JAPAN, OPENING OF

In 1638 the shogun Hideyoshi, a Japanese military and political leader, was determined to isolate Japan from growing European religious and commercial influences. Hideyoshi declared Japan closed to all foreigners and restricted the empire's contact with the outside world to a small group of Dutch traders. This policy of isolationism came to an end nearly 250 years later with the arrival of an American naval expedition led by Commodore Matthew Perry (1794–1858). His diplomatic efforts, backed by a military show of force, opened the Japanese empire to trade and political relations not only to the United States but to the rest of the known world.

Ships of the American whaling industry sailed in the northern Pacific ocean near Japan beginning in the late 1700s. Those unfortunate foreign sailors who were shipwrecked on the Japanese islands because of the region's violent storms were normally imprisoned, and in some extreme cases they were put to death. News of this mistreatment slowly trickled back to the United States, where Congress became increasingly agitated by the Japanese rulers' isolationist foreign policy. A movement to open diplomatic relations between the United States and Japan was further accelerated by the introduction of steam-powered ships.

By the mid 1800s the American sea–going fleet was converting from clipper ships whose sails relied on the wind to steam ships powered by coal-fueled furnaces. Because steam ships were not capable of carrying enough coal to complete the voyage across the Pacific, refueling ports were established along the Northern Pacific following a trail from the western United States, up through Alaska, and on through the northern border of Japan's empire. In 1851 the United States discovered that coal could be mined in Japan. If refueling stations could be established along the country's shores, the United States fleet could greatly increase its influence within Asia. The thought of establishing ports of call within the Japanese empire greatly appealed to the expansionist political philosophy popular at the time.

The United States' first attempt to negotiate a treaty with Japan was met with an embarrassing defeat. An envoy led by U.S. Naval Commodore James Biddle (1783–1848) sailed into Edo (Tokyo) Bay in 1846. The Commodore's ship was quickly surrounded by Japanese guard boats and boarded by several of the shogun's emissaries who diligently studied every component of the ship. Once completed with their inspection, the Japanese officials provided Biddle with a letter from the shogun demanding he immediately set sail and not return. Six years would pass until the United States would once again attempt to establish a treaty with Japan.

In 1852 Matthew Perry was appointed as Commander in Chief of the United States Naval Forces stationed in the East India, China, and Japanese seas. Perry's naval career was primarily spent directing peacetime activities. Although Perry saw action during the War of 1812 (1812–14) and the Mexican War (1846–48), he was mainly known for his involvement in helping to establishing Liberia, a West African country where freed American slaves found sanctuary. A passionate believer in American expansionism, Perry was greatly concerned over the growing British trade presence in Asia. He expressed these concerns to President Millard Fillmore (1850–53) in 1852 after England gained control over Singapore and Hong Kong. President Fillmore heeded Perry's advice, and in 1853 he commanded Perry to implement a trade treaty with the Emperor of Japan.

Perry diligently studied the lessons learned from the United States first attempt at negotiations with Japan six years earlier. He believed Commodore Biddle's chief mistake was not demanding respect from the Japanese officials. A plan was set in motion to impress the Japanese by displaying America's technological advantages and military might. Perry set sail for Edo Bay with a contingent of four vessels which included the new steam driven paddle wheelers the Susquehanna and Mississippi. He also brought with him gifts for the Japanese Emperor to demonstrate the technology gap between the two countries. A scaled-down version of a steam-powered locomotive train, rifles, plows, and other American-engineered machines were stored on board the ships.

On July 8, 1853, Perry's small but impressive fleet entered Edo Bay. Once again the Japanese quickly surrounded the ships and demanded that they be allowed to board the vessels. Perry had anticipated this response. Orders had been issued by the Commodore not to allow any Japanese officials to board the ships until a qualified representative from the Emperor was present. His crew obeyed his commands and held off the Japanese at musket point. An American interpreter informed the officials that their commander had been ordered to present a letter to the Emperor or an appropriate representative. The military presence displayed by the fleet left little doubt the Americans would be easily rebuffed.

Intense negotiations took place between the two parties during the next five days. Finally, on July 14, Commodore Perry left his stateroom and came ashore along with 250 members of his crew. Attired in his dress uniform and accompanied by two armed black stewards, Perry presented the Japanese officials with the letter from President Fillmore. The Japanese also provided Perry with a letter demanding he immediately set sail and not return. Perry stated he would return the following year to accept the Emperor's response. The meeting was brought to a close and the American force sailed out of Japanese waters for the winter.

In February 1854 Perry returned to Edo Bay with a larger show of military might. His force consisted of more than 1,500 sailors serving on 10 ships. Once again intense negotiations took place over the trade concessions stated in President Fillmore's letter. After days of deliberation an agreement was reached between the two countries.

The official treaty ceremony with the presenting of gifts took place on March 13, 1854. The Japanese were enthralled with the scaled-down version of the steam locomotive presented by Perry. Equally impressive was the exhibition held by the Japanese sumo wrestlers.

Perry visited several other Japanese ports before returning to his command on April 14, 1854. His actions led to extensive negotiations between the United States and Japan. Townsend Harris, an American diplomat, spent the next 10 years attempting to finalize a trade agreement with the Japanese. Perry's treaty also opened the door for several other European nations to establish trade treaties with the formerly reclusive country. His efforts and the resulting trade with the western nations had a profound effect on the technological and military modernization of the Japanese empire, although the opening of Japan had little immediate economic impact on the United States.

See also: Matthew Perry