New World finches

(Emberizidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Emberizidae

Thumbnail description
Small to medium-sized, highly vocal songbirds with short, conical bill and short to medium-length tail; most species have brown, olive, or gray plumage, but many are brightly colored

Size
4–9.5 in (10–24 cm); 0.3–2.6 oz (8–75 g)

Number of genera, species
72 genera; 291 species

Habitat
Grasslands, marshes, arctic tundra, alpine meadows, open woodlands, park land, and hedgerows

Conservation status
Critically Endangered: 6 species; Endangered: 7 species; Vulnerable: 9 species; Near Threatened: 2 species

Distribution
Practically worldwide; absent from extreme Southeast Asia, Australasia (introduced into New Zealand), and Madagascar

Evolution and systematics

Buntings and New World sparrows are variously treated as a family (Emberizidae; New World finches) or as a sub-family (Emberizinae) of the Fringillidae. Most commonly, however, these are recognized as distinct families. No direct information exists about the origin of these closely related families, but scientists believe that they must have evolved in the New World. Currently all but the Emberizidae are restricted to the New World, and even the buntings are most diverse in the Americas (only 42 species in five genera are found elsewhere). All of the known fossils are from the New World and date from the Lower Pliocene to the Holocene.

Physical characteristics

Emberizids range in size from petite blue-black grassquits (Volatinia jacarina) that weigh as little as 0.28 oz (8 g) to California towhees (Pipilo crissalis) that weigh up to 2 oz (60 g). Many species have subdued brown, beige, or gray colors, commonly with complex facial patterns of black, white, buff, and sometime yellow stripes. Males generally are somewhat larger than females. In many species the sexes are alike in plumage pattern, but in others males and females look strikingly different. Many buntings feed on the ground and have medium-sized legs with rather large feet; some hop on the ground whereas others run. Relatively short, conical bills are characteristic.

Distribution

Emberizids are found throughout the New World, from Greenland to the islands in Arctic Canada and south to Cape Horn. Several species live in the Galápagos Islands. In the Old World, buntings are found across Eurasia south to India, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Borneo (in winter), and throughout Africa (but not Madagascar). They are not found in extreme southeastern Asia or in New Guinea or Australia; two species have been introduced into New Zealand.

Habitat

Buntings and New World sparrows live in a variety of habitats, but most inhabit fairly open, brushy, or grassland areas. Of the many species of buntings that breed and winter in grasslands, some inhabit short, dry grasslands, whereas others live in tall grass in wet meadows. Some emberizids inhabit arctic or alpine tundra; others breed in marshes or woodlands.

Behavior

Although sparrows commonly sing at night during breeding season, they are diurnal. Most sparrows and buntings are territorial, and territorial males use song, chasing, and fights to defend their territories, which generally serve as a place to build a nest and to forage. When singing, males often sit in a conspicuous place and throw back their head to sing. Commonly, they sing with the feathers of their crown or rump

ruffed. Many species, especially those that live in tundra or prairies, sing their songs while in flight as a part of an elaborate flight display. When soliciting food or copulation, sparrows generally point their head forward, more-or-less parallel with the ground, elevate their tail, and shiver their wings.

During migration and winter, sparrows may be seen in small, loose, often mixed-species flocks. Some species, however, form large flocks.

Feeding ecology and diet

Most sparrows feed on or near the ground as they pick up insects or fallen grass seeds. Some scratch away leaf litter to find food. Towhees (Pipilo) use a distinctive double scratch when feeding: they remain stationary while scratching backward simultaneously with both feet. The conical bill efficiently handles and shells seeds; large-billed species can crack hard seeds that many other birds could not eat. Some species, especially seedeaters (Sporophila) and grassquits (Volitinia and Tiaris), feed almost exclusively on seeds; they cling to tall grass and pick seeds from seed heads. Although seeds are an important part of the winter diet of almost all species, during nesting seasons most feed insects to their nestlings. Fruit is eaten when available. Woodpecker finches (Cactospiza pallida) of the Galápagos Islands hold a cactus spine or stick in their bill and use it to pry insects and their larvae from dead branches.

Reproductive biology

Most buntings and New World sparrows are socially monogamous (during any single breeding season a single male is associated with a single female), but there are exceptions. In some species, and in some populations within a species,

males are polygynous (one male mated with two or more females). Polygyny in sparrows often seems to occur when birds nest in high density. In a few sparrow species no pair bond is formed. Rather, during any breeding season individuals of both sexes mate promiscuously. In all sparrows the female alone incubates the eggs, but in general, both members of a pair help to feed and care for the young.

Conservation status

Seven emberizid species are listed as Endangered, six as Critically Endangered, nine as Vulnerable, and two as Lower Risk/Near Threatened. For example, pale-headed brush-finches (Atlapetes pallidiceps), a species found only in southwestern Ecuador, is threatened by the near total removal of vegetation in its tiny range, and it may be extinct. Sierra Madre sparrows (Xenospiza baileyi) of south central Mexico were never widespread but now are limited to a small area of bunch-grass habitat just south of Mexico City. Cuban sparrows (Torreornis inexpectata) are scrub-dwelling birds found in three different areas of Cuba; each of these populations is small, and they are threatened by habitat destruction. In eastern North America, many sparrows are declining in numbers or have disappeared as marginal farms have been abandoned and reverted to woodlands or as urban development has replaced meadows. Similarly, in northwestern Europe, some species that inhabit open country have declined in numbers, probably because of changes in farming practices. In central and western North America, many grassland species are declining as a consequence of habitat degradation. Many of the Central and South American seedeaters are popular cage birds, and intense commercial trapping, particularly in northern Argentina, has led to substantial declines in many populations.

