Tunisia

History & Background

Geography: Officially known as the Republic of Tunisia (Al Jamhuriyah at-Tunisiyah in Arabic), Tunisia lies at the top of the African continent, bordered by the Mediterranean Sea along its northern and easternmost sides. One hundred thirty-seven kilometers southwest of Sicily, Tunisia is two hours by air from Paris or Geneva and only 45 minutes by air from Rome. With Algeria to the west and south and Libya to the southeast, Tunisia has 1,298 kilometers of coastline. Measuring 163,610 square kilometers—slightly larger than the U.S. state of Georgia—Tunisia is the smallest of the North African countries. In terms of history and culture, however, Tunisia is arguably the richest. Strategically located at the crossroads of the Mediterranean, Africa, and the Middle East and just a short distance from Europe, Tunisia has long been the scene of interactions among countless tribes and peoples of Africa, Asia, and Europe as they have traded with each other, drawn from and sometimes conquered each other's civilizations, and built their personal and collective fortunes.

Cultural Background & History: Tunisia is home to an impressive array of cultural traditions and archaeological treasures left by the great variety of peoples who have lived in this northern corner of Africa over the course of time—the indigenous Berbers and other African tribes and the invaders and traders who arrived over the centuries: Vandals, Byzantines, Phoenicians, Romans, Jews, Arabs, Andalusians and Spaniards, Ottoman Turks, and the French. With a population 98 percent Arab Sunni Muslim, about 1 percent European Christian, and about 1 percent Jewish and other, Tunisia is one of the few countries in North Africa or the Middle East today where people of different religions live in mutual tolerance and respect. In recent years the Tunisian government has taken special precautions to protect Tunisia's Jewish population, which by the year 2000 had diminished to about 1 percent of its size in 1948 due to emigrations mainly to Israel and France after incidents of violence in Tunisia associated with Arab-Jewish clashes in the Middle East. Despite these periodic setbacks to ethnic peace that occurred as recently as 1985, contemporary Tunisia has a reputation for successfully accommodating the interests, needs, and tastes of the diverse peoples who visit and live in the country.

Archaeological treasures found in the northeastern Cap Bon area of Tunisia just across from Sicily at Kerkouane and Kelibia, two ancient Punic (Phoenician) towns, indicate that highly developed civilizations had taken root along Tunisia's northeastern coast centuries before the birth of Christ. The Phoenician city of Carthage (now a suburb of Tunis, Tunisia's capital city) was founded in 814 B.C. by Queen Dido, also called Elyssa, sister of the Phoenician King Pygmalion of Tyre, an ancient city on what is now the Lebanese coast. Richly endowed with architectural treasures and remnants of utensils and pottery used by Phoenicians from all classes, the Punic ruins at Carthage, Kelibia, and Kerkouane are elegant reminders that well-developed civilizations have existed in Tunisia for millennia. Despite—or perhaps because of—the wealth and care with which these cities were built and the various occupations practiced by their peoples, the Punic cities were destroyed by Roman invaders during three very bloody wars waged by the Phoenicians against Rome in the three centuries before Christ. Just before the start of the Christian era, the Romans established their first colony on the African continent in "Ifriqiya," their name for present-day Tunisia.

The Roman colony of Ifriqiya flourished from 146 B.C. until 439 A.D., with an economy based on trade and agriculture. (Sections of the 90-mile Roman aqueduct that once carried water from Zaghouan to urbanites in the Roman-rebuilt Carthage are still visible today in the countryside outside Tunis.) The Romans, susceptible themselves to conquest, were overtaken in 439 A.D. by Vandals in boats that were pressed out of Spain. Less than a century after the Vandal conquest, Carthage was retaken in 533 A.D. by the Byzantines, Christian invaders from Emperor Justinian's Constantinople, the city destined to later become Istanbul, Turkey. The Byzantines, too, lasted only a century in Tunisia, succumbing to an Arab Muslim invasion at Sbeitla in 647.

The years 647-698 A.D. marked the start of the Arab Muslim era in Tunisia. The city of Kairouan in the central Sahel region was founded in 670, and Carthage was taken by the Arabs in 698. Islam continued to expand over the next several centuries throughout what is now Tunisia with the establishment of the Dynasty of the Aghlabides and the construction of the Zitouna (Olive) Mosque in Tunis. Kairouan became the political and intellectual center of the Maghreb (North Africa) at this time. The Aghlabides were followed by the Fatimide and Ziride Dynasties from 909-1159, and from 1159-1230 the Almohades unified the countries of the Maghreb with the Andalusian Muslims in what is now Spain.

