Family Life and Living Arrangements

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Chapter 2
Family Life and Living Arrangements

The family is regarded as the cornerstone of society in the United States. For many years, particularly when the United States was primarily an agricultural society, extended families—multiple generations living in the same household—were considered typical. As the culture became more urban and mobile, nuclear families—two parents and their children—became the American norm.

However, the makeup of families and their role in society have been undergoing change. Shifts in economics, employment, moral values, and social conditions have led to an increasing number of single men and women living alone, cohabitations without marriage, and single-parent families. A growing number of children, especially minority children, are being raised by only one parent or by neither parent, as in the case of children being raised by grandparents or foster parents. How these changes impact minorities in the United States can be best understood through a detailed look at minority families.

MARITAL STATUS

The U.S. Census Bureau (June 29, 2005, http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/hh-fam/ms1.pdf) reports that in 2004, 125.8 million Americans (age fifteen and older) were married, up from 95.3 million in 1970 and 112.6 million in 1990. This figure includes both those who did and those who did not live with their spouses. However, the proportion of people of marriage age who were married has decreased steadily since 1960. In 1960, 67.6% of this population was married, dropping to 64.2% in 1970, 61% in 1980, 58.7% in 1990, 56.2% in 2000, and to a low of 55.4% in 2004. The proportion of African-Americans who were married has been lower than the proportion of married adults in the general population since 1950 and has dropped faster as well. Of all African-Americans age fifteen and older, 63.2% were married in 1950, 60.3% in 1960, 55.4% in 1970, 46.5% in 1980, 42.4% in 1990, 39.2% in 2000, and 38.2% in 2004. Among Asians and Pacific Islanders, 53.9% were married in 2003. (See Table 2.1.)

Never Married

Racial differences among never-married people are significant. Among those over age fifteen, African-Americans are far more likely than whites, Hispanics, or Asians and Pacific Islanders to have never married. In 2003, 43.6% of African-Americans had never been married, compared with 24.6% of whites, 32.5% of Asians and Pacific Islanders, and 35.3% of Hispanics. (See Table 2.1.)

One reason that the proportion of never-married individuals age fifteen years and older has increased is that the age at first marriage has steadily risen since 1970 for all races and ethnic groups. The median age of first marriage for women has risen from 20.8 in 1970 to 25.3 in 2003. The median age of first marriage for men has risen from 23.2 in 1970 to 27.1 in 2003. (See Figure 2.1.) This rise in the age of first marriage accounts for some of the decreases in proportions of adults who are married.

Interracial Marriage

The Census Bureau reports that the number of interracial married couples more than tripled between 1980 and 2004. For example, in 1980 there were 167,000 black-white interracial couples; by 2004 there were 413,000 black-white interracial couples. In 1980 there were 450,000 couples with one white spouse and one spouse of a race other than white or black, such as Native American or Asian and Pacific Islander; in 2004, 1.6 million married couples fit this description. Even though the proportion of interracial married couples is rising, the vast majority of married couples continues to be of the

TABLE 2.1
Marital status of people 15 years and over by sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 2003
[Numbers in thousands, except for percentages]
TotalMarried spouse presentMarried spouse absentWidowedDivorcedSeparatedNever marriedTotalMarried spouse presentMarried spouse absentWidowedDivorcedSeparatedNever married
NumberNumberNumberNumberNumberNumberNumberPercentPercentPercentPercentPercentPercentPercent
source: Adapted from "Table A1. Marital Status of People 15 Years and Over, by Age, Sex, Personal Earnings, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 2003," in America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2003, U.S. Census Bureau, September 15, 2004, http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/cps2003.html (accessed December 26, 2005)
All races
     Total 15+225,057117,1723,13913,99521,6494,72364,380100.052.11.46.29.62.128.6
Male
     Total 15+108,69658,5861,6512,6978,9761,90534,881100.053.91.52.58.31.832.1
Female
     Total 15+116,36158,5861,48811,29712,6732,81729,499100.050.31.39.710.92.425.4
White, non-Hispanic
     Total 15+158,45888,9411,36710,79416,0872,23739,032100.056.10.96.810.21.424.6
Male
     Total 15+76,65644,6286222,0826,8381,00021,487100.058.20.82.78.91.328.0
Female
     Total 15+81,80244,3137458,7129,2491,23717,545100.054.20.910.711.31.521.4
Black
     Total 15+27,0428,7625171,7302,9661,28411,783100.032.41.96.411.04.743.6
Male
     Total 15+12,1594,4722073291,0634755,612100.036.81.72.78.73.946.2
Female
     Total 15+14,8844,2903101,4001,9038096,172100.028.82.19.412.85.441.5
Asian
     Total 15+9,7995,2793154184351723,181100.053.93.24.34.41.832.5
Male
     Total 15+4,6852,45918870154611,753100.052.54.01.53.31.337.4
Female
     Total 15+5,1142,8201273472821111,428100.055.22.56.85.52.227.9
Hispanic
     Total 15+27,93613,3009399181,8931,0249,862100.047.63.43.36.83.735.3
Male
     Total 15+14,3366,5996421838033515,758100.046.04.51.35.62.440.2
Female
     Total 15+13,5996,7012977351,0906734,104100.049.32.25.48.04.930.2
TABLE 2.2
Married couples by race and Hispanic origin of spouses, 1980–2004
[In thousands (49,714 represents 49,714,000). As of March. Persons 15 years old and over. Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race. Excludes members of Armed Forces except those living off post or with their families on post.]
Race and origin of spouses1980199020002004
aIncludes other married couples not shown separately.
b2004 data represent persons who selected this race group only and exclude persons reporting more than one race. The Current Population Survey in prior years only allowed respondents to report one race group.
c"Other race," is any race other than white or black, such as American Indian, Japanese, Chinese, etc. This total excludes combinations of other races by other races.
source: "Table 54. Married Couples by Race and Hispanic Origin of Spouses: 1980 to 2004," in Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2006, U.S. Census Bureau, December 2005, http://www.census.gov/statab/www/(accessed December 27, 2005)
   Married couples, totala49,71453,25656,49759,064
   Interracial married couples, total6519641,4642,157
Whiteb/blackb167211363413
   Black husband/white wife122150268287
   White husband/black wife456195126
Whiteb/other racec4507201,0511,622
Blackb/other racec343350122
Hispanic origin
Hispanic/Hispanic1,9063,0854,7395,611
Hispanic/other origin (not Hispanic)8911,1931,7432,076
All other couples (not of Hispanic origin)46,91748,97950,01551,378

