be Adopted: There are many children living in orphanages, however ONLY those children whose parents have died, disappeared or signed a statement of relinquishment of their parental rights, and whose families do not visit them, thus abandoning them are available for adoption. The names of children who are available for adoption are inscribed on a list kept by the Ministry of Labor and Social Issues. A child's name must remain on this list for three months before he or she is declared available for inter-country adoption. For this reason, it is impossible to adopt a very young infant from Armenia. Consent for child adoption can only be given after the birth of the child. Children who may qualify as orphans who are not living in orphanages are subject to the same requirements for adoption availability.

Residency Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents do not have to fulfill any residency requirements to adopt in Armenia.

Time Frame: A home study performed by a local U.S. adoption agency should be the first step in adopting a child from Armenia. A copy of the home study and proof of subsequent USCIS approval must be submitted to the Armenian National Adoption Committee in order to apply for approval to adopt. Once approval has been granted, it can take several months to identify a child and several more months to secure the proper paperwork from different government agencies to support an application to adopt that particular child. Start to finish, a time-frame of one to two years is common.

Adoption Agency and Attorneys: Armenian law does not recognize the involvement of professional facilitators, adoption agencies or attorneys; it allows the prospective parents to grant power of attorney to an individual to handle most aspects of the adoption process on their behalf. Some U.S. adoption agencies have contacts with experienced local individuals who can be given power of attorney. In many cases, prospective parents grant this power of attorney to individuals whom they trust, relatives, friends or acquaintances. Prospective adoptive parents are advised to fully research the professionalism, and ethics of any adoption agency or facilitator they plan to use for adoption services, in the United States and in Armenia.

Adoption Fees: Official fees necessary to procure the documents needed in support of the adoption amount to approximately USD 65. However, the practice of charging official and unofficial expediting fees varies, depending on the practice of the particular government agency or local office. Attorneys or other individuals assisting prospective adoptive parents with the adoption may charge additional fees for services rendered. Prospective parents are advised to obtain detailed receipts for all fees and donations paid to orphanages, either by the parents directly or through their U.S. adoption agencies. The U.S. Embassy requires a copy of receipts and information on fees paid in the U.S. and in Armenia at the time of the immigrant visa interview.

Adoption Procedures: The documents under List 1 below must be submitted to the Armenian National Adoption Committee. This can be done in person in the Republic of Armenia or by registered mail, through the Armenian Embassy in Washington, D.C. or the Armenian Consulate General in Beverly Hills, California. For information on filing in the U.S., please refer to the Armenian Embassy website http://www.armeniaemb.org.

The National Adoption Committee has one month in which to conduct a study and issue a conclusion on the ability to adopt. That conclusion is valid for one year. Once the National Adoption Committee grants the permission to adopt, the adoptive parents may identify a child, from the children eligible for inter-country adoption listed in the registry kept by the Ministry of Labor and Social Issues. The prospective parents or their representative may go to the Ministry and view the list, or they may go directly to orphanages and once they locate a child, may verify his/her status by viewing the list.

Once the child has been identified, the prospective parents or their representative must submit the documents under List 2 below to the municipality in which the child resides. Once those documents are received, a court date is set.

Prospective adoptive parents can expect to travel to Armenia to sign adoption papers, attend a court proceeding, and have an 1-604 orphan investigation interview and a visa interview at the U.S. Embassy in Yerevan.

Court Proceedings: Adoptive parents and the child (if over 14) must be present for court proceedings. The court may request the presence of biological parents, orphanage representatives, or the child if the child is over the age of 10. The court proceeding are closed to the public. If the adoptive parents have asked to change the child's official name, date of birth, place of birth, or wish to add themselves to his documents as parents, the court will decide those questions in the course of the ruling. According to Armenian law, the date and place of birth may be changed for the purpose of protecting the privacy of the individuals involved, only if the child is under the age of one year old. The birth date cannot be changed by more than 3 months.

Cases may be rejected on the basis of incomplete or fraudulent paperwork, among other issues addressed in Armenian law. Prospective adoptive parents may be disqualified based on mental disease, drug addiction, alcoholism, tuberculosis, AIDS or other serious infectious diseases.

If any party wishes to cancel the adoption proceedings, that request will be adjudicated by the regular dispute court in Armenia. After the hearing the court will issue a preliminary decision and 15 days after that, the government will register the final court decision.

After that, the adoptive parents may obtain the adoption certificate and the child's new birth certificate at the local registration office (ZAGS) of the child's municipality. They must also visit OVIR, the Armenian passport agency, to obtain an Armenian passport for the child. The child must have a passport before the visa interview at the U.S. Embassy.

Also, before the adoptive parents depart Armenia with their new son or daughter, they must go to the Notar-ial Office of the Ministry of Justice to get all of the new documents certified with an apostille. This is required for departing the country.

Required Documents: List 1: Request Registration Following is the list of documents necessary to request registration as prospective adoptive parents:

• Copy of the adoptive parents’ U.S. passports.
• USCIS approval: Form I-171H and current home study that includes a description of the family composition and the place where the adopted child will reside; work verification letter(s), indicating position and salary; and letters of reference provided by at least 3 individuals or organizations.
• Tax return for the most recent tax year.
• Copy of marriage certificate (if married).
• If divorced or widowed, a copy of the divorce decree or spouse's death certificate is also required.
• Spousal consent, if only one spouse is legally adopting the child.
• Medical evaluation report confirming that the prospective adoptive parent does not suffer from any type of psychological condition, alcoholism or drug abuse, HIV AIDS or other STD, active tuberculosis or other irreversible infectious disease.
• Local police report for adoptive parents.
• Power of attorney, if the documents will be submitted through an authorized representative.