In 1236 the Hafsides, vassals of the Almohades, declared their independence from their rulers and established a new dynasty in Tunisia that lasted until 1574, when the Ottoman Turks annexed Tunisia to their empire. Tunisia remained under Turkish control until 1705 when the Husseinite Dynasty was founded, which lasted until Tunisia became a republic on July 25, 1957.

During the late nineteenth century as the European colonial powers spread through Africa and decided among themselves who would control which African territories, Tunisia fell to the French, who marked the consolidation of their efforts to control Tunisia with a treaty forced upon the local authorities on May 12, 1881 making Tunisia a French protectorate—essentially, a colony of France. Strong Tunisian resistance to domination by the French was apparent throughout the 75 years of French colonization. The anti-colonial struggle heightened with the founding of the Destour party in 1920 and was re-energized by the neo-Destour Party, founded in 1934.

As the countries of Africa began to declare and win their independence from the European colonizers during the post-World War II period, Tunisia was one of the first to declare independence. On March 20, 1956, Tunisia became independent of France, and one year later, on July 25, 1957, the country proclaimed itself a republic and Habib Bourguiba the first President. Tunisia's first republican constitution was adopted nearly two years later, on June 1, 1959. Four years afterward on October 15, 1963, the French evacuated the northern coastal city of Bizerte, the last foreign military base in Tunisia. Bourguiba remained President until November 7, 1987, when in a constitutional change Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali succeeded him in office, Bourguiba having been declared senile by several doctors and thus incompetent to continue to serve. Ben Ali was invested as President of the Republic on November 7, 1987, by the Tunisian parliament to serve out the rest of former President Bourguiba's term; Bourguiba quietly retired, taking up residence in his home city of Monastir on the eastern Mediterranean coast for the next eleven years until his natural death in the year 2000. April 2, 1989, marked the first legislative and presidential elections under Ben Ali, during which the Head of State was officially elected President by the Tunisian electorate. On March 20, 1994 and again on October 24, 1999, Ben Ali was re-elected President of the Republic of Tunisia.

Social Conditions: Much of Tunisia's relatively small population of 9.5 million people lives in the northern and eastern coastal cities, towns, and rural areas and the central Sahel region. The western mountain region is somewhat more sparsely populated, and even fewer Tunisians live in the southern half of the country where the Sahara desert begins, although even in the desert south settlements and towns have flourished for centuries. Approximately 65 percent of Tunisia's population lived in urban areas in 1999. With a population density of only 60 persons per square kilometer, Tunisia has made significant progress in overcoming the challenge of educating a rural population that has included sufficient numbers of nomadic herders and small farmers scattered throughout the countryside to have made the building of accessible schools genuinely problematic. By 1995 approximately two-thirds of Tunisians age 15 and older were literate (able to read and write)—78.6 percent of the male population and 54.6 percent of girls and women. Literacy since that time has continued to increase. In 1999, approximately 80 percent of Tunisian males and almost 60 percent of Tunisian females ages 15 and up were literate. Youth literacy was significantly higher, with 92 percent of 15- to 24-year-olds literate in 1998. By the late 1990s the female adult literacy rate was only 70 percent of the male rate, however, as women's equality with men in terms of school enrollments and completion rates has been a very recent phenomenon, especially in the rural areas. Female participation in government and business is steadily increasing. Women's heightened status and involvement in the paid workforce is reflected in the fact that in 1997, more than 12 percent of administrators and managers were women and more than 35 percent of professional and technical workers were women.

The Tunisian population, estimated at 9,593,402 in July 2000, had a growth rate that year of only 1.17 percent, the result of very consciously organized family-planning programs in the last decades of the twentieth century that began during the presidency of Bourguiba, Tunisia's much-beloved first President. Bourguiba did much to emancipate women and strengthen women's rights in Tunisia. In 1961 the Tunisian government introduced a policy supporting the use of birth control, and in 1967 abortions were legalized. Contraception prevalence (the percent of married women between 15 and 49 regularly using contraception) was 60 percent by the late 1990s. The total fertility rate in Tunisia in 1999 was 2.5 (i.e., a woman bearing children for her entire childbearing years at the current fertility rate would produce 2.5 children). Approximately 3 of every 10 Tunisians in 2000 was 14-years-old or younger while nearly twothirds of the population was between 15 and 64 years of age and about 6 percent of Tunisia's population was 65 or older.