same race. In 1980, 651,000 (1.3%) married couples were interracial; by 2004 there were 2.1 million (3.6%). (See Table 2.2.)

MIXED-RACE CHILDREN

The number of births to mixed-race parents has kept pace with increases in interracial marriage and cohabitation. The change in the question of race for the 2000 census, which enabled people to identify themselves by multiple races, made it easier to track mixed-race Americans. According to the 2000 census, 3.9 million (1.4%) Americans identified themselves as belonging to two or more races. (See Table 2.3.) By 2004 that number had grown to 4.4 million Americans, an increase of 13.9%.

In 2000, 907,000 Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders reported being of mixed race; in 2004 there were 976,000. Approximately 4.4 million Native Americans and Alaska Natives were multiracial in 2004, as opposed to 4.2 million in 2000. In 2000 there were twelve million Asian-Americans who reported that they were multiracial; in 2004 there were 13.9 million. The groups with the smallest proportion claiming a multiracial heritage in the 2000 census were African-Americans (37.1 million, up slightly to 39.2 million in 2004) and whites (231.4 million, which increased to 239.9 million in 2004). (See Table 2.3.)

Divorce

In 2003 the Census Bureau reported that 21.6 million adults (age fifteen and older) were divorced. In other words, nearly one in ten (9.6%) of all people age fifteen years and older were divorced and had not remarried at the time of the survey—thus, the proportion of ever-divorced people is much higher. A similar proportion of African-Americans, 2.9 million (10.9%), and whites, sixteen million (10.1%), were divorced, while a much lower proportion of Hispanics, 1.9 million (6.7%), and Asian-Americans, 435,000 (4.4%), were divorced. (See Table 2.1.) In Marital Status and Living Arrangements: March 1994 (February 1996, http://www.census.gov/prod/1/pop/p20-484.pdf), Arlene F. Saluter reports that divorce for most groups was up sharply from 1970, when 3.1% of whites, 3.9% of Hispanics, and 4.4% of African-Americans were divorced.

TABLE 2.3
Resident population by race and Hispanic origin status, 2000–04
[In thousands; as of July, except as noted.]
CharacteristicNumber (1,000)Percent change, 2000 to 2004
2000 (April 1)2001200220032004
*In combination with one or more other races. The sum of the five race groups adds to more than the total population because individuals may report more than one race.
source: Adapted from "Table 13. Resident Population by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin Status: 2000 to 2004," in Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2006, U.S. Census Bureau, December 2005, http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/06statab/pop.pdf (accessed December 27, 2005)
Both sexes
    Total281,425285,102287,941290,789293,6554.3
One race277,527281,048283,761286,481289,2174.2
    White228,107230,506232,348234,199236,0583.5
    Black or African American35,70536,24936,66737,08237,5025.0
    American Indian and Alaska Native2,6642,7112,7492,7872,8256.0
    Asian10,58911,10711,51211,91912,32616.4
    Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders4634754854955069.3
Two or more races3,8984,0544,1804,3084,43913.9
Race alone or in combination:*
    White231,436233,978235,935237,901239,8803.6
    Black or African American37,10537,74438,23838,73239,2325.7
    American Indian and Alaska Native4,2254,2804,3234,3664,4094.4
    Asian12,00712,58613,04113,49813,95716.2
    Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders9079279449609767.7
Not Hispanic or Latino246,118248,042249,464250,887252,3332.5
    One race242,712244,506245,824247,141248,4782.4
        White195,577196,320196,822197,325197,8411.2
        Black or African American34,31434,81335,19635,57735,9644.8
        American Indian and Alaska Native2,0972,1302,1552,1812,2075.2
        Asian10,35710,86711,26711,66712,06816.5
        Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders3673763833913988.5
    Two or more races3,4063,5363,6413,7473,85513.2
    Race alone or in combination:*
        White198,477199,338199,935200,534201,1481.3
        Black or African American35,49936,07836,52636,97237,4265.4
        American Indian and Alaska Native3,4563,4913,5183,5463,5743.4
        Asian11,63212,19612,63913,08313,53016.3
        Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders7527677797918036.8
Hispanic or Latino35,30637,06038,47739,90241,32217.0
    One race34,81536,54337,93739,34040,73917.0
        White32,53034,18635,52636,87338,21717.5
        Black or African American1,3911,4361,4701,5051,53910.6
        American Indian and Alaska Native5665825946066189.1
        Asian23224024625225810.9
        Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders959910210510712.6
    Two or more races49151853956158318.7
    Race alone or in combination:*
        White32,95934,64136,00037,36838,73217.5
        Black or African American1,6061,6661,7131,7601,80612.5
        American Indian and Alaska Native7707898058208358.6
        Asian37539040241442713.8
        Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders15516016516917412.0