Each of the above documents must be legalized with an apostille obtained from the State Department of the State that issued the document and submitted together as one package. All documents must be translated into Eastern Armenian, the official language of the Republic of Armenia.

List 2: Municipal Approval

The following documents should be submitted to the regional court presiding over the child's district:

• The full names of the adoptive parents and child.
• Whether or not the parents want to change the child's name, his date of birth, place of birth, or to list themselves as parents on his documents.
• Adoptive parents’ passports or other identification.
• Adoptive parents’ marriage certificate (if applicable).
• Spousal consent, if married and only one spouse is legally adopting the child.
• Child's consent if the child is over age 10.
• Child's birth certificate and medical records.
• Statement of child's centralized registration from the Ministry of Social Security.
• Written consent of adoptive parents, birth parents and the orphanage. (Also, if applicable, death certificates of birth parents and consent of biological grandparents, if the biological parents are not adults.
• Government approval of adoptive parents.

Please note that Armenia is a party to the Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement for the Legalization for Foreign Public Documents (as is the U.S.). Therefore the apostille procedure should be used for all documents issued or notarized by a U.S. State.

Embassy of the Republic of Armenia
2225 R Street, N.W.
Washington D.C. 20008, USA
Tel: (202) 319-1976
Fax: (202) 319-2982
E-mail: armconsul@speakeasy.net
http://www.armeniaemb.org

Armenian Consulate General
50 North La Cienega Boulevard, Suite 210
Beverly Hills, CA 90211
Tel: (310) 657-7320
E-mail: armconla@aol.com

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Embassy of the United States of America
1 American Avenue
Yerevan, Republic of Armenia
Telephone: (+374 10) 464-700, 494-686
Fax:(+374 10) 464-742, 464-737
E-mail: consular@usa.am

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Armenia may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Yerevan. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-404-4747.

Armenia

Compiled from the December 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Republic of Armenia

PROFILE

PEOPLE AND HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHTS

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

DEFENSE AND MILITARY ISSUES

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-ARMENIAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 29,800 sq. km. (11,500 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Maryland.

Cities: Capital—Yerevan.

Terrain: High plateau with mountains, little forest land.

Climate: Highland continental, hot summers, cold winters.

People

Nationality: Noun—Armenian(s). Adjective—Armenian.

Population: (official est.) 3,213,011 de jure (3,002,594 de facto). These figures represent the final results of the October 2001 census, as announced in January 2003.

Ethnic groups: Armenian 98%; Yezidi 1.2%; Russian, Greek, and other 0.8%.

Religion: Armenian Apostolic Church (more than 90% nominally affiliated).

Languages: Armenian (96%), Russian, other.

Education: Literacy—99%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—20/1,000. Life expectancy—66.6 years.

Work force: (1.24 million — 10.5% unemployed) Industry and construction—24.5%; agriculture and forestry—24.6%; trade—17.3%; education—13.4%; other—22.2%.

Government

Type: Republic.

Constitution: Approved in November 2005 referendum.

Independence: 1918 (First Armenian Republic); 1991 (from Soviet Union).

Government branches: Executive—president (head of state) with wider powers relative to other branches, prime minister (head of cabinet), Council of Ministers (cabinet). Legislative—unicameral National Assembly (parliament). Judicial—Constitutional Court.

Political subdivisions: 10 marzes (provinces) in addition to the city of Yerevan, which has the status of a province.

Political parties: Republican Party of Armenia, Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) Dashnaktsutyun, Country of Law (Orinats Yerkir), People’s Party of Armenia, National Accord Party, Republic Party, and United Labor Party. Other significant parties include: National Democratic Union, Constitutional Rights Union, Social Democratic Hnchakian Party, Armenian National Movement, Liberal Democratic Ramkavar Party, Self Determination Union, Communist Party, and the Christian Democratic Party. In addition, there are dozens of other registered parties, many of which become active only during national campaigns.

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Economy (2005)

GDP: $4.867 billion.

GDP growth rate: 13.9%.

Per capita GDP: $1,514.

Inflation: 0.06%.

Natural resources: Copper, zinc, gold, and lead; hydroelectric power; small amounts of gas and petroleum.

Agriculture: Products—fruits and vegetables, wines, dairy, some livestock.

Industry: Types—chemicals, electronic products, machinery, processed food, synthetic rubber, and textiles.

Trade: Exports—$950.4 million: diamonds, scrap metal, machinery and equipment, brandy, copper ore. Export partners (2004)—Belgium 18%, Israel 15.3%, Russia 12.5%, U.S. 8.1%, Netherlands 7.2%, Iran 5.5%, Georgia 4.3%. Imports (2004)—$1.767.9 billion: natural gas, petroleum, tobacco products, foodstuffs, and diamonds. Import partners—Russia 11.3%, Belgium 10.1%, Israel 8.4%, Iran 7.1%, U.S. 7.6%.

