Preprimary, Elementary, and Secondary Schools

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Chapter 2
Preprimary, Elementary, and Secondary Schools

SCHOOL ENROLLMENTS

Preprimary, elementary, and secondary school enrollments reflect the number of births over a specific period. Because of the baby boom (1946–64), school enrollment grew rapidly during the 1950s and 1960s and then declined steadily during the 1970s and 1980s. According to the U.S. Department of Education, in 1985 public elementary and secondary school enrollment increased for the first time since 1971. Enrollment has grown slowly but steadily since the mid-1980s, reaching an estimated 47.9 million in public schools and 6.2 million in private schools in fall 2002. Slow but steady growth is projected to continue until 2010, when it most likely will decline slightly in 2011, rising again in 2013. (See Figure 2.1.)

Preprimary Growth

In contrast to the declining elementary and secondary school enrollment during the 1970s and early 1980s, preprimary enrollment showed substantial growth. According to the U.S. Department of Education, between 1970 and 1980 preprimary enrollment rose from 4.1 million to 4.9 million preschool-age children. While the overall population of three- to five-year-olds grew 29% between 1980 and 1993, enrollment in preprimary programs rose 35%, to 6.6 million. In 1994 new data collection methods indicated that 61% of the nation's 12.3 million three- to five-year-olds were enrolled in preprimary programs. These increases reflect the greater availability of and interest in preschool education. In 1965 only 27.1% of the 12.5 million children in this age group were enrolled in nursery school or kindergarten. By October 2001, 63.9% of the 11.9 million preschool-age children in the United States were enrolled in preprimary programs. Note that because of the change in data collection methods, figures prior to 1994 may not be comparable to later years. (See Table 2.1.)

As the proportion of working mothers has grown, the proportion of young children in full-day preprimary programs has also increased. In 2001 more than half (51.8%) of children in preprimary programs attended school all day, compared to 31.8% in 1980 and 17% in 1970. (See Table 2.1.)

Geographic Shifts

There have been significant changes in regional school enrollment. According to the U.S. Department of Education, between 1970 and 1980, school enrollment in forty-one states and the District of Columbia dropped, with most of the decline occurring at the elementary level. Between fall 1996 and fall 2001, thirteen states increased enrollment by 5% or more, while sixteen other states reported increases of less than 5%. Decreases in school enrollment were reported in twenty-one states and the District of Columbia. (See Figure 2.2.)

During the 2001–02 school year, according to the U.S. Department of Education, 32,695 of the 91,759 public elementary and secondary schools in the United States were located in urban fringe areas (that is, outside the central city but within the metropolitan area). That figure represented 36% of all American public schools. Rural areas of the country contained another 27% (24,565). Public schools within large (10,746) and midsized cities (10,813) combined to account for 23.5% of the total. (See Table 2.2.)

School Size

According to the U.S. Department of Education, in 2001–02 the average enrollment at public schools was 520 students per school—477 in elementary schools and 718 in secondary schools. Most (70.4%) public school students attended schools with enrollments of 500 students or more. More than a fifth (20.3%) were enrolled at schools with between 300 and 499 students, and 9.3% of public school students attended schools with enrollments of less than 300 students. (See Table 2.3.)

Racial and Ethnic Diversity

Public school enrollment has become more racially and ethnically diverse, reflecting the nation's changing demographics. According to the U.S. Department of Education, between 1991 and 2001 the proportion of non-Hispanic white students declined from 67.4% to 60.3%, while the proportion of non-Hispanic African-American students increased slightly, from 16.4% to 17.2%. The proportion of Hispanic students rose from 11.8% to 17.1%; Asian or Pacific Islander students increased from 3.4% to 4.2%; and the percentage of Native American/Alaska Native students rose from 1% to 1.2%. (See Table 2.4.)

THE SCHOOL-AGE POPULATION

According to the U.S. Census Bureau in Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2004–2005, the U.S. population included 61.4 million elementary- and secondary-age children (ages five to nineteen) in 2003. About 21% of the total U.S. population were school-age children.

Poor School-Age Children

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2003, 12.5% of Americans were living in poverty. Among children under age eighteen the proportion living in poverty was 17.6% in 2003. (See Table 2.5.) Poverty remains a persistent problem for the nation and its schools. Children who are poor are more likely to be undernourished, subject to frequent illnesses, and generally much less ready for learning.

Poverty rates vary widely by race and ethnicity, as well as by the type of household in which a child lives. In 2003 the proportion of whites (of all age groups) living in poverty was 10.5%, compared to 24.4% of African-Americans and 22.5% of Hispanics. Families living in households headed by a female with no spouse present were more likely to be poor (28%) than families that were headed by a married couple (5.4%). (See Table 2.5.)

FINANCING THE SCHOOLS

Sources of Funding

Public schools obtain funds from three sources: local, state, and federal governments. Typically, local governments rely on property taxes to finance education, while state governments use revenues from sales taxes and, in some instances, income taxes, lotteries, excise taxes (such as gasoline taxes), motor vehicle fees, and other taxes that are sometimes referred to as "sin" taxes (alcohol and tobacco). Local and state governments have traditionally been the primary sources of revenue for elementary and secondary schools, with the federal government contributing a relatively small proportion. (See Figure 2.3.)

At the beginning of the twentieth century, education funding was primarily the responsibility of the local entities. For example, according to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in Digest of Education Statistics Tables and Figures 2003, during the 1919–20 school year, a full 83.2% of school revenues were derived from local sources, while 16.5% came from the state and 0.3% were contributed by the federal government. Throughout most of the twentieth century, a dramatic shift in funding methods raised the federal government portion of school revenues to 9.8% during the school years 1978–79 and 1979–80. At the same time, local and state contributions became nearly equal in proportion. In 1978–79, for instance, the states provided 45.6% of public education funding, while local sources provided 44.6%. After 1980 the federal proportion dropped, hitting about 6% in 1990, with state and local sources continuing to divide the remainder. By the 2000–01 school year, federal government funding had increased slightly to 7.3%. State governments in 2000–01 provided 49.7% of education revenues, and local governments about 43%. Figure 2.3 compares revenue sources for public elementary and secondary schools since 1970.

The dependence on state and local revenues has significant meaning for school funding. State revenues, which rely on sales and income taxes, are tied to business

