COMOROS

Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros

République Fédérale Islamique des Comores;
Jumhuriyat al-Qumur al-Ittihadiyah al-Islamiyah

CAPITAL: Moroni

FLAG: Four equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), white, red, and blue with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist; centered within the triangle is a white crescent with the convex side facing the hoist and four white, five-pointed stars placed vertically in a line between the points of the crescent.

ANTHEM: No information available.

MONETARY UNIT: The Comorian franc (Co Fr) is the equivalent of the Communauté Financière Africaine franc (CFA Fr), which has been pegged to the euro since January 1999 at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs to 1 euro. The Comorian franc is issued in notes of 500, 1,000, and 5,000 Co Fr. Co Fr1 = $0.00252 (or $1 = Co Fr396.21) as of 2004.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is used.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Second Coup d'État, 13 May; Independence Day, 6 July; Admission to UN, 12 November; Christmas Day, 25 December. The principal Muslim holidays are observed.

TIME: 3 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

The Comoros are located at the northern entrance of the Mozambique Channel, between the eastern shore of the African continent and the island of Madagascar, which lies about 480 km (300 mi) to the se. Comparatively, the area occupied by the Comoros Islands is slightly more than 12 times the size of Washington, DC. The islands have a combined area of 2,170 sq km (838 sq mi), of which Grande Comore (Njazídja), the largest and northernmost island, comprises 1,148 sq km (443 sq mi); Mohéli (Mwali), lying to the s of Grande Comore, 290 sq km (112 sq mi); and Anjouan (Nzwani) to the e of Mohéli, 424 sq km (164 sq mi). There are also several small islands. The Comoros extend about 180 km (110 mi) ese–wnw and 100 km (62 mi) nne–ssw, with a total coastline of 340 km (211 mi). Mayotte, the fourth major island in the Comoros Archipelago, covering an area of 374 sq km (144 sq mi), is claimed by the Comoros but remains under French territorial administration. The capital city Moroni, is located at the western edge of the island of Grande Comore.

TOPOGRAPHY

The islands are volcanic in origin and their highest peak, Mt. Kartala at 2,360 meters (7,743 feet), is an active volcano located near the southern tip of the island of Grande Comore. In the center of Grande Comore lies a desert lava field. To the north, a number of volcanic peaks rise from a plateau nearly 600 meters (2,000 feet) in altitude. The island of Anjouan, to the southeast, has steep hills reaching heights of nearly 1,500 meters (5,000 feet) in a central volcanic massif. Mohéli, to the west of Anjouan, has wide and fertile valleys, with a ridge in the center that reaches about 580 meters (1,900 feet) above sea level, and a thick forest cover. The lowest point is at sea level (Indian Ocean).

CLIMATE

The climate in the Comoros is humid and tropical, with coastal temperatures averaging about 28°c (82°f) in March and 23°c (73°f) in August. The monsoon season lasts from December to April. Rainfall in January averages 42 cm (16.5 in), and in October, the driest month, 8.5 cm (3.3 in). Cyclones and tidal waves are frequent in the summer.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The rich volcanic soils on the islands foster the growth of a profuse vegetation. Beyond the coastal zones, where mangroves predominate, there are coconut palms, mangoes, and bananas, and above them is a forest zone, with many varieties of tropical hardwoods. Broom, lichens, and heather grow on the highest peaks. The animal life is similar to that found on Madagascar. Comorian waters harbor the coelacanth, a rare primitive fish once thought to have been extinct for 70 million years. Fossil remains of the coelacanth dating back 400 million years have been found.

ENVIRONMENT

Although Mohéli has large tracts of fertile land not yet cultivated, parts of Anjouan are so densely populated that farmers have been forced to extend cultivation to the higher slopes, leading to deforestation and soil erosion, especially when crops are cultivated on slopes without adequate terracing. Population growth has also increased the demand for firewood, threatening the remaining forest areas. Soil erosion is aggravated by lack of terracing. Comoros has about 0.2 cu mi of water, of which 47% is used for agricultural purposes, 48% is used in urban centers and for domestic purposes, and 5% is used in industry.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 2 types of mammals, 10 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 4 species of fish, 4 species of other invertebrates, and 5 species of plants. Endangered species in the Comoros include the Anjouan sparrow hawk and Anjouan scops owl.

POPULATION

The population of Comoros in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 671,000, which placed it at number 159 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 43% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 101 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 3.0%, a rate the government viewed as too high. Government programs to address population growth succeeded in increasing the use of contraception from 11.4% in 1996 to 19.3% in 2001. The projected population for the year 2025 was 1,127,000. The population density was 301 per sq km (779 per sq mi). Grande Comore, the largest island, has the largest populace, followed by Anjouan and then Mohéli.

The UN estimated that 33% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 4.36%. The capital city, Moroni, had a population of 53,000 in that year.

MIGRATION

About 40,000 Comorians live in France and 25,000 in Madagascar. About 16,000 were expelled from Madagascar in 1977–78, following a massacre there of Comorians in December 1976. In 2000, there were 18,000 migrants living in Comoros. For 2003 it was estimated that 25–30% of the population lived outside the country. In 2003, an estimated $36.4 million in remittances, approximately 12% of GDP, flowed to Comoros. These remittances amounted to about $50 per Comorian. The net migration rate in 2005 was estimated as zero per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The islands' indigenous population consists almost entirely of persons of mixed African, Malagasy, Malay, and Arab descent. Ethnic groups include the Antalote, Cafre, Makoa, Oimatsaha, and Sakalava. Small numbers of Indians, Malagasy, and Europeans play an important part in the economy.

LANGUAGES

French and Arabic are the official languages. The main spoken language, ShaafiIslam (Shikomoro or Comoran), is akin to Swahili but has elements borrowed from Arabic. Other languages spoken include French, Malagasy, Swahili, Arabic, and Makua (an African language).

RELIGIONS

Islam is followed by about 99% of Comorians, almost all of whom are Sunni Muslims. Fewer than 400 citizens—approximately 1% of the population—are Christian, all of whom reportedly converted to Christianity within the last half of the 1990s. Small groups of foreigners are Hindus or Christians.

Following a 1999 military coup, the May 2000 constitution did not allow for freedom of religion. The December 2001 constitution does provide for this freedom, however, it also makes Islam the state religion and the government tends to discourage the practice of other faiths. The practice of Christianity is particularly restricted. There are two Roman Catholic churches and one Protestant church. Since before the 1999 coup, the government has restricted the use of these churches to noncitizens only. Harassment and social discrimination of Christians is widespread. Proselytizing of Christianity is prohibited. The Grand Mufti, who is nominated by the president to serve in the Ministry of Islamic Affairs, serves as the government counsel on Islamic faith and law.

TRANSPORTATION

Each island has a ringed road, and there were some 880 km (547 mi) of roads in 2002, with 673 km (418 mi) paved. There is an international airport at Hahaia, on Grande Comore; other islands have smaller airfields. There were a total of four airports, all with paved runways, in 2004. Air Comores (51% owned by Air France) provides regular interisland flights. Air France and Air Madagascar provide service to Madagascar; Air Mauritius provides service to Mauritius; and South African Airways makes a weekly stop. In 1997 (the latest year for which data was available), 83,000 passengers traveled on international and domestic flights. As of 2005, Comoros' merchant marine totaled 79 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 452,801 GRT. There is a year-round port at Dzaoudzi, off the island of Mayotte. Until recently, the other ports, at Moroni and Mutsamudu, could accommodate only small ships. Larger vessels had to anchor offshore and be loaded and unloaded by dhows. Expansion of the port of Mutsamudu to allow direct access to Anjouan was completed in 1985.

HISTORY

The Comoros are an archipelago of four small Indian Ocean islands that lie between East Africa and the northwestern coast of Madagascar. The four islands are called Ngazidja (formerly Grande-Comore), Nzwani (formerly Anjouan), Mwali (formerly Moheli), and Mayotte. In all likelihood they were visited in antiquity by Phoenician sailors. The first settlers were probably Melanesian and Polynesian peoples, who came to the Comoros by the 6th century ad; later immigrants arrived from East Africa, Arab lands, Indonesia, Persia, and Madagascar. The Portuguese discovered the islands in about 1503, and Frenchmen first landed in 1517. The Englishman James Lancaster visited the islands toward the end of the 16th century; at that time, and for many years afterward, Arab influence predominated over that of Europeans. Malagasy invasions also took place in the 16th century. In 1843, a Malagasy who ruled over Mayotte ceded the island to France, and in 1865, a Malagasy ruler of Mohéli signed a friendship treaty with France. A French protectorate was placed over Anjouan, Grande Comore, and Mohéli in 1886, and in 1908 the islands were joined administratively with French-ruled Madagascar. In World War II, the islands were occupied by a British force and turned over to the Free French. The Comoros were granted administrative autonomy within the Republic of France on 9 May 1946, acquiring overseas territorial status, and on 22 December 1961 achieved internal autonomy under special statute. This status was amended on 3 January 1968 to give the territory greater internal autonomy.

On 11 December 1958, the Territorial Assembly voted to remain in the Republic, but the cause of independence, championed by the Comoro National Liberation Movement, based in Tanzania, was eventually embraced by the ruling coalition on the islands. An agreement for independence within five years was signed in Paris on 15 June 1973, and in a referendum held on 22 December 1974, a large majority on all islands except Mayotte voted in favor of independence. The vote was ratified by the French parliament, which decided that each island should vote separately on a new constitution. On 6 July 1975, nevertheless, the Comoros legislature unilaterally declared independence for all the islands, including Mayotte. The French government, rejecting the Comorian claim to Mayotte, ordered a separate referendum for the island. As preparations were made for the 1976 referendum, relations between France and the Comoros deteriorated. The Comorian government nationalized all French administrative property and expelled French officials. With strained French-Comorian relations as the backdrop, Mayotte voted on 7 February 1976 to remain part of France. The UN General Assembly, however, backed the Comorian claim to Mayotte in 1976 and 1979 resolutions.

Considerable domestic turmoil accompanied the birth of the new nation. The first Comorian government took power on 6 July 1975 and was led by Ahmed 'Abdallah. It unilaterally declared independence from France and was overthrown within a month on 3 August 1975 with the aid of foreign white mercenaries. A National Executive Council led by Prince Said Mohammed Jaffar was created. Jaffar was the leader of a group that favored a more conciliatory policy toward Mayotte and France. In January 1976 he was replaced by 'Ali Soilih who led a military coup that toppled Jaffar a year earlier. In 1977 Soilih's government changed the French names of the four islands (Grande-Comore, Mohéli, Mayotte, and Anjouan) to Ngazidja, Mwali, Mahore, and Nzwani. Four unsuccessful coup attempts were launched during Soilih's rule. However, on 13 May 1978, Soilih was overthrown and killed by mercenaries led by Bob Denard, whose previous exploits in Zaire and elsewhere made him infamous throughout Africa. Denard reinstalled the nation's first president, Ahmad 'Abdallah, who had been living in exile in Paris. Denard remained the true power behind 'Abdallah. Their government was close to right-wing elements in France and to South Africa, where the Comoros served as a conduit for supplies to the Renamo rebels in Mozambique. Soon after the coup, France agreed to restore economic and military aid, which had been suspended during the Soilih regime. Most African countries were, however, unhappy with the role of mercenaries in toppling the Soilih government and the Comoros were expelled from the OAU (Organization of African Unity).

In September 1978, Denard and his mercenaries were asked to leave the Comoros due to the international stigma their presence caused the osland nation. This was a façade, as Denard remained the true power on the islands; however, the ruse did succeed in getting the Comoros back into the OAU. A new constitution was approved on 1 October 1978 by 99.31% of the voters. The new constitution created a Federal Islamic Republic in which each island was granted increased autonomy. On 22 October, 'Abdallah, the only candidate, was elected president with a reported 99.94% of the valid votes.

Chronic economic problems were worsened in January 1983 by tropical cyclone Elena, the worst in 30 years. The damage was estimated at Co Fr200 million; up to 80% of the crop was damaged.

'Abdallah was reelected unopposed with 99.4% of the vote in September 1984. There were coup attempts in 1985 and 1987. Elections to the Federal Assembly were held in March 1987. By 1989, however, resentment for the overbearing influence of Denard and his men grew. Even 'Abdallah grew disenchanted and, with the backing of France and South Africa, he moved to displace Denard's mercenaries. Before this could be implemented, however, on 26 November 1989 a member of the Presidential Guard (many suspect Denard) assassinated 'Abdallah. This unit included European mercenaries and was under the command of Denard.

Said Mohamed Djohar, head of the Supreme Court, was appointed interim president pending a presidential election. With the help of Paris and Pretoria, on 15 December 1989, he forced Denard to relinquish power in exchange for safe passage to South Africa.

In January 1990, demonstrators protested the postponement of the presidential election that was scheduled for February. A French peacekeeping force enabled the government to lift political restrictions and conduct the presidential election as originally scheduled. The election was held on 18 February, but it was abandoned following allegations of fraud. On 4 March, fresh elections were held in which no single candidate for the president received a majority of the votes. In a run-off election held one week later, Djohar won with 55% of the vote to the UNDC's (Union Nationale pour la Democratie aux Comores) Mohammed Taki Abdulkarim's 44%. In March, Djohar appointed a government that included two of his opponents in the previous presidential election. Prince Said Ali Kemal, a lawyer and grandson of the last Sultan of Comoros was one of the former presidential hopefuls who was made part of the coalition government. Djohar's coalition government survived three coup attempts and several ministerial defections. One coup attempt was launched on August 1990, by army rebels with help from European mercenaries. Another coup was attempted a year later and involved the president of the Supreme Court Ibrahim Ahmed Halidi, who announced that he was dismissing President Djohar and assuming the role of president. The bloodless coup received support from opposition parties who saw Djohar as corrupt and viewed the presidency itself as being vested with too much power. The coup was thwarted, however, and Djohar responded by ordering the arrest of several supreme court members, including Halidi, and imposing a month-long state of emergency. Djohar pledged to seek constitutional reforms and reshuffled his cabinet, bringing in disgruntled opposition members.

In January 1992, amid continued unrest, a new transitional government of national union was installed, as constitutional reforms were debated and prepared for referendum. A new constitution was voted on in June and was passed overwhelmingly. However, allegations of corruption against Djohar's son-in-law, Mohamed M'Changama, Minister of Finance, plagued the regime. Amid heightened political unrest and a deteriorating economic situation, elections for the Federal Assembly produced a badly divided polity (the largest party had 7 of the 42 seats) and no consensus with the president on his choice of ministers could be reached. On 18 June 1992, Djohar dissolved the National Assembly, and legislative elections were held in December 1993 after long delays.