PEOPLE AND HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHTS

Ethnic groups in Armenia include Armenians (95%), Kurds, Russians, Greeks, and others. More than 90% of the population is nominally affiliated with the Armenian Apostolic Church. Languages are Armenian (96%), Russian, and others.

Armenia first emerged into history around 800 BC as part of the Kingdom of Urartu or Van, which flourished in the Caucasus and eastern Asia Minor until 600 BC. After the destruction of the Seleucid Empire, the first Armenian state was founded in 190 BC. At its zenith, from 95 to 65 BC, Armenia extended its rule over the entire Caucasus and the area that is now eastern Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon. For a time, Armenia was the strongest state in the Roman East. It became part of the Roman Empire in 64 BC and adopted a Western political, philosophical, and religious orientation.

In 301 AD, Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion, establishing a church that still exists independently of both the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox churches. During its later political eclipses, Armenia depended on the church to preserve and protect its unique identity. From around 1100 to 1350, the focus of Armenian nationalism moved south, as the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, which had close ties to European Crusader states, flourished in southeastern Asia Minor until conquered by Muslim states.

Between the 4th and 19th centuries, Armenia was conquered and ruled by, among others, Persians, Byzantines, Arabs, Mongols, and Turks. For a brief period from 1918 to 1920, it was an independent republic. In late 1920, the communists came to power following an invasion of Armenia by the Red Army, and in 1922, Armenia became part of the Trans-Caucasian Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1936, it became the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. Armenia declared its independence from the Soviet Union on September 21, 1991.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Armenians voted overwhelmingly for independence in a September 1991 referendum, followed by a presidential election in October 1991 that gave 83% of the vote to Levon Ter-Petrossian. Ter-Petrossian had been elected head of government in 1990, when the Armenian National Movement defeated the Communist Party. Ter-Petrossian was re-elected in 1996. Following public demonstrations against Ter-Petrossian’s policies on Nagorno-Karabakh, the President resigned in January 1998 and was replaced by Prime Minister Robert Kocharian, who was elected President in March 1998. Following the October 27, 1999 assassination in Parliament of Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsian, Parliament Speaker Karen Demirchian, and six other officials, a period of political instability ensued during which an opposition headed by elements of the former Armenian National Movement government attempted unsuccessfully to force Kocharian to resign. Kocharian was successful in riding out the unrest. Kocharian was reelected in March 2003 in a contentious election that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the U.S. Government deemed to fall short of international standards.

As a result of the May 2003 parliamentary elections, 95 seats of the 131 in the National Assembly (75 elected on a proportional basis and 56 on a district-by-district majoritarian basis) went to generally pro-government parties or deputies. The Republican Party, ARF Dashnaksutyun Party, and Orinats Yerkir formed a coalition government. However, Orinats Yerkir pulled out of the loose governing coalition in May 2006, leaving a coalition consisting of the Republican and the ARF Dashnaksutyun parties, plus several unaffiliated deputies who vote with the government bloc. The former Speaker of the National Assembly, Artur Baghdassaryan (Orinats Yerkir), resigned his position on May 22, 2006. On June 1, 2006, the National Assembly elected Tigran Torosian to succeed Baghdassarvan. Opposition parties secured 26 seats during the 2003 election. There are philosophical tensions within the opposition, but these parties tend to vote together on key legislative issues. The opposition includes both the Justice Bloc (organized by the People’s Party of Armenia Chairman Stepan Demirchian) and the rival National Accord Party (headed by Artashes Geghamian).

The Government of Armenia’s stated aim is to build a Western-style parliamentary democracy as the basis of its form of government. However, international observers have questioned the inherent fairness of parliamentary and presidential elections during each of the previous nationwide elections (1995, 1999, and 2003) as well as during the 2005 constitutional referendum, citing polling deficiencies, lack of cooperation by the electoral commission, poor maintenance of electoral lists, and access to polling places. The new constitution in 2005 increased the power of the legislative branch and allows for more independence of the judiciary; the executive branch nevertheless retains more power than most European countries.

The Government’s human rights record remained poor in 2005; while there were some improvements in a few areas, serious problems remained. International and domestic observers noted the constitutional referendum was well below international standards, with serious irregularities. Serious irregularities also occurred during previous presidential and parliamentary elections. Security forces beat pretrial detainees. Impunity remained a problem. There were reports of arbitrary arrest and detention. Lengthy pretrial detention remained a problem. There were some limits on press freedom, due in part to self-censorship and denial of television broadcast licenses. The law places some restrictions on religious freedom. Societal violence against women was a problem. Trafficking of women and children was a problem, which the government took some steps to address.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 5/22/2006

President: Robert KOCHARIAN

Prime Minister: Andranik MARGARYAN

Min. Chief of Staff of the Cabinet: Manuk TOPUZYAN

Min. of Agriculture: Davit LOKYAN

Min. of Culture & Youth: Hasmik POGHOSIAN

Min. of Defense: Serzh SARGSYAN

Min. of Education & Science: Levon MKRTCHYAN

Min. of Energy: Armen MOVSISYAN

Min. of Environmental Protection: Vardan AYVAZYAN

Min. of Finance & Economy: Vardan KHACHATRYAN

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Vartan OSKANIAN

Min. of Health: Norayr DAVIDYAN

Min. of Justice: David HARUTYUNYAN

Min. of Labor & Social Issues: Aghvan VARDANYAN

Min. of Territorial Administration: Hovik ABRAHAMYAN

Min. of Trade & Economic Development: Karen TCHSHMARITYAN

Min. of Transport & Communication: Andranik MANUKYAN

Min. of Urban Planning: Aram HARUTYUNYAN

Chmn., National Bank: Tigran SARGSYAN

Ambassador to the US: Tatoul MARKARIAN

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Armen MARTIROSYAN

Armenia’s embassy in the U.S. is at 2225 R Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20008; tel: 202-319-1976; fax: 202-319-2984.