Far better off than most other African countries in terms of pre-natal care and infant and maternal health, Tunisia had an infant-mortality rate of 24 per 1000 live births in 1999, half the rate for the North African/Middle Eastern region. In 1999 the under-five-years child-mortality rate was 30 per 1000, less than half the rate of 63 for the North African/Middle Eastern region. The average life span of Tunisians in the year 2000 was 73.7 years (72.1 for men, 75.4 for women). However, with 807 doctors per one million Tunisian citizens, Tunisia still faces formidable challenges to improving its public health system to the point where all citizens of Tunisia stand a relatively equal chance of receiving high-quality healthcare. The methods used by Tunisian doctors may parallel, and in some cases surpass, those used by doctors in the West, since Tunisian doctors have benefited from substantial development assistance and medical training programs abroad as well as from medical education in Tunisia. However, this shortage of physicians means that even adequate care may be unavailable to the many patients who in the late 1990s could find themselves sitting for hours (sometimes all day, even with appointments) at the few specialized health centers that treated patients with chronic and potentially fatal diseases (e.g., the Institut Salah Azaiz in Tunis, recognized as North Africa's premier cancer treatment center by the World Health Organization). The Tunisian government acknowledges the need to expand the quality and breadth of healthcare, including through private initiatives, so that all Tunisians, regardless of social status, will be able to receive the care they require. The question of where sufficient resources are to be found to finance such an expansion remains unanswered.

Economic Status: For centuries the Tunisian economy was primarily agricultural. However, the large service sector that developed in late-twentieth-century Tunisia, much of it attached to the vigorously growing tourist industry, led to a restructuring of the Tunisian workforce, where 23 percent of the labor force was employed in industry in 1995, about 55 percent in service jobs, and only 22 percent in agriculture. By the late 1990s the Tunisian economy enjoyed an annual growth rate of roughly 6.2 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP), and Tunisia's annual per capita income in 1999 was about $2,100. Despite substantial exports of food and agricultural products, textiles, leather products, and petroleum, gas, and derivatives, Tunisia required an infusion of US$148 million in overseas development assistance in 1998 to meet its population's basic needs and the demands of Tunisia's rapidly developing and increasingly privatizing economic sector. Nonetheless, Tunisia's poverty rate dropped remarkably from 40 percent in 1960 to only 7 percent by 2000, thanks to a combination of diligent efforts by Tunisia's government to eradicate poverty, an improving economic climate, and substantial international development assistance. Rural poverty continues to be a challenge to overcome, however. In 1995 some 13.9 percent of the rural population lived in poverty compared with 3.6 percent in urban areas, and over 70 percent of impoverished Tunisians were rural, in part due to the challenge of spreading schools to the rural areas, a situation largely overcome by the start of the new millennium.