Because men are considerably more likely than women to remarry following divorce, there are significantly higher proportions of currently divorced women than currently divorced men. In 2003, one million (8.7%) African-American men were currently divorced, compared with 1.9 million (12.8%) African-American women; 6.8 million (8.9%) white, non-Hispanic men were divorced, compared with 9.2 million (11.3%) white, non-Hispanic women. Among those of Hispanic origin, 803,000 (5.6%) men and one million (8%) women were divorced. In the Asian and Pacific Islander community, 154,000 (3.3%) men and 282,000 (5.5%) women were divorced. (See Table 2.1.)

Death of a Spouse

In 2003, 13.9 million (6.2%) people age fifteen years and older in the United States were widowed. Across all racial and ethnic groups, more women than men were widowed because of the shorter average lifespan of men, the tendency of wives to be younger than their husbands, and the greater likelihood that men will remarry. This was particularly pronounced in the white and African American communities. More than 8.7 million white women (10.6%) were widowed, compared with only two million (2.7%) white men. A similar proportion of African-American women (1.4 million, 9.4%) were widowed, compared with only 329,000 (2.7%) African-American men. Among Asians and Pacific Islanders, 347,000 (6.8%) women were widowed, compared with 70,000 (1.5%) men. Among Hispanics 735,000 (5.4%) women were widowed, compared with 183,000 (1.3%) men. (See Table 2.1.)

TEENAGE PREGNANCY

Over the generations, a major change in American attitudes has removed much of the social stigma from unwed teenage motherhood. Unmarried women of all ages are having children openly and with a regularity that was unheard of just a few generations ago. Many women do not feel the need to marry when they become pregnant. In 2004, 35.7% of all births were to unmarried mothers. (See Figure 2.2.) However, while the proportion of all births to unmarried mothers has risen, since 1990 the birth rate to unmarried teenagers has decreased. For example, among fifteen- to nineteen-year-olds, the birth rate decreased from about sixty per one thousand women in 1990 to about forty-one births per one thousand women in 2004. (See Figure 2.3.)

Many possible reasons are offered for the high rates of teenage motherhood. Among them are lack of access to birth control, lack of education, and little hope for the future, including absence of educational goals. What is certain is that the health of the babies born to teenagers, and especially to teenagers of a racial or ethnic minority group, is often at risk. According to research conducted by the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, African-American teenagers are twice as likely as white teenagers to deliver low-birth-weight babies and 1.5 times more likely to have premature babies. Both low-birth-weight and premature babies experience a number of serious health and developmental problems. In general, babies born to teenage mothers of all races suffer a higher risk of low birth weight, preterm delivery, and infant mortality when compared with babies born to older mothers.

The largest decline in teen birth rates between 1990 and 2004 was among non-Hispanic African-American teens; the birth rate for that group fell from 116.2 to 62.7 births per one thousand females. African-American teens had the highest birth rate in 1990 but had the second-highest birth rate in 2004. The birth rate for Hispanic females ages fifteen to nineteen fell from 100.3 to 82.6 births per one thousand females; these teens had the highest birth rate in 2004. (See Figure 2.4.) According to Brady E. Hamilton et al. in Preliminary Births for 2004 (October 28, 2005, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/prelim_births/prelim_births04.htm), in 2004 the birth rate for Native American teens ages fifteen to nineteen was 52.5 births per one thousand females, down from 84.1 births per one thousand females in 1991. Non-Hispanic white teens and Asian teens had the lowest birth rates in 2004. The birth rate of non-Hispanic white teens ages fifteen to nineteen was 26.8 per one thousand females in 2004, down from 43.4 per one thousand females in 1991; the birth rate of Asian-American teens ages fifteen to nineteen was 17.4 per thousand females, down from 27.3 per one thousand females in 1991. Hispanic teens had a birth rate more than four times higher than Asian-American teens. (See Table 2.4.)

MINORITY FAMILY STRUCTURE

Married-Couple Families

The Census Bureau defines a family as two or more people living together who are related by birth, marriage, or adoption. A household, however, can be family or nonfamily and is simply all people who occupy a housing unit. The proportion of married-couple families among all households declined from 1970 to 2003. According to Jason Fields in America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2003 (November 2004, http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-553.pdf), 70.6% of all households in 1970 were married couple families; that proportion had dropped to 51.5% by 2003.