Supporters of Djohar won 24 of the 42 seats in the Assembly, but members of the opposition rejected Djohar's appointment of Mohamed Abdou Madi as prime minister and the choice of Djohar's son-in-law as president of the Assembly. Demonstrations against Djohar's authoritarian posture became frequent. A public sector strike began in April 1994 and grew quite acrimonious, and lasted until January 1995. Civil order continued to deteriorate as 1995 provincial elections were repeatedly postponed and as government after government collapsed. Djohar, however, remained in power, and his son and son-in-law held various ministerial posts.

By September 1995 conditions had deteriorated badly, and Bob Denard, from exile, staged a coup that resulted in the arrest of President Djohar. Denard appointed a close associate, Capt. Ayouba Combo, as the leader of a provisional government called the Transitional Military Committee. The Transitional Military Committee released political prisoners and in October transferred authority to two civilians, Mohammed Taki and Said Ali Kemal. Although France was no friend of Djohar, it was less enthusiastic about Denard's action and landed 1,000 troops to oust the coup leaders. In presidential elections held on 6 March 1996 and a runoff on 16 March, Mohammed Taki Abdulkarim won with 64% of the vote. Legislative elections on 1 and 8 December of that year resulted in an Assembly situated as follows: National Rally for Democracy, 36; National Front for Justice, 3; independents, 4.

In July 1997, security forces killed two people after separatists on Nzwani raised the French flag, blocked roads, and engaged in demonstrations demanding a return of French rule. Unrest quickly spread throughout Nzwani and Mwali. On 3 August 1997, separatists on the island of Anjouan (Nzwani) declared independence from the central government and were soon joined by the island of Mwali. In early September 1997, President Taki dispatched the army in an unsuccessful attempt to reunify the islands. Hoping to find a peaceful solution to the situation, the OAU intervened in favor of a negotiated settlement. In October, despite the objections of the Taki's government, a referendum was held on Nzwani in which 99% of those voting supported independence. France, for its part, rejected demands by the islands to reestablish its sovereignty.

In November 1998, President Mohammed Taki died shortly after returning from a trip to Turkey and Spain. Interim president Ben Said Massounde took power in Ngazidja (Grande Comore). A month later, a reported assassination attempt on Nzwani (Anjouan) island leader Foundi Abdullah Ibrahim led to heavy fighting in the island. At least 60 people were reported killed. The assassination attempt and fighting was thought to have been instigated by Chamasse Said Omar, a political opponent of Ibrahim who was upset that the Nzwani leader wanted to negotiate a new relationship with the government of Ngazidja.

On 30 April 1999, interim president Massounde was toppled in a bloodless coup, and was replaced by Col. Azali Assoumani on 6 May 1999. The coup was triggered by unresolved issues in the negotiations with the separatist islands that would have given them greater autonomy within a political union of the three islands. The autonomy proposal, which caused widespread resentment on Ngazidja, erupted in rioting in which residents from the other islands were targeted and blamed for the harsh economic conditions on the main island. As the secession stalemate continued, the government announced on 21 March 2000 that it had foiled the country's 19th coup attempt since independence while Assoumani was in Saudi Arabia. Among the suspected plotters were two sons of the assassinated first President Ahmed 'Abdallah.

Assoumani pledged to resolve the secessionist crisis through a confederal arrangement named the 2000 Fomboni Accord. In December 2001, voters approved a new constitution, and Assoumani resigned his post on 16 January 2002 to run for president in the 14 April 2002 elections. In a poll boycotted by the other two candidates, he was elected with 75% of the vote and was sworn in 26 May 2002. In the interregnum, his prime minister, Jamada Madi Bolero, was appointed interim president and Djaffar Salim the interim deputy prime minister.

Following the election, the confederal arrangement went into effect, and the three islands of Moheli, Anjouan, and Grande Comore assumed authority over most of their own affairs. However, power struggles continued over the authority of certain ministries, and in February 2003 the central government arrested a dozen soldiers and two local ministers in connection with an alleged coup attempt. The accused were said to be linked closely to the island government of Grande Comore. In April, traders organized a strike on Grande Comore to protest double taxation by the island and union governments.

President Assoumani's woes continued to mount in 2004 as the three island presidents and their supporters joined forces against the president's Convention pour le renouveau des Comores (CRC) party in the legislative elections. The results of this poll showed that the CRC had only a weak following, winning just 11 of 55 seats in the island parliaments, and 6 of the 18 seats up for reelection in the federal assembly. Col. Assoumani attempted to regain his posture by naming all members of his cabinet from the loyal ranks of his CRC party. In 2005, the country was wracked by demonstrations over a 40% increase in gasoline prices. At least one person was killed and 15 injured in the protests.

As 2006 unfolded, Comoros was scheduled to hold fresh elections for the Union presidency in April, which was due to move to Anjouan according to the rules in the 2000 Fomboni Accord. Nevertheless, widespread doubts that Assoumani actually would hand over power as required raised the specter of civil unrest and violence throughout the islands. Indeed, there was speculation that Assoumani might provoke incidents so as to destabilize Anjouan giving him a pretext to delay handing over power. One additional complication was that some Assoumani supporters claimed that the president's term began not in 2002 when he became Union president, but rather in 2004 after the transition to the federal system had been completed.

The National Assembly passed electoral legislation in September 2005 placing administration of the elections under the control of the Constitutional Court, which had been quite independent in other matters. Further, some 200,000 Comorians living abroad were given the right to vote in diplomatic missions abroad. Finally, South Africa, which has a stake in Comoros' stability, sent a delegation to the islands to assess elections preparedness for the AU's Peace and Security Committee.

On another front, a French court was planning to try Bob Denard and 26 others for their coup attempt in the islands in 1995. If convicted, they face up to ten years in prison.

GOVERNMENT

Immediately prior to independence, the Comoros had partial autonomy and were governed by a 31-member Council of Ministers responsible to a Chamber of Deputies. The territory was represented in the French parliament by one senator and by two delegates to the National Assembly. A high commissioner represented the French president. After independence was declared, the Chamber of Deputies was reconstituted as a National Assembly. After the August 1975 coup, the National Assembly was abolished; supreme power was subsequently vested in the National Council of the Institutions, headed by President 'Ali Soilih.

The constitution of 1978, the first for the Comoros, established a Federal Islamic republic. Under this document, as amended in 1982, the president was elected to a six-year term, and there was an elected federal assembly of 42 members. Following the secession and subsequent breakup of the republic in 1997, the islands created a union consisting of semiautonomous islands led by their own presidents in addition to the president of the federal government, who retains control over defense, economic policy, and foreign affairs. The three island presidents are also vice presidents of the union. A new constitution was adopted in June 1992, and again in December 2001. It came into full operation following the election of the Union parliament in 2004.

Under the new constitution, the federal presidency rotates every four years among the elected presidents from the three main islands in the Union. Of the 33-member unicameral Assembly, 15 Assembly deputies are selected by the individual islands' local assemblies and the 18 by universal suffrage. Deputies serve for five years. The next presidential elections were scheduled for April 2006, and legislative elections for 2009.

POLITICAL PARTIES

In February 1982, the Comorian Union for Progress (Union Comorienne pour le Progrès—UCP) was established as the only legal party; in March; UCP members won 37 of 38 seats in the National Assembly in contested elections that also involved independents. In March 1987, UCP candidates won all 42 seats. Despite earlier assurances of a free ballot, few opposition candidates were allowed to run, and dissidents were subject to intimidation and imprisonment.

The UCP (known as Udzima) had been President Djohar's party until November 1991. But it had no seats in the Assembly. On 10 September 1993, it merged with the Union for Democracy and Decentralization (UNDC), the largest party in the Assembly with just seven seats. Before the dissolution of the Assembly in June 1993, the Islands' Fraternity and Unity Party (CHUMA) had three seats, and the MDP/NGDC had five seats. No other party had more than two seats. Djohar hastily created his own party, the RDR, to contest the December 1993 elections. After 1993, the party distribution in the Assembly was RDR and its coalition partners, 24 seats, and the UNDC and its allies, 18 seats.

A coup in September 1995 overthrew the Djohar government. A transitional government was set up after French military intervention removed the coup-plotters, and new elections were held in December 1996, resulting in a National Assembly situated as follows: National Rally for Development, 36; National Front for Justice, 3; independents, 4. In the April 2004 elections, the president's CRC party suffered a major defeat, winning only 6 of 18 seats up for election in the Union Assembly, and just 11 of 55 seats in the island parliaments. There were some 20 parties on the scene including Forces pour l'Action Républicaine (FAR) led by Col. Abdourazak Abdulhamid, and the Forum pour la Redressement National (FRN), an alliance of 12 parties.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Under the federal system, each of the main islands has its own president and elected legislature. The governors, formerly elected, were appointed by the president after the constitution was amended in 1982. There are also four municipalities: Domoni, Fomboni, Moroni, and Mutsamudu.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The legal system incorporates French and Islamic law in a new consolidated code. Most disputes are settled by village elders or by a court of first instance. The High Council as the High Court of Justice (Cour Suprème) resolves constitutional questions, supervises presidential elections, and arbitrates any case in which the government is accused of malpractice. The High Council also reviews decisions of the lower courts, including the superior court of appeals at Moroni. The High Council consists of two members appointed by the president, two members elected by the Federal Assembly, and one elected by the Council of each island; others are former presidents of the republic. Lower courts of the first instance are located in major towns. Religious courts on the islands apply Muslim law in matters relating to social and personal relationships.

The judiciary is largely independent of the executive and legislative branches. The 1996 constitution provides a number of safeguards including equality of all citizens before the law. However, it does not mention right to counsel.

The island of Mayotte (Mohere) has been administered by France ever since the Comoros unilaterally declared independence in July 1975. The Comoros claims Mayotte and officially represents it in international organizations, including the United Nations. The constitution of Mayotte states that the island is to be ruled by a prefect assisted by a secretary-heneral and a General Council of 19 members.

ARMED FORCES

The armed forces consist of a police force numbering 500 and a defense force of 500 members. France provides a small military presence, military training, and naval protection. Defense spending in 2001 was $6 million, or 3% of GDP.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

On 12 November 1975, the Comoros became a member of the United Nations. The nation participates in the ECA, FAO, World Bank, IDA, IFAD, ILO, IMF, ITU, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, and WMO. It is also part of the African Development Bank, the ACP Group, G-77, the Arab League, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and the Arab Monetary Fund. Comoros is a member of the Indian Ocean Commission, the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), and COMESA. The nation is part of the Franc Zone. Comoros is part of the Nonaligned Movement. In environmental cooperation, Comoros is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

The economy of the Comoros is agriculture-based, and dependent on trade and foreign assistance. Foreign aid accounts for about half of GDP. Mineral resources are few; there is little industry. Tourism increased considerably in the 1990s as a result of promotion by South African interests, but subsequent political upheaval offended potential visitors. Agriculture accounts for 40% of GDP, and employs 80% of the population. Cassava, sweet potatoes, rice, and bananas are the staple crops along with yams, coconuts, and maize. Meat, rice, and vegetables are leading imports. Comoros is the world's second-largest producer of vanilla, with one-third of exports going to France, and the world's leading producer of ylang-ylang, a perfume oil. Cloves and copra are also exported. Land access is a problem, as is overpopulation. The fishing industry has potential but is still largely undeveloped.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Comoros's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $441.0 million. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $600. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 3%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 3%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 40% of GDP, industry 4%, and services 56%.

It was estimated that in 2002 about 60% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The majority (about 80%) of the economically active population was engaged in subsistence agriculture, fishing, or local commerce, in 2002 (the latest year for which data was available). The labor force was estimated at 144,500 in 1996 (the latest year for which data was available), with the unemployment rate that year amounting to an estimated 20%.

The constitution provides the right for workers to create and join unions and the right to strike. However, this affected only a small percentage of the population. The wage-earning labor force consists of less than 7,000 individuals, of which about 5,000 were government employees. The minimum age for employment is 15 years, but children generally work with their families in the large subsistence farming and fishing sectors, or as domestic servants. The government has few resources to enforce this minimum age restriction. There is no minimum wage, and payment to workers is irregular. There are no occupational health and safety standards for the country's tiny manufacturing base. A 37.5 hour workweek is specified by law, with one day off every week and and one month paid vacation annually.

AGRICULTURE

The economy of the Comoros is primarily agricultural, with arable land comprising 45% of the total land area. Among the chief crops in 2004, in tons, were manioc, 58,000; coconuts, 77,000; bananas, 65,000; sweet potatoes, 5,500; rice, 17,000; corn, 4,000; and cloves, 3,000. Other crops include sugarcane, sisal, peppers, spices, coffee, and various perfume plants such as ylang-ylang, abelmosk, lemon grass, jasmine, and citronella. The chief export crops are vanilla, cloves, ylang-ylang, and copra. The Comoros, including Mayotte, account for about 80% of world production of ylang-ylang essence, which is used in some perfumes. Marketed exports in 2004 included 44 tons of dried vanilla, valued at nearly $18.8 million, or 47% of agricultural exports.

Food demand is not met by domestic production, so Comoros is highly dependent on imported foods, especially rice. Over half of all foodstuffs are imported, and about 50% of the government's annual budget is spent on importing food. Agricultural productivity is extremely low, and cultivation methods are rudimentary. Fertilizer is seldom used by smallholders. About 20% of the cultivated land belongs to company estates; 20% to indigenous land-owners who live in towns and pay laborers to cultivate their holdings; and 60% to village reserves allotted according to customary law. Agriculture contributed about 51% to GDP in 2002.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Small amounts of livestock are raised. In 2004 there were an estimated 115,000 goats, 45,000 head of cattle, 21,000 sheep, and 5,000 asses. An estimated 1,100 tons of beef and 1,000 tons of other meat were produced in 2004, along with 4,550 tons of milk and 776 tons of eggs.

FISHING

The fish catch in the Comoros amounted to about 14,115 tons in 2003, 60% of which was tuna. A Japanese-funded fisheries training center was opened on Anjouan in 1985.

FORESTRY

Forested areas amounted to about 8,000 hectares (20,000 acres) in 2000. Numerous fruit trees and tropical hardwoods are found. Some timber is produced, notably on the island of Grande Comore, which has about half the remaining forest. Roundwood production in 2003 amounted to 9,000 cu m (300,000 cu ft).

MINING

There were no commercially exploitable mineral resources in the Comoros. Small quantities of clay, sand, gravel, and crushed stone were produced for domestic consumption, and the former French colony was dependent on imports to meet all its energy and cement needs. Promotion of a new construction technique using lava and volcanic ash was expected to reduce cement imports and coral mining. In 2002, imports of cement totaled 29,985 tons, down from 40,000 tons in 2001. Political instability in recent years has continued to hurt the economy, and the outlook on minerals output was not expected to change significantly.