ECONOMY

Armenia is the second most densely populated of the former Soviet republics. It is a landlocked country between the Black and the Caspian Seas, bordered on the north by Georgia, to the east by Azerbaijan, on the

south by Iran, and to the west by Turkey. Up until independence, Armenia’s economy was based largely on industry—chemicals, electronic products, machinery, processed food, synthetic rubber, and textiles—and highly dependent on outside resources. Agriculture accounted for only 20% of net material product and 10% of employment before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. Armenian mines produce copper, zinc, gold, and lead.

The vast majority of energy is produced with imported fuel, including gas and nuclear fuel (for its one nuclear power plant) from Russia; the main domestic energy source is hydroelectric. Small amounts of coal, gas, and petroleum have not yet been developed.

Like other New Independent States of the former Soviet Union, Armenia’s economy suffers from the legacy of a centrally planned economy and the breakdown of former Soviet trading patterns. Soviet investment in and support of Armenian industry has virtually disappeared, so that few major enterprises are still able to function. In addition, the effects of the 1988 earthquake, which killed more than 25,000 people and made 500,000 homeless, are still being felt. Although a cease-fire has held since 1994, the conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh has not been resolved. The consequent closure of both the Azerbaijani and Turkish borders has devastated the economy, because of Armenia’s dependence on outside supplies of energy and most raw materials. Land routes through Azerbaijan and Turkey are closed; routes through Georgia and Iran are inadequate or unreliable. In 1992-93, GDP fell nearly 60% from its 1989 level. The national currency, the dram, suffered hyperinflation for the first few years after its introduction in 1993.

Nevertheless, the Government of Armenia, helped by the cease-fire that has been in effect in Nagorno-Karabakh since 1994, has been able to carry out wide-ranging economic reforms that paid off in dramatically lower inflation and steady growth. Armenia has registered strong economic growth since 1995, building on the turnaround that began the previous year, and inflation has been negligible for the past several years. New sectors, such as precious stone processing and jewelry making, information and communication technology, and even tourism are beginning to supplement more traditional sectors such as agriculture in the economy.

This steady economic progress has earned Armenia increasing support from international institutions. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), as well as other international financial institutions (IFIs) and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans. Total loans extended to Armenia since 1993 exceed $1.1 billion. These loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit, stabilizing the local currency; developing private businesses; energy; the agriculture, food processing, transportation, and health and education sectors; and ongoing rehabilitation work in the earthquake zone.

Continued progress will depend on the ability of the government to strengthen its macroeconomic management, including increasing revenue collection, improving the investment climate, and making strides against corruption. A liberal foreign investment law was approved in June 1994, and a Law on Privatization was adopted in 1997, as well as a program on state property privatization. The government joined the World Trade Organization on February 5, 2003.

Environmental Issues

Armenia is trying to address its environmental problems. It has established a Ministry of Nature Protection and has introduced a pollution fee system by which taxes are levied on air and water emissions and solid waste disposal, with the resulting revenues used for environmental protection activities. Armenia is interested in cooperating with other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS—a group of 12 former Soviet republics) and with members of the international community on environmental issues. The Armenian Government has committed to decommissioning the Armenian Nuclear Power Plant as soon as alternate energy sources can be identified.

DEFENSE AND MILITARY ISSUES

Armenia established a Ministry of Defense in 1992. Border guards subject to the National Security Service patrol Armenia’s borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian Border Guards continue to monitor its borders with Iran and Turkey.

The Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty was ratified by the Armenian parliament in July 1992. The treaty establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of military equipment, such as tanks, artillery, armored combat vehicles, combat aircraft, and combat helicopters, and provides for the destruction of weaponry in excess of those limits. Armenian officials have consistently expressed determination to comply with its provisions. Armenia has provided data on armaments as required under the CFE Treaty. There are indications that Armenia is trying to establish mechanisms to ensure fulfillment of its arms control obligations. Armenia is not a significant exporter of conventional weapons, but it has provided substantial support, including materiel, to separatists in Nagorno-Karabakh.

In March 1993, Armenia signed the multilateral Chemical Weapons Convention, which calls for the eventual elimination of chemical weapons. Armenia acceded to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state in July 1993. The U.S. and other Western governments have discussed efforts to establish effective nuclear export control systems with Armenia.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Armenia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the Commonwealth of Independent States, NATO’s Partnership for Peace, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the World Trade Organization.