Significance to humans

Many species of buntings have pretty songs and are popular as cage birds in many parts of the world. Although many species eat substantial numbers of insects that may be agricultural pests, they probably do not destroy insects in sufficient quantities to be of economic significance.

Species accounts

List of Species

Nelson's sharp-tailed sparrow

Ammodramus nelsoni

taxonomy

Ammodramus caudacutus var. nelsoni Allen, 1875, Cook Co., Illinois. Three subspecies.

other common names

English: Nelson's sparrow, Acadian sparrow, sharp-tailed sparrow; French: Bruant des Nelson; German: Nelsonammer; Spanish: Gorrión Coliagudo.

physical characteristics

4.5–5 in (11–13 cm); 0.14–0.74 oz (14–21 g). Small, sharp-tailed sparrows with broad median crown stripe outlined by brown lateral crown stripe, a yellow-ochre stripe above the eye, a brown stripe through the eye, and gray ear coverts and nape. The back is dark brown, usually with distinct grayish or white stripes. Underparts are pale yellow with faint brown streaks on side of throat and flanks. Birds breeding in the maritimes of Canada and coastal Maine are less brightly colored. Sexes are alike. Juveniles lack the grayish color.

distribution

A. n. nelsoni breeds from north Alberta, central Saskatchewan, and south Manitoba to northeast South Dakota and winters along the Gulf Coast and southern coast of California. A. n. alterus breeds on the south coast of Hudson Bay and James Bay and winters along the coast of the United States from New York to southern Texas. A. n. subvirgatus breeds along the coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the coast of Quebec, Nova

Scotia, and New Brunswick to central Maine and winters from coastal Massachusetts to northern Florida.

habitat

In the prairies, breed in freshwater marshes where cordgrass and whitetop are common. Along the shores of James and Hudson Bays, they are found in dense sedge bogs, generally where there are a few dwarf birch trees. In the maritime provinces and Quebec they are found in rank, wet grassland and salt marshes. During migration, they may be found in wet fields and marshes, often in cattail. In winter they are found along the coast in freshwater and salt marsh habitats, but most commonly in brackish marshes.

behavior

Males sing persistently during breeding season and commonly sing at night. They may sing from a bush, from the ground, or during an elaborate aerial display. On the ground, they commonly run.

feeding ecology and diet

During breeding season they principally feed on insects and other arthropods but also on small mollusks. In fall and winter seeds become important. They feed while walking through dense grasses or while clambering in vegetation.

reproductive biology

Nonterritorial and promiscuous. Only the female provides parental care. The nest is usually a simple cup of coarse grass placed on the ground or just above water in marshes. Nesting takes place in June and July. Incubation of four to five eggs lasts about 12 days, and the young fledge after about 10 days.

conservation status

Not threatened, though marsh degradation and loss have caused serious problems in some populations.

significance to humans

None known.

Song sparrow

Melospiza melodia

taxonomy

Fringilla melodia Wilson, 1810, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Thirty-eight subspecies.

other common names

French: Bruant chanteur; German: Singammer; Spanish: Gorrión Cantor.

physical characteristics

5–7 in (12–17 cm); 0.67–1.5 oz (19–42 g). Song sparrows are medium to large sized sparrows with a long, round tail. The head is brown to light rusty with paler median crown stripe, grayish stripe above the eye, conspicuous brown malar stripes, a brown mottled back, and heavily streaked breast with a dark central breast spot. Sexes are alike. Juveniles have brown crowns, are heavily streaked below, and are generally more buff in color than adults. This species is highly variable geographically.

distribution

Breed from the Aleutian Islands, along the southern coast of Alaska, east across southern Nunavut, northern Ontario, and central Quebec to southwest Newfoundland, and south to Georgia, Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Locally resident in Baja California and central Mexico. Resident in Alaska and along the Pacific coast, but most northern-breeding birds migrate in winter to southern Florida, the Gulf Coast, northern Mexico, and southern Baja California.

habitat

Generally found in open brushy habitats, often near ponds, streams, or marshes. In winter, they are found in brush and woodland edge.

behavior

Generally stay low in vegetation, but they often perch conspicuously in a tree, bush, or on top of a weed when singing. In flight they appear to pump the tail, and they hop or run on the ground. They defend territories with chases and fights. In winter, they can be found in loose flocks that often contain other species of sparrows.

feeding ecology and diet

In summer, they eat primarily insects and other invertebrates, but in winter they eat mostly seeds. Song sparrows feed on the ground or by picking food from vegetation.

reproductive biology

Socially monogamous. The nest is a bulky cup of leaves, strips of bark, grass, and other plants, commonly placed on the ground among grasses, low in a bush, or rarely in a cavity. They usually lay three to six eggs. Nesting takes place from late February (in the southern parts of their range) into August. Incubation takes 10–14 days, and young fledge in 7–14 days. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

White-throated sparrow

Zonotrichia albicollis

taxonomy

Fringilla albicollis Gmelin, 1789, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

other common names

English: White throat, Canada bird; French: Bruant à gorge blanche; German: Weisskehlammer; Spanish: Gorrión Gorjiblanco.

physical characteristics

6–7 in (15–17 cm); 0.9 oz (26 g). Adults have a pale or white stripe above the eye that is yellow in front of the eye, a pale or white median crown stripe, a white throat, brown or rusty brown back, and a pale grayish brown breast that often is slightly streaked. Sexes similar. Juveniles have an indistinct median crown stripe and their breast and flanks are heavily streaked with brown.