ENERGY AND POWER

In 2004, Comoros had no known reserves or production of petroleum, having had to import whatever it consumed. Petroleum imports and consumption for that year each stood at 1,000 barrels per day. As of 1 January 2005, Comoros had no proven reserves of

natural gas, and for 2003 it had no natural gas output or consumption. With no proven coal reserves, there was no consumption or output of coal in 2003. Electricity is the main source of power As of 1 January 2003, Comoros had an installed electrical generation capacity of 0.005 GW. In 2003, the consumption and generation of electricity each totaled 0.02 billion kWh. Of the power produced in 2002, 0.004 million kW was from thermal sources and 20% came from hydroelectric sources.

INDUSTRY

There are various small-scale industries, mostly for processing the islands' agricultural products. Aside from perfume distilleries (perfume is one of the country's main exports), the Comoros has sawmills, a soap factory, a printing plant, a small plastics factory, a soft-drink plant, and metalworking shops. Industry accounted for a mere 4% of GDP in 2001.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

There are no research institutes or institutions of higher learning in the Comoros.

DOMESTIC TRADE

As of 2006, nearly 80% of the population was employed in agriculture, primarily subsistence farming. However, most of the farmland is owned by foreign investors and the majority of the nation's food products are imported. An underdeveloped transportation system limits domestic trade. A small industrial sector is focused on processing ylang-ylang and vanilla, which are produced primarily for export. The government is attempting to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises. Business hours are 7:30 am to 2:30 pm Monday–Thursday, 7:30 to 11:30 am Friday, and 7:30 am to noon on Saturday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Ylang-ylang essence, vanilla, cloves, copra, and other agricultural commodities make up the bulk of Comorian exports; of these, vanilla is by far the most important export earner. Imports include rice and other foodstuffs, petroleum products, and motor vehicles. Exports brought in $34 million in 2004, while Comoros imported $115 million worth of goods. France is the country's most important trade partner. In percentage terms, in 2004 Comoros's primary export partners were: the United States (43.8%), France (18.6%), Singapore (16.5%), Turkey (4.8%), and Germany (4.5%). The primary import partners that year were: France (23.5%), South Africa (11%), Kenya (7.5%), the UAE (7.2%), Italy (4.9%), Pakistan (4.7%), Mauritius (4.2%), and Singapore (4.1%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

In general, the chronic deficit on current accounts is counterbalanced by foreign aid, especially from France. By 2002, Comoros was in debt by $225 million. In 2004, the value of Comoros's exports was $34 million, and imports were valued at $115 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of the Comoros was established in 1981. The Banque Pour l' Industrie et le Commerce, is the main commercial bank; the French Commercial Bank is also represented. The

Banque de Développement des Comores is half state owned. The Banque Nationale de Paris Intercontinentale is the only international financial institution.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $41.7 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $57.2 million.

There are no securities exchanges.

INSURANCE

Société Comorienne d'Assurances is based in Moroni. The Paris-based Préservatrice Foncière d'Assurances has an agent in Moroni.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The Comoros government and the IMF agreed in 1990 to a structural adjustment program covering 1991 to 1993. The program provided $135 million and proposed a plan whereby the government diversified its exports, reduced public expenditures, and privatized its parastatal sector. Furthermore, the plan called for the abolishment of levies on export crops, privatization of the state-owned hotels, liquidation of the state-owned meat marketing company, initiation of a number of environmental projects, and the reduction of the number of civil servants. This last measure prompted civil disorder and economic disruptions. Concerned over the progress of reforms in 1993, the IMF and the government reassessed the program. Measures were adopted which persuaded the IMF to continue its support of the program. A military coup in 1999 halted most restructuring programs.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2001 Comoros's central government took in revenues of approximately $27.6 million; information on expenditures was not available. Total external debt was $232 million.

TAXATION

Tax collection, formerly the role of the island governors, became a federal responsibility under the 1982 constitutional revision.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Import and export licenses are required but often limited to a few firms. Since 1992, the government has reorganized the customs office, computerized customs, and introduced taxes on petroleum products and rice.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Private foreign investment in the Comoros has been minimal since independence. The Comoros economy is supported by foreign aid and assistance, primarily from France but to a lesser extent from Japan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates. A French company took over Comoros' electrical utility company in 1997. A Swiss concern owns and operates the country's two main hotels. Officially, the Comoros welcomes foreign investment and is prepared to offer a package of incentives.

In 1998, FDI inflow was $3.2 million. Inflows of only $300,000 and $900,000 were reported for 1999 and 2000, respectively, but there was an increase to $1.5 million in 2001. By 2003, the total stock of inward FDI amounted to $23 million. In 2003, inward flow of FDI totaled approximately $1 million.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Development projects in the late 1980s and early 1990s focused on the agricultural sector, hydroelectric development, fishing, and start-up investment funds for small and intermediate enterprises. In addition, the European Development Funds provided resources for the redevelopment of the port at Moroni. International Monetary Fund (IMF) plans during the 1990s focused on agriculture diversification. The country has an unemployment level estimated at 20% and one of the highest illiteracy rates in the world. The government has many aims: to develop education and technical training, to improve health services, to reduce the high population growth rate, to privatize state-owned enterprises, to promote tourism, and to diversify exports. Political instability has led to disruptions in government services, as has the general lack of revenue. As of 2006, increased foreign assistance was needed if the goal of 4% annual GDP growth was to be met. Remittances from 150,000 Comorans abroad help supplement the GDP.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Women occupy a subservient position in this extremely traditional society but retain some strength from the matrilineal social structure. Although women do not have the same legal protection as men, traditional custom grants women favorable inheritance and property rights. There are few women in management positions in the private sector or in government. Violence against women occurs, but is not a widespread problem. As of 2004, the government did not take any action to protect women against domestic violence. Some poor families are forced to send children to live in other households, where they work as domestic servants, often at ages as young as seven years old. Priority in education is given to boys.

Prisons are overcrowded and lack proper sanitation but have been visited by international monitors. Societal discrimination against Christians persists. Human right abuses and political violence have been reported.

HEALTH

In 2004, there were 7 physicians, 34 nurses, 14 midwives, and 14 dentists per 100,000 people. The average life expectancy was 61.96 years in 2005. The infant mortality rate for that year was estimated at 74.93 deaths per 1,000 live births. The maternal mortality rate was 950 per 100,000 live births.

Lack of animal protein is a serious problem. In addition, a large percentage of the adult population suffers from malaria and there is a high incidence of tuberculosis and leprosy. The immunization rates were the following in the mid-1990s: tuberculosis, 95%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 60%; polio, 60%; and measles, 60%.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.12 per 100 adults in 2003.

HOUSING

At last estimate, approximately 65% of all housing units were straw huts with roofs of cocoa leaves, and about 25% were made of durable materials including stone, brick, or concrete. Of all housing units, nearly 90% were owned, 3% rented, and 3% occupied rent free. In 2000, about 98% of the population had access to improved sanitation systems and safe water.

EDUCATION

Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 16 years. Primary education lasts for six years followed by seven years of secondary education, four years in the first stage followed by three years in the second stage.

Primary school enrollment in 2001 was estimated at about 89.6% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 28% of age-eligible students. In 2003, was estimated that about 58% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 37:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 11:1.

There are two technical schools and a teacher-training college near Moroni. In 2001, there were about 700 students enrolled in some type of higher education programs. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 56.2%, with 63.5% for men and 49.1% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 3.9% of GDP, or 24% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

At the time of independence there were two public libraries and three school libraries, with a total of 13,400 volumes. There is a National Center of Documentation and Scientific Research in Moroni as well as a National Museum of Comoros.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were 13,200 mainline telephones in use throughout the country, along with an additional 2,000 mobile phones.

Radio-Comoros, a government agency, provides services on shortwave and FM in Comorian, French, English, Arabic, Malagasy, and Swahili. In 2001, radio stations included one AM and four FM. A national television station was started in 2001 with assistance from China. RFO Mayotte, run by French public radio and TV, is received by some. There are also a number of local radio and television stations.

The primary weekly newspaper Al Watwany is published by the government; the weekly L'Archipel is published independently. There are several smaller privately held papers that are published fairly regularly, including L'Archipel (a monthly). A new constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press and it is believed that the government generally respects these rights.

ORGANIZATIONS

There is a Chamber of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture at Moroni. Youth organizations are developed in part through the national Union of Youth and Students of the Comoros (Union Jeunesse et des Etudiants des Comores: UJEC), founded in 1975. Scouting organizations are also active for youth. There are some sports organizations. There are national chapters of the Red Crescent Society, Caritas, and UNICEF.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

The tourism industry was undeveloped at independence and has stagnated since 1983. There were 188 hotel rooms in 2002 with a total of 376 beds, and an occupancy rate of 19%. Tourist arrivals numbered 18,936 and tourist receipts totaled $11 million. Vaccination for yellow fever is recommended as well as antimalarial precautions. A passport, visa, and return/onward ticket are required. Water sports are the primary recreational activities.

FAMOUS COMORIANS

Heads of state since independence include 'Ali Soilih (1937–78), who came to power as a result of the 1975 coup and who died after the 1978 takeover; and Ahmad 'Abdallah (1919–89), president briefly in 1975 and restored to power in 1978. Mercenary Bob Denard (b.France, 1929) virtually ruled the country through figurehead presidents between 1978 and 1989, when France negotiated his departure after the assassination of 'Abdallah. Col. Assoumani Azali (b.1959?) took power in a coup in 1999, assuming the titles of president, prime minister, and defense minister.

DEPENDENCIES

The Comoros has no territories or dependencies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Durbin, Joanna. Madagascar and Comoros. London, Eng.: Lonely Planet, 2004.

Ottenheimer, Martin and Harriet Ottenheimer. Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994.

——. Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands. [computer file] Boulder, Colo.: netLibrary, Inc., 2000.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

COMOROS

Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros
République Fédérale Islamique des Comores
Jumhuriyat al-Qumur al-Ittihadiyah
al-Islamiyah

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

LOCATION AND SIZE.

Comoros is comprised of 3 islands that are part of a 4-island archipelago in the Mozambique Channel. The fourth island, Mayotte, is still a dependency of France. The islands lie between the northern tip of Madagascar and the African mainland. The archipelago, formed by the tips of a volcanic mountain range rising from the Mozambique Channel, stretches over 300 kilometers (186 miles) from north to south. Comoros has a land area of 2,170 square kilometers (838 square miles), making it slightly larger than 12 times the size of Washington, D.C. The main island, Grande Comore (locally known as Ngazidja but also called Njazidja), is geologically the youngest. It measures 60 kilometers (37 miles) from north to south and 20 kilometers (12 miles) from east to west. Its most prominent geographical feature is Mount Kartala (2,361 meters/7,746 feet), an active volcano which smokes and bubbles continuously on Grande. The capital, Moroni, is located on Grande Comore. The other 2 smaller islands are Anjouan (Nzwani) and Mohéli (Mwali). Anjouan is the most topographically varied, with steep coastlines and deep valleys. Its highest peak, Mount Ntingui, rises 1,595 meters (5,233 feet). Mohéli, on the other hand, is the smallest, least populated, and least developed island. The total coastline of the islands is 340 kilometers (211 miles).

POPULATION.

The population of Comoros was estimated at 596,000 in July 2001, up from 479,600 in 1994. The nation has a young population; the proportion of older people (65 years of age and above) was estimated at 2.9 percent in 2001, while the 0-14 age group was 43 percent in the same year. Comoros is steadily becoming more urbanized, with the proportion of the population living in towns having increased from 29.9 percent in 1994 to 32.1 percent in 1998. The population consists almost entirely of persons of mixed-race, mostly of African, Malagasy, and Arab descent.

French, Comoran, and Arabic are the official languages. Comoran, the main spoken language, is akin to Swahili but has elements borrowed from Arabic. Other languages spoken include Malagasy and Swahili.

Islam, the state religion, is followed by 98 percent of Comorans. Almost all Comorans are Sunni Muslims. There are small numbers of Christians, mostly Roman Catholics of French Malagasy descent.

OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY

The economy of Comoros is limited by low incomes, high unemployment, an inadequate transport system, the nation's isolated location, the absence of any mineral resources, and a heavy dependence on foreign aid. Most of the population relies on small-scale family agriculture for their livelihoods. The industrial sector is very small and relies mostly on construction and electricity and water distribution. The industrial sector also is supplemented by some processing of ylang ylang (a flower used to make perfume) and vanilla. The services sector comprises mostly government employees, with some employment in the tourism sector.

Comoros has suffered continuous political instability since independence in 1975, which has impeded economic progress. Local and foreign businesses are unwilling to invest in the current volatile (unstable) political and business climate. Falling world prices and increased competition in the international market for the principal export commodities of Comoros have contributed to economic decline. Emphasis is currently on containing public sector wage costs to reduce domestic inflation and speeding-up privatization of state-owned enterprises.

The per capita gross national product (GNP) of Comoros was estimated at $370 in 1998 by the exchange rate conversion. Per capita GNP declined in real terms from 1990 to 1997 at an average annual rate of-3.1 percent. Output grew at an almost negligible rate of 0.1 percent per year in the last half of the 1990s, much less than the population growth rate, which was estimated at 3 percent in 2001.

POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION

The 3 islands that form the present state of Comoros were French protectorates at the end of the 19th century and were proclaimed colonies in 1912. Following a referendum in December 1974, the Comoran Chamber of Deputies unilaterally declared the islands' independence on 6 July 1975. Mayotte, the fourth island in the group, opted to remain a French dependency.

Since 1975 there has been continuous political instability characterized by coups and undemocratic regimes. Recent years have been marked by internal political disruptions, and the islands of Anjouan and Mohéli have attempted to secede.

The constitution of 1 October 1978 was amended in 1983, approved in a referendum, and Comoros became a Federal Islamic Republic. Mayotte was permitted the right to join when it so chose. A new constitution was adopted on 20 October 1996. The constitution stipulates that each of the islands has a council and a governor who is appointed by the president. The president is elected by direct universal suffrage for an unlimited number of 5-year terms.

The president appoints the prime minister, who heads the Council of Ministers. There is a bicameral legislative branch, consisting of a 43-member Federal Assembly, the members of which are directly elected for 5-year terms, and a 15-member Senate, made up of 5 members from each island who are selected by regional councils.

Colonel Azali Assoumani staged a bloodless coup on 30 April 1999. He introduced a new constitutional charter giving himself full legislative and executive powers. The Federal Assembly has not met since the coup. Azali promised that he would serve for 1 year at the time he came to power, but the elections promised for spring 2000 were not held. Assoumani has pledged that elections will take place before the end of 2001, and it is expected that this will herald a reopening of the Federal Assembly.

Comoros had a 1,500-man national army in 1997, the Force Comorienne de Defense (FCD), which was supported by a French military contingent. The size of the armed forces has not changed since the coup. The role of the French has been to exert pressure for a return to democratic rule.

