Expenditures
CHAPTER 2
EXPENDITURES
According to Lynn Bauer of the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) in Justice Expenditure and Employment in the United States, 2001 (May 2004), the total amount spent on corrections at the federal, state, and local levels rose from about $8.9 billion in 1982 to $57 billion in 2001, an increase of roughly 540%. During the same time period, total expenditures for police protection also increased—from $19 billion to $72.4 billion. Total judicial and legal costs rose by 385%—from $7.8 billion in 1982 to $37.8 billion in 2001. (See Table 2.1).
Justice Expenditure and Employment in the United States, 2001 also reported that local governments paid for nearly half of all U.S. justice expenditures in 2001, including 70% of spending on police. State governments bore the largest share of corrections costs (67.8%). Table 2.2 presents justice spending by level of government and justice activity during fiscal year 2001.
Calculated on a per capita basis, in 1982 total spending on corrections cost each U.S. resident $39. By 2001 that figure had risen more than 400% to $200 per person. Adjusted for inflation, the increase was 222%. (See Table 2.1.) By comparison, the per capita cost of police protection, after inflation, rose by 109%, and judicial and legal costs rose 155%.
INCARCERATION RATES RISING
The reasons for the escalating costs of corrections are simple enough:
- More people are being sent to prison
- Mandatory sentencing rules require that some criminals be held for longer periods
- Some courts are requiring stiffer sentences
The official crime rate, reported by the FBI in its Uniform Crime Reports, has declined since the 1980s and early 1990s, when it averaged an annual rate of more than 5,500 crimes per 100,000 population. After reaching 5,898 crimes per 100,000 in 1991, the national rate declined to 4,063 crimes per 100,000 population by 2003. During the same period, the incarceration rate as reported by the Bureau of Justice Statistics has increased from 313 per 100,000 in 1991 to 482 in 2003. These two trends appear paradoxical. Part of the explanation is that the official crime rate does not track drug offenses—or related money laundering offenses and illegal weapons violations—which have been growing at high rates. For this reason, the official crime rate and the incarceration rate do not always move in parallel. They do not reflect the same underlying facts.
According to Prisoners in 2003 (Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, November 2004), the number of sentenced prisoners under jurisdiction of state and federal correctional authorities increased from 1,585,586 in 1995 to 2,085,620 in 2003, an increase of 31.5%. The average annual increase during this period was 3.5%. (See Table 2.3.) In the western United States the percentage change between 1995 and 2003 was 35.4%, from 207,661 to 281,135, with Oregon (8.7%) seeing the biggest average annual percent change in its prison population. (See Table 2.4.) The Midwest saw a 28% increase, from 192,177 to 246,053, with North Dakota (9.8%) and Minnesota (6.2) experiencing the largest average annual percent changes. The prison population in the South grew 26.9%, from 446,491 in 1995 to 566,679 in 2003. West Virginia (8.3%) and Mississippi (7.7%) gained the most on an average annual basis. The Northeast had the least growth (5.46%), from 155,030 in 1995 to 163,494 in 2003. Maine (4.9%) and Vermont (3.7%) experienced the highest average annual percent change. Only two states witnessed a decline in prison population during that timeframe: Massachusetts, which decreased from 10,427 in 1995 to 8,814 in 2003, and New York, which had reduced its number of prisoners from 68,486 in 1995 to 65,198 in 2003.
Justice expenditure across government and function | Police protection expenditure | Judicial and legal expenditure | Corrections expenditure | ||||||
Year | Population | Total | Per capita | Total | Per capita | Total | Per capita | Total | Per capita |
2001 | 285,094,000 | $167,113,000,000 | $586 | $72,406,000,000 | $254 | $37,751,000,000 | $132 | $56,956,000,000 | $200 |
1997 | 267,784,000 | 129,793,000,000 | 485 | 57,754,000,000 | 216 | 28,529,000,000 | 107 | 43,511,000,000 | 162 |
1992 | 245,807,000 | 93,777,000,000 | 382 | 41,327,000,000 | 168 | 20,989,000,000 | 85 | 31,461,000,000 | 128 |
1987 | 243,400,000 | 58,879,000,000 | 242 | 28,778,000,000 | 118 | 12,539,000,000 | 52 | 17,562,000,000 | 72 |
1982 | 226,548,000 | 35,685,000,000 | 158 | 19,022,000,000 | 84 | 7,771,000,000 | 34 | 8,892,000,000 | 39 |
Note: Using the Consumer Price Index (CPI) to adjust the 2001 per capita figure of $586 for inflation would yield approximately $320 in 1982 dollars. |
Amount spent fiscal year 2001 | ||||
Activity | All governments | Federal government | State governments | Local governments |
Total justice system | — | $30,443 | $63,372 | $83,377 |
Direct expenditure | $167,133 | 25,285 | 58,820 | 83,007 |
Intergovernmental | — | 5,158 | 4,552 | 370 |
Police protection | — | $15,014 | $10,497 | $50,718 |
Direct expenditure | $72,406 | 12,470 | 9,220 | 50,716 |
Intergovernmental | — | 2,544 | 1,277 | 1,519 |
Judicial and legal | — | $10,230 | $14,444 | $15,938 |
Direct expenditure | $37,751 | 8,497 | 13,523 | 15,732 |
Intergovernmental | — | 1,733 | 921 | 207 |
Corrections | — | $5,199 | $38,432 | $16,721 |
Direct expenditure | $56,956 | 4,318 | 36,078 | 16,559 |
Intergovernmental | — | 881 | 2,354 | 162 |
Notes: Detail may not add to total because of rounding. Local government data are estimates subject to sampling variability. The total lines for each justice activity, and for the total justice system, exclude duplicative intergovernmental amounts. Artificial inflation would result if an intergovernmental expenditure of a government were tabulated and then counted again when the recipient government(s) spent the amount. The intergovernmental expenditure lines are not totaled for the same reason. | ||||
—Not applicable. |
FEDERAL CORRECTIONS
The Budget of the United States for Fiscal Year 2006 proposes $4.75 billion in budget authority for corrections (Washington, DC: Office of Management and Budget, February 2005). Included in this proposal are $85 million to open three new federal prisons and to expand two other facilities, $37 million to pay for the added costs of almost 4,300 inmates in existing facilities, and $20 million for 1,600 new private contract beds. Historically, actual outlays tend to be slightly below authorizations as Congress debates the amounts to be spent.