TABLE 2.1
Enrollment of 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children in preprimary programs, selected years, October 1965–October 2001
[In thousands]
Year and ageTotal population, 3 to 5 years oldEnrollment by level and controlEnrollment by attendance
TotalPercent enrolledNursery schoolKindergartenFull-dayPart-dayPercent full-day
PublicPrivatePublicPrivate
1234567891011
Total, 3 to 5 years old
196512,5493,40727.11273932,291596
197010,9494,10437.53327622,4985116983,40517.0
197510,1854,95548.75701,1742,6825281,2953,65926.1
19809,2844,87852.56281,3532,4384591,5513,32731.8
198510,7335,86554.68461,6312,8475412,1443,72236.6
198710,8725,93154.68191,7362,8425342,0903,84135.2
198810,9935,97854.48511,7702,8754812,0443,93534.2
198911,0396,02654.69301,8942,7044972,2383,78937.1
199011,2076,65959.41,1992,1802,7725092,5774,08238.7
199111,3706,33455.79961,8282,9675432,4083,92638.0
199211,5456,40255.51,0731,7832,9955502,4103,99237.6
199311,9546,58155.11,2051,7793,0205772,6423,93940.1
1994a12,3287,51461.01,8482,3142,8195343,4684,04646.2
1995a12,5187,73961.81,9502,3812,8006083,6894,05147.7
1996a12,3787,58061.21,8302,3172,8535803,5624,01947.0
1997a12,1217,86064.92,2072,2312,8475753,9223,93949.9
1998a12,0787,78864.52,2132,2992,6746023,9593,82950.8
1999a11,9207,84465.82,2092,2982,7775604,1543,69053.0
2000a11,8587,59264.02,1462,1802,7015654,0083,58452.8
2001a11,8997,60263.92,1642,2012,7245123,9403,66251.8
3 years old
19654,1492034.94115354
19703,51645412.9110322121014231231.3
19753,17768321.5179474111825942337.9
19803,14385727.3221604161732153637.5
19853,5941,03528.8278679522635068533.8
19873,5691,02228.6264703243137864437.0
19883,7191,02727.6298678242636965835.9
19893,7131,00527.127770731839061538.8
19903,6921,20532.634784011744775837.1
19913,8111,07428.2313702382238868736.1
19923,9051,08127.7336685263437171134.3
19934,0531,09727.1369687202042667038.9
1994a4,0811,38533.946988719967071548.4
1995a4,1481,48935.9511947151775473650.6
1996a4,0451,50637.2511947222665784843.7
1997a3,9471,52838.7643843251875477449.4
1998a3,9891,49837.6587869271473576349.1
1999a3,8621,50539.0621859131277373251.3
2000a3,9291,54139.2644854271676177949.4
2001a3,9851,53838.6599901142371582346.5
4 years old
19654,23868316.168213284118
19703,6201,00727.817639531811723077622.8
19753,4991,41840.53326443131294111,00829.0
19803,0721,42346.336370123912046795632.8
19853,5981,76649.14968592761356431,12336.4
19873,5971,71747.74318812801255481,16931.9
19883,5981,76849.14819222611045191,24929.4
19893,6921,88251.05241,0552021005921,29031.4
19903,7232,08756.16951,144157917161,37134.3
19913,7631,99453.05849822871406671,32633.5
19923,8071,98252.16029712821266321,35031.9
19934,0442,17853.97199573491547651,41335.1
1994a4,2022,53260.31,0201,232198821,0951,43843.2
1995a4,1452,55361.61,0541,208207841,1041,44943.3
1996a4,1482,45459.21,0291,168180771,0341,42042.1
1997a4,0332,66566.11,1971,169207921,1611,50543.5
1998a4,0022,66666.61,1831,219210531,1791,48744.2
1999a4,0212,76968.91,2121,2272071221,3551,41448.9
2000a3,9402,55664.91,1441,121227651,1821,37446.2
2001a3,9272,60866.41,2021,121236491,2551,35448.1
TABLE 2.1
Enrollment of 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old children in preprimary programs, selected years, October 1965–October 2001 [continued]
[In thousands]
Year and ageTotal population, 3 to 5 years oldEnrollment by level and controlEnrollment by attendance
TotalPercent enrolledNursery schoolKindergartenFull-dayPart-dayPercent full-day
PublicPrivatePublicPrivate
1234567891011
—Not available.
aData collected using new procedures. May not be comparable with figures prior to 1994.
bEnrollment data include only those students in preprimary programs.
Note: Data are based on sample surveys of the civilian noninstitutional population. Although cells with fewer than 75,000 children are subject to wide sampling variation, they are included in the table to permit various types of aggregations. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
Source: Thomas D. Snyder, Alexandra G. Tan, and Charlene M. Hoffman, "Table 43. Enrollment of 3-, 4-, and 5-Year-Old Children in Preprimary Programs, by Level and Control of Program and by Attendance Status: Selected Years, October 1965 to October 2001 (in Thousands)," in Digest of Education Statistics, 2003, NCES 2005-025, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, June 2003, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt043.asp (accessed July 26, 2005)
5 years oldb
19654,1622,52160.618272,002474
19703,8142,64369.345452,1683843262,31712.3
19753,5092,85481.359572,3583816252,22821.9
19803,0692,59884.744482,1833227631,83529.4
19853,5423,06586.573942,5193791,1511,91437.6
19873,7063,19286.11241522,5383781,1632,02836.4
19883,6763,18486.6721702,5903511,1552,02836.3
19893,6333,13986.41291322,4993781,2551,88340.0
19903,7923,36788.81571962,6044111,4141,95342.0
19913,7963,26786.01001432,6423821,3541,91341.4
19923,8323,33987.11351272,6883901,4081,93142.2
19933,8573,30685.71161362,6514031,4511,85643.9
1994a4,0443,59788.93591942,6014421,7041,89347.4
1995a4,2243,69787.53852262,5785071,8301,86749.5
1996a4,1853,62186.52902022,6524771,8701,75051.7
1997a4,1413,66788.53682192,6164652,0071,66054.7
1998a4,0873,62488.74422112,4375352,0441,57956.4
1999a4,0373,57188.43762122,5574262,0271,54456.8
2000a3,9893,49587.63592062,4474842,0651,43159.1
2001a3,9873,45686.73631792,4744401,9701,48557.0

cycles. Local school funding is usually linked to property taxes. When a recession occurs or businesses close or move away, causing property values to decline, school funding is directly affected. Also, per capita income and property values are typically lower in rural areas, and local taxes may not be enough to fund the district's schools. In these cases, states must find ways to fill the gap.

To try to resolve these problems, many states now use complex formulas for distributing state education funds to equalize the per-pupil expenditure statewide—that is, they give proportionately more state funds per student to poor districts than to wealthy districts.

Another issue is the adequacy of the education the state offers children. According to Overview and Inventory of State Education Reforms: 1990 to 2000 (David Hurst, Alexandra Tan, Anne Meek, and Jason Sellers, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, July 2003), disparities in spending between wealthy and impoverished school districts led to legal challenges during the 1970s and 1980s. Some state courts have found that state education finance systems failed to deliver an acceptable level of educational services. States have started to focus on determining educational adequacy rather than requiring equity.

Education experts are developing standards—what it takes in terms of teachers, curriculum, and expenditures—to achieve an adequate education. The definition of adequacy differs from state to state. Each state is examining what a core education means and how much it costs.

In Financing Education So That No Child Is Left Behind: Determining the Costs of Improving Student Performance, by Andrew Reschovsky and Jennifer Imazeki (in William J. Fowler, Jr., ed., Developments in School Finance: 2003, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, August 2004), the authors state that, prior to the recent court cases, the focus of most school funding reform efforts has been on resources rather than on the link between educational finance and student performance. The study found that the amount of money required for student performance standards varies across school districts due to factors beyond the school districts' control. Some districts have to pay higher salaries in order to attract teachers; others have large numbers of economically disadvantaged students, or students from families where English is not the first language, and these schools need extra resources.

Revenues

According to the U.S. Department of Education, in the 2000–01 school year revenues for public elementary and secondary schools totaled $401 billion. State (49.7%) and local authorities (40.8%) provided most of the revenues, with less than 7.3% coming from the federal government and 2.3% from private sources. The proportions of federal, state, and local funding varied by state. In Hawaii the state provided 89.8% of revenue, while in Nevada the state provided only 28.6%. The federal government supplied 15.8% of the school revenue for Alaska and 3.9% for New Jersey. Local and intermediate sources accounted for 88.1% of school revenue in the District of Columbia, and less than 0.5% in Hawaii. (See Table 2.6.)

Expenditures

According to the U.S. Department of Education in A Guide to Education and No Child Left Behind, federal, state, and local government spending for public elementary and secondary education amounted to $591.3 billion during the 2003–04 school year. (See Figure 2.4.)

The NCES estimates that per-pupil spending in 2002–03, the last year for which figures have been released, averaged $8,041. Figure 2.5 offers a graphic depiction of the dramatic rise in public schools' expenditures