The World Bank summarized Tunisia's economic situation in 2000 by noting that Tunisia had followed a state-led plan of economic development until the mid-1980s, emphasizing human-resource development and gender equity. By 1986 Tunisia faced growing financial imbalances, a poor harvest, and the collapse of oil prices. With President Ben Ali's accession to power in 1987, Tunisia revised its economic strategy and began implementing a series of economic reforms supported by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank that were designed to maintain a stable macroeconomic structure, improve resource allocation by gradually liberalizing trade, investments, and prices, and free up private-sector resources. While the Tunisian government continued to maintain certain economic controls, state subsidies were reduced and liberalization efforts were expanded in the 1990s, and the reforms led to gradual but steady improvements in the Tunisian economy.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Tunisia is a multi-party, parliamentary democracy with a republican form of government. The governmental structures were established by the Tunisian Constitution of June 1, 1959, which was amended July 12, 1998. Based on a combination of French civil law stemming from the period during which Tunisia was governed as a French protectorate (1881-1956) and Islamic law (Sharia ) based on the Koran and the sayings of the Prophet Mohamed (the Hadith ), Tunisian law reflects a blending of Western and North African concepts, traditions, and legal norms pertaining to how society should operate and be governed. Tunisia was the first Arab state to revise its legal code with respect to women, although additional reforms are still needed to guarantee that women's rights are equal to men's not only in law but also in practice. In the early years of Tunisia's independence Bourguiba promoted a new legal code governing the rights of women in Tunisian society that became instrumental to granting women more-equal status in Tunisia than in other Arab states. Bourguiba's Code of Personal Status, introduced in August 1956, five months after Tunisia's independence from France was declared, outlawed polygamy, established a formal court procedure for divorce where the wife as well as the husband could initiate a legal divorce, set a minimum age for marriage, and established that a woman could not be married off by her relatives without her consent. Bourguiba also facilitated the establishment of the Union Nationale des Femmes de Tunisie (UNFT —National Union of Tunisian Women), which has worked to advance the personal, social, and economic situations of women since the 1950s. He also encouraged Tunisian women to forsake wearing the traditional veil, a practice that already had begun to unravel during French colonial days. Tunisian women in the twenty-first century wear a diverse array of clothing, each woman choosing her style of dress based on personal taste, religious values, and family circumstances.

Political Participation: All Tunisians, men and women alike, are eligible to vote at age 20; men are also eligible for military service at that age. (Women were granted the right to vote under Bourguiba in 1957.) Tunisia's democratically elected chief executive and head of state, the President, is elected to a five-year term of office and can be reelected twice consecutively. The executive branch of the Tunisian government also includes a prime minister and cabinet. Since November 7, 1987, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, a member of the majority RCD (Rassemblement Constitutionnel Democratique, or Democratic Constitutional Rally) party that also rules the legislature, has been President of Tunisia. At the national level the Tunisian legislative branch consists of a unicameral Chamber of Deputies (Majlis al-Nuwaab ) of 182 seats. The Deputies, 11.5 percent of whom were women by the late 1990s, serve five-year terms. A constitutional change in October 1997 lowered the eligible age for Deputies to 23 years from the previous age requirement of 25 that had been set in 1988. Legislative acts are subject to a limited amount of judicial review by the Supreme Court acting in joint session. The third branch of Tunisia's national government is the judicial branch, consisting of a Court of Cassation (Cour de Cassation ). Tunisian local affairs are administered through a system of 23 governorates that function in a rather similar way as states or French departments, although perhaps with less autonomy from the national government, and through locally elected city and town councils.

Despite the enlargement of the political playing field in 1994 when candidates from five parties other than the majority RCD won seats in the Chamber of Deputies, in 2000 the incumbent Tunisian government continued to limit political challenges by non-RCD politicians and displayed only minimal tolerance for multi-party competition or expressions of political dissent. Due in large measure to internal security concerns that Tunisia could become another Algeria (where armed Islamicists have battled government and paramilitary forces since January 1992), some Tunisian authorities have strictly interpreted Tunisian laws to contain political dissent and suppress critiques of the government. Cited repeatedly by international human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International as a persistent violator of human rights, including freedom of the press and freedom of association, the Tunisian government in the 1990s established its own human rights organs and began a campaign to educate Tunisian public officials and Tunisian citizens about human rights. However, as of early 2001 academic freedom and political pluralism continue to be somewhat limited, and self-censorship continues to be rather widely practiced.

Tunisia has participated regularly in many regional and international organizations and conferences to foster international cooperation and economic development. To some extent Tunisia has served as a model for other countries in the Arab world and in Africa in setting precedents for economic reforms and development efforts. For example, in 1962 Tunisia became the first country in the Middle Eastern-North African region to receive an education loan from the World Bank. In 1998 Tunisia became the first non-European Mediterranean country to enter into a bilateral partnership agreement with the countries of the European Communities, to gradually liberalize trade relations and work towards establishing a regional free market zone by 2008. Receiving sustainable development assistance in the form of grants and loans from international bodies such as UN agencies, Tunisia also has formed bilateral partnerships with a number of European and other countries. For example, the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the U.S. Department of State announced early in 2001 that it would provide grants to collaborative partnerships of American and Tunisian universities, governmental and nongovernmental organizations, and non-profit service and professional organizations interested in designing and strengthening university-level curricula in Tunisia as well as faculty and student training programs in business management, public administration, and other areas where the potential impact on the Tunisian economy is likely to be positive.