Fields reports that the proportion of married-couple families among all family households declined between 1970 and 2003 for all races and ethnicities. In Household and Family Characteristics: March 1994 (September 1995, http://www.census.gov/prod/1/pop/p20-483.pdf), Steve Rawlings and Arlene Saluter report numbers from 1970 and 1980, which here are compared with Fields's numbers from 2003. In 1970, 88.8% of white families were married-couple families, compared with 81.9% in 2003. Asian-Americans also maintained a proportion of married-couple families comparable to that among the white community. In 1980, 84.5% of Asian-American family households were headed by married couples; by 2003 that proportion had decreased to 80.4%. A high proportion of Hispanic families were headed by a married couple in 1970 (80.6%), but by 2003 that proportion had decreased more significantly (to 68.1%) than had the proportion of married-couple families among either whites or Asian-Americans. However, the percentage of married-couple families was the lowest, and had decreased most dramatically, among African-Americans between 1970 and 2003. In 1970, 68.3% of African-American families were married-couple families; by 2003 the rate had dropped to 46.7%.

TABLE 2.4
Birth rates for women under age 20, by age, race, and Hispanic origin, selected years, 1991–2004
[Data for 2004 are based on a continuous file of records received from the states. Rates per 1,000 women in specified group.]
Age, race, and Hispanic origin of mother200420031991Percent change, 2003–2004Percent change, 1991–2004
aIncludes data for white and black Hispanic women, not shown separately.
bRace and Hispanic origin are reported separately on the birth certificate. Data for persons of Hispanic origin are included in the data for each race group according to the mother's reported race.
cIncludes births to Aleuts and Eskimos.
dIncludes all persons of Hispanic origin of any race.
source: B.E. Hamilton, S.J. Ventura, J.A. Martin, and P.D. Sutton, "Table 3. Birth Rates for Women under Age 20 Years, by Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin: United States, 1991, 2003, and 2004, and Percentage Change in Rates, 1991–2004 and 2003–04," in Preliminary Births for 2004, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, October 28, 2005, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/prelim_births/prelim_births04.htm (accessed December 27, 2005)
10-14 years
All races and originsa0.70.61.417−50
Non-Hispanic whiteb0.20.20.50−60
Non-Hispanic blackb1.61.64.90−67
American Indian totalb,c0.91.01.6−10−44
Asian or Pacific Islander totalb0.20.20.80−75
Hispanicd1.31.32.40−46
15-19 years
All races and originsa41.241.661.8−1−33
Non-Hispanic whiteb26.827.443.4−2−38
Non-Hispanic blackb62.764.7118.2−3−47
American Indian totalb,c52.553.184.1−1−38
Asian or Pacific Islander totalb17.417.427.30−36
Hispanicd82.682.3104.60−21
15-17 years
All races and originsa22.122.438.6−1−43
Non-Hispanic whiteb12.012.423.6−3−49
Non-Hispanic blackb36.838.786.1−5−57
American Indian totalb,c30.130.651.9−2−42
Asian or Pacific Islander totalb8.98.816.31−45
Hispanicd49.749.769.20−28
18-19 years
All races and originsa70.070.794.0−1−26
Non-Hispanic whiteb48.850.070.6−2−31
Non-Hispanic blackb103.3105.3162.2−2−36
American Indian totalb,c86.887.3134.2−1−35
Asian or Pacific Islander totalb29.929.842.20−29
Hispanicd133.4132.0155.51−14

Single-Parent Households

Single-mother families numbered 3.4 million in 1970, according to Rawlings and Saluter. In 2003 they numbered 10.1 million. (See Table 2.5.) Single-father families increased from less than half a million in 1970 to 2.3 million in 2003. Most single-parent households in the United States continue to be headed by women. The proportion of family households headed by women with no husband present has grown among all racial and ethnic groups.

In 2003 Asian-Americans and whites had the lowest proportion of family households headed by single women. Among Asian-American family households, 337,000 (11.8%) were headed by a female, while 7.1 million (13.1%) white, non-Hispanic family households were headed by a female. (See Table 2.6.)

In 2003 single Hispanic women were almost twice as likely to head households as were white women, while single African-American women were more than three times as likely as white women to head households. (See Table 2.6.) In 1970, 15.3% of Hispanic family households and 27.9% of African-American family households were headed by single women, according to Rawlings and Saluter. By 2003, two million (22.3%) Hispanic family households and four million (44.8%) African-American family households were headed by single women. (See Table 2.6.)

Living Arrangements of Children

Changes in the marital circumstances of adults naturally affect the living arrangements of children. High divorce rates, an increased delay in first marriages, and more out-of-wedlock births have resulted in fewer children living with two parents. In 2003, 49.9 million (68.4%) children under age eighteen were living with two parents (not necessarily both birth parents). (See Table 2.7.) Minority children have been particularly affected by these changes.

Divorced single women are on average older than never-married women, and they tend to have more education and higher incomes as well—leading their children to have an advantage over the children of never-married women. African-American single mothers were the most likely to have never married (1.9 million, 61.6%) and the least likely to be divorced (632,000, 20.2%). Hispanic single mothers were more likely to have never married (850,000, 47%) than to be divorced (394,000, 21.8%), while white single mothers were most likely to be divorced (2.4 million, 48.5%) and least likely to have never married (1.5 million, 30.9%). (See Table 2.5.) As a group, then, the children of white single mothers tend to have an economic advantage over the children of Hispanic or African-American single mothers, while the children of black single mothers, on average, are the most economically disadvantaged of all.