TABLE 2.2
Characteristics of public elementary and secondary enrollment and finances, by type of locale, 2000–01 and 2001–02
CharacteristicTotalaLarge citybMidsize citycUrban fringe of a large citydUrban fringe of midsize cityeLarge townfSmall towngRural outside an MSAhRural within an MSAi
12345678910
Schools, enrollment, and teachers, 2001–02
Enrollment, in thousands47,0617,3366,00615,4055,0026084,5394,3453,817
Schools91,75910,74610,81323,6699,0261,29811,28416,3978,168
Average school sizej515683556651555469403265468
Pupil/teacher ratiok16.217.016.017.016.415.915.414.216
Enrollment (percent distribution)100.015.612.832.710.61.39.69.28.1
Schools (percent distribution)100.011.711.825.89.81.412.317.98.9
Revenues and expenditures, 2000–01
    Total revenue, in millions of dollars$406,508$66,320$51,964$136,530$39,127$4,580$35,271$35,623$32,347
Federal28,4176,4084,3906,4092,3723822,9043,1151,397
    Impact aid873479017857510933929
    Bilingual education64121117215102
    Indian education565552211242
    Children with disabilites4,2856725831,24838152329268232
    Eisenhower science awards15428254015214127
    Drug free schools247464470214221613
    Chapter 2 (block grants)7571331271906911907946
    Vocational education53411280106528564523
    Title I6,2321,6821,0651,15256288693674281
    Other and unclassified15,2163,6702,3603,4031,2102111,5761,648761
State200,15332,32828,06960,02619,7552,51819,64120,27416,148
    State school lunch programs3776052117414393628
Local177,93827,58319,50570,09417,0001,67912,72612,23414,803
    Property taxl108,06114,57911,24246,15310,1501,0728,2177,2878,618
    Parent government contributionl29,7277,9963,55710,2812,8971411,0071,3932,422
    Lunch sales5,7615176402,08468474578563615
    Transportation66263851434
    Other34,3224,4894,05811,5393,2653922,9202,9873,144
Total revenue (percent distribution)100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
    Federal7.09.78.44.76.18.38.28.74.3
    State49.248.754.044.050.555.055.756.949.9
    Local43.841.637.551.343.436.736.134.345.8
    Total expenditures, in millions of dollars$564,187$93,780$69,804$192,173$53,851$6,190$47,444$47,984$45,736
Current expenditures for schools415,16269,93852,020139,77839,5854,63035,52735,68833,197
    Instruction343,85957,73544,257114,30432,6553,96230,28730,15826,748
    Operation and maintenance206,90435,92226,54568,40119,8692,38118,33917,96916,054
    Food service32,8025,7704,22311,0103,0853892,8542,8262,485
    Other13,4142,2991,7633,7681,4221781,4251,4921,052
Other current expenditures90,73813,74411,72631,1238,2801,0157,6697,8717,158
Interest on school debt9,5361,5459873,481999897296371,048
Capital outlay48,7518,5535,07017,7904,9874573,5193,7884,332
TABLE 2.2
Characteristics of public elementary and secondary enrollment and finances, by type of locale, 2000–01 and 2001–02 [continued]
CharacteristicTotalaLarge citybMidsize citycUrban fringe of a large citydUrban fringe of midsize cityeLarge townfSmall towngRural outside an MSAhRural within an MSAi
12345678910
aThe total column includes data for 126 LEAs (local education agencies) with unknown locale codes.
bCentral city of a consolidated metropolitan statistical area (CMSA) or metropolitan statistical area (MSA) with the city having a population greater than or equal to 250,000.
cCentral city of a CMSA or an MSA with the city having a population of less than 250,000.
dAny incorporated place, census designated place, or non-place territory within a CMSA or an MSA of a large city and defined as urban by the Census Bureau.
eAny incorporated place, census designated place, or non-place territory within a CMSA or an MSA of a mid-size city and defined as urban by the Census Bureau.
fPlace not within an MSA but with population of 25,000 or more.
gPlace not within an MSA with a population of at least 2,500, but less than 25,000.
hPlace with a population of less than 2,500 outside a CMSA or an MSA, and designated as rural by the Census Bureau.
iPlace with a population of less than 2,500 within a CMSA or an MSA and designated as rural by the Census Bureau.
jAverage for schools reporting enrollment.
kRatio for schools reporting both full-time-equivalent teachers and fall enrollment data.
lProperty tax and parent government contributions are determined on the basis of independence or dependence of the local school system and are mutually exclusive.
Note: Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
Source: Thomas D. Snyder, Alexandra G. Tan, and Charlene M. Hoffman, "Table 88. Public Elementary and Secondary Students, Schools, Pupil to Teacher Ratios, and Finances, by Type of Locale: 2000–01 and 2001–02," in Digest of Education Statistics, 2003, NCES 2005-025, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, December 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt088.asp (accessed July 26, 2005)
Current expenditures (percent distribution)100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
    Instruction60.262.260.059.860.860.160.659.660.0
    Operation and maintenance9.510.09.59.69.49.89.49.49.3
    Food service3.94.04.03.34.44.54.74.93.9
    Other26.423.826.527.225.425.625.326.126.8
Current expenditure per student (in dollars)7,3727,9027,4097,5726,6126,4996,6386,8957,118
Instruction expenditure per student (in dollars)4,4364,9164,4444,5314,0233,9064,0194,1084,272
TABLE 2.3
Public elementary and secondary schools and enrollment, by type and size of school, 2001–02
Enrollment size of schoolNumber of schools, by typeEnrollment, by type of schoola
TotalbElementarycSecondarydCombined elementary/secondaryeOtherbTotalbElementarycSecondarydCombined elementary/secondaryeOtherb
All schoolsRegular schoolsfAll schoolsRegular schoolsf
12345678910111213
aThese enrollment data should be regarded as approximations only. Totals differ from those reported in other tables because this table represents data reported by schools rather than by states or school districts. Percentage distribution and average enrollment calculations exclude data for schools not reporting enrollment.
bIncludes special education, alternative, and other schools not classified by grade span.
cIncludes schools beginning with grade 6 or below and with no grade higher than 8.
dIncludes schools with no grade lower than 7.
eIncludes schools beginning with grade 6 or below and ending with grade 9 or above.
fExcludes special education schools, vocational schools, and alternative schools.
gData are for schools reporting their enrollment size.
Note: Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
Source: Thomas D. Snyder, Alexandra G. Tan, and Charlene M. Hoffman, "Table 93. Public Elementary and Secondary Schools and Enrollment, by Type and Size of School: 2001–02," in Digest of Education Statistics, 2003, NCES 2005-025, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, December 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt093.asp (accessed July 26, 2005)
   Total94,11265,22822,18018,3825,2881,41647,518,62330,945,87615,215,03314,737,8091,275,28782,427
   Percentg100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00
Under 10010.766.2115.638.3445.3158.530.940.641.000.596.3618.57
100 to 1999.778.7311.1810.2016.2721.072.812.772.281.868.8221.59
200 to 29911.5212.858.148.348.669.035.596.832.832.597.9315.91
300 to 39913.3215.677.738.327.224.528.9611.503.753.609.3811.22
400 to 49913.1415.896.737.395.363.8511.3414.954.204.118.9312.11
500 to 59910.9413.116.046.664.340.8411.5115.034.634.548.803.30
600 to 6998.139.435.486.193.090.5010.1112.784.954.977.402.36
700 to 7995.766.384.805.452.250.508.279.985.015.066.182.80
800 to 9996.926.908.089.192.970.3311.8212.7910.0710.209.732.10
1,000 to 1,4996.074.1812.6714.402.990.5013.9510.2321.6421.8913.224.49
1,500 to 1,9992.150.537.408.520.950.007.081.8717.7818.206.080.00
2,000 to 2,9991.270.125.015.770.360.335.740.5716.4916.903.095.55
3,000 or more0.270.011.091.250.230.001.870.075.375.494.070.00
Average enrollmentg520477718807270138520477718807270138
TABLE 2.4
Enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools, by race/ethnicity, Fall 1991 and Fall 2001
State of jurisdictionPercentage distribution, Fall 1991Percentage distribution, Fall 2001
TotalWhite∗Black∗HispanicAsian or Pacific IslanderAmerican Indian/Alaska NativeTotalWhite∗Black∗HispanicAsian or Pacific IslanderAmerican Indian/Alaska Native
12345678910111213
United States100.067.416.411.83.41.0100.060.317.217.14.21.2
Alabama100.062.835.50.30.50.9100.060.536.51.50.80.7
Alaska100.066.94.42.23.922.6100.060.44.73.65.925.5
Arizona100.062.44.225.01.56.9100.051.34.735.32.16.6
Arkansas100.074.524.00.60.60.3100.071.123.34.20.90.5
California100.044.58.635.310.80.8100.035.08.444.511.20.9
Colorado100.074.95.216.62.31.0100.066.85.723.33.01.2
Connecticut100.074.312.810.42.20.2100.069.213.813.73.00.3
Delaware100.067.327.83.11.60.2100.059.631.16.62.40.3
District of Columbia100.04.089.55.31.1#100.04.684.49.41.6#
Florida100.061.224.212.91.60.2100.052.524.920.41.90.3
Georgia100.060.737.90.60.8#100.053.838.25.52.40.2
Hawaii100.023.92.65.267.90.3100.020.32.44.572.30.4
Idaho100.092.60.34.90.81.3100.085.40.811.21.31.3
Illinois100.065.421.410.32.80.1100.059.021.216.23.50.2
Indiana100.086.410.91.90.70.1100.083.011.83.91.00.2
Iowa100.094.02.91.41.40.4100.089.64.14.01.70.5
Kansas100.084.68.14.71.70.9100.077.88.99.82.21.3
Kentucky100.089.89.40.20.5#100.087.710.31.10.70.2
Louisiana100.052.744.71.01.20.4100.048.747.81.61.30.7
Maine100.098.30.50.20.80.2100.096.21.40.61.10.7
Maryland100.060.433.22.53.60.3100.052.437.25.44.60.4
Massachusetts100.080.57.88.13.50.2100.075.78.610.84.50.3
Michigan100.078.217.22.41.31.0100.073.420.03.62.01.0
Minnesota100.089.93.61.43.21.8100.082.07.03.85.22.0
Mississippi100.048.350.70.10.50.4100.047.351.00.90.70.2
Missouri100.082.515.70.80.90.2100.079.017.52.01.20.3
Montana100.088.40.41.30.79.2100.085.90.61.91.010.6
Nebraska100.089.45.52.91.11.1100.081.86.98.21.61.6
Nevada100.073.29.012.13.72.0100.054.510.327.46.11.7
New Hampshire100.097.00.81.01.00.2100.095.01.22.11.50.2
New Jersey100.064.418.612.24.70.1100.059.417.916.06.60.2
New Mexico100.041.22.345.30.910.4100.034.32.451.01.111.3
New York100.059.420.115.84.40.3100.054.819.918.66.20.4
North Carolina100.066.430.20.91.01.6100.060.031.35.21.91.5
North Dakota100.091.20.70.60.76.8100.088.71.11.30.88.1
Ohio100.083.614.11.30.90.1100.080.116.71.91.20.1
Oklahoma100.073.510.03.01.112.4100.063.710.86.51.517.5
Oregon100.088.12.44.92.91.8100.079.13.011.54.22.2
Pennsylvania100.082.213.22.91.70.1100.077.715.34.82.10.1
Rhode Island100.082.76.57.23.10.4100.073.48.114.83.20.6
South Carolina100.057.741.10.50.60.1100.054.741.72.41.00.2
South Dakota100.090.60.50.60.77.6100.086.21.31.41.010.2
Tennessee100.076.622.20.30.70.1100.071.824.82.11.20.2
Texas100.049.014.334.42.10.2100.040.914.441.72.80.3
Utah100.091.90.74.01.91.4100.084.71.09.92.81.5
Vermont100.097.90.60.30.70.6100.095.81.21.01.50.5
Virginia100.072.623.71.02.60.1100.062.827.15.54.30.3
Washington100.081.44.26.15.82.5100.073.55.410.97.52.6
West Virginia100.095.53.90.20.40.1100.094.54.40.40.60.1
Wisconsin100.085.28.82.72.11.3100.080.110.25.03.41.4
Wyoming100.089.60.96.00.72.8100.087.31.47.20.93.2

since 1960. Adjusted for inflation, expenditures per student have risen more than 60% since 1980, according to the NCES.