The main political forces are continually fragmenting and reforming, and alliances are based mainly on opportunism. The party of government prior to the 1999 coup was the National Union for Democracy in Comoros (NUDC). Other parties are the Republican Party of Comoros (PRC), the Democratic Front (DF), and the Movement for Socialism and Democracy (MSD). These parties are now dormant. They are expected to come to life only when the military government sanctions campaigning for the elections expected in late 2001.

Previously the island governors undertook tax collection, but it became a federal responsibility under a 1983 constitutional revision. Wage and salary earners were taxed at a maximum rate of 15 percent in 1987; however, only government employees appear to pay tax, and there has been no attempt at income tax reform in subsequent years. Tax rates have ranged from 17 percent on consumer goods to 60 percent on building materials and cars to 200 percent on luxury goods. Import and export licenses are required but are usually limited to a few favored firms. Tax revenue as a share of expenditure increased from 33 percent in 1994 to 54 percent in 1998, implying an improved ability to meet public sector expenses without relying on aid from overseas. The total tax revenue share of the gross domestic product (GDP) also increased from 13 percent in 1994 to 15 percent in 1998.

The overall budget deficit in 1998 was estimated at US$8.4 million, equivalent to 4 percent of the GDP. The nation's external debt at the end of 1997 totaled US$197.4 million, and the cost of debt servicing was about 10 percent of the value of exports in 1998, or slightly below the 15 percent average for African nations. The relatively low debt-servicing ratio means that Comoros has a greater availability of foreign exchange with which to purchase imports.

Comoros is a member of several international organizations. These include the Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), which is dedicated to regional cooperation; the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), which aims at reducing barriers to trade and the movements of labor and capital; and the Franc Zone, which pegs the currency to the French franc.

INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS

Comoros has poorly developed infrastructure . The transport system is particularly limited. In 1996, it was estimated that there was a total of 880 kilometers (547 miles) of highways, 673 kilometers (418 miles) of which were paved. There are no railways. Prince Said Ibrahim Airport is the international air terminus near Moroni. In 1996, it handled 92,000 passengers.

There were 75,000 telephone main lines in 1997 and 100 fax machines in 1995. There were 36 post offices in 1993. Comoros does not have any local newspapers; the few that are read are circulated from Madagascar. The U.S. State Department noted that there were about 5 independent local television stations in 1998. The CIA World Factbook estimated that the country only had 1,000 televisions in 1997. There were 90,000 radios in the country by 1997, with 1 government-run station, Radio Comoros; an opposition station, Tropique; and about 20 other regional stations. The government introduced Internet service in 1998 and there were 800 Internet users by 2000.

In 1981, Comoros had 236 primary schools, 1 teacher training college, and 2 technical schools. In 1998, there were no universities, and the public schools on Grand Comore were closed for most of the year because of civil unrest.

Work began in 1985 on a 4,500-kilowatt hydroelectric dam on Anjouan. In 1998, 15 million kilowatt hours (kWh) were generated. Fossil fuels currently generate 87 percent of electricity, with the remaining 13 percent provided by hydroelectricity.

ECONOMIC SECTORS

Agriculture (including hunting, forestry, and fishing) contributed 40 percent of the GDP in 2000. About 74 percent of the workforce are employed in this sector. Agriculture accounts for more than 98 percent of total exports. The principal cash crops are vanilla, ylang ylang, cloves, and copra (dried coconut flesh).

Industry (including manufacturing, construction, and power) contributed 4 percent of the GDP in 2000. The industrial sector employs 6 percent of the workforce. The manufacturing sub-sector is the largest contributor to the industrial share of the GDP. Manufacturing in Comoros is primarily comprised of agro-processing industries, with vanilla and essential oils as their main products. Energy is derived from woodfuel (78 percent) and thermal installations.

The service sector contributed 56 percent of the GDP in 2000 and employs approximately 20 percent of the workforce. Despite political instability, there has been some growth in tourism leading to expansion in retailing, catering, and hotel activities.

AGRICULTURE

The chief agricultural export product used to be sugar, but now vanilla, copra, maize, cloves, and essential oils (citronella, ylang-ylang, and lemon grass) have gained increasing importance. Crops that are mainly for domestic consumption include cassava, taro (a tropical root crop), rice, maize pulses, coconuts, and bananas. Almost all agricultural production takes place on small family farms, with tilling, weeding, and harvesting undertaken by hand. The success of the harvests heavily relies on rainfall, which is generally adequate and regular. From 1990 to 1996, the real GDP of the agricultural sector declined at an average annual rate of-0.7 percent, mainly as a result of political instability that discouraged investment and poor progress with economic reforms.

In 1995, 9,000 hectares (22,240 acres) of Comoros was forestland, or about 4 percent of the total land area. The shortage of cultivable land, the pressure to increase ylang-ylang production, and the demand for woodfuel are all contributing to deforestation at a rate of 6 percent a year. At present the government has no policies to combat deforestation.

Fishing is small-scale and is accomplished without modern equipment. The catch was estimated at 13,200 metric tons in 1995.

INDUSTRY

Industry comprises mostly construction and the provision of electricity but also includes the processing of spices and extraction of perfume from flowers. The construction sector consists of private sector enterprises and is very reliant on conditions elsewhere in the economy. Spurts in tourist activity, for example, lead to increased hotel and dwelling construction. International construction companies undertake most large construction projects (such as highways, ports, and modern hotels). The amount of agricultural processing has not expanded in recent years, mainly because low prices offer little incentive to growers to invest in new planting and increase output.

Owing mainly to a sharp rise in construction activity, industrial GDP increased at an average annual rate of 5.7 percent from 1990 to 1996. Industry's contribution to the GDP has subsequently contracted, providing 4 percent of GDP in 2000, down from 6.0 percent in 1994.

SERVICES

Service is now the largest sector of the economy in terms of output, contributing an average of 48 percent of the GDP from 1994 to 1998 and 56 percent by 2000. However, only 20 percent of the workforce is employed in services. The service sector generates the highest incomes in Comoros, and earnings are particularly high in government service and tourism.

The tourism industry was undeveloped at independence and still has made only modest progress towards its potential. The major hindrance has been the lack of political stability, which clearly has discouraged visitors. Fortunately, the regular unconstitutional changes of government have not resulted in any serious problems for tourists who have visited the islands. The bigger issue is that foreign investment in hotels and resorts has been discouraged. Nevertheless, a number of development projects have been completed, and there has been some recent rise in tourism receipts. In 1996, there were 23,775 tourist arrivals by Air Comoros and receipts totaled $9.1 million.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Comoros has had persistant trade deficits , which are covered by foreign aid, most of which comes from France. Merchandise export earnings in 1999 were $11 million. (The World Factbook estimated that exports reached US$7.9 million that same year.) The bulk of the exports were ylang-ylang essence, other essential oils, vanilla, cloves, copra, and other agricultural produce. The most important export earner is vanilla, although there is yearly variation depending on the success of the harvests. Most exports go to France (35 percent) with Germany, the United States, Singapore, and Mauritius also providing important export markets.

Imports include rice and other foodstuffs, petroleum products, consumer manufactures, and motor vehicles. In 1999, imports were valued at $48 million. (The World Factbook estimated that imports reached US$55.1 million that same year.) Most imports come from France with Pakistan, South Africa, Kenya, the United Arab Emirates, and Belgium also supplying significant quantities.

MONEY

Comoros is a member of the Franc Zone, which it joined in 1976. The national currency, the Comoran franc (KMF), is pegged to the French franc and is fully convertible. This arrangement has provided considerable advantages in terms of exchange rate stability and low inflation, but the Franc Zone has also placed restrictions on public sector budget deficits. Some of the stability associated with Franc Zone membership was undermined by a 50 percent currency devaluation that took place in January 1994. Now that France is a member of the European Monetary Union (EMU), the peg to the French franc also implies a peg to the euro.

POVERTY AND WEALTH

With the low price of basic commodities in Comoros taken into account, per capita GDP was estimated at

$1,398 ( purchasing power parity (PPP), 1998 est.). By 2000, the World Factbook estimated that the GDP per capita (PPP) had sunk to US$720. Together with a life expectancy of 60 years, an adult literacy rate of 80 percent, and an enrollment ratio in all levels of education of 39 percent, Comoros was placed by the United Nations (UN) in the group of countries with medium human development. Comoros, however, is close to the bottom of the ranking of those in this group.

There are no figures for the percentage of the population below the dollar-a-day poverty line, which is defined as not having enough income to provide the barest minimum of food, shelter, and clothing. The indicator for children judged underweight at age 5 would suggest that around 30 percent of the population are below the poverty line. Most of those in poverty are members of rural families who must rely on small-scale family farms for their livelihoods. These families are unable to increase their incomes as they are unable to afford investments in mechanization, fertilizers, insecticides, and improved seeds that would boost their output. Even in the main towns, electricity and the piped water supply is erratic. In the rural areas electricity and plumbing are practically nonexistent; lighting is by small paraffin lamps with wicks, and water is obtained from wells. There is some septic tank sewage disposal in the towns, but in the rural areas people rely on pit latrines.

WORKING CONDITIONS

The workforce in 1996 numbered 286,000. About 74 percent of this labor was engaged in agriculture. The unemployment rate was 20 percent in 1996. Comoros has a national labor union, the Union des Travailleurs des Comores (Union of Comoran Workers, UTC), which negotiates to regulate the working conditions. Implementation, however, is very ineffective. There are no official welfare programs, despite the high level of unemployment. Those without employment rely on support from their families or charity, and in the urban areas many try to earn what they can from casual hawking , portering, and scavenging.

COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1841. France begins the process of occupation and colonization of the islands, which were formerly an autonomous sultanate.

1909. The islands are made a dependency of Madagascar (also a French colony).

1940. With France occupied by Germany, Britain assumes administration of the islands.

1946. Comoros is returned to France and granted administrative autonomy as an overseas territory.

1973. France agrees to independence within 5 years.

1974. In a special referendum, all of the islands except for Mayotte (which remains as a dependency of France) vote for independence.

1975. The Chamber of Deputies votes a unilateral declaration of independence and proclaims the Republic of Comoros, with Ahmed Abdallah as president.

1975. President Abdallah is overthrown in a coup led by French mercenary Bob Denard, who installs Ali Soilih, the leader of a 4-party coalition known as the National United Front (NUF).

1975. The National Assembly is dissolved.

1975. Island of Mayotte rejects union with Comoros in 2 referenda.

1975. French estates in Comoros are nationalized , and French officials are repatriated .

1976. Comoros joins the Franc Zone, with its currency fully convertible and pegged at a fixed rate to the French franc.

1978. Soilih is ousted in a coup led by Denard. Former president Ahmed Abdallah is installed as leader of the new government and is endorsed as president by an election. The band of 50 mercenaries, headed by Denard, forms a presidential guard and controls the administration. The mercenary presence infuriates other African nations, and Comoros is expelled from the Organization for African Unity (OAU). A new constitution is drafted and approved by 99 percent of the votes. Diplomatic relations with France are resumed. The newly elected Federal Assembly approves the formation of a one-party state. The mercenaries leave and OAU readmits Comoros.

1984. Abdallah is elected for a second 6-year term.

1989. Abdallah is assassinated. Said Muhammad Djohar is named interim president.

1990. Djohar is elected president.

1995. Djohar is ousted by a coup. An interim government rules until scheduled elections.

1996. The election is won by Taki Abdoulkarim's National Union for Democracy in Comoros (NUDC), and Taki is elected president. In May, Taki dissolves parliament and calls for new elections in October. The NUDC obtain 36 of the 43 seats at stake in the elections, which are boycotted by the opposition.

1997. In August, a secessionist movement headed by Abdallah Ibrahim calls for the independence of Anjouan Island.

1998. In March, over 99 percent of Anjouan citizens vote for independence in a referendum. Mohéli Island declares independence. Troops are sent to restore status quo (the normal order).

1998. President Taki dies amid rumors of a political assassination. An interim government is formed under Tadjidine Ben Said Massoude.

1999. Colonel Azali Assoumani takes power through a coup and imposes military rule.

2001. A new constitution and new national government are established.

FUTURE TRENDS

The future of Comoros is clouded by uncertainty. There is little doubt that the 2 smaller islands, Anjouan and Mohéli, would like to enjoy the prosperity and stability of Mayotte, the fourth main island in the archipelago, which has remained a French dependency. Mayotte is administered by France, and the island sends deputies to the French National Assembly. Mayotte's population benefits from social security and general development support from France, which has substantially improved the island's income levels. Such status would significantly improve conditions on Grande Comore. However, it would be a bitter blow to the pride of the ruling elite on Grand Comore and to the Organization for African Unity (OAU). Local politicians see more to their advantage in hanging on to power and accumulating wealth through corrupt practices. It remains to be seen whether the OAU will continue to oppose the democratically expressed wishes of the 2 smaller islands for independence and a possible return to French rule.

The economy is totally dependent on agriculture and tourism for the foreign exchange that it requires to import manufactures and fuels. Agricultural output has been stagnant due to soil degradation, and producers of export crops are discouraged by declines in export prices. Tourism is the most promising sector for expansion. With political stability, perhaps secured by a return to French rule, there is little doubt that foreign investment in tourism would expand, and the islands would progress toward the levels of income enjoyed by their French-ruled neighbors in the Indian Ocean, Reunion and Mayotte. The most likely outcome, however, is that there will be some reconciliation between the other islands and Grande Comore, and Comoros will continue to stagnate.

DEPENDENCIES

Comoros has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

"Comoros." World Yearbook. London: Europa Publications,2000.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Comoros. London: EIU, 2000.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Comoros. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2001.

Hodd, M. "Comoros." The Economies of Africa. Aldershot, England: Dartmouth Publications, 1991.

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2001. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed October 2001.

U.S. Department of State. Background Notes: Comoros, April 1997. <http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/comoros_0497.html>. Accessed October 2001.

World Bank. The Comoros: Problems and Prospects of a Small Island Economy. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group, 1979.

World Bank. World Bank Africa Database 2000. WashingtonD.C.: World Bank Group, 2000.

—Allan C.K. Mukungu

CAPITAL:

Moroni.

MONETARY UNIT:

Comoran franc (KMF). One Comoran franc equals 100 centimes. There are notes with denominations of 25, 50, 100, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 francs. Coins come in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 francs and 20 centimes. French francs are also commonly used. The Comoran franc is currently pegged to the euro at KMF 492 = 1 euro.

CHIEF EXPORTS:

Vanilla, ylang-ylang, cloves, perfume oil, and copra.

CHIEF IMPORTS:

Rice and other foodstuffs, consumer goods, petroleum products, cement, and transport equipment.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:

US$419 million (purchasing power parity, 2000 est.).