STATE CORRECTIONS
Based on data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics in Justice Expenditure and Employment in the United States, 2001, corrections represented about 3% of state and local direct expenditures in 2001. The criminal and justice system as a whole accounted for some 7% of state budgets, while 30% went to education, 14% to public welfare, and 7% to health and hospitals. These percentages have been remarkably steady since 1977. (See Figure 2.1.)
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, direct corrections expenditures by states in 2003 were $39.2 billion. (See Table 2.5.) The last year for which a complete breakdown of state prison expenses is available is 2001. According to James J. Stephan of the Bureau of Justice Statistics (State Prison Expenditures 2001, June 2004), a total of $38.2 billion was spent by state correctional systems in 2001. Of that amount, $29.5 billion was used for operating adult correctional facilities. The average annual operating cost per state inmate in 2001 was $22,650. (See Table 2.6.) State prisons in the Northeast spent the most on average per prisoner ($33,037), while those in the South spent the least ($16,479). State prisons cost each U.S. resident an average of $100 a year to operate. Prisons in the West cost the most per resident ($108), while those in the South cost the least ($91). Overall, Southern states spent the most money on prisons ($10 billion) and had the largest prison population (563,818).
Various factors, many out of the control of prison officials, influence the costs of running a state prison. Among such variables are climate (heating costs in the Northeast can be more expensive than in the South), local wage rates, and local cost of living. However, other costs are within the control of prison officials. State prisons with a high inmate-to-staff ratio, that is, with fewer guards, reported lower costs,
Total inmates in custodya | Prisoners in custody on December 31 | Inmates in jail on June 30 | Incarceration rateb | ||
Federal | State | ||||
1995 | 1,585,586 | 89,538 | 989,004 | 507,044 | 601 |
2000 | 1,937,482 | 133,921 | 1,176,269 | 621,149 | 684 |
2001 | 1,961,247 | 143,337 | 1,180,155 | 631,240 | 685 |
2002 | 2,033,022 | 151,618 | 1,209,331 | 665,475 | 701 |
2003 | 2,085,620 | 161,673 | 1,226,175 | 691,301 | 714 |
Percent change, 2002–2003 | 2.6% | 6.6% | 1.4% | 3.9% | |
Average annual increase, 1995–2003 | 3.5% | 7.7% | 2.7% | 4.0% | |
Note: Counts include all inmates held in public and private adult correctional facilities. | |||||
aTotal counts include federal inmates in non-secure privately operated facilities (6,471 in 2003, 6,598 in 2002, 6,515 in 2001 and 6,143 in 2000). | |||||
bNumber of prison and jail inmates per 100,000 U.S. residents at year end. |
while those with large staffs, some as high as one staff member for every 1.7 inmates, had heavy costs. States with a few large prison facilities tended to have lower overall operating costs than those with multiple, smaller facilities.
The $29.5 billion spent on state prison operations in 2001 was an increase of almost 23% from 1996, when $24 billion was spent, and a 150% increase from 1986, when a total of $11.7 billion was spent. The per capita rate for prison expenditures (cost per year to each U.S. resident) also rose during this period at an average annual rate of 6.4%. (See Table 2.7.) Compared to other state expenses, prison spending was relatively low. In 2001 the per capita rate for education was $1,315 and for public welfare, $914.
In 2001 salaries, wages, and benefits for state prison employees made up about two-thirds of state prison operating expenditures. Table 2.8 breaks down prison operating expenditures by state during that fiscal year. Operating costs include supplies, maintenance, and contractual services. About 4% is spent on new construction, renovations, major repairs, equipment, land, or buildings. Expenditures for new prison construction have been declining, from $1.5 billion in 1996 to $1.1 billion in 2001.
Other operating costs for state prisons include medical care, food service, and utilities. By far the largest of these costs was some $3.3 billion spent on prisoner medical care in 2001, followed by $1.2 billion for prisoner food, and $996 million for utilities. (See Table 2.9.) Nationwide, the average annual amount spent for medical care per prisoner was $2,625 (the average spent by U.S. citizens on their own health care is $4,370 per year.) The amount spent on prisoner medical care varied widely by state. Such factors as a high number of inmates with drug and alcohol abuse problems can raise costs, while operating larger prison facilities, and thereby raising the average inmate-to-doctor ratio, can result in cost savings. In 2001 Maine spent the most on prisoner medical care ($5,601), while Louisiana spent the least ($860). By region, the West averaged the most spent on medical care ($3,672), and the South averaged the least ($2,025). Annual food service costs tended to be lowest in those states, such as Mississippi ($297 per prisoner) and North Carolina ($191 per prisoner), where prisons operated their own farms and grew their own fruits and vegetables. In addition, North Carolina prisoners operate their own cannery and meat processing plant.
LOCAL JAIL EXPENDITURES BY COUNTIES
AND MUNICIPALITIES
According to Justice Expenditure and Employment in the United States, 2001 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2004), governments on the local level carry the bulk of justice system costs because police protection is primarily the responsibility of local communities. Some 59% of all justice system employees (1,357,153) are employed at the local level. (See Table 2.10.) In 2001, $50.7 billion, some 70% of all funds spent on police protection, came from county or municipal governments. (See Table 2.2.)
The Bureau of Justice Statistics reported in Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2003 (May 2004) that between 1995 and 2003, the number of inmates in local jails rose from 507,044 to 691,301. (See Table 2.11.) The average annual increase in jail inmates from December 31, 1995, to June 30, 2003, was 4%. However, at the end of June 2003, local jails were operating at 6% below their rated capacity. Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2003 also reported that local authorities supervised an additional 71,371 offenders in such alternative programs as work release, weekend reporting, electronic monitoring, and community service.