International Comparisons of Expenditures per Student

One method of measuring a country's commitment to education is to examine what portion of its gross domestic product (GDP, the total value of goods and services produced in the nation) goes to educating its people. In 2000, according to the U.S. Department of Education, public expenditures for education in the United States totaled 5% of GDP—3.5% for primary and secondary education, and another 1.1% for higher education. (See Figure 2.6 and Table 2.7.) Of the selected countries listed in Table 2.7, Denmark spent the highest proportion (8.4%) of GDP on education, and Russia spent the lowest proportion (3%) in 2000. For primary and secondary education, Sweden and New Zealand tied for the highest proportion of GDP (4.9%), and Russia spent the lowest proportion (1.7%). The percentage of GDP that the United States spent on public education in 2000 increased by 0.3% from 1985, when it was 4.7%. The largest increase during this time (from data available) was in Denmark, from 6.2% to 8.4% of GDP.

TABLE 2.4
Enrollment in public elementary and secondary schools, by race/ethnicity, Fall 1991 and Fall 2001 [continued]
State of jurisdictionPercentage distribution, Fall 1991Percentage distribution, Fall 2001
TotalWhite∗Black∗HispanicAsian or Pacific IslanderAmerican Indian/Alaska NativeTotalWhite∗Black∗HispanicAsian or Pacific IslanderAmerican Indian/Alaska Native
12345678910111213
—Not available.
#Rounds to zero.
∗Excludes persons of Hispanic origin.
Note: Percentage distribution based upon students for whom race/ethnicity was reported, which may be less than the total number of students in the state. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
Source: Adapted from Thomas D. Snyder, Alexandra G. Tan, and Charlene M. Hoffman, "Table 42. Percentage Distribution of Enrollment in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, by Race/Ethnicity and State or Jurisdiction: Fall 1991 and Fall 2001," in Digest of Education Statistics, 2003, NCES 2005-025, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, December 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt042.asp (accessed July 26, 2005)
Bureau of Indian Affairs100.00.00.00.00.0100.0
Department of Defense dependents schools
Overseas schools100.061.619.19.39.11.0
Domestic schools100.051.625.818.53.50.6
Outlying areas
American Samoa100.00.00.00.0100.00.0100.00.00.00.0100.00.0
Guam100.010.31.60.387.80.0100.01.50.30.297.90.1
Northern Marianas100.00.10.00.099.90.0100.00.40.10.099.50.0
Puerto Rico100.00.00.0100.00.00.0
Virgin Islands100.00.986.811.80.50.0

Another way to examine international expenditures for education is by comparing how much money countries spend per student in relation to GDP per capita. In general, those countries with the highest GDP per capita spent the most on education. According to the U.S. Department of Education, the United States had GDP per capita of $34,602 in 2000 and spent $7,397 per elementary and secondary student. Mexico had GDP per capita of $9,117 and spent $1,415 in that year, while Switzerland had GDP per capita of $29,617 and spent $8,187 per elementary and secondary student. (See Table 2.8.) Total education expenditures, including post-secondary, as a percentage of GDP were highest in the United States (6.6%), Korea (6.6%), and Canada (6.2%).

PRIVATE SCHOOLS

According to the U.S. Department of Education, about 5.3 million students attended private elementary and secondary schools throughout the country in 2001–02. (See Table 2.9.)

Characteristics

The U.S. Department of Education notes that most enrollment (nearly four million) in private schools in 2001–02 existed at the elementary level, while 1.3 million students were enrolled in private high schools. (See Table 2.9.)

In 2001–02 more students in the South were enrolled in private schools than in any other region of the country. More than 1.6 million students in the South, about 1.4 million students in the Midwest, another 1.3 million in the Northeast, and one million students in the West were enrolled in private schools. (See Table 2.9.)

Most private school students attend Catholic schools. According to the U.S. Department of Education, in 2001–02 nearly half (47%) of students who attended private schools were enrolled in a Catholic school, while 36% attended schools that were affiliated with another religion, and 17% attended a nonsectarian private school (schools that do not have a religious orientation or purpose). (See Figure 2.7.)

TEACHERS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS

In fall 2002 there were nearly three million teachers in public elementary and secondary schools and 385,000 in private schools. The average ratio of students to teachers was 16.1 pupils to every teacher. Public schools had almost the same pupil/teacher ratios (16.1) as private schools (16.2). These ratios were considerably lower than they had been during the 1950s, '60s, and '70s. (See Table 2.10.)

TABLE 2.5
People and families in poverty, by selected characteristics, 2002 and 2003
[Numbers in thousands. People as of March of the following year.]
Characteristic2002 below poverty2003 below povertyChange in poverty (2003 less 2002)a
NumberPercentageNumberPercentageNumberPercentage
People
   Total34,57012.135,86112.51,2910.3
Family status
In families24,53410.425,68410.81,1500.4
     Householder7,2299.67,60710.03780.4
     Related children under 1811,64616.312,34017.26940.9
          Related children under 64,29618.54,65419.83581.4
In unrelated subfamilies41733.746438.6464.9
     Reference person16731.719137.6255.8
     Children under 1824135.427141.7316.3
Unrelated individual9,61820.49,71320.495
     Male4,02317.74,15418.01310.3
     Female5,59522.95,55922.6−36−0.2
Raceb and Hispanic origin
White alone or in combination24,07410.324,95010.68760.3
White alonec23,46610.224,27210.58060.3
     White alone, not Hispanic15,5678.015,9028.23350.2
Black alone or in combination8,88423.99,10824.32240.4
     Black aloned8,60224.18,78124.41800.3
Asian alone or in combination1,24310.01,52711.82841.9
     Asian alonee1,16110.11,40111.82401.8
Hispanic origin (of any race)8,55521.89,05122.54970.6
Age
Under 18 years12,13316.712,86617.67330.9
18 to 64 years18,86110.619,44310.85820.2
65 years and older3,57610.43,55210.2−24−0.2
Nativity
Native29,01211.529,96511.89520.3
Foreign born5,55816.65,89717.23390.6
     Naturalized citizen1,28510.01,30910.024
     Not a citizen4,27320.74,58821.73151.0
Region
Northeast5,87110.96,05211.31820.4
Midwest6,61610.36,93210.73160.5
South14,01913.814,54814.15290.3
West8,06412.48,32912.62650.2
Residence
Inside metropolitan areas27,09611.628,36712.11,2710.4
     Inside central cities13,78416.714,55117.57670.8
     Outside central cities13,3118.913,8169.15040.2
Outside metropolitan areas7,47414.27,49514.220
Work experience
All workers (16 years and older)8,9545.98,8205.8−134−0.1
     Worked full-time year-round2,6352.62,6362.61
     Not full-time year-round6,31812.46,18312.2−135−0.3
Did not work at least one week14,64721.015,44621.57990.4

SUPPORTIVE PROGRAMS AND SERVICES

The type of supportive programs and services available to schools and school districts is one indicator of the access students have to educational opportunities. Although individual schools can apply directly for these programs and services, the school district (especially in public schools) usually decides whether the programs and services will be provided in its schools.

Schools offer a variety of student services, such as free or reduced-price lunches financed by public funds, services for disabled students, remedial programs, programs for gifted and talented students, programs under Chapter I (federal funds designated for special educational programs for disadvantaged children) of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (P.L. 89-10), drug and alcohol prevention programs,

TABLE 2.5
People and families in poverty, by selected characteristics, 2002 and 2003 [continued]
[Numbers in thousands. People as of March of the following year.]
Characteristic2002 below poverty2003 below povertyChange in poverty (2003 less 2002)a
NumberPercentageNumberPercentageNumberPercentage
—Represents zero or round to zero.
aDetails may not sum to total because of rounding.
bData for American Indians and Alaska Natives, and Asian, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders are not shown separately.
cWhite alone refers to people who reported white and did not report any other race category. The use of this single-race population does not imply that it is the preferred method of presenting or analyzing data. The Census Bureau uses a variety of approaches. About 2.6 percent of people reported more than one race in Census 2000.
dBlack alone refers to people who reported black and did not report any other race category.
eAsian alone refers to people who reported Asian and did not report any other race category.
Source: Carmen DeNavas-Walt, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Robert J. Mills, "Table 3. People and Families in Poverty by Selected Characteristics: 2002 and 2003," in Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2003, Current Population Reports P60-226, U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC, August 2004, http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p60-226.pdf (accessed July 26, 2005)
Families
   Total7,2299.67,60710.03780.4
Type of family
Married-couple3,0525.33,1155.4630.1
Female householder, no husband present3,61326.53,85628.02431.4
Male householder, no wife present56412.163613.5731.4

English as a second language (ESL) programs, and bilingual programs.

Of the $8,041 schools spent per student in 2002–03, most of this expenditure was for instruction (61%); 39% was for support services and noninstructional costs. Among the fifty states and the District of Columbia, New Jersey had the highest per-student expenditure ($12,568) and Utah the lowest ($4,838). (See Table 2.11.)

Prekindergarten and Kindergarten

Most public and private schools provide prekindergarten and kindergarten programs. According to the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), twenty-six states (54%) required half-day kindergarten programs in 2002, fourteen (29%) required full-day programs, and eight (17%) had no statewide policy. (See Figure 2.8.) Kindergarten attendance is now nearly universal in the United States, and the majority of primary school children have had at least one organized group experience (day care center or nursery school) prior to starting first grade.