BALANCE OF TRADE:

Exports: US$7.9 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.). Imports: US$55.1 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.).

THE COMOROS

Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros

Major City:
Moroni

Other City:
Mutsamudu

INTRODUCTION

The Federal Islamic Republic of the COMOROS is one of the world's poorest nations. Comprised of four islands, the country is burdened with a poor transportation network, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The Comoran labor force is poorly educated, resulting in a low level of economic activity, high unemployment, and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance.

In November 1975, the Comoros became the 143d member of the United Nations. The country is a member of the Organization of African Unity, the European Development Fund, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the African Development Bank.

MAJOR CITY

Moroni

Moroni, the capital of the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros, is on the western side of Grande Comore island. In 2000, Moroni's estimated population was 36,000. The central part of Moroni consists of the old town, in which construction was started about 500 years ago. The buildings are of volcanic rock, and the old town, still vibrant, reminds one of the "casbahs" of northern Africa.

Moroni was declared the capital of the Comoros in 1975. Despite extensive residential construction in recent years, Moroni remains a small, slow-paced capital beautifully situated between Mt. Kartala and the ocean. The city has several small industries, most of which manufacture soft drinks, processed and distilled oils, metal and wood products, or cement. Moroni also serves as the Comoros' main port from which vanilla, coffee, and cacao are exported. An airport, Iconi International Airport, is located in southern Moroni.

Schools for Foreigners

American children can either attend the Franco-Comorien school in Moroni, go away to boarding school, or follow a home-study course. The Franco-Comorien school operates under the auspices of the French Government. All classes are in French and a French-style curriculum is followed. The school accepts children between the ages of five and 17.

Recreation

Water sports and tennis predominate. The Comoros offer wonderful opportunities for snorkeling and scuba diving. Lessons in scuba diving and international certification are available. Swimming is safe for children at most accessible sandy beaches. Tennis is available at the French tennis club, which has five courts that are well-maintained. Because of the rocky terrain, facilities for badminton and croquet are not readily available. Organized sports opportunities such as soccer and basketball are limited. Deep-sea fishing is available.

Photographers, hikers, fishermen, and those interested in water sports will enjoy the Comoros' topography. The lushness and variety of tropical vegetation, the undeveloped nature of the interior of Grand Comore, and the steep slopes of Mt. Kartala combine to please hikers, campers, and photographers. Since many Comorans are uncomfortable being photographed, be sure to ask permission before proceeding. Photography at government installations, including port and airport facilities, is forbidden.

Travel to the other islands is possible by charter boat or charter aircraft and commercial flights. Each of the islands has a different ambiance, and each has a comfortable small hotel for pleasant weekend stays. Air travel, however, is expensive, and boats must be chartered well in advance of the planned holiday.

The geographic location of the Comoros makes possible trips to Kenya, South Africa, Madagascar, and Mauritius, all of which are easily reached by air. Although such trips are costly, the variety of activities and shopping facilities available provide a pleasant break from routine.

Entertainment

Entertainment opportunities in Moroni are very limited. The local cinema shows mostly Indian films, with French films shown on occasion. A program of cultural offerings, including films, is available at the Alliance Franco-Comoriane. The Belgian Consulate has a library whose extensive collection of comic books is appreciated by children.

Each of the three small hotels in Moroni has a restaurant serving French food. In addition, some good Comoran restaurants and one Indian restaurant are available. Most entertaining is done in private homes, usually in the form of dinners, bridge, or cocktails. Because the American expatriate community is small, all entertaining involves frequent association with expatriate and Comoran nationals. In order to communicate effectively, knowledge of French is essential. Because of religious customs, it is unwise to serve any pork products to Comorans.

OTHER CITY

MUTSAMUDU is the capital and port of Anjouan island (also called Ndzunai). The island features beautiful forests, rivers and waterfalls, coral reefs and white sandy beaches, and fields of plants such as ylangylang, jasmine, cassis, basilic, palmarosa and orange flower, all used for exotic essential oils. The island is also home to the rare king size bat and the Living Stone's flying fox, as well as occasional whales in the bay.

Mutsamudu is built in 17th century Swahili-Shirazi style, The houses have carved doors, and the twisting, mazelike alleyways and lanes lead around shops, mosques and a citadel. Worthy of note is the Mosquée du Vendredi, the Sultan's palace. Within walking distance of the city is the Dziancoundré Waterfall.

While you're on the island, you will want to visit Domoni as well. This ancient capital contains the Hari ya Moudji, or old town, which includes the old palaces built by the sultans of the 16th to 18th centuries. Some of the palaces are still occupied by descendents of the sultans.

Mutsamudu is about 102 miles from Moroni and can be reached by plane or by boat.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Comoros are a group of four separate islands. They are located in the Indian Ocean, roughly 416 miles southeast of Tanzania and 200 miles northwest of Madagascar. Three of the islands, Njazidja, Nzwani and Mwali, form the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros. The fourth island, Mayotte, is governed separately by the French. Together, the four islands comprise an area of approximately 982 square miles.

All of the Comoro islands are volcanic in origin. Njazidja, the largest island, has an area of 443 square miles and has an active volcano at Mt. Kartala. Approximately 37 miles south of Njazidja lies the smallest island, Mwali. It is only 83 square miles wide and is covered with low hills and fertile valleys. The island of Nzwani is located 40 miles east of Mwali. It has an area of 164 square miles. Mt. Nyingui is its highest point. The island of Mayotte is situated 124 miles southwest of Njazidja. It is surrounded by a large coral reef which forms a well-protected lagoon around the island. Mayotte has an area of approximately 144 square miles and is covered with deep ravines and volcanic peaks.

The Comoros exhibit a tropical climate. Coastal areas are extremely hot and humid, although interior regions of the islands are somewhat cooler. The rainy season occurs from November to April. Severe cyclones are possible during this period. May through October is generally dry and pleasant. Average annual rainfall in the Comoros is 113 inches.

Population

In 2000 the four Comoro islands had a combined population of 580,000. Roughly 286,000 people reside on Njazidja. Nzwani, the second largest island, had approximately 220,000 people. Mayotte has a population of about 100,000, while Mwali has roughly 28,000 inhabitants. Comorans are a mixture of Malagasy, Arab, Malay and African peoples. They speak Shaafi Islam, which is a dialect of Swahili. French, Arabic and Malagasy are also spoken. Very few residents speak English.

Islam is the predominant religion. Approximately 98 percent of the population are Sunni Muslims. A very small number of Comorans (2%) practice Roman Catholicism. The majority of Catholics live on Mayotte.

Estimated life expectancy at birth in 2001 was 58 years for males, and 63 years for females.

History

Over the centuries, the Comoros have been inhabited by various racial groups. Peoples of Malayo-Polynesian origin settled in the islands during the 6th century A.D. Between the 10th and 15th centuries, the Comoros became home to the Shirazis. The Shirazis were Arabs who fled religious persecution in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf regions. They divided the islands into twelve regions, each governed by a sultan, and introduced their Islamic faith.

In 1841, Sultan Sakalva Andriantsouly sold the island of Mayotte to the French. Having established a foothold in Mayotte, the French sought to gain control of the other three islands. Between 1886 and 1909, the other three islands were captured and became French protectorates. In 1912, the Comoros were officially declared French colonies.

The French ruled the islands with an iron fist. Opposition political parties and a free press were not allowed. The Comoran people voiced their displeasure by refusing to pay taxes, staging peasant revolts and occupying French-controlled farmland. All of these actions were crushed by French troops. The French granted the Comorans limited self-government in 1961. An elected chamber of deputies and a council of government was established. In 1968, secondary school students organized a strike. It was brutally crushed by French troops and police. Many students were killed or wounded. The Comoran people were enraged and staged massive demonstrations and revolts calling for an end to French rule. Seeking to quell the unrest, the French decided to allow the formation of political opposition parties. Six opposition parties were created. Prince Said Muhammad Jaffar led the Reassemblement Democratique du Peuple Comorien (RDPC) while a group of intellectuals and peasants formed the Parti Socialiste Comorien (PASOCO). Other groups included the Union Democratique des Comores (UDC) led by Ahmed Abdallah, the Umma Mranda Party (UMMA) led by Ali Solih and Prince Said Ibrahim and the Parti pour l'Evolution des Comores (PEC). All five of these groups supported independence from France. The sixth party, the Mouvement Populaire Mahorais (MPM), advocated retaining strong ties with France and was led by Marcel Henry. Despite France's decision to allow the existence of opposition parties, the political situation in the Comoros remained volatile.

In 1972, the RDPC, PEC and the UDC formed a pro-independence alliance and pressured the French to grant Comoran independence. Residents on Njazidja, Nzwani and Mwali staunchly supported the alliance. General elections for a new council of government were held in December 1972. Candidates of the RDPC, PEC and the UDC alliance captured 34 seats, while the pro-French MPM group claimed only five seats. On Mayotte, however, the election results were quite different. 80 percent of the vote was cast in favor of MPM candidates. Ahmed Abdallah, leader of the UDC, was elected President of the new council of government.

Shortly after the election, the council of government and French representatives met to discuss the possibilities for Comoran independence. After lengthy negotiations, an agreement was signed in Paris on July 15, 1973. This document stated that France would provide Comoran independence after a period of five years. Also, a referendum favoring independence would have to be passed on an island-by-island basis. This referendum was held in December 1974. The referendum passed by an overwhelming majority (94.6%) on Njazidja, Nzwani and Mwali. However, nearly 64 percent of the populace on Mayotte voted against the referendum. In June 1975, the French Parliament agreed to grant Comoran independence with the provision that a new constitution be drawn up that would be agreeable to all parties, including the citizens on Mayotte. Also, the French insisted that the constitution must be approved separately by each island before independence would be granted. Before this process could take place, the Comoran chamber of deputies approved a unilateral declaration of independence on July 6, 1975 and elected Ahmed Abdallah as president. Residents of Mayotte, fearful that they would be forcibly incorporated into this new state, petitioned the French for assistance. The French agreed to protect Mayotte and administer it as a French territory.

On August 3, 1976, nearly one month after becoming president of the Comoros, Abdallah was toppled from power by Ali Solih. Abdallah fled to Nzwani, but was arrested and eventually allowed to go into exile. Solih pursued a conciliatory approach toward Mayotte in the hope that they would agree to become part of the new Comoran state. In November 1975, he sent a delegation to Mayotte to meet with MPM officials. The people of Mayotte greeted the delegation with hostile demonstrations and forced it to return home. On February 8, 1976, a referendum was held on Mayotte. Nearly 82 percent of the populace voted. 99 percent of the votes cast favored French administration of the island. In December 1976, Mayotte was officially declared a "territorial community" of France.

Throughout 1976, Ali Solih consolidated his control of the other three islands. The freely-elected Council of Deputies was abolished and replaced by a Revolutionary Council of State that was filled with loyal Solih supporters. All political opposition parties were banned. Anti-government politicians were terrorized or arrested by the army and youth factions known as the Revolutionary Youth. Solih also sought to radically alter Comoran traditions by encouraging the liberation of women and young people. His decree that women did not need to cover their faces with veils offended the sensibilities of many conservative Muslims. Also, the voting age was lowered to 14 so that young people could take part in the political process. Solih criticized Islam as a "false religion" and severely curtailed religious practice. Many foreign nations were displeased with Solih's regime and cut off economic aid, severely weakening the shaky Comoran economy. By 1978, Solih ruled the Comoros with an iron hand. However, his political repression and controversial social reforms made him extremely unpopular both at home and abroad.

On May 13, 1978, Ali Solih was overthrown in a coup led by a mercenary, Bob Denard. Solih was placed under house arrest and was gunned down after an alleged escape attempt. Ahmed Abdallah returned triumphantly from exile and was named President. The country's official name was changed to the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros. Also, a new constitution was drawn up and ratified which stated that if one island decided to secede from the Federal Republic, it was free to do so without government interference. Abdallah also reinstated traditional Islamic principles in the islands and sought to end the Comoros international isolation. France resumed diplomatic relations and increased its level of economic aid. Presidential elections, with Ahmed Abdallah as the sole candidate, were held on October 22, 1978. Fifty of the mercenaries who helped topple Ali Solih were formed into an elite Presidential Guard. This Guard, led by Bob Denard, served to protect Abdallah and to intimidate his political rivals.

Abdallah actively pursued the integration of Mayotte with the Comoros. French President Francois Mitterand and President Abdallah met in October 1981 to discuss this issue. Abdallah was confident that Mitterand would be sympathetic to the integration of Mayotte, since Mitterand vigorously opposed the detachment of the island with the rest of the archipelago in 1975. However, the meeting ended without any formal agreement on the issue. Mitterand only promised that he would review Mayotte's status every five years.

In December 1983, a plot by British mercenaries to overthrow the Comoran government was discovered. The plan called for the removal of President Abdallah in favor of a former Comoran diplomat, Said Ali Kemal. Kemal wanted to establish a government that would be on friendly terms with the West in order to gain more economic assistance for the Comoros. The plan was foiled, however, when the mercenary leaders were arrested in Australia.

A presidential election was held in September 1984 with Abdallah serving as the only candidate. According to the government, 99.4 percent of the voters were in favor of Abdallah and he was granted another six-year term. In January 1985, he further consolidated his power by amending the constitution and abolishing the office of prime minister. As a result, all important governmental powers were in Abdallah's control.

In March 1985, a group of Presidential Guardsmen tried to overthrow Abdallah while he was on a state visit to France. The coup attempt failed. Abdallah unleashed a wave of political repression and arrests. Eventually, 17 people were sentenced to life in prison at hard labor while 50 others received shorter prison sentences for their part in the coup attempt. However, by late 1985, some of the prisoners were granted presidential pardons and released.

Another coup attempt by disgruntled members of the Presidential Guard was made in November 1987 while Abdallah was out of the country. This coup was smashed by Bob Denard and other mercenaries. On November 27, 1989, President Abdallah was assassinated by his Presidential Guard on the orders of Bob Denard. Although Denard denied any involvement in Abdallah's assassination, he voluntarily left the islands for exile in South Africa. Said Mohamed Djohar, the president of the Comoran supreme court, took the post of interim president until the holding of free elections.

Free elections were held on March 11, 1990 between Djohar and Mohamed Taki Abdulkarim. Djohar won a majority of the votes and began serving a six-year term as the Comoros' first democratically elected president. In June 1990, the Comoros and the United States established formal diplomatic relations.

Djohar was ousted by French mercenaries in a brief coup in 1995, and an interim government ruled until the March 1996 elections, in which Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim was chosen as president. An interim government of President Tajiddine Ben Said Massounde which had assumed power in November 1998 upon the death of President Mohamed Taki Abdulkarim, was overthrown in a bloodless coup on April 30, 1999 headed by military chief Colonel Azali Assoumani.