distribution

Breed from central Yukon to northern Manitoba and across northern Ontario through central Quebec and Newfoundland; also south to New York, Michigan, Manitoba, and British Columbia. Winter along the Pacific Coast and in the east from Ontario, Michigan, and Colorado to Texas, the Gulf Coast, and Florida.

habitat

Inhabit brush during all seasons. They most often breed in fairly open mixed woodlands, commonly where spruce, balsam fir, birch, and aspens predominate. In winter they are found in dense deciduous thickets or brush piles, often along the edge of woodlands or in woodland clearings.

behavior

During breeding season, males sing persistently, usually from an inconspicuous perch. In winter, they are often found in small, loose flocks and sometimes associate with other species of sparrow.

feeding ecology and diet

In breeding season, they principally eat insects, but during migration and in winter they eat mostly seeds.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. The nest is placed on or near the ground in areas where there are small trees interspersed with low vegetation. Nesting occurs from late May through early July. Three to seven (usually four) eggs are incubated for 11–13 days, and young fledge after 8–9 days. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Dark-eyed junco

Junco hyemalis

taxonomy

Fringilla hyemalis Linnaeus, 1758, South Carolina. Sixteen sub-species.

other common names

English: Gray-headed junco, pink-sided junco, red-backed junco, Schufeldt's junco, slate-colored junco, Thurber's junco, Townsend's junco; French: Junco ardoisé German: Junko; Spanish: Junco Ojioscuro.

physical characteristics

5–6.5 in (13–17 cm); 0.5–0.88 oz (15–25 g). Medium-sized sparrows that lack breast streaking and have white outer tail feathers. They are geographically variable, and the 16 sub-species can be divided into five subspecies groups. Slate-colored juncos (J. h. hyemalis) are found in eastern North America west to Alaska and the mountains of British Columbia. Adults have pink bills and are uniformly gray above, with a white belly; females are similar to males, but are paler gray, often washed with brownish. White-winged juncos (J. h. aikeni,) breed in southeast Montana, western South Dakota, and northwest Nebraska. They are grayish above, with a white belly and two white wing bars. Pink-sided juncos (J. h. mearnsi) breed in southeast Alberta, southwest Saskatachewan, and south to southeast Idaho. They have a dull brown back and pink flanks. Gray-headed juncos (J. h. caniceps) breed in the Rocky Mountains. They have a gray head with dark gray around the eye and a rusty-red mantle. The J. h. oreganus group have a dark gray head, cinnamon brown upperparts, and pinkish washed flanks. Juvenile juncos are dusky, and heavily streaked both on the back and breast, with whitish bellies.

distribution

Breeds north to the limit of trees in Alaska and Canada and south to northern Georgia, northern Ohio, northern Minnesota, central Saskatchewan, and in the mountains to central New Mexico and Arizona, and northern Baja California, Mexico. Winters along the Pacific Coast of southern Alaska, southern Yukon, and northeast British Columbia, east through central British Columbia, southern Manitoba, southern Quebec, and southern Newfoundland, south to south Florida, the Gulf Coast, and northern Mexico.

habitat

Breed in a variety of habitats, but especially in open coniferous or mixed woodlands. In winter, they are found in brush, woodland edge, and hedgerows.

behavior

Territorial and found in pairs or family groups during the breeding season. Males sing from an exposed perch in a tree, often from near the top of a small conifer. In winter, they often occur in loose flocks and frequently associate with other species of sparrows. They hop or run on the ground.

feeding ecology and diet

Juncos feed on the ground. In summer their diet is mostly insects; seeds are the principal winter food.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. The nest, which is a cup of woven grasses and rootlets, usually is placed on the ground but occasionally is found low in a bush. Nesting takes place from May through July. They lay three to six eggs. Incubation lasts 11–13 days, and the young fledge after 9–13 days. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Lapland longspur

Calcarius lapponicus

taxonomy

Fringilla lapponica Linnaeus 1758, Lapland. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: Alaska longspur, lapland bunting; French: Bruant lapon; German: Spornammer; Spanish: Escribano Lapón.

physical characteristics

5.5–7 in (23.5–17 cm); 0.95 oz (27 g). Lapland longspurs are large, strong-flying sparrows. The sexes differ in color. Breeding males have a black face outlined with buff white stripes above the eye and behind the ear, the back of the head and nape are bright rusty, and the bill is bright yellow with a black tip; they also have a black bib. Females have a buff stripe over the eye and buff ear coverts that are outlined in black, and the throat is blackish. Juveniles have streaking on the crown, in the buff line over the eye, and on their underparts.

distribution

Circumpolar. In Eurasia, they breed from Finland west across northern Russia and Siberia to the Kamchatka Peninsula and winter from northern Europe and northern Asia south to the British Isles, France, southern Russia, Mongolia, and northern China. In North America, they breed from the Aleutian Islands, Alaska east across arctic Alaska and Canada (including the arctic islands) to the coast of eastern Greenland and winter from the central Great Plains and southern Wisconsin, southern Ontario, and central Nova Scotia south to the Gulf Coast and northern Florida. C. l. alascensis breeds in north and west Alaska including the Aleutian Islands and islands in the Bering Sea. C. l. coloratus breeds in eastern Siberia, the Kamchatka Peninsula, and Commander Islands, and occasionally east to Attu Island, Alaska.

habitat

They are generally the most common birds of the high arctic where they can be found in a variety of tundra habitats. During migration and winter, they can be found in fallow fields, short pastures, and along beaches.