According to the U.S. Department of Education, in 2000–01 there were 822,000 children in prekindergarten. Nearly one-quarter (23%) were age three or younger, 68.3% were age four, and 8.7% were five years of age or older. Almost half (48.6%) were white, 22.6% were African-American, and 24% were Hispanic. Less than half (46.8%) of the children in prekindergarten programs in the Northeast and slightly more than half (50.7%) in the Central region of the country were low income, meaning they were eligible for a free or reduced lunch. The percentage of low-income prekindergarten students in the Southeast was 70.7% and in the West was 69.8%. (See Table 2.12.)

TABLE 2.6
Revenues for public elementary and secondary schools, by source, 2000–01
State or jurisdictionTotal, in thousandsFederalStateLocal and intermediatePrivatec
Amount, in thousandsPer studentPercent of totalAmount, in thousandsPercent of totalAmount, in thousandsPercent of totalAmount, in thousandsPercent of total
1234567891011
United States$400,919,024$29,086,413$6167.3$199,146,58649.7$163,479,17740.8$9,206,8472.3
Alabama4,812,302453,8176139.42,881,22459.91,227,51225.5249,7495.2
Alaska1,370,271215,9211,61915.8782,34857.1333,59224.338,4102.8
Arizona5,797,151616,97670310.62,525,39043.62,506,85643.2147,9292.6
Arkansas2,812,169260,7055799.31,676,13859.6820,20129.255,1252.0
California51,007,5104,159,5136778.231,392,54961.514,929,92029.3525,5281.0
Colorado5,349,899299,5764135.62,222,08341.52,576,92448.2251,3154.7
Connecticut6,460,491276,4274924.32,553,18039.53,527,30254.6103,5831.6
Delaware1,112,51987,9047677.9732,59965.9277,76925.014,2471.3
District of Columbia1,042,711115,5271,67611.1aa918,79388.18,3910.8
Florida17,866,8681,599,2596579.08,695,21348.76,917,55638.7654,8413.7
Georgia12,191,113783,4875426.45,963,33748.95,249,26843.1195,0201.6
Hawaii1,682,330140,9517658.41,511,31789.89,1050.520,9571.2
Idaho1,593,966128,6465258.1977,43861.3461,60529.026,2781.6
Illinois18,217,0791,421,5196947.86,124,18333.610,301,82656.6369,5512.0
Indiana9,033,180464,4894705.14,833,95453.53,477,77138.5256,9672.8
Iowa3,954,178248,6895026.31,943,70849.21,556,87839.4204,9025.2
Kansas3,597,726231,4734926.42,198,21661.11,074,21629.993,8202.6
Kentucky4,509,893448,0736739.92,702,93259.91,258,84127.9100,0472.2
Louisiana5,060,133580,35678111.52,497,87549.41,921,17438.060,7291.2
Maine1,934,178153,1007397.9863,29544.6880,39945.537,3841.9
Maryland7,846,891477,4635606.12,928,71537.34,178,10353.2262,6113.3
Massachusetts10,148,498511,1985245.04,420,62243.65,052,86349.8163,8161.6
Michigan16,358,5321,116,3746496.810,603,60664.84,276,90226.1361,6492.2
Minnesota7,873,549370,6484344.74,765,80260.52,497,14931.7239,9513.0
Mississippi2,903,534400,80480513.81,607,12655.4804,18327.791,4213.1
Missouri7,102,501491,2335386.92,661,90437.53,680,12251.8269,2423.8
Montana1,140,168131,29984811.5542,69247.6418,70036.747,4774.2
Nebraska2,307,804168,0365877.3805,41934.91,210,41252.4123,9375.4
Nevada2,393,494122,3603595.1683,60528.61,497,33162.690,1983.8
New Hampshire1,714,14777,3653714.5884,87551.6712,11941.539,7882.3
New Jersey15,967,075628,8344793.96,669,85841.88,351,73152.3316,6522.0
New Mexico2,426,705338,2131,05613.91,725,55171.1316,26813.046,6741.9
New York34,266,1711,961,6536815.715,818,05146.216,187,38747.2299,0800.9
North Carolina9,262,181670,3805187.26,144,44966.32,216,69923.9230,6532.5
North Dakota767,798102,69794013.4299,08939.0324,79442.341,2165.4
Ohio16,649,3611,007,3705496.17,187,32543.27,840,20947.1614,4573.7
Oklahoma4,034,825410,68165910.22,386,21659.11,035,59725.7202,3325.0
Oregon4,564,408336,9926177.42,566,09956.21,528,76633.5132,5512.9
Pennsylvania17,053,8911,107,8546116.56,443,67337.89,176,46353.8325,9011.9
Rhode Island1,545,67590,6345765.9652,72342.2781,75350.620,5661.3
South Carolina5,459,399446,8386608.22,941,09753.91,873,40334.3198,0613.6
South Dakota885,229107,53283612.1312,88035.3438,65149.626,1673.0
Tennessee5,711,950524,3515779.22,532,33644.32,493,43943.7161,8242.8
Texas30,469,5702,656,9516548.712,855,24142.214,246,50446.8710,8742.3
Utah2,745,656204,9394267.51,608,24958.6867,78431.664,6832.4
Vermont1,035,67960,5235935.8732,56370.7226,17521.816,4181.6
Virginia9,313,330520,7734555.63,939,54842.34,649,75549.9203,2532.2
Washington8,058,875625,2316227.85,072,38862.92,101,00426.1260,2533.2
West Virginia2,375,788243,13184910.21,450,45361.1654,15527.528,0491.2
Wisconsin8,327,255418,4724765.04,424,42953.13,295,25439.6189,0992.3
Wyoming803,41469,1767698.6403,02050.2317,99539.613,2231.6

SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

Days in Attendance

The Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) reported that in 2002 thirty-four states required 180 or more days of school per year, and eight states required between 175 and 179 days. (See Figure 2.9.) The remaining states required a set number of hours rather than days, or had variations based on student grade level. The number of required hours per day ranged from three to seven, with thirty states requiring five or more hours per day.

The CCSSO reported in Key State Education Policies on PK-12 Education (2005) that the number of states requiring at least 180 days of school had increased to thirty-five by 2004, with six states mandating between 175 and 179 days of school per year. Kansas, with 186 days, had the longest school year in 2004, followed by Illinois and Michigan, both with 185. Of states that required a fixed number of days in 2004, Colorado, Idaho, and South Dakota had the least (170).

TABLE 2.6
Revenues for public elementary and secondary schools, by source, 2000–01 [continued]
State or jurisdictionTotal, in thousandsFederalStateLocal and intermediatePrivatec
Amount, in thousandsPer studentPercent of totalAmount, in thousandsPercent of totalAmount, in thousandsPercent of totalAmount, in thousandsPercent of total
1234567891011
—Not available.
aNot applicable.
bRounds to zero.
cIncludes revenues from gifts, and tuition and fees from patrons.
Note: Excludes revenues for state education agencies. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
Source: Thomas D. Snyder, Alexandra G. Tan, and Charlene M. Hoffman, "Table 157. Revenues for Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, by Source and State or Jurisdiction: 2000–01," in Digest of Education Statistics, 2003, NCES 2005-025, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, December 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt157.asp (accessed July 26, 2005)
Outlying areas
American Samoa58,26245,8222,91878.610,55118.11,8013.1890.2
Guam
Northern Marianas55,16417,6191,76131.937,23067.52550.5600.1
Puerto Rico2,331,691671,8701,09728.81,658,90771.198b815b
Virgin Islands165,80128,2561,45217.000.0137,40082.91460.1

Compulsory Attendance

Most industrialized Western nations require children to attend school for about ten years. According to the CCSSO, in 2004 nearly all U.S. states required students to attend school starting between ages five and eight and continuing through ages sixteen to eighteen. In 2004, eight states required students to be enrolled by age six; twenty-two states required students to enter school before age seven; and nineteen states required students to begin school by age eight.

The CCSSO reported in Key State Education Policies on PK-12 Education: 2004 that thirty-one states required students to remain enrolled until age sixteen, and seven established seventeen as the minimum age for leaving school. The District of Columbia and eleven states mandated students to remain enrolled until age eighteen. New Mexico law required students to gain the "age of majority" or meet other requirements.

GRADUATING FROM HIGH SCHOOL

According to the U.S. Department of Education, in 1899–1900 only 6.4% of seventeen-year-olds had graduated from high school. By 1929–30 this proportion had risen to 29%, and by 1949–50 it had grown to 59%. The proportion peaked at 77.1% in 1968–69 and then dropped to 71.4% in 1979–80. The proportion fluctuated between 71% and 74% throughout much of the 1980s and the early 1990s, and dropped to between 69% and 70% until 1998–99. At the end of the 2002–03 school year, three million students graduated from high school. (See Table 2.13.) High school graduates are not the same as high school completers—students who finish their high school education through alternative programs, such as the General Educational Development (GED) program.

General Educational Development (GED) Diplomas

The General Educational Development (GED) diploma is an alternative way for young people who have left school to get equivalency credit for high school graduation. According to the U.S. Department of Education, about one million people took the GED test in 2001. The number of those getting GED diplomas rose sharply from 340,000 in 1975 to 489,000 in 1981. The number gaining a GED diploma generally dropped during the 1980s, falling to 357,000 in 1989, but by 2001 it had again increased to 648,000. (See Table 2.14.) The American Council on Education (ACE) reported on its Web site (http://www.acenet.edu/) that 412,044 adults passed GED tests in 2003. According to ACE, one in seven high school diplomas in the United States is issued on the basis of GED testing.