Colonel Azali claimed a one-year presidential term at the time of the coup. In May 1999, Azali decreed a constitution that gave him both executive and legislative powers. In December 2000, Azali named a new civilian prime minister, and formed a new civilian cabinet. When Azali first took power he also pledged to step down in April 2000 and relinquish control to a democratically elected president, a pledge which he has yet to fulfill.

In 1997, the islands of Nzwani and Mwali declared their independence from Comoros. Colonel Azali pledged to resolve the secessionist crisis. In August 2000, an accord was signed that would reunite the islands. A subsequent agreement, signed in February 2001, provided for a commission composed of representatives from all three islands to develop a new constitution.

Government

On October 1, 1978, a new constitution was approved that united the islands of Njazidja, Nzwani and Mwali into one Federal Islamic Republic. Mayotte is currently governed by France, although it has the option of joining the Federal Islamic Republic at a later date.

The Comoran government is headed by the President of the Republic. The president is elected by the citizens to a six-year term and cannot serve more than three consecutive terms. In 1984, the constitution was amended so that President Abdallah could serve an unlimited number of terms. However, since his assassination, this amendment was repealed.

Since Colonel Azali seized power and declared a constitution that granted him executive and legislative powers, democratic institutions have ben suspended in the Comoros.

Prior to the coup, however, legislative authority was held by the 43-member Federal Assembly. The Federal Assembly was dissolved following the coup of April 30, 1999. Representatives to the Federal Assembly were elected for five-year terms. The Assembly met for no more than 45 days at a time, but was allowed to convene more often during national emergencies.

A new constitution was adopted in June 1992, providing for a 15-member Senate to be selected by an electoral college for terms of six years.

The flag of the Comoros consists of a white crescent moon encircling inwardly four white stars on a green field. The four stars represent the islands of Njazidja, Nzwani, Mwali and Mayotte. Green is the traditional color of Islam.

On Mayotte, the flag of France is used.

Arts, Science, Education

Education is officially compulsory for Comoran children ages seven-15 years of age. Primary education begins at age six and lasts for six years. At 12 years of age, a student begins secondary school for an additional seven years. Comorans must travel abroad to receive a college education.

Most teachers in the Comoros are from foreign countries, particularly Tunisia, Senegal and Belgium. Despite improvements, the literacy rate of the Comoros in 1995 was only about 57 percent. Fewer than half of all school-age children are enrolled in primary school.

The educational system on Mayotte receives teachers and financial assistance from France.

Commerce and Industry

The Comoros is one of the world's poorest and least-developed countries. Agriculture is the main occupation of 80 percent of the population. Sweet potatoes, cassava, coconuts and bananas are the main food crops.

Much of the choice farmland is in the hands of foreign-owned companies, with only about 40 percent of the land cultivated by Comoran farmers. Most of the soil is of poor quality, and many Comorans must resort to subsistence farming. The majority of the country's food requirements must be imported. Rice, one of the main staples, accounts for 90 percent of Comoran imports. In addition to rice, the Comoros import large amounts of petroleum products, cement and vehicles.

The Comoros are the world's largest producer of ylang-ylang, which is used to make perfumes. Also, the Comoros is the second largest producer of vanilla in the world. Ylangylang and vanilla are the Comoros primary cash exports. Small amounts of cloves, coffee and copra are also important exports.

The islands have a wealth of fishing resources, particularly tuna. However, most of these resources remain unexploited because the Comoros lack a viable fishing fleet.

The Comoran industrial sector is extremely small. Much of the industrial activity is limited to vanilla processing and the production of woodworks, plastics and soft drinks.

The unit of currency is the Comoran franc (KMF).

Like its Comoran counterparts, Mayotte must import large quantities of food. The territory's survival is heavily dependent on financial assistance from France. Ylangylang and vanilla are Mayotte's primary exports. The great majority of Mayotte's exports go to France. Building materials, rice, clothing, flour and transportation equipment are imported, with France serving as the major supplier.

The French franc is Mayotte's unit of currency.

Transportation

The roadway system in the Comoros is extremely underdeveloped. Although the islands of Njazidja and Nzwani have some paved roads, most of the roads are extremely rugged. During the rainy season, many of the islands' roads are virtually impassable. Also, many villages in the Comoros are not linked to the main cities by suitable roads. Travel between villages and cities can be extremely hazardous. A four-wheel-drive vehicle is highly recommended, especially on Mwali. Most of the roads on this island are unpaved and treacherous.

The national airline of the Comoros is Air Comores. Air Comores offers international service twice-weekly to Madagascar, Tanzania and Kenya. Domestic flights between Moroni and the island of Nzwani are offered on a daily basis. Flights between Moroni and Mwali offered 5 times per week. The international airport for the Comoros is located near Moroni. Each of the other islands has a small airfield.

Most ports in the Comoros are unable to accommodate large ocean-going vessels. Therefore, most large vessels are forced to anchor off the coast of Moroni, Mutsamudu, and Fomboni and be unloaded by smaller cargo ships. During the rainy season, heavy seas make this unloading process extremely hazardous. Consequently, most ships do not dock near the Comoros from November to April.

Mayotte has very few paved roads. Most are composed of rugged tracks that become washed out during the rainy season. There is a small airport near the city of Dzaoudzi. Commercial flights to the Comoros are offered twice-weekly while service to the island of Reunion is offered four-times weekly.

Communications

The islands' main radio station is the government-owned Radio-Comoros. Domestic broadcasts are available in Comoran and French. Foreign broadcasts are available on shortwave frequencies in French, Swahili and Arabic. The country's first independent radio station, Radio Tropiques FM, was closed down in April 1991 after one week of broadcasting. There is no television station in the Comoros.

Two weekly newspapers are available. The first is a government owned publication, Al Watwany. The other, L'Archipel, is an independent newspaper. The government news agency, Agence Comoros Presse (ACP) is located in Moroni.

Long-distance telephone and telegraph services are available in Moroni, although the quality of transmissions are often poor.

The main radio station on Mayotte is the Societe Nationale de Radio-Television Francaise d'Outre-mer (RFO)-Mayotte. It is located in Dzaoudzi and offers daily broadcasts in Mahorian and French. A television service was begun in 1986.

Le Journal de Mayotte is the island's main newspaper. It is a weekly publication and has a circulation of 12,000.

Clothing and Services

Clothing styles in Moroni are very casual. For men, office and casual wear consists of sports shirts and slacks. Casual cotton dresses and skirts with sandals are worn during the day by women. Sundresses and pants are acceptable for women, although short skirts are not appropriate. Slacks and shorts are acceptable for wear around the house, to the beach, and for other outdoor activities. Stockings are rarely worn. Shoes wear out quickly, and high heels are dangerous because of rocky terrain. Children's clothing should be casual and made of cotton. Short pants and colored short-sleeved shirts for boys and sleeveless shifts, shorts, and slacks for girls are the most common apparel. Children wear leather or composition sandals or tennis shoes to school.

Swimsuits and beachwear are essential for all members of the family, since recreation focuses on water sports. Bikinis are acceptable. Sunbathers should bring beach hats and clothing for protection from the sun. Umbrellas are essential during the rainy season. For trips into mountainous regions, slacks and dungarees, heavy sweaters, sturdy shoes, and a rain hat are necessary.

Dressmakers and tailors are available in Moroni. However, clothes are often poorly made and very expensive. Locally available fabrics are limited and most clothing is made from synthetic fibers, which are too hot for the Comoran climate. Cobblers make only simple repairs using recycled materials. The results are often unsatisfactory. A beauty shop is available, but patrons should supply their own beauty and hair care needs.

Availability of fresh foods depends upon the season and the amounts brought in from South Africa by local merchants. Few vegetables are available, although tropical fruits are plentiful in season. Most foods, except fish, are imported and shortages of essential commodities (rice, flour, sugar, salt, cooking oil) are common. No fresh meat is available. Meats available are frozen, or have been frozen and then thawed. No pork is available for purchase, but sheep, lamb, chicken, and beef are found. All meat is expensive. Fresh fish and lobster are available and are less expensive.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

A passport and onward/return ticket are required. A three-week entry visa, which may be extended, may be obtained upon arrival at the airport. Travelers should obtain the latest details from the Mission of the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros, 420 East 50th Street, New York, NY 10022; telephone (212) 972-8010, fax (212) 983-4712.

The United States has no embassy in Comoros, but has a liaison representative in Moroni, who can be contacted at Quartier Oasis, POB 720, Moroni, telephone (269) 73-00-11, fax (269) 73-00-12. U.S. citizens in Comoros are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Port Louis, Mauritius. Registration information and forms are collected at the liaison office in Moroni and forwarded to the U.S. Embassy, Consular Section, Rogers house, fourth floor, John F. Kennedy Street, Port Louis, Mauritius; telephone numbers (230) 202-4400 and 208-2347; fax (230) 202-4401 and 208-9534. The U.S. Embassy home page is located at http://www.usembassymauritius.mu; e-mail: usembass@intnet.mu.

There are limited first-class hotel accommodations on Njazidja, Nzwani and Mayotte. It is recommended that reservations be made in advance.

Roman Catholic, Protestant, Evangelical, and Moslem denominations maintain places of worship. All services are in French. Catholic religion classes in French are available for children.

Diligent water purification and food preparation methods must be exercised when visiting the Comoros. Immunizations for polio and typhoid are recommended. Visitors are advised to take anti-malaria pills because the risk of infection exists throughout the country.

The tourism industry in the Comoros is vastly underdeveloped. Fewer than 2,000 tourists visit the islands every year. The primary tourist attractions include mountain climbing, scuba diving and fishing. It is recommended that tourists seek advice and exercise caution when using beaches.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan 1 …New Year's Day

Mar. 8…27th Djoumadi II

Mar. 18…Anniversary of Death of Said (Mohammed Cheikh)

May 1…Labor Day

May 13…Comoran Liberation Day

July 6…National Day

…Ramadan^*

…Id al-Fitr^*

…Mawlid an Nabi^*

^*Variable

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Gould, Dennis. Comores (Comoro Islands). Let's Visit Places and Peoples of the World Series. New York: Chelsea House, 1988.

Willox, Robert. Madagascar & the Comoros: A Travel Survival Kit. Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet, 1989.

COMOROS

Compiled from the January 2005 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Union of the Comoros

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 2,171 sq. km. (838 sq. mi.); slightly less than half the size of Delaware. Major islands—Grande Comore (1,025 sq. km.), Anjouan (424 sq. km.), Mayotte (374 sq. km.), and Moheli (211 sq. km.).

Cities: Capital—Moroni (pop. 30,000); Mutsamudu (pop. 20,000).

Terrain: Rugged.

Climate: Tropical marine.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Comorian(s).

Population: (2001 est.) 596,202. Mayotte (1990 est.)—70,000.

Annual growth rate: (2001 est.) 3.02%.

Ethnic groups: Antalote, Cafre, Makoa, Oimatsaha, Sakalava.

Religions: Sunni Muslim 98%, Roman Catholic 2%.

Languages: Shikomoro (a Swahili-Arabic blend), Arabic, French.

Education: Attendance—60% primary, 34% secondary. Literacy—57.3%.

Health: Life expectancy—60 yrs. Infant mortality rate—84.07/1,000.

Work force: (1996) 144,500. Agriculture—80%.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: July 6, 1975 (Mayotte remains under French administration).

Constitution: Adopted by referendum on December 23, 2001.

Branches: Executive—national president; regional island presidents. Legislative—National Assembly. Judicial—traditional Muslim and codified law from French sources.

Political parties: 17 political parties.

Suffrage: Universal adult.

Economy

GDP: (purchasing power parity) $419 million.

Annual growth rate: 0.5%.

Per capita income: $720.

Agriculture: (40% of GDP) Products—vanilla, cloves, perfume essences, copra, banana, cassava, coconuts.

Services: (56% of GDP) Commerce, tourism.

Industry: (4% of GDP) Types—perfume distillation.

Trade: Exports (1999 est.)—$7.9 million: vanilla, cloves, perfume essences, copra. Major markets—France, Germany. Imports (1998 est.)—$35.84 million: rice, petroleum, meat, wheat flour, cotton textiles, cement. Major suppliers—France 38%, Pakistan 13%, Kenya 8%, South Africa 8%.

PEOPLE

The Comorians inhabiting Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli (86% of the population) share African-Arab origins. Islam is the dominant religion, and Koranic schools for children reinforce its influence. Although Arab culture is firmly established throughout the archipelago, a substantial minority of the citizens of Mayotte (the Mahorais) are Catholic and have been strongly influenced by French culture.

The most common language is Shikomoro, a Swahili dialect. French and Arabic also are spoken. About 57% of the population is literate.

HISTORY

Over the centuries, the islands were invaded by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf, Indonesia, and Madagascar. Portuguese explorers visited the archipelago in 1505. "Shirazi" Arab migrants introduced Islam at about the same time. Between 1841 and 1912, France established colonial rule over Grande Comore, Anjouan, Mayotte, and Moheli and placed the islands under the administration of the governor general of Madagascar. Later, French settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. After World War II, the islands became a French overseas territory and were represented in France's National Assembly. Internal political autonomy was granted in 1961. Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for Comoros to become independent in 1978. On July 6, 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring unilateral independence. The deputies of Mayotte abstained. As a result, the Comorian Government has effective control over only Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli. Mayotte remains under French administration.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

The Union of Comoros is ruled by former Army Col. President Azali Assoumani. The political situation in Comoros has been extremely fluid since the country's independence in 1975, subject to the volatility of coups and political insurrection. Colonel Azali seized power in a bloodless coup in April 1999, overthrowing interim President Tadjiddine Ben Said Massounde, who himself had held the office since the death of democratically elected President Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim in November 1998. In May 1999, Azali decreed a constitution that gave him both executive and legislative powers. Bowing somewhat to international criticism, Azali appointed a civilian Prime Minister, Bainrifi Tarmidi, in December 1999; however, Azali retained the mantle of head of state and army commander. In December 2000, Azali named a new civilian Prime Minister, Hamada Madi, and formed a new civilian cabinet. When Azali took power he had pledged to step down in 2000 and relinquish control to a democratically elected president. Instead, in 2001, Azali resigned from the military and ran as a civilian candidate for the national presidency. He was elected in 2002 in flawed but fair elections.

In a separate nod to pressure to fully restore civilian rule, the government organized several committees to compose a new constitution, including the August 2000 National Congress and November 2000 Tripartite Commission. The opposition parties initially refused to participate in the Tripartite Commission, but on February 17, 2001 representatives of the government, Anjouan separatists, the political opposition, and civil society organizations signed a "Framework Accord for Reconciliation in Comoros," brokered by the Organization for African Unity (OAU), now the African Union. The accord called for the creation of a new Tripartite Commission for National Reconciliation to develop a "New Comorian Entity" with a new constitution. Although the commission set June 2001 as its goal for completing the constitution and December 2001 for the national elections, disagreements over procedure and goals delayed completion of the draft constitution. On December 23, 2001, the draft constitution was adopted by referendum.