behavior

Males arrive on the breeding ground before females and start defending and advertising a territory by giving a flight song and chasing intruders from their territory. They also sing from a rock, the top of a sedge tussock, or phone wires. During courtship, the pair engages in reciprocal chasing. During migration and winter, they are often found in large flocks, sometimes of more than a million individuals. They may also be found with horned larks (Eremophila alpestris), pipits (Anthus), other longspurs, or snow buntings (Plectrophenax nivalis).

feeding ecology and diet

They feed on the ground and, in summer, they eat insects and other invertebrates. In winter they eat primarily seeds and grain.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. The nest is a cup of rather coarse sedges placed in a depression in the ground. They lay one to six (usually five) eggs; incubation requires 10–14 days, and the young fledge after 8–10 days. Both parents feed the young. Nesting takes place from late May through early July.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Snow bunting

Plectrophenax nivalis

taxonomy

Emberiza nivalis Linnaeus 1758, Lapland. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: Snowflake, snowbird; French: Bruant blanc; German: Schneeammer; Spanish: Escribano Nival.

physical characteristics

6–7.5 in (15–19 cm); 1.5 oz (42 g). Sexes differ in color. Males in summer have a white head, a black back sometimes mottled with brown, a black rump mottled with white, white outer tail feathers partially tipped with black, and white underparts. In winter, the white areas are washed with pale rusty brown.

Females in summer resemble breeding males, but the crown is dusky and black areas are paler, often brownish. In winter they resemble winter males. Juveniles are grayish with pale bellies.

distribution

Circumpolar. Breeds from Iceland, northern Scotland, the mountains of Norway and Sweden, Spitzbergen, Franz Joseph Land, north Kola Peninsula, Novaya Zemlya, northern Russia and northern Siberia east to Wrangel Island, the Bering Strait, and south to east Kamchatka, northern Alaska and mountains of Alaska, northern Canada north to Labrador, and the coast of Greenland. Winters south to British Isles, coast of northern France, Denmark, Germany, Poland, southern Russia, Manchuria, Korea, Kuril Islands, and Hokkaidō, and in North America to western and southern Alaska and from central and southern Canada south along the Pacific coast to northern California, the central Plains, and coastal North Carolina. P. n. insulae breeds in Iceland, and P. n. vlasowae breeds in northeast Russia east through Siberia and to the Bering Strait.

habitat

Breed in the high Arctic in sparse, dry, rocky areas such as shores, mountain slopes, and rocky outcrops. During migration and winter they are characteristically found in field, pastures, roadsides, and along the shore.

behavior

Males arrive on the breeding grounds well before females. When the weather begins to warm, they establish territories, and chasing, flight-singing, and fights are common. When on the ground, they run rather than hop. In winter they are often found in fairly large flocks. As they move through a field, they appear to roll along like blowing snow as the birds at the back of the flock leap-frog over those toward the front. Although they generally stay on the ground, they sometimes will fly up into a tree. They are sometimes associated with horned larks (Eremophila alpestris) and Lapland longspurs (Calcarius lapponicus).

feeding ecology and diet

They feed on the ground. In summer they take insects and other invertebrates, but in winter they eat principally seeds and grain.

reproductive biology

Most are monogamous, but individuals of either sex may have two mates. Nesting takes place from late May through July. The nest, which is a large thick-walled bulky cup of dried sedges, grasses, and lichens, is placed on the ground, often in a crevice in rocks. They lay three to nine (usually four to seven) eggs. Incubation lasts 10–15 days, and the young fledge after 10–17 days. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Yellowhammer

Emberiza citrinella

taxonomy

Emberiza citrinella Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Three subspecies.

other common names

French: Bruant jaune; German: Goldammer; Spanish: Escribano Cerillo.

physical characteristics

6.3–6.5 in (16–16.5 cm); 0.88–1.1 oz (25–31 g). Sexes differ in color. Males have a streaked yellow head, a cinnamon-washed black and breast, and a chestnut rump. Females and juveniles have much less yellow and are more heavily streaked.

distribution

E. c. citrinella breeds from southeast England, northern and western Europe east to Russia and south to northern Portugal and Spain, central Italy, northern Greece, Bulgaria, Rumania, Poland, and south in Russia to Moscow. In eastern and southeastern Europe they intergrade with E. c. erythrogenys, which is found west to central Siberia. They winter from central Europe south to northern Africa, Iraq, and northern Mongolia. E. c. caliginosa is resident in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and northern and western England.

habitat

Open country in hedgerows, the edge of woods, or in bushes. In winter they are found in cultivated fields or woodland edge.

behavior

During the breeding season they are territorial, and males defend the territory by singing from an exposed perch, such as a wire. In fall and winter they form loose flocks, sometimes of up to 1,000 individuals.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed almost entirely on the ground, in pastures, cultivated ground, stubble, or waste ground. In summer they eat seeds, insects, and other invertebrates, but in winter they chiefly eat seeds.

reproductive biology

Socially Monogamous. Eggs are laid from April through early September. The nest is nearly always placed on the ground and is well hidden among the vegetation; two to six (usually four to five) eggs are laid. Incubation lasts 12–14 days, and the young fledge at 11–13 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Their numbers have declined in many European countries but have increased in Finland, all apparently as a consequence of changing farming practices.

significance to humans

None known.