Nagorno-Karabakh

In 1988, the territory of Nagorno-Karabakh, a predominantly ethnic Armenian enclave within Azerbaijan, voted to secede and join Armenia. This eventually developed into a full-scale armed conflict. Armenian support for the separatists led to an economic embargo by Azerbaijan, which has had a negative impact on Armenia’s foreign trade and made imports of food and fuel more expensive, three-quarters of which previously transited Azerbaijan under Soviet rule.

Peace talks in early 1993 were disrupted by the seizure of Azerbaijan’s Kelbajar district by Nagorno-Karabakh Armenian forces and the forced evacuation of thousands of ethnic Azeris. Turkey in protest then followed with an embargo of its own against Armenia. A cease-fire was declared between Azeri and Armenian/Nagorno-Karabakh forces in 1994 and has been maintained by both sides since then in spite of occasional shooting along the line of contact. All Armenian governments have thus far resisted domestic pressure to recognize the self-proclaimed independence of the “Nagorno-Karabakh Republic,” while at the same time announcing they would not accept any peace accords that returned the enclave to Azerbaijani rule. Approximately 526,000 of the estimated 800,000 ethnic Azeris who fled during the Karabakhi offensives still live as internally displaced persons in Azerbaijan, while roughly 235,000 of 360,000 ethnic Armenians who fled Azerbaijan since 1988 remain refugees.

Negotiations to peacefully resolve the conflict have been ongoing since 1992 under the aegis of the Minsk Group of the OSCE. The Minsk Group is currently co-chaired by the U.S., France, and Russia. Negotiations have intensified since 2004.

According to Armenia’s Office of the Geographer, Karabakhi Armenians, supported by the Republic of Armenia, now hold about 11% of Azerbaijan and have refused to withdraw from occupied territories until an agreement on the status of Nagorno-Karabakh is reached. Armenia and Azerbaijan continue to observe the cease-fire that has been in effect since May 1994, and in late 1995 both also agreed to OSCE field representatives being based in Tbilisi, Georgia, to monitor the cease-fire and facilitate the peace process.

U.S.-ARMENIAN RELATIONS

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and created the opportunity to build bilateral relations with the New Independent States (NIS) as they began a political and economic transformation. The U.S. recognized the independence of Armenia on December 25, 1991, and opened an Embassy in Yerevan in February 1992.

The United States has made a concerted effort to help Armenia and the other NIS during their difficult transition from totalitarianism and a command economy to democracy and open markets. The cornerstone of this continuing partnership has been the Freedom for Russia and Emerging Eurasian Democracies and Open Markets (FREEDOM) Support Act, enacted in October 1992. Under this and other programs, the U.S. to date has provided nearly $1.5 billion in humanitarian and technical assistance for Armenia. U.S. assistance programs in Armenia are described in depth on Embassy Yerevan’s website at: http://yerevan.usembassy.gov/assistance/.

On March 27, 2006 Armenia signed a Millennium Challenge Compact with the United States; the agreement entered into force on September 29, 2006. The agreement will provide $235 million to Armenia over five years to reduce rural poverty through the improvement of rural roads and irrigation networks.

U.S.-Armenian Economic Relations

In 1992 Armenia signed three agreements with the U.S. affecting trade between the two countries. The agreements were ratified by the Armenian parliament in September 1995 and entered into force in the beginning of 1996. They include an “Agreement on Trade Relations,” an “Investment Incentive Agreement,” and a treaty on the “Reciprocal Encouragement and Protection of Investment” (generally referred to as the Bilateral Investment Treaty, or BIT). Armenia does not have a bilateral taxation treaty with the U.S. The 1994 Law on Foreign Investment governs all direct investments in Armenia, including those from the U.S.

Approximately 70 U.S.-owned firms currently do business in Armenia, including such multinationals as Procter & Gamble, M&M-Mars, Xerox, Dell, Microsoft, and IBM. Recent major U.S. investment projects include the Hotel Armenia; the Hotel Ani Plaza; Tufenkian Holdings (carpet and furnishing production, hotels, and construction); several subsidiaries of U.S.-based information technology firms, including Viasphere Technopark, an IT incubator; a Greek-owned Coca-Cola bottling plant; petroleum exploration by the American-Armenian Exploration Company; jewelry and textile production facilities; a large perlite mining and processing plant; and Jermuk Mother Plant, which produces one of the more popular brands of mineral water in Armenia.

U.S. Support To Build A Market Economy

The U.S. continues to work closely with international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank to help Armenia in its transition to a free-market economy. Armenia has embarked upon an ambitious reform program, which has allowed a gradual transition from humanitarian aid toward more developmental assistance. U.S. economic assistance programs, primarily under the administration of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), have three objectives: to help create a legal, regulatory, and policy framework for competition and economic growth in energy, agriculture, housing, and other sectors; to promote fiscal reform; and to develop a competitive and efficient private financial sector. Other agencies, including the Departments of State, Agriculture, Treasury, Defense, Commerce, Energy, Justice, and the Peace Corps sponsor various assistance projects. The U.S.-Armenia Task Force, established in 2000, is a bilateral commission that meets every 6 months to review the progress and objectives of U.S. assistance to Armenia.