The African Union and the Francophonie organization have encouraged continued negotiation over the outstanding fiscal and political issues dividing the national government and the regional island authorities. The principal disagreements concern distribution of national revenues and authority over law enforcement and national security. Elections for the individual island assemblies and the National Assembly were completed in March and April 2004, respectively, and were deemed generally free and fair by international observers. The National Assembly is tasked with finalizing a constitution.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 7/10/03

Three main islands have been unified into the Union of Comoros the presidency of the Union will rotate between the different islands every four years. Presidential elections were held in April 2002, and each island elected its own president.

President of the Union: Azali , Assoumani, Col.
Vice President for Finance, Budget, Economy, External Trade, Investment, & Privatization: el-Yachroutu , Mohamed Caabi
Vice President for Justice, Information, Religious Affairs, & Human Rights: Ben Massoundi , Rachid
Min. of Development, Infrastructure, Posts & Telecommunications, & Intl. Transport: M'Saidie , Houmed
Min. of External Defense & Territorial Security: Bolero , Hamada Madi
Min. of Foreign Affairs, Cooperation, Francophonie, responsible for Comorans Abroad: el-Amine , Mohamed Souef
Min. of Social Affairs & Admin. Reforms: Soilihi , Ali Mohamed
Govt. Spokesman: M'Saidie , Houmed
President of Anjouan: Bacar , Mohamed
President of Grande Comore: el-Bak , Abdou Soule
President of Moheli: Fazul , Mohamed Said
Permanent Representative to the UN, NY: Aboud , Mahmoud

Comoros maintains a mission to the United States at 336 E. 45th St., 2nd floor, New York, NY 10017 (tel. 212-750-1637).

ECONOMY

Comoros, with an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) per capita income of about $700, is among the world's poorest and least developed nations. Although the quality of the land differs from island to island, most of the widespread lava-encrusted soil formations are unsuited to agriculture. As a result, most of the inhabitants make their living from subsistence agriculture and fishing.

Agriculture, involving more than 80% of the population and 40% of the gross domestic product, provides virtually all foreign exchange earnings. Services including tourism, construction, and commercial activities constitute the remainder of the GDP. Plantations engage a large proportion of the population in producing the islands' major cash crops for export: vanilla, cloves, perfume essences, and copra. Comoros is the

world's leading producer of essence of ylang-ylang, used in manufacturing perfume. It also is the world's second-largest producer of vanilla. Principal food crops are coconuts, bananas, and cassava. Foodstuffs constitute 32% of total imports.

The country lacks the infrastructure necessary for development. Some villages are not linked to the main road system or at best are connected by tracks usable only by four-wheel-drive vehicles. The islands' ports are rudimentary, although a deepwater facility functions in Anjouan. Only small vessels can approach the existing quays in Moroni on Grande Comore, despite improvements. Long-distance, ocean-going ships must lie offshore and be unloaded by smaller boats; during the cyclone season, this procedure is dangerous, and ships are reluctant to call at the island. Most freight is sent first to Mombasa, Kenya or the island of Reunion and transshipped from there.

France, Comoros' major trading partner, finances small projects only. The United States receives a growing percentage of Comoros' exports but supplies only a negligible fraction of its imports (less than 1%).

Comoros has an international airport at Hahaya on Grande Comore. Comoros has its own currency, the Comorian Franc, which is currently valued at 437 CF = U.S. $1.

NATIONAL SECURITY

The military resources of the Comoros consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defense force. A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains a small maritime base and a Foreign Legion contingent on Mayotte.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

In November 1975, Comoros became the 143rd member of the United Nations. The new nation was defined as consisting of the entire archipelago, despite the fact that France maintains control over Mayotte.

Comoros also is a member of the African Union, the European Development Fund, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Indian Ocean Commission, and the African Development Bank.

U.S.-COMORIAN RELATIONS

The United States recognized the Comorian Government in 1977. The two countries enjoy friendly relations. The U.S. closed its Embassy in Moroni in 1993 and is now represented by a nonresident Ambassador in neighboring Mauritius.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

PORT LOUIS (E) Address: Rogers House, Port Louis, Mauritius; Phone: (230) 202-4400; Fax: (230) 208-9534; INMARSAT Tel: 881631439038/881631439039; Workweek: Monday-Friday, 0730-1600; Website: http://mauritius.usembassy.gov/

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

August 25, 2004

Country Description: The Union of the Comoros is a developing nation located in the Indian Ocean off the east coast of Africa. Comoros consists of three islands, Grand Comore, Moheli, and Anjouan that cover about 900 square miles. Grand Comore is home to the capital city Moroni, and is the most developed of the three islands. Facilities for tourism are limited and telecommunication links are extremely unreliable. French, Arabic, Swahili, and Comorian Creole are spoken.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport and onward/return ticket are required. All travelers to Comoros are given a free, 24-hour transit visa upon entry. The following day, visitors are required to go to the immigration office in Moroni to change their visa status. A fee is charged, depending on length of stay. Travelers should obtain the latest details from the Mission of the Union of Comoros, 420 East 50th Street, New York, NY 10022; telephone number (212) 972-8010, fax (212) 983-4712.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry and departure.

Safety and Security: Comoros has experienced frequent strikes and civil unrest, resulting in violent clashes between police and demonstrators. As the government continues to try and consolidate its rule, periodic strikes and protests both for and against the current government will likely continue to occur. In addition, small and isolated outbreaks of violence also occur between youths in neighboring villages, usually contained within specific areas. This has been mainly attributed to rivalries between villages during sporting events.

Although foreign residents and visitors have not been targeted, the potential for further outbreaks of civil disorder remains high. U.S. citizens should avoid political rallies and street demonstrations and maintain security awareness at all times.

Conditions are subject to rapid change on each of the three islands of the Comoros due to a lack of political structure and economic development. U.S. citizens are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Port Louis, Mauritius when visiting Comoros if staying for an extended period of time. Embassy contact information is provided below.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up to date information on security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the United States, or, for callers outside the United States and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: U.S. travelers are advised to be vigilant against pick-pocketing and other forms of petty crime when visiting crowded market areas, parks, and at the beaches. Violent crime is uncommon. The most commonly reported crime is breaking into homes and vehicles in order to steal electronic equipment.

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, help you find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlet A Safe Trip Abroad for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, via the Internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov, or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Medical Facilities: Medical facilities in Comoros are poorly equipped. Travelers should bring their own supplies of prescription drugs and preventive medicines.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and if it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas, including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the United States may cost well in excess of $50,000. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, please ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas healthcare provider or if you will be reimbursed later for expenses that you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.

Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure, Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad, available via its home page at http://travel.state.gov and autofax service at (202) 647-3000.

Other Health Information: Malaria is prevalent in Comoros. Travelers to Comoros should take malaria prophylaxis. P. falciparum malaria, the serious and sometimes fatal strain in Comoros, is resistant to the anti-malarial drug chloroquine. Because travelers to Comoros are at high risk for contracting malaria, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advises that travelers should take one of the following antimalarial drugs: mefloquine (Lariam™), doxycycline, or atovaquone/proguanil (Malarone™). The CDC has determined that a traveler who is on an appropriate antimalarial drug has a greatly reduced chance of contracting the disease. In addition, other personal protective measures, such as the use of insect repellents, help to reduce malaria risk. Travelers who become ill with a fever or flu-like illness while traveling in a malaria-risk area and up to one year after returning home should seek prompt medical attention and tell the physician their travel history and what antimalarials they have been taking. For additional information on malaria, protection from insect bites, and antimalarial drugs, please visit the CDC Travelers' Health website at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/malinfo.htm.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Comoros is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

In Comoros, one drives on the right side of the street. Roads are generally adequate but are very narrow and poorly lit at night. Travelers should exercise extreme caution when driving after dark. Most urban roads are paved, but many rural roads are not. Speed limits range from 30 to 40 miles an hour. Drivers and front seat passengers are required to wear seat belts. There are no laws regarding child safety seats.

There are no organizations in Comoros that provide emergency or roadside assistance. Individuals involved in accidents rely on passersby for assistance.

Taxis or a rental car with driver are preferable to public transportation.

Safety of public transportation: Poor
Urban road conditions/maintenance: Fair
Rural road conditions/maintenance: Poor
Availability of roadside/ambulance assistance: Poor

For additional information about road safety, including links to foreign government sites, see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs website at http://travel.state.gov/travel/abroad_roadsafety.html.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the U.S. and Comoros by local carriers at present, nor economic authority to operate such service, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed the Civil Aviation Authority of Comoros for compliance with international aviation safety standards for oversight of Comorian air carrier operations. For further information, travelers may contact the Department of Transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA website at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Customs Regulations: In many countries around the world, counterfeit and pirated goods are widely available. Transactions involving such products are illegal and bringing them back to the United States may result in forfeitures and/or fines. A current list of those countries with serious problems in this regard can be found at http://www.ustr.gov/assets/Document_Library/Reports_Publications/2003/2003_Special_301_Report/asset_upload_file665_6124.pdf.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating the laws of Comoros, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use or trafficking in illegal drugs in Comoros are strict and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines. Under the PROTECT Act of April 2003, it is a crime, prosecutable in the United States, for a U.S. citizen or permanent resident alien, to engage in illicit sexual conduct in a foreign country with a person under the age of 18, whether or not the U.S. citizen or lawful permanent resident alien intended to engage in such illicit sexual conduct prior to going abroad. For purposes of the PROTECT Act, illicit sexual conduct includes any commercial sex act in a foreign country with a person under the age of 18. The law defines a commercial sex act as any sex act, on account of which anything of value is given to or received by a person under the age of 18.

Under the Protection of Children from Sexual Predators Act of 1998, it is a crime to use the mail or any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transmit information about a minor under the age of 16 for criminal sexual purposes that include, among other things, the production of child pornography. This same law makes it a crime to use any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transport obscene materials to minors under the age of 16.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, please refer to our Internet site at http://travel.state.gov/family/index.html or telephone Overseas Citizens Services at 1-888-407-4747. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Registration/Embassy Location: The United States has no Embassy in Comoros. Americans living or traveling in Comoros are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy or in Port Louis, Mauritius, through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Comoros. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy in Port Louis. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at the Rogers house, Fourth Floor, Port Louis, Mauritius; telephone number (230) 202-4400; fax (230) 208-9534. The Embassy website is http://mauritius.usembassy.gov, and its email address is usembassy@intnet.mu.

Comoros

1 Location and Size

2 Topography

3 Climate

4 Plants and Animals

5 Environment

6 Population

7 Migration

8 Ethnic Groups

9 Languages

10 Religions

11 Transportation

12 History

13 Government

14 Political Parties

15 Judicial System

16 Armed Forces

17 Economy

18 Income

19 Industry

20 Labor

21 Agriculture

22 Domesticated Animals

23 Fishing

24 Forestry

25 Mining

26 Foreign Trade

27 Energy and Power

28 Social Development

29 Health

30 Housing

31 Education

32 Media

33 Tourism and Recreation

34 Famous Comorians

35 Bibliography

Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros

République Fédérale Islamique des Comores; Jumhuriyat al-Qumur al-Ittihadiyah al-Islamiyah

CAPITAL: Moroni

FLAG: Four equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), white, red, and blue with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist; centered within the triangle is a white crescent with the convex side facing the hoist and four white, five-pointed stars placed vertically in a line between the points of the crescent.

ANTHEM: No information available.

MONETARY UNIT: The Comorian franc (Co Fr) is the equivalent of the Communauté Financière Africaine franc (CFA Fr), which has been pegged to the euro since January 1999 at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs to 1 euro. The Comorian franc is issued in notes of 500, 1,000, and 5,000 Co Fr. Co Fr1 = $0.00252 (or $1 = Co Fr396.21) as of 2004.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is used.

HOLIDAYS: New Year’s Day, 1 January; Second

Coup d’État, 13 May; Independence Day, 6 July; Admission to UN, 12 November; Christmas Day, 25 December. The principal Muslim holidays are observed.

TIME: 3 pm = noon GMT.

1 Location and Size

The Comoros, composed of the islands of Grande Comore, Mohéli, and Anjouan, are located at the northern entrance of the Mozambique Channel, between the eastern shore of the African continent and the island of Madagascar. The area occupied by the Comoros Islands is slightly more than 12 times the size of Washington, D.C. The islands have a combined area of 2,170 square kilometers (838 square miles), of which Grande Comore (Njazídja), the largest and northernmost island, comprises 1,148 square kilometers (443 square miles). The Comoros have a total coastline of 340 kilometers (211 miles). The capital city, Moroni, is located at the western edge of Grande Comore.

2 Topography

The islands are volcanic in origin and their highest peak, Mount Kartala at 2,360 meters (7,743 feet), is an active volcano located near the southern tip of the island of Grande Comore. In the center of Grande Comore lies a desert lava field. To the north, a number of volcanic peaks rise

GEOGRAPHICAL PROFILE

Geographic Features

Area: 2,170 sq km (838 sq mi)

Size ranking: 169 of 194

Highest elevation: 2,360 meters (7,743 feet) at Mount Kartala

Lowest elevation: Sea level at the Indian Ocean

Land Use*

Arable land: 36%

Permanent crops: 23%

Other: 41%

Weather**

Average annual precipitation: 263.9 centimeters (103.9 inches)

Average temperature in January: 26.2°c (79.2°f)

Average temperature in July: 22.8°c (73.0°f)

* Arable Land: Land used for temporary crops, like meadows for mowing or pasture, gardens, and greenhouses.

Permanent crops: Land cultivated with crops that occupy its use for long periods, such as cocoa, coffee, rubber, fruit and nut orchards, and vineyards.

Other: Any land not specified, including built-on areas, roads, and barren land.

** The measurements for precipitation and average temperatures were taken at weather stations closest to the country’s largest city.

Precipitation and average temperature can vary significantly within a country, due to factors such as latitude, altitude, coastal proximity, and wind patterns.

from a plateau nearly 600 meters (2,000 feet) in altitude. The island of Anjouan, to the southeast, has steep hills reaching heights of nearly 1,500 meters (5,000 feet) in a central volcanic massif. Mohéli, to the west of Anjouan, has wide and fertile valleys, with a ridge in the center that reaches about 580 meters (1,900 feet) above sea level, and a thick forest cover. The lowest point is at sea level (Indian Ocean).