TABLE 2.5
Single parents, by sex and selected characteristics, 2003
[In thousands]
CharacteristicSingle fathersSingle mothers
TotalRace and ethnicityTotalRace and ethnicity
White onlyBlack onlyHispanic (of any race)White onlyBlack onlyHispanic (of any race)
TotalNon-HispanicTotalNon-Hispanic
*Married spouse absent includes separated.
source: Jason Fields, "Table 4. Single Parents by Sex and Selected Characteristics: 2003," in America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2003, Current Population Reports P20-553, U.S. Census Bureau, November 2004, http//www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/P20-553.pdf (accessed December 26, 2005)
All single parents2,2601,7581,33035345010,1426,4714,8703,1241,807
Type of family group
Family household1,9151,5061,1762853468,1395,1553,9602,5911,357
Related subfamily2601759762841,5961,003645475390
Unrelated subfamily8478586204073132655861
Number of own children under 18
1 child142211018632282545,5293,6702,8661,563904
2 children609485353841372,9351,8761,396915530
3 children1701339028431,223697484443246
4 or more children5839241315455228125203127
Presence of own children under 18
With own children under 182,2601,7581,33035345010,1426,4714,8703,1241,807
    With own children under 121,5471,1878462543607,4174,6243,3852,3911,405
        With own children under 68786684301392534,2342,5751,8111,395872
            With own children under 3530404261841522,2871,364956789453
                With own children under 12031621122755734446309241155
Education
Less than high school450356170641951,9661,267600585736
High school graduate9537425901461563,5772,2351,7261,169586
Some college580426269113623,2982,0651,7221,055396
Bachelor's degree or higher27723430229351,30190482231590
Marital status
Never married8526013591832574,4132,2551,5071,924850
Married spouse absent*34426420353631,8101,193773479480
Divorced956817707951153,5042,7252,363632394
Widowed107766222154162982288983
Poverty status in 2002
Below poverty level357239142931003,2681,8491,2141,237730
At or above poverty level1,9031,5201,1882603496,8754,6223,6561,8871,077

AFRICAN-AMERICAN CHILDREN

In 2003, 4.1 million (36.1%) African-American children under the age of eighteen lived with two parents; 5.7 million (50.8%) lived with their mothers only. A higher proportion of African-American children lived with neither parent (967,000, 8.5%) than lived with their fathers only (517,000, 4.6%). (See Table 2.7.) The Census Bureau (June 29, 2005, http://www.census.gov/population/soc-demo/hh-fam/ch3.pdf) reports that in 1970 the proportions of African-American children who lived with one parent (31.7%) or two parents (58.6%) were virtually the reverse of their living arrangements in 2003.

An increasing number of African-American children live with neither parent. A disproportionate number of them are in foster care. In the AFCARS Report (April 2005, http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/stats_research/afcars/tar/report10.pdf), the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reports that on September 30, 2003, 35% of children in foster care were African-American. According to the Census Bureau in "National Population Estimates—Characteristics" (2005, http://www.census.gov/popest/national/asrh/), if the number of African-American children in foster care reflected their proportion in the general population, only 16.9% of children in foster care would be African-American.

HISPANIC CHILDREN

In 2003 a higher proportion of Hispanic children (8.6 million, 64.6%) than African-American children were living with two parents, but this proportion was still lower than the proportion of white children who lived with two parents (33.8 million, 77.3%). (See Table 2.7.) More than 6.9 million (24.5%) Hispanic children lived with a single mother, and 737,000 (5.5%) lived with a single father. This proportion was considerably higher than among whites—6.9 million (15.8%) white children lived with a single mother and 1.9 million (4.3%) lived with a single father—but well below the proportion of African-American children living with a single parent. Approximately 702,000 (5.3%) Hispanic children lived with neither parent.

TABLE 2.6
Households by type and selected characteristics, 2003
[In thousands, except average size]
CharacteristicAll householdsFamily householdsNonfamily households
TotalMarried coupleOther families
NumberMale householderFemale householderTotalMale householderFemale householder
Notes: X = Not applicable.
Data are not shown separately for the other race groups because of the small sample sizes in the Current Population Survey in the 2003 Annual Social and Economic Supplement
source: Jason Fields, "Table 1. Households by Type and Selected Characteristics: 2003," in America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2003, Current Population Reports P20-553, U.S. Census Bureau, November 2004, http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-553.pdf (accessed December 26, 2005)
   All households111,27875,59657,3204,65613,62035,68216,02019,662
Age of householder
15 to 24 years6,6113,5511,3797891,3833,0601,5071,552
25 to 34 years19,05613,4389,5361,0112,8925,6173,3432,274
35 to 44 years24,06918,74114,0011,0873,6525,3283,2782,051
45 to 54 years22,62316,86313,2979222,6445,7602,9712,789
55 to 64 years16,26011,2619,5434131,3054,9992,0232,976
65 years and over22,65911,7419,5654341,74310,9182,8988,020
Race and ethnicity of householder
White only91,64562,29749,9153,5008,88129,34913,07016,278
   Non-Hispanic81,16653,84544,1012,6747,07027,32111,96815,353
Black only13,4658,9284,1657624,0004,5382,0432,495
Asian only3,9172,8452,2862233371,073526547
Hispanic (of any race)11,3399,0906,1898722,0292,2491,2281,021
Size of households
1 person29,431(X)(X)(X)(X)29,43112,51116,919
2 people37,07832,04724,3101,9925,7455,0312,6602,371
3 people17,88917,07611,5261,4034,147813556257
4 people15,96715,67212,7547332,18529521283
5 people7,0296,9695,719296955604217
6 people2,5212,4892,004142344311912
7 or more people1,3641,3431,0079024622192
Average size2.573.193.223.113.121.241.321.17
Number of related children under 18
No related children72,36736,68530,2612,2404,18335,68216,02019,662
With related children38,91138,91127,0592,4169,437(X)(X)(X)
    1 child16,51116,51110,3781,4294,704(X)(X)(X)
    2 children14,33314,33310,8006832,850(X)(X)(X)
    3 children5,7715,7714,2352201,317(X)(X)(X)
    4 or more children2,2962,2961,64684566(X)(X)(X)
Presence of own children under 18
No own children75,31039,62831,4062,7415,48135,68216,02019,662
With own children35,96835,96825,9141,9158,139(X)(X)(X)
    With own children under 1226,25126,25119,1681,2955,788(X)(X)(X)
        With own children under 615,58415,58411,7437293,111(X)(X)(X)
            With own children under 39,0819,0817,0144511,615(X)(X)(X)
                With own children under 12,9172,9172,255181481(X)(X)(X)
Tenure
Owner75,90957,09247,6762,7216,69518,8177,74211,075
Renter33,79917,6049,0071,8736,72416,1957,9518,244
Occupies without payment1,57090063762201670327343