Region and jurisdiction | Sentenced prisoners | Percent change 2002–03 | Average change 1995–03a | Incarceration rate 2003b | ||
2003 | 2002 | 1995 | ||||
U.S. total | 1,409,280 | 1,380,516 | 1,085,022 | 2.1% | 3.3% | 482 |
Federal | 151,919 | 143,040 | 83,663 | 6.2 | 7.7 | 52 |
State | 1,257,361 | 1,237,476 | 1,001,359 | 1.6 | 2.9 | 430 |
Northeast | 163,494 | 165,783 | 155,030 | 1.4% | 0.7% | 300 |
Connecticut | 13,587 | 14,082 | 10,419 | 3.5 | 3.4 | 389 |
Maine | 1,951 | 1,817 | 1,326 | 7.4 | 4.9 | 149 |
Massachusettsc | 8,814 | 8,947 | 10,427 | 1.5 | 2.1 | 233 |
New Hampshire | 2,434 | 2,451 | 2,015 | 0.7 | 2.4 | 188 |
New Jerseyd | 27,246 | 27,891 | 27,066 | 2.3 | 0.1 | 314 |
New York | 65,198 | 67,065 | 68,486 | 2.8 | 0.6 | 339 |
Pennsylvania | 40,880 | 40,164 | 32,410 | 1.8 | 2.9 | 330 |
Rhode Island | 1,983 | 2,045 | 1,833 | 3.0 | 1.0 | 184 |
Vermont | 1,401 | 1,321 | 1,048 | 6.1 | 3.7 | 226 |
Midwest | 246,053 | 244,566 | 192,177 | 0.6% | 3.1% | 375 |
IIIinoisd | 43,418 | 42,693 | 37,658 | 1.7 | 1.8 | 342 |
Indiana | 23,007 | 21,542 | 16,046 | 6.8 | 4.6 | 370 |
lowad | 8,546 | 8,398 | 5,906 | 1.8 | 4.7 | 290 |
Kansasd | 9,132 | 8,935 | 7,054 | 2.2 | 3.3 | 334 |
Michigan | 49,358 | 50,591 | 41,112 | 2.4 | 2.3 | 489 |
Minnesota | 7,865 | 7,129 | 4,846 | 10.3 | 6.2 | 155 |
Missouri | 30,275 | 30,080 | 19,134 | 0.6 | 5.9 | 529 |
Nebraska | 3,976 | 3,972 | 3,006 | 0.1 | 3.6 | 228 |
North Dakota | 1,147 | 1,025 | 544 | 11.9 | 9.8 | 181 |
Ohiod | 44,778 | 45,646 | 44,663 | 1.9 | 0.0 | 391 |
South Dakota | 3,016 | 2,911 | 1,871 | 3.6 | 6.1 | 393 |
Wisconsin | 21,535 | 21,644 | 10,337 | 0.5 | e | 392 |
South | 566,679 | 553,493 | 446,491 | 2.6% | 3.0% | 542 |
Alabama | 28,612 | 27,532 | 20,130 | 3.9 | 4.5 | 635 |
Arkansas | 13,013 | 12,999 | 8,520 | 0.1 | 5.4 | 476 |
Delaware | 4,122 | 3,659 | 3,014 | 12.7 | 4.0 | 501 |
Florida | 79,594 | 75,204 | 63,866 | 5.8 | 2.8 | 463 |
Georgia | 47,200 | 47,424 | 34,168 | 0.5 | 4.1 | 539 |
Kentucky | 16,190 | 15,572 | 12,060 | 4.0 | 3.7 | 392 |
Louisiana | 36,047 | 36,032 | 25,195 | 0.0 | 4.6 | 801 |
Maryland | 23,230 | 23,274 | 20,450 | 0.2 | 1.6 | 420 |
Mississippi | 22,168 | 21,397 | 12,251 | 3.6 | 7.7 | 768 |
North Carolina | 29,394 | 28,613 | 27,914 | 2.7 | 0.6 | 348 |
Oklahomad | 22,448 | 22,702 | 18,151 | 1.1 | 2.7 | 636 |
South Carolina | 22,942 | 22,837 | 19,015 | 0.5 | 2.4 | 551 |
Tennesseed | 25,403 | 24,989 | 15,206 | 1.7 | 6.6 | 433 |
Texasd | 156,534 | 151,782 | 127,766 | 3.1 | 2.6 | 702 |
Virginia | 35,067 | 34,973 | 27,260 | 0.3 | 3.2 | 472 |
West Virginia | 4,715 | 4,504 | 2,483 | 4.7 | 8.3 | 260 |
West | 281,135 | 273,634 | 207,661 | 2.7% | 3.9% | 419 |
Alaska | 2,629 | 2,577 | 2,042 | 2.0 | 3.2 | 401 |
Arizona | 29,722 | 28,008 | 20,291 | 6.1 | 4.9 | 525 |
California | 162,678 | 159,984 | 131,745 | 1.7 | 2.7 | 455 |
Colorado | 19,671 | 18,833 | 11,063 | 4.4 | 7.5 | 430 |
Hawaii | 4,167 | 3,840 | 2,590 | 8.5 | 6.1 | 325 |
Idaho | 5,887 | 5,746 | 3,328 | 2.5 | 7.4 | 427 |
Montana | 3,620 | 3,323 | 1,999 | 8.9 | 7.7 | 393 |
Nevada | 10,543 | 10,478 | 7,713 | 0.6 | 4.0 | 462 |
New Mexico | 5,934 | 5,631 | 3,925 | 5.4 | 5.3 | 314 |
Oregon | 12,695 | 12,080 | 6,515 | 5.1 | 8.7 | 354 |
Utah | 5,681 | 5,475 | 3,447 | 3.8 | 6.4 | 240 |
Washington | 16,036 | 15,922 | 11,608 | 0.7 | 4.1 | 260 |
Wyoming | 1,872 | 1,737 | 1,395 | 7.8 | 3.7 | 372 |
aThe average annual percentage increase from 1995 to 2003. | ||||||
bPrisoners with sentences of more than 1 year per 100,000 residents. | ||||||
cThe incarceration rate includes an estimated 6,200 inmates sentenced to more than 1 year but held in local jails or houses of corrections. | ||||||
dIncludes some inmates sentenced to 1 year or less. | ||||||
eNot calculated. |
COSTS AND CONSEQUENCES
The costs of corrections for the United States have been rising in absolute terms, not simply as a reflection of a growing population. In the 1980–99 time period, the number of people held behind bars would have increased more than three-fold even if the U.S. population had remained unchanged. In 1980 some 139 people were in state and federal prisons for every 100,000 U.S. residents. By 2003 that ratio had increased to 482 people, according to Prisoners in 2003 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, November 2004). Justice Expenditure and Employment in the United States, 2001 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2004) reports that in 1982, correctional expenditures amounted to $39 for every man, woman, and child in the United States; by 2001 that cost had climbed to $200. During this period, the phenomenon of crime has increased in absolute terms, and more of the nation's resources have had to be expended on its consequences than in previous times.