Educational Philosophy & Policy: Education in Tunisia carries high social value, and parents throughout Tunisia, whether rural or urban, see education as the key to a successful future for their children. Parents and teachers work closely together, and Tunisian teachers command a generally high level of respect from students and parents alike. Presenting his recommendations for improving higher education in October 1999, President Ben Ali summed up the overall Tunisian sentiment on the importance of education by stating, "Knowledge is the key to success."

Shortly after independence Tunisia worked actively to upgrade the quality of its education system and make schooling more inclusive. Examining the connection between education and social and economic advancement in Tunisia, James Allman wrote:

In 1958, two years after independence, there was a basic educational reform that was implemented by a minister of education who had ten years to carry out his program under conditions of national political stability. Attempts were made to coordinate educational planning within the framework of comprehensive economic and social development plans. By the end of the first decade of education development, Tunisia was spending a proportion of its per capita gross domestic product on education exceeded by few other countries of the world. (Allman 12-13)

The essential philosophy underlying Tunisia's educational system is reflected in Tunisian Minister of Education Ridha Ferchiou's opening remarks at a two-day, World Bank-sponsored seminar on "The School of Tomorrow" held in Tunis in May 1998 that brought together Tunisian educators and government policy-makers as well as educational specialists from abroad. According to Minister Ferchiou, Tunisian education is characterized by: 1) care in balancing moral, linguistic, social, scientific, artistic, and physical components, 2) openness to modernity, 3) development of a critical spirit, and 4) reinforcement of the spirit of tolerance and the study of human rights. Although these "characteristics" are more like goals not yet fully realized than existing features, consensus on their importance appears widespread among Tunisian educators and government officials as well as among international specialists such as the World Bank team supporting educational reforms in Tunisia.

Depicting Tunisia's educational progress and the challenges lying ahead, Minister Ferchiou presented a clear synopsis of government views on necessary educational reforms, highlighting several major goals: 1) reinforce evaluation and improve educational management, 2) increase decentralization, 3) integrate new technologies by installing computers and Internet access in all high schools and preparatory schools by 2001, 4) accentuate the essential in teaching programs and manuals, emphasizing basic competencies and reflecting new scientific and technological concepts, 5) reinforce initial teacher training through continuing education for teachers to improve teaching quality, 6) restructure and rein-vigorate pedagogical research and innovations partly by transforming the former Institut National des Sciences de l'Education (INSE, or the National Institute of Pedagogical Sciences) into a more dynamic structure operating by modern management methods, based on scientifically designed and implemented research programs linked to national and international competencies, and 7) improve teacher laws and working conditions. In fact, the two seminar days in May 1998 prefaced a World Bank-sponsored educational reform project directed toward improving the quality of Tunisian education and upgrading teacher training, financed through the World Bank FY2000 Education Sector Reform Loan for Tunisia—the US$99 million "Education Quality Improvement Project."

Laws Affecting Education: The most recent comprehensive reforms of Tunisia's education system were begun in 1989 and crystallized into Law No. 965 on July 29, 1991, which established the first nine years of basic education as compulsory for all Tunisians ages 6 through 15. Additional significant laws were passed during the 1990s to improve the structure and function of Tunisian public education. The Ministry of Education itself was restructured through Decree No. 98-1799 of September 14, 1998; the Ministry of Higher Education already had been structured by Decrees No. 95-470 of March 23, 1995 and No. 97-495 of March 14, 1997. Multidisciplinary institutions attached to Tunisia's University of the South and University of the Center were supported through Decrees No. 89-1939 of December 14, 1989 and No. 93-423 of February 17, 1993. The Offices of University Operations in charge of student scholarships, loans, residences, sociocultural activities, and recreation were created and regulated through Decrees No. 90-1122 of June 26, 1990 and Nos. 95-1953 and 95-1954 of October 9, 1995.