ASIAN AND PACIFIC ISLANDER CHILDREN

The Asian-American family is typically a close-knit unit, and members traditionally are respectful of the authority of the elder members of the family. As the younger generation becomes more assimilated into American culture, however, the unchallenged role of elders may not remain as strong. Even so, family tradition and honor are still held in high regard. In 2003, 2.2 million (83.1%) children of Asian and Pacific Islander descent were living with both parents, a proportion higher than that of whites. About 291,000 (10.8%) Asian and Pacific Islander children lived with their mothers only, while 76,000 (2.8%) lived with their fathers only. Approximately 87,000 (3.2%) lived with neither parent. (See Table 2.7.)

TABLE 2.7
Household relationship and living arrangements of children under 18 yearsa, by age, sex, race, and Hispanic originb, 2003
[In thousands]
Total under 18 yearsUnder 1 year1-2 years3-5 years6-8 years9-11 years12-14 years15-17 yearsTotal under 6 yearsTotal 6-11 yearsTotal 12-17 years
    All races, total73,0013,3738,16512,10611,72812,52612,75912,34523,64424,25325,104
Both sexes
In household
    Living with both parents49,9032,3535,7618,4448,0428,3868,6688,24916,55816,42816,917
    Living with mother only16,7707361,7712,7342,7773,0132,9472,7925,2425,7895,739
    Living with father only3,3231953604784615965826511,0341,0571,233
    Living with neither parent3,004882724504485315626528109791,215
Living with both parents
    Child of householder49,0252,2905,6168,3067,9068,2358,5398,13516,21116,14116,674
    Grandchild of householder546501129787836750260170117
    Other relative of householder3131133364764596380111122
    Nonrelative of householder182142531775
Living with mother only
    Child of householder14,0364861,3172,1792,3642,6132,6002,4773,9834,9775,077
    Grandchild of householder1,576186362350239194140107898433246
    Other relative of householder60650501137397103120213170224
    Nonrelative of householder55214429310110910488149210192
Living with father only
    Child of householder2,8671743023893895205015938659081,094
    Grandchild of householder22813354741373620947856
    Other relative of householder1187152814122123492544
    Nonrelative of householder111291518282416254540
Living with neither parentc
    Grandchild of householder1,41635142235240272242249413512491
    Other relative of householder796184810896126182217175222399
    Foster child2139262137264647576393
    Other nonrelative of householder5802656857510693139167182232
    White, non-Hispanic, total43,7591,9614,7106,9966,8547,5117,8067,92113,66614,36515,728
In household
    Living with both parents33,8241,5493,8335,5885,3765,6765,9245,87910,97011,05211,802
    Living with mother only6,9252706111,0231,0801,2391,3321,3711,9032,3192,703
    Living with father only1,860100144217238367363431461605795
    Living with neither parent1,15043122168160229188240332389428
Living with both parents
    Child of householder33,4431,5263,7585,5335,3205,6155,8645,82810,81710,93511,692
    Grandchild of householder308217255464142311478874
    Other relative of householder63231717141862532
    Nonrelative of householder10233155
Living with mother only
    Child of householder5,8631784548069291,0781,1901,2281,4382,0072,417
    Grandchild of householder618801321418879455235316797
    Other relative of householder114792610171926422745
    Nonrelative of householder330516495364796569117144
Living with father only
    Child of householder1,66093126189205326319402408532721
    Grandchild of householder98591718191911313730
    Other relative of householder26235792816
    Nonrelative of householder76271111171810202828
Living with neither parentc
    Grandchild of householder574177294871208599183208184
    Other relative of householder20711172818354750565397
    Foster child931121014132023232743
    Other nonrelative of householder2761321364160366870102104
    Black, total11,3404731,2511,8621,8342,0882,0131,8193,5863,9213,833
In household
    Living with both parents4,0941724196736387437826661,2651,3811,448
    Living with mother only5,7622637019819601,0749548281,9452,0351,782
    Living with father only5172368667710577100157182177
    Living with neither parent9671563140159165201225218323425
Living with both parents
    Child of householder4,0191674106636277217726591,2391,3481,431
    Grandchild of householder473768172416256
    Other relative of householder2823535839811
TABLE 2.7
Household relationship and living arrangements of children under 18 yearsa, by age, sex, race, and Hispanic originb, 2003 [continued]
[In thousands]
Total under 18 yearsUnder 1 year1-2 years3-5 years6-8 years9-11 years12-14 years15-17 yearsTotal under 6 yearsTotal 6-11 yearsTotal 12-17 years
Living with mother only
    Child of householder4,9691915598238549648387411,5721,8171,579
    Grandchild of householder481491131026861513726412988
    Other relative of householder23617174925355141836092
    Nonrelative of householder7761181315149262823
Living with father only
    Child of householder42723564264936089122157149
    Grandchild of householder648161111135232218
    Other relative of householder204621431037