Responses to rising costs have been variable and include some of the following:
United States | ||
Item | Amount | Per capita |
Population (thousands, 2003) | 290,231 | X |
Total revenue | 1,296,701,281 | 4,467.82 |
General revenue | 1,113,391,406 | 3,836.22 |
Intergovernmental revenue | 362,519,737 | 1,249.07 |
Taxes | 548,990,867 | 1,891.57 |
General sales | 184,596,707 | 636.03 |
Selective sales | 89,214,514 | 307.39 |
License taxes | 35,863,173 | 123.57 |
Individual income tax | 181,932,513 | 626.85 |
Corporate income tax | 28,384,474 | 97.80 |
Other taxes | 28,999,486 | 99.92 |
Current charges | 106,398,401 | 366.60 |
Miscellaneous general revenue | 95,482,401 | 328.99 |
Utility revenue | 12,517,945 | 43.13 |
Liquor store revenue | 4,517,992 | 15.57 |
Insurance trust revenue | 166,273,938 | 572.90 |
Total expenditure | 1,358,964,865 | 4,682.36 |
Intergovernmental expenditure | 382,781,397 | 1,318.89 |
Direct expenditure | 976,183,468 | 3,363.47 |
Current operation | 656,089,768 | 2,260.58 |
Capital outlay | 92,186,403 | 317.63 |
Insurance benefits and repayments | 168,978,731 | 582.22 |
Assistance and subsidies | 25,888,450 | 89.20 |
Interest on debt | 33,040,116 | 113.84 |
Exhibit: Salaries and wages | 183,385,651 | 631.86 |
Total expenditure | 1,358,964,865 | 4,682.36 |
General expenditure | 1,163,884,688 | 4,010.20 |
Intergovernmental expenditure | 382,781,397 | 1,318.89 |
Direct expenditure | 781,103,291 | 2,691.32 |
General expenditures, by function | ||
Education | 411,501,528 | 1,417.84 |
Public welfare | 313,230,417 | 1,079.25 |
Hospitals | 38,394,884 | 132.29 |
Health | 50,270,775 | 173.21 |
Highways | 86,104,257 | 296.67 |
Police protection | 11,158,200 | 38.45 |
Correction | 39,226,109 | 135.15 |
Natural resources | 18,623,901 | 64.17 |
Parks and recreation | 5,857,213 | 20.18 |
Government administration | 43,853,867 | 151.10 |
Interest on general debt | 31,294,903 | 107.83 |
Other and unallocable | 114,368,634 | 394.06 |
Utility expenditure | 22,404,931 | 77.20 |
Liquor store expenditure | 3,696,515 | 12.74 |
Insurance trust expenditure | 168,978,731 | 582.22 |
Debt at end of fiscal year | 697,929,028 | 2,404.74 |
Cash and security holdings | 2,594,115,620 | 8,938.11 |
X=Not applicable |
Authorities have responded to budgetary pressures by crowding more people into available space and have thus caused increased crowding in correctional facilities. Crowding has been most serious in federal facilities, somewhat less so on average in state prison systems, and least in local jails, especially the smallest ones.