Rock bunting

Emberiza cia

taxonomy

Emberiza cia Linnaeus, 1766, Austria. Ten subspecies.

other common names

French: Bruant fou; German: Zippammer; Spanish: Escribano Montesino.

physical characteristics

6.3 in (16 cm); 0.7–0.9 oz (20–25 g). Sexes differ in color. Males have a gray, black, and white patterned head with a gray throat, a chestnut-streaked back, a rufous breast, belly, and rump, and a white-edged tail. Females and juveniles are much duller.

distribution

Breeds from southern France and southern Germany south to Spain, Portugal, North Africa, Italy, and Greece, Turkey, north and central Iran, southern Turkistan, northwest India, western Himalayas, and western Nepal. Some birds move south or to lower elevation in winter.

habitat

Inhabit dry, rocky hillsides, and, in winter, weedy or grassy areas with hedges and trees. They often roost in trees.

behavior

Territorial during breeding season. They defend their territory with song, which is emitted from a perch on the top of a bush or rock. Outside of the breeding season they occur singly or in small groups. Wintering flocks form in late summer and may contain other Emberiza species.

feeding ecology and diet

Primarily feed on the ground among rocks and shrubs. In summer they take insects and other invertebrates (including small snails), as well as seeds. Winter diet is principally seeds, which they find in pastures, cultivated land, and gardens.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Eggs are laid from May through July. The nest is placed on or close to the ground and is well concealed in vegetation. They lay three to six (usually four to five) eggs; incubation lasts 12–14 days, and young fledge at 10–13 days of age. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Reed bunting

Emberiza schoeniclus

taxonomy

Emperiza schoeniclus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Fourteen sub-species.

other common names

French: Bruant des roseaux; German: Rohrammer; Spanish: Escribano Palustre.

physical characteristics

6–6.5 in (15–16.5 cm); 0.6–0.8 oz (17.5–22 g). Sexes differ in

color. Males have a black head and throat and a white collar. The back and rump are brown and streaked, and the belly is whitish with varying amounts of black streaking, especially on the flanks. Females have a brown head with a buff stripe above the eye and around the ear coverts, a streaked brown back, and a light buff breast with brown streaks. Young birds resemble females.

distribution

Breeds throughout Europe (except for southern Greece) east into Russia (northern Kazakhstan) and southwest Siberia, southwest Mongolia, and locally in China (Xinjiang (E. s. pyrrhuloides), Heilongjiang (E. s. minor), and in northeast Siberia, Kamchatka, Kurile Island, and Hokkaidō (E. s. pyrrhulina). Winters in western and southern Europe, Turkey, southeast China, and Japan.

habitat

Breed in tall reeds, swamps, sewage farms, and marshy areas adjacent to fresh and brackish marshes. In winter, they are found in cultivated fields, farm lands, and open woodlands, often not near water.

behavior

Territorial in summer, and males advertise their territory by singing. They regularly form flocks outside the breeding season, often flocking with other Emberiza species. These flocks form in September.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on the ground or in vegetation. They commonly catch flying insects in sally flights. They sometimes make holes in bullrush stems to extract insect larvae. In the breeding season, they principally eat invertebrates (especially insects) but in winter take many seeds.

reproductive biology

Monogamous, but extrapair fertilizations are common and bigamy occurs in some populations (probably where densities are high). The nesting season is geographically variable. The well-hidden nest is usually placed on the ground but may be placed in a bush or small tree. They lay two to six (usually five) eggs. Incubation lasts 12–15 (commonly 13) days, and the young fledge after 9–13 (usually 10–12) days. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened. There are no consistent population trends, and the species is common in many parts of its range.

significance to humans

None known.

Corn bunting

Miliaria calandra

taxonomy

Emberiza calandra Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. Several subspecies have been described, but geographic variation is slight.

other common names

French: Bruant proyer; German: Grauammer; Spanish: Triguero.

physical characteristics

7 in (18 cm); 1.2–1.75 oz (35–50 g). A large bunting with a stout bill. Sexes are alike in color, but males are larger than females. They are uniformly brownish and streaked with

brown, with underparts paler than upperparts; some have a blackish spot on the breast.

distribution

Breeds from Britain, southern Sweden, and Lithuania southeast across Russia to the Caspian Sea and south through all of eastern Europe and the Mediterranean islands to the Canary Islands, North Africa, Syria, northern Iraq, Iran, northern Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and western Tianshan, China. Winters in the breeding range south to Israel and southern Iraq and Iran.

habitat

Live in open country with few bushes, especially in farmlands.

behavior

In the breeding season, males advertise by singing. They often give a flight song with their legs dangling in a distinctive way and their wings uplifted. They flock outside of the breeding season, often with other seed-eating birds; flocks start to form after the end of the breeding season.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on the ground in fields, damp meadows, and in short grass. In the breeding season they take animal material (arthropods, snails, earthworms) and seeds, and in winter they eat seeds (especially cereals).

reproductive biology

Mostly monogamous, but in some populations about 20% of the males are polygynous. The nest is placed on the ground in thick tangled grass or in a shrub or depression. They lay two to seven (usually four to five) eggs. Incubation takes 12–14 days, and young fledge in 9–13 days. The female does most of the feeding, but males with more than one mate tend to feed more than males in a monogamous pair.

conservation status

Not threatened, though populations of corn buntings have declined in most places in Europe, due mainly to changes in agricultural practices.

significance to humans

None known.