Specific USAID programs focus on the development of a private sector and small and medium-size enterprises, including microcredit programs; energy sector reform, focusing on efficient management of Armenia’s physical resources; democracy and good governance programs, including the promotion of a well-informed and active civil society; social sector reform, including benefits administration for vulnerable populations and targeted vocational training; health sector reform, including improvement of management and delivery of primary healthcare services with an emphasis on preventive medicine; and earthquake zone assistance, which provides housing and economic reactivation for victims of the 1988 earthquake. Under this program, more than 4,000 families who lost their homes have participated in a housing certificate program allowing them to secure permanent and adequate housing.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Caucasus Agricultural Development Initiative provides targeted and sustained technical, financial and marketing assistance to small and medium-sized agribusinesses and farmer-marketing associations. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Cochran Fellowship Program provides training to Armenian agriculturists. USDA and USAID also have launched efforts to revive production and export of Armenian vegetables, fruits, and other agricultural products.

U.S. Humanitarian Assistance

Over the past decade the U.S. has provided over $1.5 billion in assistance to Armenia, the highest per capita amount in the NIS. Humanitarian aid originally accounted for up to 85% of this total, reflecting the economic effects caused by closed borders with Turkey and Azerbaijan related to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, destruction in northern Armenia left from the devastating 1988 earthquake, and the virtual paralysis of most of the country’s factories.

As conditions in Armenia have improved, with the stabilization of the economy and increased energy production—including the restarting of the Armenian Nuclear Power Plant at Metsamor—U.S. assistance programs have moved away from humanitarian goals to longer-term development ones.

U.S. Support to Achieve Democracy

Technical assistance and training programs have been provided in municipal administration, intergovernmental relations, public affairs, foreign policy, diplomatic training, rule of law, and development of a constitution. Specific programs are targeted at promoting elections that meet international standards, strengthening political parties, and promoting the establishment of an independent judiciary and independent media. This includes financing for programs that support civil society organizations, local non-governmental organizations (NGO) capacity building, National Assembly professional development, and local and community-level governance.

State Department and USAID educational exchange programs play an important role in supporting democratic and free-market reforms. Assistance in the translation and publication of printed information also has been provided. Exchange programs in the U.S. for Armenian lawyers, judges, political party members, business people, government officials, NGO activists, journalists, and other public figures focus on a range of topics, including the American judicial and political system, privatization, specific business sectors, the media, and civil society. The State Department has funded an ongoing project to provide Internet connectivity to schools at various levels throughout the country; these centers provide both educational and community-building opportunities.

USAID has funded international and domestic groups to monitor national elections. USAID also has funded programs to educate voters and to strengthen the role of an array of civic organizations in the democratic process.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

YEREVAN (E) Address: 1 American Ave.; Phone: (37410) 46-47-00; 49-42-00; Fax: (37410) 46-47-42; INMARSAT Tel: Emer. Iridium 4179 770 4310; 4179 222 9728; Workweek: Mon-Fri/9:00am-6:00pm; Website: http://www.usa.am.

Last Updated: 11/27/2006

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : September 25, 2006

Country Description: Armenia is a constitutional republic with a developing economy. Tourist facilities, especially outside Yerevan, the capital, are not highly developed, and many of the goods and services taken for granted in other countries may be difficult to obtain.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport and visa are required. For stays longer than 21 days, but not exceeding 90 days, an official invitation from a qualifying entity in Armenia is required. U.S. citizens may purchase visas for a stay of up to 21 days online at http://www.armeniaforeignministry.am/or upon arrival at the port of entry. For further information on entry requirements, contact the Armenian Embassy at 2225 R St. NW, Washington, D.C. 20008, tel. (202) 319-1976 and (202) 319-2983; the Armenian Consulate General in Los Angeles at 50 N. La Cienega Blvd., Suite 210, Beverly Hills, CA 90211, tel. (310) 657-7320, or visit the Embassy of Armenia’s website at http://www.armeniaemb.org for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: A cease-fire has been in effect since 1994 around the self-proclaimed “Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh,” an unrecognized ethnic Armenian enclave within Azerbaijan. However, reports of intermittent armed clashes along the cease-fire line and along the border with Azerbaijan continue. Because of the existing state of hostilities, consular services are not available to Americans in Nagorno-Karabakh. Travelers should exercise caution near the Armenia-Azerbaijan border and consult the Consular Information Sheet for Azerbaijan if considering travel to Nagorno-Karabakh from Armenian territory. Armenia’s land borders with Turkey, Azerbaijan, and the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic of Azerbaijan remain closed and continue to be patrolled by armed troops who stop all people attempting to cross. There are still land mines in numerous areas in and near the conflict zones.

Several political rallies occurred in Yerevan in the spring of 2004 and in the fall of 2005. Though the majority of these demonstrations were peaceful, in at least one instance in 2004 police forcibly removed protesters from the scene. Americans should be mindful that even demonstrations intended to be peaceful could turn confrontational and possibly escalate into violence. American citizens are therefore urged to avoid the areas of demonstrations if possible, and to exercise caution if within the vicinity of any demonstrations.