The number of adult correctional facilities increased from 1,464 in 1995, to 1,668 in 2000, according to
Expenditures (1,000's of dollars) | Annual operating costs | Prisoners under state authority on 6/30/01 | ||||
Region and state | Total | Operating | Capital | Per inmate | Per U.S. resident | |
Total | $29,491,268 | $28,374,273 | $1,116,995 | $22,650 | $100 | 1,252,743 |
Northeast | $6,056,762 | $5,712,994 | $343,769 | $33,037 | $106 | 172,925 |
Connecticuta | 523,960 | 506,905 | 17,055 | 26,856 | 148 | 18,875 |
Maine | 76,479 | 75,133 | 1,346 | 44,379 | 58 | 1,693 |
Massachusetts | 413,071 | 404,862 | 8,209 | 37,718 | 63 | 10,734 |
New Hampshire | 62,754 | 60,279 | 2,475 | 25,949 | 48 | 2,323 |
New Jersey | 799,560 | 768,661 | 30,899 | 27,347 | 91 | 28,108 |
New York | 2,807,259 | 2,547,452 | 259,807 | 36,835 | 134 | 69,158 |
Pennsylvania | 1,203,219 | 1,183,668 | 19,551 | 31,900 | 96 | 37,105 |
Rhode Islanda | 124,333 | 121,167 | 3,165 | 38,503 | 114 | 3,147 |
Vermonta | 46,128 | 44,867 | 1,261 | 25,178 | 73 | 1,782 |
Midwest | $6,327,346 | $5,952,214 | $375,132 | $24,779 | $92 | 240,213 |
IIIinois | 1,011,311 | 996,738 | 14,573 | 21,844 | 80 | 45,629 |
Indiana | 477,628 | 449,406 | 28,222 | 21,841 | 73 | 20,576 |
Iowa | 188,391 | 186,298 | 2,093 | 22,997 | 64 | 8,101 |
Kansas | 199,843 | 182,655 | 17,189 | 21,381 | 68 | 8,543 |
Michigan | 1,582,611 | 1,573,273 | 9,338 | 32,525 | 157 | 48,371 |
Minnesota | 253,385 | 239,953 | 13,432 | 36,836 | 48 | 6,514 |
Missouri | 436,081 | 362,429 | 73,652 | 12,867 | 64 | 28,167 |
Nebraska | 126,857 | 99,865 | 26,992 | 25,321 | 58 | 3,944 |
North Dakota | 26,796 | 24,219 | 2,577 | 22,425 | 38 | 1,080 |
Ohio | 1,277,622 | 1,201,269 | 76,354 | 26,295 | 106 | 45,684 |
South Dakota | 37,529 | 37,030 | 499 | 13,853 | 49 | 2,673 |
Wisconsin | 709,292 | 599,080 | 110,212 | 28,622 | 111 | 20,931 |
South | $10,002,325 | $9,750,580 | $251,745 | $16,479 | $91 | 563,818 |
Alabama | 228,871 | 221,774 | 7,097 | 8,128 | 50 | 27,286 |
Arkansas | 199,003 | 192,611 | 6,392 | 15,619 | 72 | 12,332 |
Delawarea | 166,327 | 162,397 | 3,930 | 22,802 | 204 | 7,122 |
Dist. of Columbiab | 143,700 | 143,700 | e | 26,670 | 251 | 5,388 |
Florida | 1,484,799 | 1,453,799 | 31,000 | 20,190 | 89 | 72,007 |
Georgia | 923,505 | 900,918 | 22,586 | 19,860 | 107 | 45,363 |
Kentucky | 288,438 | 274,404 | 14,034 | 17,818 | 67 | 15,400 |
Louisiana | 479,260 | 459,686 | 19,573 | 12,951 | 103 | 35,494 |
Maryland | 645,620 | 632,749 | 12,872 | 26,398 | 118 | 23,970 |
Mississippi | 266,196 | 264,503 | 1,693 | 12,795 | 93 | 20,672 |
North Carolina | 863,892 | 840,347 | 23,545 | 26,984 | 103 | 31,142 |
Oklahoma | 384,060 | 377,378 | 6,682 | 16,309 | 109 | 23,139 |
South Carolina | 405,238 | 373,249 | 31,989 | 16,762 | 92 | 22,267 |
Tennesseec | 421,807 | 421,807 | e | 18,206 | 73 | 23,168 |
Texas | 2,315,899 | 2,270,959 | 44,940 | 13,808 | 106 | 164,465 |
Virginia | 723,767 | 699,104 | 24,663 | 22,942 | 97 | 30,473 |
West Virginia | 61,944 | 61,194 | 750 | 14,817 | 34 | 4,130 |
Census of State and Federal Correctional Facilities, 2000 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2003).
Privately run prisons and jails have been created on the theory that the private sector can do the job at lower cost. Because privately run prisons would be free of the bureaucracy and politics of state-run prisons, and not subject to mandatory use of unionized labor, it was believed they could be more cost effective than public prisons. So far, studies have shown mixed results, with some communities reporting great savings while others report no significant differences. A 1996 study by the U.S. Government Accounting Office, reported in Emerging Issues on Privatized Prisons (Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2001), shows no clear evidence that privatization saves money. Despite the uncertainty, the privately run prison population has grown at a faster rate than the correctional population as a whole. At year-end in 2003, according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (Prisoners in 2003), 95,522 prisoners were in privately operated facilities. (See Table 2.12.) Nationwide, some 6.5% of all prisoners are in privately run prisons, most in the South and West. The six states having at least 25% of their prison population housed in private prisons are New Mexico (44.2%), Alaska (30.6%), Montana (29.3%), Oklahoma (26.4%), and Wyoming (26.3%).
Expenditures (1,000's of dollars) | Annual operating costs | Prisoners under state authority on 6/30/01 | ||||
Region and state | Total | Operating | Capital | Per inmate | Per U.S. resident | |
West | $7,104,834 | $6,958,485 | $146,349 | $25,231 | $108 | 275,787 |
Alaskaa | 154,650 | 154,156 | 494 | 36,730 | 243 | 4,197 |