Educational System—Overview

Public Education: In 1998, approximately 2.5 million Tunisians were enrolled in primary, secondary, and university institutions out of a population of about 9 million. Enrollment levels in basic education (the compulsory first nine grades of schooling) had reached 99 percent. As already noted above, all Tunisians ages 6 through 15 are required to attend school, as of the early 1990s. The educational system is structured into cycles, with the first, or primary, cycle covering the first six years of schooling—grades 1-6. The second cycle includes the next three years of compulsory basic education, grades 1-3 of the secondary level, with students taught in basic education colleges. Grades 4-7 of secondary education cover the final four years of pre-university public schooling, with students taught in lycées. For two years in the lycées all students take a common course of study; two more years of specialized studies follow where each student selects one particular field: experimental science, math, letters, economics and business management, or technical studies. The academic year in primary and secondary schools is divided into three trimesters, with the school year beginning September 15 and ending June 30. Summer sessions are not held, allowing students time off for vacation.

Tertiary, or higher, education in Tunisia includes three cycles of schooling, although not all students proceed through all three levels. The first cycle generally lasts two to three years, after which the diploma for the first cycle of university studies (diplôme d'études universitaires de premier cycle, or DEUPC) or the diploma for technological university studies (diplôme d'études universitaires technologiques, or DUT) is awarded. The first cycle prepares students to enter either the world of work or the second and third cycles of higher education. The second cycle of higher education lasts about four or five years and is capped with an engineer's degree or a teaching diploma that allows the graduate to work or to continue studying in the third cycle. The third cycle of higher education leads to terminal degrees at the doctoral level, the professional Diploma of Specialized Higher Studies (Diplôme d'Études Supérieurs Spécialisées, or D.E.S.S.) or the academic Diploma of In-Depth Studies (Diplôme d'Études Approfondies, or DEA). The academic year in institutes of higher education is divided into two semesters, and training can be provided in the form of coursework, work-study assignments, and possibly research projects. The university year begins in the month of October and lasts twelve months, including two required semesters and an additional, optional session. Higher education is delivered through a system of universities and two specialized types of institutes, Instituts Supérieurs des Etudes Technologiques (ISET, or Higher Institutes of Technological Studies) and Instituts Supérieurs de Formation des Maîtres (ISFM, or Higher Institutes of Teaching Training).

The academic year 1999-2000 saw almost 2.3 million students enrolled in Tunisian schools from the primary through university levels. The same year, net enrollments of primary students ages 6-12 was higher than 92 percent. Of youth ages 19-24, nearly 17 percent (180,000 young women and men) were enrolled in universities in 1998-99.

Foreign Influence: Because the French administrative system was used to structure the Tunisian government when Tunisia was governed as a French protectorate, the Tunisian government-supported education system is infused with many of the principles and structures of the French educational system. However, Arabic is currently used as the language of instruction in Tunisian public schools, with French taught as a second language starting in the third year of primary school and English taught as a third language beginning in the seventh year of school, i.e., the first year of secondary school. (Only fairly recently did Arabic become the official language of government in Tunisia, and French and Arabic are both used as languages of commerce.) Other foreign languages are also offered to Tunisian students as they proceed through the secondary grades.

Examinations: Tunisian primary and secondary students take exams at the close of each school trimester. In addition, special examinations are taken at the end of the two cycles of secondary schooling. After the first three years of secondary education in the colleges (i.e., at the end of the ninth year of schooling), a national examination is held. The students who pass progress on to the next four years of secondary studies and take the national baccalaureat (also referred to as bacc ) examination after the final year of their secondary education in the lycées. The baccalaureat not only measures student achievement but also serves as an admissions examination for university-level studies. Typically much more difficult than standard secondary-level examinations given in American schools, the baccalaureat has a pass rate in any one year that may be as low as 40-45 percent or as high as 70 percent. Many of those who fail to pass the bacc on their first try will repeat the final year of secondary school or study privately and retake the exam once or twice in a subsequent year (although age limits and repetition limitations do apply). However, due to high unemployment rates, especially for Tunisian youth, many students who are unsuccessful at passing the bacc leave secondary school and cannot find work. The same goes for a number of university graduates. As a result, the pressure to move abroad in search of work, either legally or illegally, is very high, producing large flows of Tunisian youth to Europe and a somewhat lesser exodus to the United States in search of jobs. (Unemployment in Tunisia was measured at roughly 16 percent in the late 1990s but included unemployed household workers who typically would not be counted in measures of unemployment in other countries. Adjusting the rate accordingly, unemployment still hovered around 11 percent.)