    Nonrelative of householder52323
Living with neither parentc
Grandchild of householder517637798691105113122177218
    Other relative of householder28111342474464705691134
    Foster child745771781317192530
    Other nonrelative of householder9426139221924203143
    Asian and Pacific Islanders, total2,681128292470462410468452890872919
In household
    Living with both parents2,227115257399381339387349771720736
    Living with mother only291721515649565079106106
    Living with father only7648101221525221540
    Living with neither parent8736912201028183138
Living with both parents
    Child of householder2,167113255389374328374335756701710
    Grandchild of householder242183631239
    Other relative of householder361251171031617
Living with mother only
    Child of householder2267144048334837618185
    Grandchild of householder1524423663
    Other relative of householder375528412101116
    Nonrelative of householder132262282
Living with father only
    Child of householder5746672132016932
    Grandchild of householder411121
    Other relative of householder1522425546
Living with neither parentc
    Grandchild of householder2321265355118
    Other relative of householder4014321031781220
    Other nonrelative of householder23445464910
    Hispanic, total13,2847011,6812,4272,2622,1922,1431,8774,8094,4554,020
In household
    Living with both parents8,5844421,1221,5801,4661,4201,3721,1823,1442,8862,554
    Living with mother only3,2611673715725845705294671,1101,155996
    Living with father only737661201591101019981345211180
    Living with neither parent7022668116102101143147210202290
Living with both parents
    Child of householder8,2444101,0651,5211,4121,3651,3291,1432,9962,7762,472
    Grandchild of householder15623282827241511795126
    Other relative of householder1767272827302828625757
    Nonrelative of householder8214171
Living with mother only
    Child of householder2,58287254433469480455405773950860
    Grandchild of householder365548584583832142229746
    Other relative of householder20725202734343037726867
    Nonrelative of householder1071142923181112434123
Living with father only
    Child of householder597529512891798368275170151
    Grandchild of householder5781710882435166
    Other relative of householder5667195586311014
    Nonrelative of householder272178533158
TABLE 2.7
Household relationship and living arrangements of children under 18 yearsa, by age, sex, race, and Hispanic originb, 2003 [continued]
[In thousands]
Total under 18 yearsUnder 1 year1-2 years3-5 years6-8 years9-11 years12-14 years15-17 yearsTotal under 6 yearsTotal 6-11 yearsTotal 12-17 years
aAll children under 18, excluding householders, subfamily reference people, and their spouses.
bHispanics may be of any race.
cIncludes ever married grandchildren under 18 (excluded prior to 1998).
—Represents or rounds to zero.
source: Adapted from "Table C2. Household Relationship and Living Arrangements of Children Under 18 Years, by Age, Sex, Race, Hispanic Origin: 2003," in America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2003, U.S. Census Bureau, September 15, 2004, http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam/cps2003.html (accessed December 27, 2005)
Living with neither parentc
     Grandchild of householder2419254846464028819268
     Other relative of householder26351137303565795366144
     Foster child3245378511714
     Other nonrelative of householder1669272918193033643863

HOUSING GRANDCHILDREN

Because of many factors, including the high cost of housing, substance abuse, and the inability of some parents to care for their children, many children are living with their grandparents. It is not uncommon in the African-American community for children to live with their grandparents, with or without one or both of their parents present. In 2003, 517,000 (4.6%) African-American children lived with a grandparent and neither of their parents. The proportion of children who lived with a grandparent is significantly higher when children who lived with one or both parents in the home of a grandparent are added to that total (1.1 million, 9.8%). (See Table 2.7.) In other words, nearly one in ten African-American children were living in the home of a grandparent in 2003, and nearly one in twenty were being raised exclusively by a grandparent.

Only 241,000 (1.8%) Hispanic children lived with a grandparent with neither parent present in 2003. This number jumps to 819,000 (6.2%) when children who live with one or both parents in the home of a grandparent are added. Among Asians and Pacific Islanders, 23,000 (0.8%) children under the age of eighteen lived with a grandparent and neither parent in 2003. This number climbs to 66,000 (2.5%) when children who lived with one or both parents in the home of a grandparent are counted. Among whites, only 574,000 (1.3%) children lived with a grandparent and neither parent in 2003; 1.6 million (3.6%) white children lived with a grandparent with or without a parent present. (See Table 2.7.) African-American children, then, were the most likely to be living with a grandparent, with or without a parent present, while Asian-American children were the least likely.