Arizona | 618,571 | 609,910 | 8,661 | 22,476 | 115 | 27,136 |
California | 4,166,573 | 4,107,844 | 58,729 | 25,053 | 119 | 163,965 |
Colorado | 466,551 | 435,037 | 31,514 | 25,408 | 98 | 17,122 |
Hawaiia,d | 117,101 | 117,101 | e | 21,637 | 96 | 5,412 |
Idaho | 95,494 | 92,821 | 2,673 | 16,319 | 70 | 5,688 |
Montana | 71,994 | 71,169 | 825 | 21,898 | 79 | 3,250 |
Nevada | 182,092 | 180,834 | 1,258 | 17,572 | 86 | 10,291 |
New Mexico | 149,077 | 148,249 | 828 | 28,035 | 81 | 5,288 |
Oregon | 404,255 | 399,436 | 4,819 | 36,060 | 115 | 11,077 |
Utah | 133,963 | 133,683 | 281 | 24,574 | 59 | 5,440 |
Washington | 488,314 | 459,814 | 28,500 | 30,168 | 77 | 15,242 |
Wyoming | 56,199 | 48,431 | 7,768 | 28,845 | 98 | 1,679 |
Note: Forty-six states and the District of Columbia began their fiscal years in July and ended them in June. Exceptions included Albama and Michigan, October to September; New York, April to March; and Texas, September to August. Detail may not add to total because of rounding. | ||||||
aStates have integrated jail-prison systems. | ||||||
bThe District of Columbia reported no capital outlays during fiscal year 2001, a transition period during which its sentenced felons were being transferred to the Federal Bureau of Prisons. | ||||||
cDuring fiscal year 2001 Tennessee spent capital amounts from sources outside its Department of Corrections. | ||||||
dHawaii's Department of Public Safety, Corrections Division had nonrecurring expenditures which state budget officials excluded from the capital category. | ||||||
eNot reported. |
State expenditures as costs per resident | ||||||
Fiscal year | Total corrections | Prisons | Health | Education | Public welfare | Natural resources |
1986 | $65 | $49 | $78 | $842 | $425 | $44 |
1991 | 98 | 76 | 109 | 998 | 632 | 52 |
1996 | 119 | 91 | 141 | 1,143 | 849 | 56 |
2001 | 134 | 104 | 154 | 1,315 | 914 | 61 |
Average annual percent change, 1986–2001* | 6.2% | 6.4% | 5.8% | 4.2% | 6.4% | 3.3% |
*Based on total expenditures. |
Operating expenditures (1,000's of dollars) | |||
Region and jurisdiction | Total | Salaries, wages and benefits | Other operating costs |
Total | $28,374,273 | $18,583,923 | $9,790,350 |
Northeast | $5,712,994 | $4,014,190 | $1,698,803 |
Connecticut* | 506,905 | 316,497 | 190,408 |
Maine | 75,133 | 51,147 | 23,986 |
Massachusetts | 404,862 | 297,405 | 107,457 |
New Hampshire | 60,279 | 42,476 | 17,803 |
New Jersey | 768,661 | 443,235 | 325,426 |
New York | 2,547,452 | 1,969,750 | 577,702 |
Pennsylvania | 1,183,668 | 765,038 | 418,629 |
Rhode Island* | 121,167 | 101,999 | 19,168 |
Vermont* | 44,867 | 26,643 | 18,224 |
Midwest | $5,952,214 | $3,960,772 | $1,991,442 |
IIIinois | 996,738 | 713,339 | 283,399 |
Indiana | 449,406 | 304,310 | 145,096 |
Iowa | 186,298 | 149,039 | 37,260 |
Kansas | 182,655 | 107,721 | 74,934 |
Michigan | 1,573,273 | 1,116,883 | 456,390 |
Minnesota | 239,953 | 159,981 | 79,971 |
Missouri | 362,429 | 220,790 | 141,639 |
Nebraska | 99,865 | 64,327 | 35,538 |
North Dakota | 24,219 | 13,734 | 10,485 |
Ohio | 1,201,269 | 760,668 | 440,601 |
South Dakota | 37,030 | 19,956 | 17,074 |
Wisconsin | 599,080 | 330,025 | 269,055 |
South | $9,750,580 | $6,017,146 | $3,733,434 |
Alabama | 221,774 | 153,077 | 68,697 |
Arkansas | 192,611 | 108,960 | 83,651 |
Delaware* | 162,397 | 110,751 | 51,646 |
District of Columbia | 143,700 | 63,545 | 80,155 |
Florida | 1,453,799 | 955,791 | 498,008 |
Georgia | 900,918 | 678,964 | 221,954 |
Kentucky | 274,404 | 124,787 | 149,617 |
Louisiana | 459,686 | 196,078 | 263,609 |
Maryland | 632,749 | 351,870 | 280,879 |
Mississippi | 264,503 | 125,045 | 139,458 |
North Carolina | 840,347 | 603,932 | 236,415 |
Oklahoma | 377,378 | 189,432 | 187,946 |
South Carolina | 373,249 | 266,518 | 106,732 |
Tennessee | 421,807 | 168,295 | 253,511 |
Texas | 2,270,959 | 1,343,459 | 927,500 |
Virginia | 699,104 | 539,590 | 159,514 |
West Virginia | 61,194 | 37,052 | 24,142 |
West | $6,958,485 | $4,591,814 | $2,366,671 |
Alaska* | 154,156 | 81,508 | 72,648 |
Arizona | 609,910 | 408,558 | 201,352 |
California | 4,107,844 | 2,873,065 | 1,234,778 |
Colorado | 435,037 | 275,095 | 159,942 |
Hawaii* | 117,101 | 64,813 | 52,288 |
Idaho | 92,821 | 52,401 | 40,420 |
Montana | 71,169 | 35,677 | 35,492 |
Nevada | 180,834 | 123,037 | 57,798 |
New Mexico | 148,249 | 75,527 | 72,723 |
Oregon | 399,436 | 197,265 | 202,171 |
Utah | 133,683 | 82,152 | 51,531 |
Washington | 459,814 | 299,391 | 160,423 |
Wyoming | 48,431 | 23,326 | 25,105 |
Note: Detail may not add to total because of rounding. | |||
*States have integrated jail-prison systems. |
1,000's of dollars | Cost per inmate in 2001 | |||||
Region and jurisdiction | Medical care | Food service | Utilities | Medical care | Food service | Utilities |