Armenia is an earthquake-prone and landslide-prone country. In addition to these natural disasters, there exists the possibility of chlorine gas spills and radiation poisoning due to industrial accidents.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Crime against foreigners is relatively rare in Armenia. Break-ins, particularly of vehicles, and theft are the most common crimes, but there have been instances of violent crime as well. In May 2004, an American citizen was murdered in Yerevan. The crime remains unsolved. While the incidence of violent crime remains lower than in most U.S. cities, American citizens are urged to exercise caution and to avoid traveling alone after dark in Yerevan. Several American investors have also reported being the victims of financial scams in business transactions.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Though there are many competent physicians in Armenia, medical care facilities are limited, especially outside the major cities. The U.S. Embassy maintains a list of English-speaking physicians in the area. Most prescription medications are available, but the quality varies. Elderly travelers and those with existing health problems may be at risk due to inadequate medical facilities.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Armenia is provided for general reference only and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Travel in Armenia requires caution. Public transportation, while very inexpensive, may be unreliable and uncomfortable. Travel at night is not recommended, and winter travel can be extremely hazardous in mountain areas and higher elevations.

Travelers should avoid the old highway between the towns of Ijevan and Noyemberyan in the Tavush region, as well as the main highway between the towns of Kirants and Baghanis/Voskevan. The U.S. Embassy has designated this portion of the road off-limits to all U.S. government personnel because of its proximity to the cease fire line between Armenian and Azerbaijani forces, a line which has seen numerous cease fire violations over the years.

On weekends, there are an increased number of intoxicated drivers on Armenian roads. American citizens are urged to exercise particular vigilance while traveling on the main highway from Yerevan to the resort area of Tsaghadzor and Sevan. Traffic police will attempt to stop individuals driving erratically and dangerously, but police presence outside of Yerevan is limited.

Armenia does have emergency police and medical services, but they may take time to reach remote regions. With the exception of a few major arteries, primary roads are frequently in poor repair, with sporadic stretches of missing pavement and large potholes. Some roads shown as primary roads on maps are unpaved and can narrow to one lane in width, while some newer road connections have not yet been marked on recently produced maps.

Secondary roads are normally in poor condition and are often unpaved and washed out in places. Street and road signs are poor to nonexistent. Truck traffic is not heavy except on the main roads linking Yerevan to the Iranian and Georgian borders.

Minibuses are considered more dangerous than other forms of public transportation. Travelers who choose to ride minibuses should exercise caution because these vehicles are often overcrowded and poorly maintained, commonly lack safety measures including seatbelts, and are frequently involved in accidents. Though crime along roadways is rare, the police themselves often seek bribes at periodic checkpoints on main routes. Drivers in Armenia frequently ignore traffic laws, making roadways unsafe for unsuspecting travelers.

Pedestrians often fail to take safety precautions and those driving in towns at night should be especially cautious. In cities, a pedestrian dressed in black crossing an unlit street in the middle of the block is a common occurrence.

The quality of gasoline in Armenia ranges from good at some of the more reliable stations in cities to very poor. The gasoline and other fuels sold out of jars, barrels, and trucks by independent roadside merchants should be considered very unreliable.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Armenia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Armenia’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet website at http://www.faa.gov.

Travelers on Armavia International Airways may experience prolonged delays, sudden cancellation of flights, and flights departing earlier than scheduled. In addition to frequent delays, flights are sometimes overcrowded with passengers without seats standing in the aisle along with excess unsecured cabin luggage. Even basic safety features such as seat belts are sometimes missing. Air travel to Armenia via European carriers is typically more reliable.

Special Circumstances: Armenia remains largely a cash-only economy. Credit cards are accepted at some businesses, at major hotels and restaurants in Yerevan, but rarely outside of the capital. Limited facilities exist for cashing traveler’s checks and wiring money into the country. There are a number of ATMs in the center of Yerevan. Dollars are readily exchanged at market rates. Travelers occasionally experience problems with local officials seeking bribes to perform basic duties.

Armenian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Armenia of items such as firearms, pornographic materials, medication, and communications equipment. For export of antiquities and other items that could have historical value, such as paintings, carpets, old books or other artisan goods, a special authorization is required in advance from the Armenian Ministry of Culture. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Armenia in Washington, D.C. or Consulate in Los Angeles for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Dual Nationals: In addition to being subject to all Armenian laws affecting U.S. citizens, dual nationals may also be subject to other laws that impose special obligations on Armenian citizens. Male U.S. citizens over the age of 18 who are also considered to be Armenian citizens may be subject to conscription and compulsory military service upon arrival, and to other aspects of Armenian law while in Armenia. Since the summer of 2005, Armenian authorities have detained several U.S. citizens on these grounds upon their arrival in the country. In most cases, ethnic Armenian travelers who are accused of evading Armenian military service obligations are immediately incarcerated and later found guilty of draft evasion. Penalties for those convicted are stiff and generally include fines and/or jail time. Those who may be affected are strongly advised to consult with Armenian officials and inquire at an Armenian embassy or consulate to determine their status before traveling.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offences. Persons violating Armenian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Armenia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Armenia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Armenia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency.

The U.S. Embassy in Yerevan is located at 1 American Avenue, tel. 011 (37410) 46-47-00 and fax: 011 (37410) 46-47-42. The Consular Section is open from 9:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m., with time reserved for American citizen services from 2:00 p.m. until 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday. For more information, see the Embassy’s website at http://www.usa.am.

International Adoption : October 2006

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: The Adoption Commission, which reviews adoption requests, is a commission made up of representatives from various ministries that operates out of the prime minister’s office.