Crested bunting

Melophus lathami

taxonomy

Emberiza lathami J. E. Gray, Canton, Kwangtung, China. Two subspecies are little different and not recognized by all authors.

other common names

French: Bruant huppé; German: Haubenammer; Spanish: Pinzón Capitón.

physical characteristics

6.5–7 in (16.5–17 cm); 0.63–0.88 oz (18–25 g). Sexes differ in color. Males are blackish with a prominent crest and rusty wings and tail, which is black-tipped; females are brown, crested, and have rusty edges to the wing and tail feathers. Juveniles are paler than females with thin streaks on the breast.

distribution

M. l. lathami is resident in central, southeast, and southwest China south to North Vietnam. M. l. subcristatus is resident from western Pakistan east through northern India, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Myanmar. There is some altitudinal migration.

habitat

Inhabit rocky, grassy hillsides with sparse shrubs and dry rice paddies in China. In southeast China they often nest in tea fields.

behavior

Gregarious outside of the breeding season, when they form loose flocks.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on the ground on seeds and invertebrates.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Nesting takes place between April and August during the local wet season. The nest is a neat cup of woven grass placed on the ground under vegetation or a rock or in a crevice. They lay three to five eggs; no data on incubation and fledging. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Blue-black grassquit

Volatinia jacarina

taxonomy

Tanagra jacarina Linnaeus, 1766, northeastern Brazil. Two sub-species.

other common names

French: Jacarini noir; German: Jacariniammer; Spanish: Semillerito Negriazulado.

physical characteristics

4–4.3 in (10–4,3 cm); 0.34 oz (9.7 g). Sexes differ in color. Males are uniformly blue-black. Females are brown, paler below, with dark-streaked chest. Juveniles resemble females. Males obtain breeding plumage at about one year of age.

distribution

V. j. jacarina resident from central and eastern Brazil south to central Argentina and northern Chile; V. j. splendens resident from central Mexico south to Venezuela and Colombia; also on Grenada in the Lesser Antilles.

habitat

Low, seasonally wet grassland, arid lowland scrub, and weedy fields.

behavior

Males sing conspicuously from fences and display by jumping upward with a flick of their wings. In winter, they are found in flocks, some containing a few hundred birds; they sometimes flock with other small seed-eating birds.

feeding ecology and diet

The diet is almost exclusively grass seeds, although they eat some insects and berries. They feed by picking seeds from grass seed heads and will pick grit and seeds from roads.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. The nest is placed low to the ground to 10 ft (3m) high. Commonly three, less often two, eggs are laid from May through October. Data on incubation and fledging not available.

conservation status

Not threatened; locally abundant.

significance to humans

None known.

Woodpecker finch

Cactospiza pallida

taxonomy

Cactornis pallida Slavin and Slavin, 1870, Galápagos Islands.

other common names

French: Géospize pique-bois; German: Spechtfink; Spanish: Chimbito Pálido.

physical characteristics

6 in (15 cm). Sexes similar in color. Upperparts brown or olive-brown, with little streaking. Underparts whitish with slight streaking on breast.

distribution

Galápagos Islands.

habitat

Mixed cactus and trees with dense understory; less common in arid areas.

behavior

Solitary or occurring in small groups, probably family groups.

feeding ecology and diet

Eat largish insects that they find behind bark. They probe into dead wood, in bark, or by flaking off bark using a cactus spine or twig,

reproductive biology

Not available.

conservation status

Not threatened. Fairly common on several islands.

significance to humans

None known.

Variable seedeater

Sporophila americana

taxonomy

Loxia americana Gmelin, 1789, Cayenne. Three subspecies.

other common names

English: Wing-barred seedeater, black seedeater; French: Sporophile variable; German: Wechselpfäffchen; Spanish: Semillero Variable.

physical characteristics

4.2–4.5 in (11–11.5; cm); 3.5–0.4 oz (10–11 g). Sexes differ in color. Males from Mexico to Costa Rica are black with white at the base of their primaries; males from Costa Rica to northeast Peru and Amazonian Brazil are highly variable, with white on the throat and side of the neck, a black chest band, and a white belly and gray rump (and in some places in South America two thin white wing bars). Females uniformly olive-brown. Juveniles resemble females.

distribution

S. a. americana resident from northeast Venezuela south to northeast Brazil; A. a. aurita resident from western Costa Rica

east to northeast Venezuela; A. a. corvina resident from eastern Mexico south to western Panama.

habitat

Second-growth scrub, weedy fields, woodland edge, and secondary forest.

behavior

Males sing from a bush or a tree, usually from a low perch. When not breeding they occur in small flocks in which young birds and females usually are more common than males.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed almost exclusively on grass seeds. They sit on grasses and pick seeds from grass heads; sometimes they fly to a grass head and bend it to the ground, making feeding easier. They also feed on grass growing in water well away from land.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. The nest cup is low to mid-level in a bush. Commonly two, but occasionally three, eggs are laid during the time of year when their food is most abundant, which varies seasonally and geographically. The incubation period is about 12 days; young fledge after 11–13 days.

conservation status

Not threatened; locally abundant.

significance to humans

None known.

Chestnut-capped brush-finch

Atlapetes brunneinucha

taxonomy

Embernagra brunnei-nucha Lafresnaye, 1839, Veracruz, Mexico. Nine subspecies.

other common names

French: Tohi à nuque brune; German: Braunkopf-Buschammer; Spanish: Saltón Gorricastiaño.

physical characteristics

7–7.5 in (17.19.5 cm); 1.2 oz (33 g). Sexes similar in color. A medium-sized sparrow with a chestnut cap, black forehead and side of face, a black band across the throat (lacking in some populations), a white throat, gray flanks, and olive-green back, wings, and tail. Juveniles have a blackish brown head with brownish olive upperparts, white mottling on the throat, and a yellow-streaked belly.

distribution

Resident from southern Veracruz and Guerrero south to Panama, and in South America from northern Venezuela and Colombia to southern Peru.