Total | $3,288,200 | $1,195,854 | $996,027 | $2,625 | $955 | $795 |
Northeast | $590,935 | $210,400 | $203,294 | $3,417 | $1,217 | $1,176 |
Connecticuta | 68,330 | 23,451 | 19,838 | 3,620 | 1,242 | 1,051 |
Maine | 9,483 | 3,107 | 2,781 | 5,601 | 1,835 | 1,643 |
Massachusetts | 43,460 | 9,497 | 21,266 | 4,049 | 885 | 1,981 |
New Hampshire | 3,964 | 2,035 | 3,393 | 1,706 | 876 | 1,461 |
New Jersey | 91,652 | 22,760 | 31,140 | 3,261 | 810 | 1,108 |
New York | 219,735 | 66,618 | 85,824 | 3,177 | 963 | 1,241 |
Pennsylvania | 137,291 | 77,083 | 37,452 | 3,700 | 2,077 | 1,009 |
Rhode Islanda,b | 11,820 | 4,107 | 636 | 3,756 | 1,305 | 202 |
Vermonta | 5,199 | 1,741 | 963 | 2,918 | 977 | 540 |
Midwest | $543,001 | $290,949 | $198,432 | $2,260 | $1,211 | $826 |
IIIinois | 73,235 | 52,481 | 38,355 | 1,605 | 1,150 | 841 |
Indiana | 37,601 | 19,965 | 19,018 | 1,827 | 970 | 924 |
lowa | 16,713 | 14,225 | 7,253 | 2,063 | 1,756 | 895 |
Kansas | 22,835 | 11,975 | 7,592 | 2,673 | 1,402 | 889 |
Michigan | 137,414 | 48,148 | 37,970 | 2,841 | 995 | 785 |
Minnesota | 25,458 | 10,843 | 7,930 | 3,908 | 1,665 | 1,217 |
Missouri | 50,207 | 21,144 | 19,050 | 1,782 | 751 | 676 |
Nebraska | 12,406 | 5,627 | 2,568 | 3,145 | 1,427 | 651 |
North Dakota | 2,892 | 1,803 | 939 | 2,678 | 1,670 | 870 |
Ohio | 111,693 | 75,445 | 40,729 | 2,445 | 1,651 | 892 |
South Dakota | 5,465 | 4,173 | 1,225 | 2,044 | 1,561 | 458 |
Wisconsin | 47,082 | 25,119 | 15,802 | 2,249 | 1,200 | 755 |
South | $1,141,489 | $411,988 | $377,792 | $2,025 | $731 | $670 |
Alabama | 28,700 | 7,152 | 12,616 | 1,052 | 262 | 462 |
Arkansas | 19,924 | 5,233 | 4,843 | 1,616 | 424 | 393 |
Delawarea | 14,762 | 9,624 | 6,651 | 2,073 | 1,351 | 934 |
District of Columbia | 10,425 | 2,955 | 2,688 | 1,935 | 549 | 499 |
Florida | 242,132 | 78,483 | 44,792 | 3,363 | 1,090 | 622 |
Georgia | 117,384 | 52,174 | 36,280 | 2,588 | 1,150 | 800 |
Kentucky | 14,782 | 8,688 | 8,338 | 960 | 564 | 541 |
Louisiana | 30,535 | 12,381 | 11,584 | 860 | 349 | 326 |
Maryland | 52,193 | 15,316 | 28,454 | 2,177 | 639 | 1,187 |
Mississippi | 25,946 | 6,142 | 7,149 | 1,255 | 297 | 346 |
North Carolina | 45,558 | 5,935 | 31,165 | 1,463 | 191 | 1,001 |
Oklahoma | 46,457 | 23,395 | 9,691 | 2,008 | 1,011 | 419 |
South Carolina | 28,716 | 9,679 | 15,533 | 1,290 | 435 | 698 |
Tennessee | 35,943 | 25,552 | 12,969 | 1,551 | 1,103 | 560 |
Texas | 329,162 | 104,871 | 103,449 | 2,001 | 638 | 629 |
Virginia | 87,320 | 39,856 | 39,293 | 2,866 | 1,308 | 1,289 |
West Virginia | 11,550 | 4,550 | 2,296 | 2,797 | 1,102 | 556 |
West | $1,012,775 | $282,516 | $216,508 | $3,672 | $1,024 | $785 |
Alaskaa | 16,987 | 5,242 | 6,930 | 4,047 | 1,249 | 1,651 |
Arizona | 75,024 | 32,461 | 19,840 | 2,765 | 1,196 | 731 |
California | 720,436 | 140,922 | 125,890 | 4,394 | 859 | 768 |
Colorado | 43,509 | 24,399 | 13,242 | 2,541 | 1,425 | 773 |
Hawaiia | 9,788 | 9,615 | 5,207 | 1,809 | 1,777 | 962 |
Idaho | 9,757 | 3,660 | 2,579 | 1,715 | 643 | 453 |
Montana | 2,997 | 1,380 | 1,094 | 922 | 425 | 337 |
Nevada | 29,546 | 14,414 | 8,023 | 2,871 | 1,401 | 780 |
New Mexico | 24,669 | 4,514 | 3,339 | 4,665 | 854 | 632 |
Oregon | 14,222 | 7,359 | 8,865 | 1,284 | 664 | 800 |
Utah | 7,308 | 5,214 | 3,280 | 1,343 | 958 | 603 |
Washington | 51,998 | 31,617 | 16,672 | 3,412 | 2,074 | 1,094 |
Wyoming | 6,533 | 1,719 | 1,547 | 3,891 | 1,024 | 921 |
aStates have integrated jail-prison systems. | ||||||
bThe Rhode Island State Department of Health and Hospitals operated a centralized power plant that provided utilities to prisons and other government agencies. Utilities were unmetered and costs were allocated on the basis of square footage. |
All governments | Percent distribution | |||||||
Activity | Federal | State | Local | Total | Federal | State | Local | |
Total justice system | ||||||||
Total employees | 2,295,423 | 197,263 | 741,007 | 1,357,153 | 100% | 8.6% | 32.3% | 59.1% |
2001 March payroll* | $8,150 | $1,035 | $2,513 | $4,602 | 12.7 | 30.8 | 56.5 | |
Police protection | ||||||||
Total employees | 1,060,219 | 106,337 | 104,657 | 849,225 | 100% | 10.0% | 9.9% | 80.1% |
2001 March payroll | $4,003 | $581 | $407 | $3,016 | 14.5 | 10.2 | 75.3 | |
Judicial and legal | ||||||||
Total employees | 488,143 | 57,953 | 162,982 | 267,208 | 100% | 11.9% | 33.4% | 54.7% |
2001 March payroll | $1,798 | $318 | $639 | $841 | 17.7 | 35.5 | 46.8 | |
Corrections | ||||||||
Total employees | 747,061 | 32,973 | 473,368 | 240,720 | 100% | 4.4% | 63.4% | 32.2% |
2001 March payroll | $2,349 | $137 | $1,468 | $744 | 5.8 | 62.5 | 31.7 | |
*Payroll is in millions. Detail may not add to total because of rounding. |
1995 | 2000 | 2002 | 2003 | |
Average daily populationa | 509,828 | 618,319 | 652,082 | 680,760 |
Number of inmates, June 30 | 507,044 | 621,149 | 665,475 | 691,301 |