Prime Minister’s Office
Social Security Ministry
Tel. (374 10) 56-53-83, or 52-68-31
Government Building #1
Republic Square
Yerevan

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: Married couples and single women are eligible to apply to adopt Armenian children. Single men may not adopt Armenian children.

Although not legally required, the Armenian government is more likely to approve prospective adoptive parents who are ethnically Armenian and/or have strong ties to Armenia.

Residency Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents do not have to fulfill any residency requirements to adopt in Armenia.

Time Frame: The most time-consuming part of adopting an Armenian child is gathering the appropriate documents and getting approval from a variety of Armenian authorities. The procedure can take four to eight weeks, and possibly longer if the parents are operating without a translator or facilitator.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no licensed adoption agencies in Armenia. There is also no formal registration or licensing of facilitators; many people with connections to Armenia just use friends as translators.

Adoption Fees: Prospective adoptive parents can expect to pay approximately $45.00 in fees for document issuance in Armenia. Attorneys or others assisting families to adopt may charge additional fees for services rendered.

Adoption Procedures: The list of documents below must be submitted to the Armenian government, either through the Armenian Embassy in Washington, D.C., the Consulate General in Beverly Hills, or directly to the Adoption Commission of the government of Armenia, located in Government Building #1 in Republic Square in Yerevan. An authorized representative of the adoptive parents can do this provided that the representative has a notarized power of attorney from the prospective adoptive parents authorizing him/her to arrange the adoption.

Prospective adoptive parents can expect to travel to Armenia to sign adoption papers, attend a court proceeding, and have an I-604 orphan investigation interview and a visa interview at the U.S. Embassy in Yerevan.

Upon obtaining a favorable court decision, the adoptive parents must wait 15 days for the Armenian government to produce the official decision. The court decision must then be registered with the regional Office of Civil Registration (ZAGS). With the adoption decree, the parents can apply for birth and adoption certificates, and a new Armenian passport for the child.

Before the adoptive parents depart for the United States with their new son or daughter, they must go to the Notarial Office of the Ministry of Justice to get the new documents certified with an apostille (an Armenian prerequisite for adopted children to leave the country).

Documentary Requirements: The application for adoption can be filed either in the United States or Armenia. To start an application in the United States the following documents should be presented to the Armenian Consulates in Washington, D.C., or Beverly Hills, CA, by registered mail. The same documents should be presented to the Adoption Commission if prospective adoptive parents decide file the application directly in Armenia.

• Copy of the adoptive parents’ birth certificates;
• Copy of the adoptive parents’ U.S. passports;
• Copy of the adoptive parents’ marriage certificate, where applicable. If either applicant is divorced or widowed, a copy of the divorce decree or spouse’s death certificate is also required;
• Family photos of the prospective adoptive family;
• Full medical evaluation report for prospective adoptive parents from a U.S. doctor;
• Police report for adoptive parents (separate from FBI clearance needed for the I-600A approval);
• USCIS approval: Form I-171H;
• Employment letter for adoptive parents;
• Tax returns for the last three years;
• Home Study; report conducted by licensed agent in U.S.;
• Copy of home study agency or social worker’s license;
• Letters of reference from three individuals in the U.S. who know the adoptive parents;
• Reference letter from pastor or community leader;
• Letter to the Prime Minister of Republic of Armenia stating adoptive parents’ intention to adopt a child from Armenia. The Armenian government wants to see that the prospective adoptive parents have some connection to Armenian culture. This can include an extended stay in the country or Armenian heritage on at least one side of the family.

The above documents must be submitted together as one package and legalized with an apostille.

All documents must be translated into Eastern Armenian. If the package is submitted to the Embassy or Consulate General of Armenia in the United States, the receiving office will do the translation. If the package is submitted directly to the Adoption Commission in Armenia, the prospective adoptive parents should first have the package translated and notarized in Armenia.

The following documents should be submitted to the regional court presiding over the child’s district. This application should include:

• The full name of the adoptive parents and child;
• Whether or not the parents want to change the child’s name, his date of birth, place of birth, or to have themselves listed as parents on his documents;
• Adoptive parents’ passports or other identification;
• Adoptive parents’ marriage license;
• Spousal consent, if only one spouse is legally adopting the child;
• Child’s consent if the child is over age 10;
• Child’s birth certificate and medical records;
• Statement of child’s centralized registration from the Ministry of Social Security;
• Written consent of adoptive parents, birth parents and the orphanage. (Also, if applicable, death certificates of birth parents and consent of biological grandparents, if the biological parents are not adults), if applicable;
• Government approval of adoption.

Embassy of the Republic of Armenia:
2225 R Street, N.W.
Washington D.C. 20008, USA
Tel: (202) 319-1976
Fax: (202) 319-2982
E-mail: armconsul@speakeasy.net
http://www.armeniaemb.org

Armenian Consulate General:
50 North La Cienega Boulevard,
Suite 210
Beverly Hills, CA 90211
Tel: (310) 657-7320
E-mail: armconla@aol.com

Embassy of the United States of America:
1 American Avenue
Yerevan, Republic of Armenia
Telephone: (+374 10) 464-700, 494-686
Fax:(+374 10) 464-742, 46-47-37
E-mail: consular@usa.am

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adopting Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family.

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Armenia may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Yerevan. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children’s Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.