HOMEOWNERSHIP

Owning one's home has traditionally been the American dream. Unfortunately, for many Americans, especially minorities, purchasing a home can be difficult or impossible. The Housing Vacancy Survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau calculated homeownership rates by race and ethnicity of householder (the rate was computed by dividing the number of owner households by the total number of households). In 2004 the rate for non-Hispanic white householders who owned their homes was 76, while for Hispanic householders it was 48.1, for African-American householders it was 49.1, for Native American or Alaska Native householders it was 55.6, and for Asian and Pacific Islander householders it was 59.8. (See Table 2.8.)

Growth of Homeownership

While compared with non-Hispanic white homeownership the numbers of minority homeownership are low, these numbers actually reflect significant growth in the purchase of homes by minorities. While homeownership rates rose for all groups, they rose faster among minority groups. From 1994 to 2004 the homeownership rate for non-Hispanic whites grew from 70 to 76, for Hispanics it grew from 41.2 to 48.1, and for African-Americans it grew from 42.3 to 49.1. During this same period the homeownership rate by Asians and Pacific Islanders grew from 51.3 to 59.8. (See Table 2.8.)

A number of factors were responsible for the growth of minority homeownership in the 1990s. The administration of President Bill Clinton helped to provide greater lending opportunities for minorities by revitalizing the Federal Housing Administration and improving enforcement of the Community Reinvestment Act, which was passed by Congress in 1977 to encourage banks and other lending institutions to invest in the communities in which they operate. Furthermore, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development pressured the Federal National Mortgage Association (Fannie Mae) and Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac) to initiate programs to help minority and low-income borrowers in securing mortgages. Fannie Mae is a private company that was created by Congress in 1938 to improve the housing industry during the Great Depression. Its smaller counterpart, Freddie Mac, is a shareholder-owned company created by Congress in 1970 to support homeownership. Both Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac buy mortgages, package them into bonds backed by the government, and sell them to investors, thereby freeing up money for additional mortgage lending. Besides these efforts, minority homeownership was also helped by a considerably strong economy and a robust stock market during the 1990s and by low mortgage rates during the early 2000s.

TABLE 2.8
Homeownership rates by race and ethnicity of householder, 1994–2004
199419951996a1997199819992000200120022002b20032004
Notes: NA = Not applicable. Homeownership rate equals the proportion of households that are owners; rate is computed by dividing the number of owner households by the total number of households.
aBeginning in 1996, those answering 'other' for race were allocated to one of the 4 race categories—white, black, American Indian, Aleut, or Eskimo (one category), or Asian or Pacific Islander.
bRevised
source: "Table 20. Homeownership Rates by Race and Ethnicity of Householder: 1994 to 2004," in Housing Vacancies and Homeownership Annual Statistics: 2004, U.S. Census Bureau, February 17, 2005, http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/hvs/annual04/ann04t20.html (accessed December 28, 2005)
    U.S. total64.064.765.465.766.366.867.467.867.967.968.369.0
White alone, total67.768.769.169.370.070.571.171.671.871.772.172.8
    Non-Hispanic white alone70.070.971.772.072.673.273.874.374.574.775.476.0
Black alone, total42.342.744.144.845.646.347.247.747.347.448.149.1
All other races alone, total47.747.251.052.553.053.753.554.254.754.556.058.6
    American Indian or Alaskan Native alone51.755.851.651.754.356.156.255.454.654.054.355.6
    Asian or Pacific Islander51.350.850.852.852.653.152.853.954.754.656.359.8
    Other36.137.4NANANANANANANANANANA
Hispanic or Latino41.242.142.843.344.745.546.347.348.247.046.748.1
Non-Hispanic65.966.767.467.868.368.969.569.970.070.270.871.5

President George W. Bush also made minority home-ownership a priority of his administration. In 2002 he challenged the real estate industry to invest more than $1 trillion to increase the number of minority homeowners by at least 5.5 million families by the end of the decade. Acknowledging that many Americans can afford a monthly mortgage payment but lack the funds for a down payment, in 2003 President Bush signed the American Dream Downpayment Assistance Act, authorizing $200 million per year in down payment assistance to at least forty thousand low-income families. In January 2004 Fannie Mae announced that it planned to help 1.8 million minority families buy their first home in the next decade.

Private-sector real estate lenders were likely to follow suit in targeting minorities, in part as a simple acknowledgment of changing times. As the baby boomer generation (1946–64) begins to leave the workforce, and because of the low birth rate of native-born Americans, minority groups (dominated by Hispanics) are expected to play an increasing role in the economy. The 1990s saw a major influx of immigrants, who at first typically rented their homes but later became factors in the home-buying market. According to James Johnson, who is quoted in John Handley's "Demographic Trends to Shape Future U.S. Housing Markets" (February 2005, http://www.ris-media.com/index.php/article/articleview/9392/1/632/realtorsontherise), it is estimated that ten million immigrants will reach their peak home-buying years between 2005 and 2015, making them a market to be courted by real estate lenders. Aside from the benefits enjoyed by the individual, an increase in the number of minority homeowners is likely to improve the quality of life in entire communities, improving such areas as safety and the quality of schools.

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