CAREER AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Career and technical education, also known as vocational education, includes such study areas as office administration, automotive technology, carpentry and construction, medical technology, agricultural production, culinary arts, transportation, electronics, and computer graphics. For much of the twentieth century, most high schools had a two-track educational system—an academic curriculum that centered on traditional subjects and prepared students for college, and a vocational curriculum that focused on career skills and prepared students to enter the workforce. However, today's high-skill job market requires all high school graduates to have both academic knowledge and workplace skills and training. Professional careers now demand technical skills and the ability to work in teams; technical careers require the ability to diagnose and analyze problems.

The integration of academic and vocational education, emphasizing a curriculum that makes connections between knowledge development and its application in the workplace, is mandated in the United States under the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-392). Speaking during a Perkins Act reauthorization hearing in May 2004, Representative Mike Castle (R-Delaware) noted that "66% of all public secondary schools have one or more vocational and technical education programs, with approximately 96% of high school students taking at least one vocational and technical course during their secondary studies." Both the Senate and the House of Representatives voted to reauthorize the Perkins Act in 2005.

Developments in Vocational Education Programs

According to the U.S. Department of Education, successful career and technical education should encourage links between high schools and postsecondary institutions, include a challenging academic core, offer nonduplicative technical courses leading to a degree or certificate, and focus on career pathways that are in demand and lead to economic self-sufficiency. The Office of Vocational and Adult Education, a division of the Department of Education, has identified several areas crucial to the future of technical education, including:

  • Incorporating both school- and work-based learning
  • Increasing business partnerships within the community
  • Preparing students for continuing education
  • Establishing partnerships with postsecondary institutions, including colleges and universities; and
  • Taking advantage of higher technology and the Internet
TABLE 2.7
Public expenditures on education as a percentage of the GDP, by level and country, selected years, 1985–2000
CountryAll institutionsaPrimary and secondary institutionsHigher education institutions
198519901995199920001985199019951999200019851990199519992000
12345678910111213141516
—Not available.
aIncludes preprimary and other expenditures not classified by level.
bData are for Flemish Belgium only.
cData for 1985 are for the former West Germany.
dData are for 2000.
Note: Direct public expenditure on educational services includes both amounts spent directly by governments to hire educational personnel and to procure other resources, and amounts provided by governments to public or private institutions, or households. Figures for 1985 also include transfers and payments to private entities, and thus are not strictly comparable with later figures. Some data revised from previously published figures.
Source: Thomas D. Snyder, Alexandra G. Tan, and Charlene M. Hoffman, "Table 416. Total Public Direct Expenditures on Education as a Percentage of the Gross Domestic Product, by Level and Country: Selected Years, 1985 to 2000," in Digest of Education Statistics, 2003, NCES 2005-025, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, December 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt416.asp (accesssed July 26, 2005)
Average for year5.34.94.95.15.23.73.53.43.53.51.11.00.91.21.2
Average for countries reporting data for all years5.45.25.35.65.43.73.73.63.73.61.11.11.11.41.4
Australia5.44.34.55.05.13.53.23.23.83.91.71.01.21.21.2
Austria5.65.25.36.35.83.73.63.84.13.81.01.00.91.71.4
Belgiumb6.34.85.05.55.24.03.43.43.53.41.00.80.91.51.3
Canada6.15.45.85.75.54.13.74.03.53.32.01.51.51.92.0
Czech Republic4.84.44.43.43.03.00.70.80.8
Denmark6.26.26.58.18.44.74.44.24.84.81.21.31.32.42.5
Finland5.86.46.66.26.04.34.23.83.61.21.72.12.0
France5.15.86.05.83.74.14.24.10.81.01.11.0
Germanyc4.64.54.74.52.82.93.03.01.01.01.11.1
Greece3.73.63.82.82.42.70.81.10.9
Hungary5.04.94.74.93.53.32.93.10.80.80.91.0
Iceland4.34.56.03.33.44.70.60.71.1
Ireland5.64.74.74.34.44.03.33.33.13.00.90.90.91.21.3
Italy4.75.84.54.54.63.24.13.23.23.20.61.00.70.80.8
Japan3.63.63.53.62.92.82.72.70.40.40.50.5
Korea, Republic of3.64.14.33.03.23.30.30.60.7
Luxembourg4.34.20.1
Mexico3.24.64.44.92.23.43.13.40.70.80.80.9
Netherlands6.25.74.64.84.84.13.63.03.13.21.51.61.11.31.3
New Zealand5.55.36.37.03.93.84.84.91.21.11.21.7
Norway5.16.26.87.46.74.04.14.14.33.90.71.11.52.01.7
Poland5.25.25.23.33.63.80.80.80.8
Portugal5.45.75.74.14.24.21.01.01.0
Russian Federation3.43.0d3.01.91.70.70.5
Spain3.64.24.84.54.42.93.23.53.33.10.40.70.80.91.0
Sweden5.36.67.77.44.44.45.14.91.01.11.21.2
Switzerland4.95.05.55.55.44.03.74.14.03.90.91.01.11.21.2
Turkey3.22.24.03.52.31.42.92.40.90.81.11.1
United Kingdom4.94.34.64.74.83.13.53.83.33.41.00.70.71.11.0
United States4.75.35.05.25.03.23.83.53.53.51.31.41.11.41.1
TABLE 2.8
Annual expenditures on public and private institutions per student and as a percentage of GDP for OECD countries, by level of education, 2000
CountryExpenditures on public and private institutions per studentaExpenditures on public and private institutions as a percentage of GDPGDP per capita (in equivalent U.S. dollars converted using PPPs)b
Elementary and secondarycPost-secondarydElementary and secondarycPost-secondarydTotale
—Not available.
aPer student expenditures are calculated based on public and private full-time-equivalent (FTE) enrollment figures for the 1999–2000 school year and on current expenditures and capital outlays from both public and private sources where data are available.
bGDP adjusted to national financial year.
cIncludes postsecondary nontertiary data (International Standard Classification of Education [ISCED] level 4) for Belgium, Finland, Japan, Norway, Poland, Slovak Republic, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
dIncludes all tertiary level data. Also, includes postsecondary nontertiary data for Canada, Japan, and the United States.
eTotal includes elementary/secondary, postsecondary, and postsecondary nontertiary expenditures.
fData are for full- and part-time students.
Note: Educational expenditures are from public and private revenue sources. Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) indices are used to convert other currencies to U.S. dollars. Within-country consumer price indices are used to adjust the PPP indices to account for inflation because the fiscal year has a different starting date in different countries. Includes all institutions, public and private, with the exception of Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Poland, Switzerland, and Turkey, which include public institutions only.
Source: John Wirt, Susan Choy, Stephen Provasnik, Patrick Rooney, Anindita Sen, and Richard Tobin, "Table 36-1. Annual Expenditures on Public and Private Institutions Per Student and as a Percentage of GDP for OECD Countries, by Level of Education: 2000," in The Condition of Education, 2004, NCES 2004-077, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, June 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/2004/section6/table.asp?tableID=92 (accessed July 26, 2005)
OECD mean$5,162$9,5093.61.34.9$23,317
Australia5,86712,8544.31.65.926,325
Austriaf7,85110,8513.81.25.128,070
Belgium5,73210,7713.61.34.926,392
Canada5,94714,9833.62.66.228,130
Czech Republic2,5415,4313.00.94.013,806
Denmark7,46711,9814.21.65.728,755
Finland5,2928,2443.51.75.225,357
France6,2148,3734.21.15.425,090
Germany5,77910,8983.41.04.626,139
Greece3,6963,4022.80.93.815,885
Hungary2,3527,0242.81.13.912,204
Iceland6,2937,9940.95.828,143
Ireland3,97611,0832.91.54.528,285
Italy6,5068,0653.20.94.125,095
Japan5,97110,9142.91.14.026,011
Korea3,6446,1184.02.66.615,186
Luxembourg48,239
Mexico1,4154,6883.81.14.99,117
Netherlands5,13811,9343.11.24.327,316
New Zealand4.50.95.520,372
Norwayf7,39913,3533.71.34.936,242
Poland1,9883,2223.70.84.59,547
Portugalf4,7664.11.15.216,780
Slovak Republic1,7324,9492.80.83.611,278
Spain4,6366,6663.31.24.520,195
Sweden6,33715,0974.31.76.026,161
Switzerland8,18718,4504.21.25.529,617
Turkey4,1212.41.03.46,211
United Kingdom4,8449,6573.81.04.824,964
United States7,39720,3583.92.76.634,602
TABLE 2.9
Private elementary and secondary school enrollment and as a percentage of total enrollment in public and private schools, by region and grade level, selected years, 1989–90 to 2001–02
[Totals in thousands]
School year and grade levelTotal enrollmentNortheastMidwestSouthWest
TotalPercent of total enrollmentTotalPercent of total Northeast enrollmentTotalPercent of total Midwest enrollmentTotalPercent of total South enrollmentTotalPercent of total West enrollment
∗Grades K-8 and 9-12 do not include ungraded students and therefore these two categories do not sum to grades K-12.
Note: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Source: John Wirt, Susan Choy, Patrick Rooney, William Hussar, Stephen Provasnik, and Gillian Hampden-Thompson, "Table 2-2. Private Elementary and Secondary School Enrollment and as a Percentage of Total Enrollment in Public and Private Schools, by Region and Grade Level: Various School Years, 1989–90 through 2001–02," in The Condition of Education, 2005, NCES 2005-094, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, June 2005, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/2005/section1/table.asp?tableID=225 (accessed July 26, 2005)
Grades K-12
1989–904,83810.71,34615.71,36812.21,2808.18448.7
1991–924,89010.41,32415.21,35311.81,3048.09098.7
1993–944,83610.01,27614.31,30911.31,3868.28658.0
1995–965,03210.11,28914.01,34911.41,4458.29498.4
1997–985,0769.91,28713.71,34611.21,5108.49338.0
1999–20005,1639.91,29513.61,34511.11,5768.69477.9
2001–025,34210.11,33713.91,35511.21,6418.71,0088.1
Grades K-8∗
1989–903,58811.094715.71,05213.19498.26399.0
1991–923,65710.793515.01,05912.89748.16899.1
1993–943,64110.490714.21,02112.21,0488.46648.4
1995–963,76010.491113.91,04212.31,0868.47218.8
1997–983,78110.391113.61,03612.11,1268.67088.4
1999–20003,84910.391713.61,03512.11,1778.87208.3
2001–023,95110.493513.81,03912.11,2238.97548.5
Grades 9-12∗
1989–901,1269.036214.62889.22916.81857.1
1991–921,1268.934613.62768.93027.02037.3
1993–941,1028.432813.12738.53157.11866.4
1995–961,1608.533413.02868.53307.12096.8
1997–981,1818.333012.52928.53537.22066.3
1999–20001,2258.433812.62978.63757.52146.3
2001–021,2938.636413.03028.63897.52396.8
TABLE 2.10
Public and private elementary and secondary teachers, enrollment, and pupil to teacher ratios, selected years, Fall 1955–Fall 2002
YearElementary and secondary teachers, in thousandsElementary and secondary enrollment, in thousandsElementary and secondary pupil/teacher ratio
TotalPublicPrivateTotalPublicPrivateTotalPublicPrivate
12345678910
aEstimated.
bProjected.
Note: Data for teachers are expressed in full-time equivalents. Data for private schools includes kindergarten and a relatively small number of nursery school teachers and students. Ratios for public schools reflect totals reported by states and differ from totals reported for schools by states or school districts. Some data have been revised from previously published figures. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
Source: Thomas D. Snyder, Alexandra G. Tan, and Charlene M. Hoffman, "Table 64. Public and Private Elementary and Secondary Teachers, Enrollment, and Pupil to Teacher Ratios: Selected Years, Fall 1955 to Fall 2002," in Digest of Education Statistics, 2003, NCES 2005-025, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, December 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt064.asp (accessed July 26, 2005)
19551,2861,141145a35,28030,6804,600a27.426.931.7a
19601,6001,408192a42,18136,2815,900a26.425.830.7a
19651,9331,71022348,47342,1736,30025.124.728.3
19702,2922,05923351,25745,8945,36322.422.323.0
19712,2932,063230a51,27146,0715,200a22.422.322.6a
19722,3372,106231a50,72645,7265,000a21.721.721.6a
19732,3722,136236a50,44645,4465,000a21.321.321.2a
19742,4102,165245a50,07345,0735,000a20.820.820.4a
19752,4532,198255a49,81944,8195,000a20.320.419.6a
19762,4572,18926849,47844,3115,16720.120.219.3
19772,4882,20927948,71743,5775,14019.619.718.4
19782,4792,20727247,63542,5505,08519.219.318.7
19792,4612,185276a46,65141,6515,000a19.019.118.1a
19802,4852,18430146,20840,8775,33118.618.717.7
19812,4402,127313a45,54440,0445,500a18.718.817.6a
19822,4582,133325a45,16539,5665,600a18.418.617.2a
19832,4762,13933744,96739,2525,71518.218.417.0
19842,5082,168340a44,90839,2085,700a17.918.116.8a
19852,5492,20634344,97939,4225,55717.617.916.2
19862,5922,244348a45,20539,7535,452a17.417.715.7a
19872,6312,27935245,48740,0085,47917.317.615.6
19882,6682,323345a45,43040,1895,242a17.017.315.2a
19892,7342,35737745,74140,5435,19816.717.213.8
19902,7532,398355a46,45141,2175,234a16.917.214.7a
19912,7872,43235547,32242,0475,27517.017.314.9
19922,8222,459363a48,14542,8235,322a17.117.414.7a
19932,8702,50436648,81343,4655,34817.017.414.6
19942,9262,552374a49,60944,1115,498a17.017.314.7a
19952,9782,59838050,50244,8405,66217.017.314.9
19963,0542,667387a51,37545,6115,764a16.817.114.9a
19973,1342,74638851,96846,1275,84116.616.815.1
19983,2212,830391a52,47646,5395,937a16.316.415.2a
19993,3062,91139552,87546,8576,01816.016.115.2
20003,3322,941390a53,36647,2046,162a16.016.015.8a
20013,3882,99839053,89047,6886,202a15.915.915.9a
2002b3,3692,98338554,15847,9186,24116.116.116.2
TABLE 2.11
Current expenditures per pupil for public elementary and secondary schools, by function, state, and outlying areas, 2002–03
[In dollars]
StateFall 2002 student membershipCurrent expenditures per pupil in membership
TotalInstructionSupport servicesNoninstruction
United States48,201,032a8,041a,b4,932a,b2,780a329a
Alabama739,366a6,300a3,812a2,058a430a
Alaska134,3649,8705,7403,798332
Arizona937,7556,2823,7652,221296
Arkansas450,9856,4823,9612,196325
California6,353,667a7,552a4,591a2,678a283a