3 Climate

The climate in the Comoros is humid and tropical, with coastal temperatures averaging about 28°c (82°f) in March and 23°c (73°f) in August. The monsoon season lasts from November to April.

4 Plants and Animals

The rich volcanic soils on the islands foster the growth of profuse vegetation. Beyond the coastal zones, where mangroves predominate, there are coconut palms, mangoes, and bananas, and above them is a forest zone, with many varieties of tropical hardwoods. Broom, lichens, and heather grow on the highest peaks. The animal life is similar to that found on Madagascar. Comorian waters harbor the coelacanth, a rare primitive fish once thought to have been extinct for 70 million years. Fossil remains of the coelacanth dating back 400 million years have been found.

5 Environment

Although Mohéli has large tracts of fertile land that are not yet cultivated, parts of Anjouan are so densely populated that farmers have been forced to extend cultivation to the higher slopes, leading to deforestation and soil erosion. Population growth has also increased the demand for firewood, threatening the remaining forest areas.

Endangered species in the Comoros included the Anjouan sparrow hawk and Anjouan scops owl. In 2006, two species of mammals, 10 species of birds, and five species of plants were threatened.

6 Population

The population of the islands in 2005 was estimated at 671,000. It is estimated that only 33% of the people live in urban areas. Moroni, the capital, had an estimated population of 53,000 in 2005.

7 Migration

About 40,000 Comorians live in France and 25,000 in Madagascar. In 2000 there were 18,000 migrants living in Comoros. The estimated net migration rate in 2005 was zero.

8 Ethnic Groups

Most Comorians are of mixed African, Malagasy, Malay, and Arab descent. Ethnic groups include the Antalote, Cafre, Makoa, Oimatsaha, and Sakalava. Small numbers of Indians, Malagasy, and Europeans play an important part in the economy.

9 Languages

French and Arabic are the official languages. The main spoken language, Shaafi Islam (Shikomoro or Comoran), is similar to Swahili but has elements of Arabic. Other languages spoken include French, Malagasy, Swahili, Arabic, and Makua (an African language).

10 Religions

Islam is followed by about 99% of Comorians. Almost all Comorians are Sunni Muslims. Only

about 400 persons—approximately 1% of the population—are Christian. The December 2001 constitution provides for freedom of religion, however, it also makes Islam the state religion and the government tends to discourage the practice of other faiths. The practice of Christianity is particularly restricted. There are two Roman Catholic churches and one Protestant church. The government has restricted the use of these churches to noncitizens only.

11 Transportation

Each island has a ringed road, and there were some 880 kilometers (547 miles) of roads in 2002. There is an international airport at Hahaia, on Grande Comore; other islands have smaller

airfields. In 1997, 83,000 passengers traveled on international and domestic flights.

12 History

The first settlers were probably Melanesian and Polynesian peoples, who came to the Comoros by the 6th century ad; later immigrants arrived from East Africa, Arab lands, Indonesia, Persia, and Madagascar. The Portuguese discovered the islands in about 1503, and Frenchmen first landed in 1517. Malagasy invasions also took place in the 16th century.

A French protectorate was placed over Anjouan, Grande Comore, and Mohéli in 1886, and in 1908 the islands were joined administratively with French-ruled Madagascar.

In World War II (1939–45), the islands were occupied by a British force and turned over to the Free French. The Comoros were granted administrative autonomy within the Republic of France on 9 May 1946, acquiring overseas territorial status, and on 22 December 1961, achieved internal autonomy under special statute.

In a referendum held on 22 December 1974, a large majority on the islands, except Mayotte, voted in favor of independence. On 6 July 1975, the Comoros legislature unilaterally declared independence for all four islands, including Mayotte. The United Nations General Assembly backed the Comorian claim to Mayotte despite French opposition. Nonetheless, Mayotte remained French.

Considerable domestic turmoil accompanied the birth of the new nation. The first Comorian government held power only a month before it was overthrown on 3 August 1975, with the aid of foreign white mercenaries. On 13 May 1978, ‘Ali Soilih, who had led the 1975 military coup (takeover) and had become head of state in January 1976, was overthrown by mercenaries led by Bob Denard, who reinstalled the nation’s first president, Ahmad ‘Abdallah. ‘Abdallah ruled until he was assassinated in November 1989, when Said Mohamed Djohar, head of the Supreme Court, was appointed interim president.

A French peacekeeping force enabled the government to lift political restrictions and conduct a presidential election. On 11 March 1990, Djohar won a runoff with 55% of the vote. Subsequently, his coalition government survived three coup attempts.

In the controversial December 1993 legislative elections, supporters of Djohar won 24 of the 42 seats in the assembly. Members of the opposition parties contested the validity of both the election results and the choice of Djohar’s son-in-law as president of the assembly on 7 January. On 17 January the main opposition parties agreed to coordinate their actions in a Forum for National Recovery (FRN).

Djohar’s government grew increasingly authoritarian and in September 1995, Bob Denard, a former leader of the government, staged a coup that resulted in the arrest of President Djohar and the creation of a transitional government. France was displeased with this turn of events and landed a military party which overthrew Denard’s transitional government and prepared the way for elections. These elections were held in 1996 and were won by Mohammed Taki Abdulkarim. President Taki died in late 1998, leaving the country subject to several coups. Colonel Azali Assoumani assumed the titles of president, prime minister, and defense minister after a coup in 1999.

In 1997, the islands of Anjouan and Moheli seceded from the Comoros. Assoumani pledged to resolve the secessionist crisis. In December 2001, voters approved a new constitution that kept the three islands of the Comoros together as a nation, but gave each greater autonomy. Assoumani was elected president in the 2002 elections, representing Grand Comore. Following the election, the three islands of Moheli, Anjouan, and Grande Comore assumed authority over most of their own affairs. In May 2006, Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi, a Muslim cleric from Anjouan, won the presidential election with 58% of the vote. His election marked the first peaceful change of leadership since Comoros became independent.

BIOGRAPHICAL PROFILE

Name: Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi

Position: President of an independent republic

Took Office: 26 May 2006

Birthplace: Mutsamudu, Anjouan Island, Comoros

Birthdate: 5 June 1958

Religion: Sunni Muslim

Education: Islamic studies in Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Iran

Children: Seven children

Of interest: He is known as “Ayatollah” after his studies in Iran.

13 Government

A new constitution was adopted in June 1992, and again in December 2001. The federal presidency rotates every four years among the elected presidents from the three main islands in the Union. Of the 33-member unicameral Assembly, 15 Assembly deputies are selected by the individual islands’ local assemblies and 18 by universal suffrage.

Each of the main islands has its own president and elected legislature. The islands’ presidents serve as vice presidents of the Comoros. There are also four municipalities.

14 Political Parties

In February 1982, the Comorian Union for Progress (Union Comorienne pour le Progrés— UCP) was established as the only legal party. Despite earlier assurances of a free ballot, few opposition candidates were allowed to run, and dissidents were subject to intimidation and imprisonment.

Yearly Growth Rate

This economic indicator tells by what percent the economy has increased or decreased when compared with the previous year.

On 10 September 1993, the UCP merged with the Union for Democracy and Decentralization, the largest party in the assembly. President Djohar hastily created his own party, the RDR, to contest the December 1993 elections.

15 Judicial System

The Supreme Court resolves constitutional questions, supervises presidential elections, and provides arbitration, or impartial judgment, in any case in which the government is accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court also reviews decisions of the lower courts, including the superior court of appeals at Moroni. Lower courts of the first instance are located in major towns. Amendments to the constitution passed in 1996 provide for a number of safeguards including the equality of all citizens before the law. The right to counsel is not stipulated.

16 Armed Forces

The armed forces consist of a police force numbering 500 and a defense force of 500 members. France provides a small military presence, military training, and naval protection. Defense spending in 2001 was $6 million, or 3% of gross domestic product (GDP).

17 Economy

The economy of Comoros is agriculture-based, dependent on trade and foreign assistance. Foreign aid accounted for about half of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2002. Mineral resources are few; there is little industry. Tourism, however, increased considerably in the 1990s, but tapered off in 1999 because of the political upheaval. Agriculture accounted for 40% of GDP, and employs 80% of the population. Comoros is the world’s second-largest producer of vanilla and the world’s leading producer of ylang-ylang, an oil used in perfumes.

18 Income

In 2005, Comoros’s gross domestic product (GDP) was $441.0 million, or about $600 per person. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 3%. The average inflation rate was 3% in 2002.

19 Industry

There are various small-scale industries, mostly for processing the islands’ agricultural products. Aside from perfume distilleries (perfume is one of the country’s main exports), the Comoros has sawmills, a soap factory, a small plastics factory, a soft drink plant, and metal-working shops.

20 Labor

In 2002, the majority of the economically active population was engaged in subsistence agriculture, fishing, or petty commerce. The labor force was estimated at 144,500 in 1996. The wage-earning labor force is small, consisting of fewer than 7,000 employees, including those who work for the government. The minimum age for employment is 15 years, but children generally work with their families in the large subsistence farming and fishing sectors, or as domestic servants. There is no minimum wage, and payment to workers is irregular.

21 Agriculture

The economy of Comoros is primarily agricultural, with farmland comprising 45% of the total land area. Agriculture contributed about 40% of gross domestic product in 2004. Among the chief crops in 2004 were manioc (53,000 tons), coconuts (77,000 tons), bananas (65,000 tons), sweet potatoes (5,500 tons), rice (17,000 tons), corn (4,000 tons), and cloves (3,000 tons). Other crops include sugarcane, sisal, peppers, spices, coffee, and various perfume plants such as ylang-ylang, abelmosk, lemon grass, jasmine, and citronella. The chief export crops are vanilla, cloves, ylang-ylang, and copra. The Comoros, including Mayotte, account for about 80% of world production of ylang-ylang essence, which is used in some perfumes. Marketed exports in 2004 included 44 tons of dried vanilla, valued at nearly $18.8 million.

Food demand is not met by domestic production, so Comoros is highly dependent on imported foods, especially rice.

Components of the Economy

This pie chart shows how much of the country’s economy is devoted to agriculture (including forestry, hunting, and fishing), industry, or services.

22 Domesticated Animals

Small amounts of livestock are raised. In 2004, there were an estimated 115,000 goats, 45,000 head of cattle, 21,000 sheep, and 5,000 asses. An estimated 1,100 tons of beef and 1,000 tons of other meat were produced, along with 4,550 tons of milk and 776 tons of eggs.

23 Fishing

The fish catch in Comoros amounted to about 14,115 tons in 2003, 60% of which was tuna. A Japanese-funded fisheries training center is located on Anjouan.

24 Forestry

Forested areas amounted to about 8,000 hectares (20,000 acres) in 2000. Numerous fruit trees and tropical hardwoods are found. Some timber is produced, notably on the island of Grande Comore, which has about half the remaining forest.

Selected Social Indicators

The statistics below are the most recent estimates available as of 2006. For comparison purposes, data for the United States and averages for low-income countries and high-income countries are also given. About 15% of the world’s 6.5 billion people live in high-income countries, while 37% live in low-income countries.

25 Mining

There were no commercially exploitable mineral resources in Comoros. Small quantities of clay, sand, gravel, and crushed stone are produced for domestic use.

26 Foreign Trade

Ylang-ylang essence, vanilla, cloves, copra, and other agricultural commodities make up the bulk of Comorian exports; of these, vanilla is by far the most important export earner. Imports include rice and other foodstuffs, petroleum products, and motor vehicles.

France is the leading trade partner. Other trading partners are the United States, Singapore, Turkey, Germany, South Africa, and Kenya.

27 Energy and Power

In 2003, the consumption and generation of electricity each totaled 0.02 billion kilowatt hours. Installed capacity was about 0.005 gigawatts. All petroleum products are imported.

28 Social Development

Women occupy a subservient position in this extremely traditional society but retain some strength from the matrilineal social structure. Some poor families are forced to send children to live in other households, where they work as domestic servants, often at ages as young as seven. Prisons are overcrowded and lack proper sanitation, but the government allows them to be monitored by international agencies. Human rights abuses have been reported.

29 Health

In 2004, there were less than 1 physician, 34 nurses, 14 dentists, and 14 midwives per 100,000 people. In 1990, there were 1.4 hospital beds per 1,000 people.

As of 2005, average life expectancy was 61.9 years. The infant mortality rate was estimated at 74.9 deaths per 1,000 live births. In 1994, it was estimated that about 38,000 children died each year before age five. The maternal mortality rate was 950 per 100,000 live births in 1990.

Lack of animal protein is a serious problem. In addition, a large percentage of the adult population suffers from malaria and there is a high incidence of tuberculosis and leprosy. Only 15 cases of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) were reported in 1995. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.12 per 100 adults in 2003.

30 Housing

More than 65% of all housing units are straw huts with roofs of cocoa leaves, and 25% are made of durable materials including stone, brick, or concrete.

31 Education

Education is compulsory for children between the ages of seven and sixteen years. Primary education lasts for six years, followed by seven years of secondary education with four years in the first stage and three years in the second stage. More than half of school-age children are enrolled in primary school.

There are two technical schools and a teacher-training college near Moroni. The higher-level institutions have just a few hundred students. The adult illiteracy rate in 2004 was estimated at 43.5% (males, 36%; females, 51%).

32 Media

In 2003, there were 13,200 mainline telephones in use throughout the country, along with an additional 2,000 mobile phones. Radio-Comoros, a government agency, provides services on short-wave and FM in Comorian, French, English, Arabic, Malagasy, and Swahili. In 2001, there were one AM and four FM radio stations. A national television station was started in 2001 with assistance from China. There are also a number of local radio and television stations. There are about 25 television sets per 1,000 people.

The weekly newspaper Al Watwany (1995 circulation 1,200) is published by the government; the weekly L’Archipel (500) is published independently. There are two independent newspapers that publish regularly.

A new constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press, and it is believed that the government generally respects these rights.

33 Tourism and Recreation

The tourist industry is relatively undeveloped, although it has seen improvements in the 1990s due to investments from South Africa. There were 18,936 tourist arrivals in 2002, and tourist receipts totaled $11 million. In 2002, there were 188 hotel rooms with a total of 376 beds. Water sports are the primary recreational activities.

34 Famous Comorians

Heads of state since independence include ‘Ali Soilih (1937–1978), who came to power as a result of the 1975 coup and who died after the 1978 takeover; and Ahmad ‘Abdallah (1919–1989), president briefly in 1975 and restored to power in 1978. Colonel Azali Assoumani (1959–) served as elected president from 2002–06, after having assumed the titles of president, prime minister, and defense minister following a coup in 1999.

35 Bibliography

BOOKS

Newitt, Malyn. The Comoro Islands. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984.

Ottenheimer, Martin. Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1994.

WEB SITES

Country Pages. www.state.gov/p/af/ci/cn/. (accessed on January 15, 2007).