Adults | 499,300 | 613,534 | 658,228 | 684,431 |
Male | 448,000 | 543,120 | 581,411 | 602,781 |
Female | 51,300 | 70,414 | 76,817 | 81,650 |
Juvenilesb | 7,800 | 7,615 | 7,248 | 6,869 |
Held as adultsc | 5,900 | 6,126 | 6,112 | 5,484 |
Held as juveniles | 1,800 | 1,489 | 1,136 | 1,385 |
Note: Data are for June 30 in 1995, 2000, and 2003; for June 29 in 2001; and June 28, for 2002. Detailed data for 1995 were estimated and rounded to the nearest 100. | ||||
aThe average daily population is the sum of the number of inmates in a jail each day for a year, divided by the total number of days in the year. | ||||
bJuveniles are persons held under the age of 18. | ||||
cIncludes juveniles who were tried or awaiting trial as adults. |
Private facilities | Local jails | |||||
Region and jurisdiction | 2003 | 2002 | Percent of all inmates, 2003a | 2003 | 2002 | Percent of all inmates, 2003a |
U.S. total | 95,522 | 93,912 | 6.5% | 73,343 | 72,550 | 5.0% |
Federalb | 21,865 | 20,274 | 12.6 | 3,278 | 3,377 | 1.9 |
State | 73,657 | 73,638 | 5.7 | 70,065 | 69,173 | 5.4 |
Northeast | 3,201 | 3,146 | 1.8% | 1,911 | 2,234 | 1.1% |
d | d | d | ||||
Connecticut | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | |||
Maine | 30 | 8 | 1.5 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Massachusetts | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 361 | 375 | 3.5 |
New Hampshire | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 7 | 11 | 0.3 |
New Jerseyc | 2,636 | 2,601 | 9.7 | 1,542 | 1,528 | 5.7 |
New York | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 1 | 320 | 0.0 |
Pennsylvania | 535 | 537 | 1.3 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Rhode Islandc | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | d | d | d |
Vermontc | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | d | d | d |
Midwest | 4,957 | 6,748 | 2.0% | 2,386 | 1,801 | 1.0% |
Illinois | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Indiana | 652 | 843 | 2.8 | 1,724 | 1,262 | 7.5 |
Iowa | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Kansas | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Michigan | 480 | 460 | 1.0 | 42 | 30 | 0.1 |
Minnesota | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 283 | 221 | 3.6 |
Missouri | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Nebraska | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
North Dakota | 0 | 23 | 0.0 | 44 | 9 | 3.6 |
Ohio | 1,901 | 1,927 | 4.2 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
South Dakota | 25 | 32 | 0.8 | 29 | 12 | 1.0 |
Wisconsin | 1,899 | 3,463 | 8.4 | 264 | 267 | 1.2 |
South | 48,222 | 46,091 | 8.2% | 60,810 | 60,036 | 10.3% |
Alabama | 1,698 | 0 | 5.8 | 1,340 | 2,449 | 4.6 |
Arkansas | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 1,016 | 1,172 | 7.8 |
Delaware | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | d | d | d |
Florida | 4,330 | 4,173 | 5.4 | 48 | 47 | 0.1 |
Georgia | 4,589 | 4,573 | 9.7 | 4,949 | 4,975 | 10.5 |
Kentucky | 1,640 | 1,635 | 9.9 | 3,969 | 3,657 | 23.9 |
Louisiana | 2,918 | 2,929 | 8.1 | 16,549 | 16,022 | 45.9 |
Maryland | 122 | 127 | 0.5 | 234 | 168 | 1.0 |
Mississippi | 3,463 | 3,435 | 14.9 | 4,724 | 4,550 | 20.4 |
North Carolina | 215 | 186 | 0.6 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Oklahoma | 6,022 | 6,470 | 26.4 | 1,869 | 1,497 | 8.2 |
South Carolina | 44 | 21 | 0.2 | 424 | 415 | 1.8 |
Tennessee | 5,049 | 4,200 | 19.9 | 6,283 | 6,717 | 24.7 |
Texas | 16,570 | 16,773 | 9.9 | 13,331 | 12,375 | 8.0 |
Virginia | 1,562 | 1,569 | 4.5 | 5,106 | 5,024 | 14.6 |
West Virginia | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 968 | 968 | 20.3 |
West | 17,277 | 17,653 | 6.0% | 4,958 | 5,102 | 1.7% |
Alaska | 1,386 | 1,360 | 30.6 | d | d | d |
Arizona | 2,323 | 1,965 | 7.5 | 174 | 232 | 0.6 |
California | 3,507 | 4,649 | 2.1 | 2,415 | 2,591 | 1.5 |
Colorado | 3,013 | 2,452 | 15.3 | 221 | 160 | 1.1 |
Hawaii | 1,478 | 1,347 | 25.4 | d | d | d |
Idaho | 1,267 | 1,266 | 21.5 | 239 | 295 | 4.1 |
Montana | 1,059 | 963 | 29.3 | 567 | 419 | 15.7 |
Nevada | 0 | 434 | 0.0 | 190 | 177 | 1.8 |
New Mexico | 2,751 | 2,690 | 44.2 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Oregon | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Utah | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 1,065 | 1,170 | 18.5 |
Washingtonc | 0 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Wyoming | 493 | 527 | 26.3 | 87 | 58 | 4.6 |
Based on the total number of inmates under state or federal jurisdiction. | ||||||
Includes federal inmates in non-secure privately operated facilities (6,471 in 2003, and 6,598 in 2002). | ||||||
Inmates held in other state facilities include interstate compact cases. | ||||||
Not applicable. Prison and jails form an integrated system. |