habitat

Montane evergreen forest and secondary forest.

behavior

Do not form flocks, but individuals of a pair stay together, and when young are fledged the family group feeds together for some time. They live in dense undergrowth and rarely sing from an exposed perch. They commonly puff out their white throats.

feeding ecology and diet

Forage on the ground primarily for insects. They lurk on the outskirts of a column of army ants where they presumably capture insects that are flushed by the ants.

reproductive biology

Monogamous, and the individuals of the pair are always found close together. They seem to produce one brood per year, and the clutch contains one to two eggs. Nests are placed near the ground. Incubation and fledging periods are unknown.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Eastern towhee

Pipilo erythrophthalmus

taxonomy

Fringilla erythrophthalma Linnaeus, 1758, South Carolina. Four subspecies.

other common names

English: Red-eyed towhee, rufous-sided towhee; French: Tohià flancs roux; German: Rötelgrundammer; Spanish: Rascador Ojirrojo.

physical characteristics

7–8 in (17–20.5 cm); 1.2–1.8 oz (35–50 g). Sexually dimorphic, large, long-tailed sparrows. Males have a black head, throat back, and tail, white at the base of the primary wing feathers, rusty flanks, and a white belly. Females are patterned as males but are a warm brown where the males are black. Eye color varies from bright red in the north to yellowish or whitish in the southeast United States. Juveniles are brownish and are streaked below.

distribution

Breed from southern Manitoba, east across southern Canada, and south to Florida and the Gulf Coast (west to Texas). In winter, they migrate from the northern part of the breeding range southward and to eastern Texas and central Oklahoma. The four subspecies differ slightly in size and in eye color.

habitat

Inhabit dense deciduous thickets or edges of woodlands. In the South they may be found in scrub palmetto.

behavior

Solitary or occur in pairs or family groups. Males often sing from a conspicuous perch in the top of a tall bush or from a tree. When not singing they can be difficult to see.

feeding ecology and diet

Forage on the ground by scratching in leaf litter for insects or seeds.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. The nest is placed in a depression in the ground under a bush or occasionally low in a bush or vine. Nesting occurs between April and mid-August. Clutch size is two to six (usually three to four) eggs. Incubation takes 10–12 days and young leave the nest after 8–10 days. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Plumbeous sierra-finch

Phrygilus unicolor

taxonomy

Emberiza unicolor Lafresnaye and d'Orbigny, 1837, Tacora, Tacna, Peru. Six subspecies.

other common names

French: Phrygile gris-de-plomb; German: Bleiämmerling; Spanish: Frigilo Plomizo.

physical characteristics

6 in (15 cm); 0.75 oz (21 g). Sexually dimorphic, rather large sparrows of the high mountains. Males are uniformly leaden gray; females are streaked throughout with a coarsely streaked breast and grayish rump. Juveniles resemble females.

distribution

Resident in the Andes from western Venezuela south to Argentine Tierra del Fuego.

habitat

Found in pastures, meadows, shrubby edges, especially along rivulets in paramo, and rarely up to the snowline.

behavior

Not shy, they allow close approach; they crouch low to the ground before flushing. After flying a short distance they drop back into the paramo vegetation where they can be difficult to see. Found in pairs or in small groups.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on the ground, probably on seeds and invertebrates

reproductive biology

Probably monogamous. Breeding season varies geographically.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Bachman's sparrow

Aimophila aestivalis

taxonomy

Fringilla aestivalis Lichtenstein, 1823, Georgia, U.S.A. Three subspecies.

other common names

English: Pine-wood sparrow; French: Bruant des pinèdes; German: Bachmanammer; Spanish: Zacatonero de Bachman.

physical characteristics

5–6 in (12–16 cm); 0.7 oz (20 g). A fairly large, large-billed, round-tailed sparrow with reddish brown lateral crown stripes, streaked scapulars and back, gray chin and throat, and unstreaked breast. Sexes are alike in color. Birds from the southeastern United States are more rufous in coloration than are western birds.

distribution

A. a. aestivalis and A. a. bachmani, which are very similar in appearance, breed from Virginia to Florida and west to Louisiana. A. a. illinoensis breed from southern Missouri to central Louisiana and eastern Texas. They migrate from the northern part of their range in winter.

habitat

Inhabit open pine woods with fairly rank understory of wire-grass, palmettos, and weeds. They also occur in oak-palmetto scrub and in grasslands away from pine woods and in degraded pastures.

behavior

In the breeding season, males sing persistently from an exposed perch, commonly in a pine tree. At other times they are secretive and hard to see and may run rather than fly when pursued.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on the ground, eating insects, other invertebrates, and seeds. In winter they principally eat seeds.

reproductive biology

Socially monogamous. Nests are placed on the ground, usually in dense cover, and are well concealed by vegetation. Two to five (usually four) eggs are laid from mid-April through July (commonly in June). Incubation lasts 12–14 days, and the young fledge after about 10 days.

conservation status

Near Threatened. Has declined in numbers since the 1930s and is extirpated in the northern parts of its range.

significance to humans

None known.