Colorado751,8627,3844,2302,900254
Connecticut570,02311,0577,0523,612394
Delaware116,3429,6935,9653,276452
District of Columbia76,16611,8476,2165,331300
Florida2,539,9296,4393,7862,338315
Georgia1,496,0127,7744,9252,459391
Hawaii183,8298,1004,8332,839428
Idaho248,6046,0813,7212,098262
Illinois2,084,1878,2874,9523,068268
Indiana1,003,8758,0574,9322,797329
Iowa482,2107,5744,5082,511554
Kansas470,9577,4544,4132,697345
Kentucky660,7826,6614,0662,233362
Louisiana730,4646,9224,2032,291428
Maine204,3379,3446,2692,774300
Maryland866,7439,1535,6933,042418
Massachusetts982,98910,4606,6563,486318
Michigan1,785,1608,7815,0023,509269
Minnesota846,8918,1095,2012,536372
Mississippi492,6455,7923,4661,966360
Missouri924,4457,349b4,481b2,551317
Montana149,9957,4964,6062,583307
Nebraska285,4028,0745,1512,360563
Nevada369,4986,0923,8122,080200
New Hampshire207,6718,5795,5692,746264
New Jersey1,367,43812,5687,4244,757387
New Mexico320,2347,1253,9532,842329
New York2,888,23311,9618,2133,459290
North Carolina1,335,9546,5624,1732,023366
North Dakota104,2256,8704,1022,230538
Ohio1,838,2858,6324,9563,390286
Oklahoma624,5486,0923,5282,160404
Oregon554,0717,4914,4382,798255
Pennsylvania1,816,7478,9975,5573,088352
Rhode Island159205a10,3496,6853,396267
South Carolina694,3897,0404,1992,464376
South Dakota130,0486,5473,8362,361349
Tennessee927,608a6,118a,b3,933a,b1,885a300a
Texas4,259,8237,1364,3072,469360
Utah489,2624,8383,1031,461273
Vermont99,97810,4546,7133,458283
Virginia1,177,2297,8224,8092,705308
Washington1,014,7987,252b4,317b2,582353
West Virginia282,4558,3195,1152,742463
Wisconsin881,2319,0045,5663,149289
Wyoming88,1168,9855,3813,317287
TABLE 2.11
Current expenditures per pupil for public elementary and secondary schools, by function, state, and outlying areas, 2002–03 [continued]
[In dollars]
StateFall 2002 student membershipCurrent expenditures per pupil in membership
TotalInstructionSupport servicesNoninstruction
—Not available.
Note: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. National totals do not include outlying areas. Both the District of Columbia and Hawaii have only one school district each; therefore, neither is comparable to other states.
aPrekindergarten students were imputed, affecting total student count and per pupil expenditure calculation. In Tennessee, prekindergarten students were imputed and tuition expenditures (included in instruction) were redistributed.
bValue affected by redistribution of reported expenditure values to correct for missing data items.
Source: Jason Hill and Frank Johnson, "Table 5. Student Membership and Current Expenditures Per Pupil in Membership for Public Elementary and Secondary Schools, by Function, State, and Outlying Areas: School Year 2002–03," in Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Education: School Year 2002–03, NCES 2005-353, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, April 2005, http://nces.ed.gov/ccd/pubs/npefs03/table_5.asp?popup=1 (accessed July 26, 2005)
Outlying areas
American Samoa15,9842,9761,543893540
Guam
Northern Marianas11,2514,5193,871437211
Puerto Rico596,5024,2603,145606509
Virgin Islands18,3336,8404,4592,168213
TABLE 2.12
Number and percentage distribution of prekindergarten children in public elementary schools, by selected student and school characteristics, 2000–01
School characteristicNumber of children in pre-kindergartenAgeRace/ethnicityaStudent characteristic
3 or younger45 or olderAmerican IndianAsianBlackWhiteHispanicLEPbLow incomecIEPd
#Rounds to zero.
∗Interpret data with caution (estimates are unstable).
aAmerican Indian includes Alaska Native, Asian includes Pacific Islander and Native Hawaiian, black includes African American, and Hispanic includes Latino. Racial categories exclude Hispanic origin.
bLEP refers to limited English proficient students, or "English language learners."
cLow income is defined as eligible for free or reduced-price lunch.
dIEP refers to students with Individualized Education Programs and includes children in special education and general education classes.
Note: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Data on some of the variables in this table are missing for some cases.
Source: John Wirt, Susan Choy, Stephen Provasnik, Patrick Rooney, Anindita Sen, and Richard Tobin, "Table 2-2. Number and Percentage Distribution of Prekindergarten Children in Public Elementary Schools, by Age, Race/Ethnicity, and Selected Student and School Characteristics: 2000–01," in The Condition of Education, 2004, NCES 2004-077, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, June 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/2004/section1/table.asp?tableID=33 (accessed July 26, 2005)
   Total822,00023.068.38.71.92.722.648.624.015.161.129.7
Enrollment
Less than 300193,00028.761.49.92.62.617.760.816.29.754.432.7
300-499233,00021.069.19.92.02.421.956.217.411.458.227.9
500-699211,00022.669.67.81.32.828.944.822.113.462.331.3
700 or more184,00020.073.17.01.63.121.730.643.027.470.127.1
Location
Central city310,00023.868.47.81.03.633.127.634.621.672.326.2
Urban fringe/large town279,00024.367.97.81.23.320.151.124.215.654.631.7
Rural/small town233,00020.368.810.83.90.811.773.79.95.753.232.1
Region
Northeast137,00024.970.05.10.8∗4.722.452.619.58.746.828.1
Southeast191,00019.472.87.81.71.738.049.39.26.570.733.5
Central230,00027.059.613.30.92.020.563.413.08.550.731.1
West264,00021.171.87.13.43.013.433.346.830.369.826.6
Percent minority
Less than 10181,00024.863.211.91.70.91.992.62.90.934.537.0
10-24109,00030.260.59.21.62.99.877.87.84.147.339.0
25-49150,00019.472.87.82.44.018.856.517.913.154.029.4
50-75106,00024.965.79.43.15.829.934.926.312.370.329.2
75 or more267,00020.173.86.11.41.841.57.647.731.282.420.6
Percent of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch
Less than 1587,00029.659.011.51.46.04.280.77.76.611.139.5
15-2975,00024.862.512.71.32.59.476.89.84.827.445.6
30-49129,00022.865.811.31.72.813.668.313.28.737.634.8
50-74207,00021.371.86.82.63.320.254.019.911.262.930.3
75 or more318,00021.571.76.81.71.636.321.738.724.986.719.6
Percent of students limited English proficient
Less than 1409,00023.466.210.32.41.325.262.18.9#55.333.9
1-10141,00025.365.49.31.63.026.855.912.14.253.130.0
More than 10263,00020.773.75.61.34.617.022.554.644.474.123.3
TABLE 2.13
High school graduates compared with population age 17, selected years, 1869–70 to 2002–03
[Numbers in thousands]
School yearPopulation 17 years oldaHigh school graduatesGraduates as a ratio of 17-year-old population
TotalbSexControl
MaleFemalePubliccPrivated
12345678
1869–7081516792.0
1879–809462411132.5
1889–901,25944192522223.5
1899–19001,48995385762336.4
1909–101,7861566493111458.8
1919–201,8553111241882318016.8
1929–302,2966673003675927529.0
1939–402,4031,2215796431,1437850.8
1947–482,2611,1905636271,07311752.6
1949–502,0341,2005716291,06313659.0
1951–522,0861,1975696271,05614157.4
1953–542,1351,2766136641,12914759.8
1955–562,2421,4156807351,25216363.1
1956–572,2721,4346907441,27016463.1
1957–582,3251,5067257811,33217464.8
1958–592,4581,6277848431,43519266.2
1959–602,6721,8588959631,62723169.5
1960–612,8921,9649551,0091,72523967.9
1961–622,7681,9189389801,67824069.3
1962–632,7401,9439569871,71023370.9
1963–642,9782,2831,1201,1632,00827576.7
1964–653,6842,6581,3111,3472,36029872.1
1965–663,4892,6651,3231,3422,36729876.4
1966–673,5002,6721,3281,3442,37429876.3
1967–683,5322,6951,3381,3572,39530076.3
1968–693,6592,8221,3991,4232,52230077.1
1969–703,7572,8891,4301,4592,58930076.9
1970–713,8722,9381,4541,4842,63830075.9
1971–723,9733,0021,4871,5152,70030275.6
1972–734,0493,0351,5001,5352,72930675.0
1973–744,1323,0731,5121,5612,76331074.4
1974–754,2563,1331,5421,5912,82331073.6
1975–764,2723,1481,5521,5962,83731173.7
1976–774,2723,1521,5481,6042,83731573.8
1977–784,2863,1271,5311,5962,82530273.0
1978–794,3273,1011,5171,5842,80130071.7
1979–804,2623,0431,4911,5522,74829571.4
1980–814,2123,0201,4831,5372,72529571.7
1981–824,1342,9951,4711,5242,70529072.4
1982–833,9622,8881,4371,4512,59829072.9
1983–843,7842,7672,49527273.1
1984–853,6992,6772,41426372.4
1985–863,6702,6432,38326072.0
1986–873,7542,6942,42926571.8
1987–883,8492,7732,50027372.0
1988–893,8422,7442,45928571.4
1989–903,5052,5892,32026973.9
1990–913,4182,4932,23525872.9
1991–923,3992,4782,22625272.9
1992–933,4492,4802,23324771.9
1993–943,4432,4642,22124371.6
1994–953,6362,5202,27424669.3
1995–963,6402,5182,27324569.2
1996–973,7922,6122,35825468.9
1997–984,0082,7042,43926567.5
1998–993,9182,7592,48627370.4
TABLE 2.13
High school graduates compared with population age 17, selected years, 1869–70 to 2002–03 [continued]
[Numbers in thousands]
School yearPopulation 17 years oldaHigh school graduatesGraduates as a ratio of 17-year-old population
TotalbSexControl
MaleFemalePubliccPrivated
12345678
—Not available.
aFor years 1869–70 through 1989–90, 17-year-old population is an estimate of the October 17-year-old population based on July data. Data for 1990–91 and later years are October estimates prepared by the Census Bureau.
bIncludes graduates of public and private schools.
cData for 1929–30 and preceding years are from statistics of public high schools and exclude graduates from high schools that failed to report to the Office of Education.
dFor most years, private school data have been estimated based on periodic private school surveys.
ePublic high school graduates based on state estimates.
Note: Includes graduates of regular day school programs. Excludes graduates of other programs, when separately reported, and recipients of high school equivalency certificates. Some data have been revised from previously published figures. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
Source: Thomas D. Snyder, Alexandra G. Tan, and Charlene M. Hoffman, "Table 102. High School Graduates Compared with Population 17 Years of Age, by Sex of Graduates and Control of School: Selected Years, 1869–70 to 2002–03," in Digest of Education Statistics, 2003, NCES 2005-025, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, December 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt102.asp (accessed July 26, 2005)
1999–20004,0572,8312,55427769.8
2000–014,0062,8522,56928371.2
2001–02e4,0522,9172,63028772.0
2002–03e2,9862,685301
TABLE 2.14
GED test takers and credentials issued, by age, 1971–2001
YearNumber of test takers, in thousandsaNumber completing test battery, in thousandsbNumber of credentials issued, in thousandscPercentage distribution of credentials issued,d by age
19 years old or less20- to 24-year-olds25- to 29-year-olds30- to 34-year-olds35 years old or over
123456789
—Not available.
aNumber of people taking the GED tests (one or more subtests).
bNumber of people completing the entire GED battery of five tests.
cNumber of people receiving high school equivalency credentials based on the GED tests.
dData for 1988 and prior years are for number of test takers and may not be comparable to later years.
eIncludes outlying areas.
Note: Except where indicated, data are for United States only and exclude outlying areas. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding. Some data have been revised from previously published figures.
Source: Thomas D. Snyder, Alexandra G. Tan, and Charlene M. Hoffman, "Table 105. General Educational Development (GED) Test Takers and Credentials Issued, by Age: 1971 to 2001," in Digest of Education Statistics, 2003, NCES 2005-025, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Washington, DC, December 2004, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/tables/dt105.asp (accessed July 26, 2005)
1971e377227
1972e419245
1973e423249
1974294352713917
1975340332614918
19763333128141017
1977332402413814
19783813127131018
19794263728121311
1980479372713815
1981489372713814
1982486372813815
1983465342914815
1984427322815916
19854133226151016
19864283226151017
19874443324151018
19884103522141018
1989632541357352413
19907146154103625131015
19917556574623328131016
1992739639457332813917
19937466514693327131016
1994774668491362513915
1995787682504382513915
1996824716488392513914
1997785681460432412813
1998776673481442411713
1999808702498442511713
2000811699487452511713
20011,016928648412611814

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