Chipping sparrow

Spizella passerina

taxonomy

Fringilla passerina Bechstein, 1798, Quebec. Six subspecies.

other common names

English: Chippy; French: Bruant familier; German: Schwirrammer; Spanish: Gorrión Cejiblanco.

physical characteristics

4.5–5.5 in (12–14 cm); 0.4 oz (12 g). A small, slim sparrow with a long, notched tail. Sexes are similar in color. Adults have a rufous cap with a white stripe over the eye, a black eyeline stripe, a gray nape and rump, and pale gray, unstreaked underparts. Juveniles are like adults but buff, with a streaked, brown cap.

distribution

Breeds from southeast Alaska east across Canada to southwest Newfoundland and south to Florida, the Gulf Coast west to northern Baja California, and south in the highlands of Mexico to Guatemala. Winters in southern United States and Mexico.

habitat

Breed in dry, open woodlands and woodland edge with fairly open understory and in urban parks and golf courses. They are found in deciduous, coniferous, or mixed woods.

behavior

During breeding season, males sing persistently from a tree, usually not from an exposed perch. During migration they often occur in large, loose flocks. Their flight is strong, fast, and direct.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed both in trees and on the ground. During migration, they often feed on the ground in loose flocks. In summer, their diet consists principally of insects; in winter, they eat mainly seeds.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. The cup-like nest is placed in a tree, commonly a conifer, from 3 to 56 ft (1–19 m) high; nest rarely found on the ground. Three to five (usually four) eggs are laid from March through July. Incubation takes 11–14 days, and the young fledge after 9–12 days. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Lark bunting

Calamospiza melanocorys

taxonomy

Fringilla bicolor J. K. Townsend, 1837, Nebraska. Calamospiza melanocorys, Stejneger, 1885; Fringilla bicolor preoccupied.

other common names

English: White-winged blackbird, prairie bobolink; French: Bruant noir et blanc; German: Prärieammer; Spanish: Gorrión Alipálido.

physical characteristics

5.5–7 in (14–18 cm); 1.4 oz (40 g). A large, chunky sparrow with a large bill. Sexes differ in color. Males in breeding plumage are black with conspicuous white patches in the wing and white corners to the tail. Females are heavily streaked with chocolate-brown, with whitish buff in the wings and white or light buff corners to the tail. Juveniles are similar in color to females but with a yellowish cast to their plumage. Males in winter resemble females but usually have some black feathers.

distribution

Breed from the southern Canadian prairies south to eastern New Mexico and northwest Texas. Winters from southern Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and central Texas south through Baja California and northern Mexico.

habitat

Breed in shortgrass prairie interspersed with sage or other shrubs. In winter then are found in weedy, dry grasslands or open farmland.

behavior

On the breeding ground, they are conspicuous birds, with males frequently giving an elaborate stiff-winged flight display. They run or hop on the ground. In winter they are found in flocks.

feeding ecology and diet

Forage on the ground, eating mostly insects in the summer and seeds in the winter.

reproductive biology

Usually monogamous, although some males, especially where density is high, have two or more mates. The cup-shaped nest is placed on the ground, under a bush or in taller vegetation where it is protected from the sun. Three to seven (usually four to five) eggs are laid from mid-May through mid-July. Incubation lasts 12 days, and the young leave the nest after 8–9 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Savannah sparrow

Passerculus sandwichensis

taxonomy

Emberiza sandwichensis Gmelin, 1789, Unalaska, Alaska. Twenty-one subspecies.

other common names

English: Belding's sparrow, Bryant's sparrow, Ipswich sparrow, large-billed sparrow, marsh sparrow, San Benito sparrow, seashore sparrow; French: Bruant des prés; German: Grasammer; Spanish: Sabanero Zanjero.

physical characteristics

4.6–6 in (11–15 cm); 0.6–1.1 oz (17–30 g). Typically brown or dark brown streaked on the back and breast, with pink legs, a

yellow stripe above the eye, a pale median crown stripe, and a rather short, notched tail. Sexes are alike in color, but they are geographically variable.

distribution

Breeds from northern Alaska, northern Canada (absent on the arctic islands), south to northern Georgia, the central Great Plains, and south in the mountains to Guatemala. They winter along the east coast of the United States, west through the central Plains, and south to northern Central America. They are resident along the west coast from southern British Columbia south to southern Baja California, along the west coast of Mexico, south to central Sinaloa, and in the highlands of central Mexico.

habitat

Inhabit open country, such as grassy meadows, cultivated fields, pastures, roadsides, sedge bogs, the edge of salt marshes, and tundra.

behavior

Found in pairs and family groups in summer. Territorial males typically sing from an exposed perch. On the ground they run or hop. During migration and winter they can be found in small, loose flocks. Flight is strong and direct.

feeding ecology and diet

In summer, they eat a variety of invertebrates, especially insects, but also some seeds and fruit. In winter, they principally eat seeds. They forage on the ground, low in bushes and weeds, or along the tide line on beaches and in beach wrack.

reproductive biology

Generally monogamous, but in some populations a male may have two mates (bigamy). The nest is a woven cup of grasses and other vegetation that is placed on the ground or in a slight depression and is partly covered by grasses and other vegetation. Two to six (usually four to five) eggs are laid from February to August. Incubation usually lasts about 12 days, and young usually fledge after 10–12 days. Both parents feed the young.

conservation status

Common throughout its range, but declining in eastern North America as marginal pastures are reverting to woodland.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Byers, C., U. Olsson, and J. Curson. Buntings and Sparrows. Sussex: Pica Press, 1995.

Collar, N.J., LP. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, A. Madroño Nieto, L.G. Naranjo, T.A. Parker III, and D.C. Wrege. Threatened Birds of the Americas. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.

Cramp, S., and C.M. Perrins, eds. Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Vol. 9. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Ridgely, R.S., and G. Tudor. The Birds of South America. Vol. 1. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989.

Rising, J.D., and D.D. Beadle. A Guide to the Identification and Natural History of the Sparrows of the United States and Canada. London: Academic Press, 1996.

James David Rising, PhD