Private Schools: Thirty-five private schools offered primary education in 1995-1996 to 8,900 pupils taught by 455 teachers, with an average class size of 19.6. That same academic year 68,500 students were enrolled in 340 private institutions covering the seven grades of secondary education, taught by 1,260 full-time teachers. Most higher education in Tunisia is offered through publicly supported universities, although numerous private institutions also exist. For example, the Groupe EEA-INTACULT is a consortium of seven schools based in Tunis that includes the Free University of Tunis (l'Université Libre de Tunis ) and six other specialized institutions. Together, the seven schools of the consortium offer preschool, primary, and secondary studies, technological and commercial studies, teacher training and pedagogical research, correspondence courses for persons living outside Tunisia or mixing professional or family responsibilities with schooling, and the publication of textbooks and other teaching materials.

Religious Schools: Koranic (Islamic) kindergartens in Tunisia offer training to young Tunisians from the age of four in Muslim religious studies and the language of the Koran. In addition, one of the seven public universities in Tunisia—Universit,é Ezzitouna —is dedicated to training imams and Koranic scholars. Dorothy Stannard noted in her 1991 guide to Tunisia that concern had arisen by the early 1990s over possible fundamentalist Islamic activity in Tunisian universities, especially at Université Ezzitouna. She observed:

Fundamentalism in Tunisia shouldn't, however, be over-estimated or confused with ordinary expressions of Islam—which, according to En Nadha [the governmentbanned "Renaissance" party], is precisely what the government does when public employees caught praying at work are earmarked as religious zealots. Even in the absence of politicizing fundamentalists, Islam plays an important role in most Tunisian lives right from birth.

The fact that 98 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim reflects the depth of Muslim traditions in the country, mirrored by the wish of many Tunisians to live a life that balances worldly demands with religious practices and aspirations.

Some Catholic private schools also exist in Tunisia, though their numbers are few considering that only 1 percent of Tunisians are Christian. Tunisia's small Jewish population of 1,500 has a range of private schools that offer education from a Jewish perspective. Djerba, the center of Tunisia's Jewish community, has one Jewish kindergarten, two Jewish primary schools, and two Jewish secondary schools. Tunis has three Jewish primary schools and two Jewish secondary schools, while the coastal city of Zarzis, just south of Djerba, has one Jewish primary school. Yeshivot for training rabbis are found in Tunis and Djerba.

Tunisian Students Studying Abroad: About 12,000 Tunisian students were studying outside of Tunisia in the 1998-1999 academic year. In particular, Canada and France have developed cooperative educational partnerships with Tunisia to assist in making international education opportunities available to Tunisian students. The Tunisian University Mission in North America, for example, is a Tunisian-government-sponsored institution located in Montreal, Canada to facilitate student exchanges and other educational programs involving Tunisia, Canada, and the United States.

Instructional Technology: In 1995 the number of personal computers in Tunisia was 6.7 per 1000 people; by 1998 this figure had more than doubled to 14.7. The government began an intensive effort in the 1990s to add computers to all the lycées in the country by the year 2000. In May 1998 the two-day seminar on "The School of Tomorrow" included significant attention to the issue of expanding new communications and information technologies for the benefit of Tunisia's students. In the year 2000 all upper-secondary students were receiving instruction in computers and computer software programs as well as in the use of the Internet. The goal is to expand the use of computers through all the levels of schooling so that Tunisian students can benefit from technological advances and distance learning throughout their school years.

Textbooks, Audiovisuals, & Curriculum Development: At the start of the new millennium, Tunisia was producing a full range of textbooks covering all course subjects at all educational levels. With several presses operating in Tunisia to publish texts and other scholarly books, Tunisia is becoming increasingly well equipped to respond to the demands of the educational reforms now taking place. During their two-day seminar on "The School of Tomorrow," Tunisian educators acknowledged the need to produce a broader range of higher-quality audiovisual materials for use in Tunisian schools and universities. With the advent of computer technology and video cameras, more multimedia materials can be produced at increasingly less expensive prices, making the delivery of quality educational support materials a less formidable challenge than in the past.

Improving pedagogical research and teacher training programs and developing curricula that reflect scientific and technological advances also have been the focus of government attention as Tunisia attempts to make itself economically more competitive with the developed countries of Europe and the Mediterranean region. Preparing new textbooks and upgrading instructional materials go hand in hand with these efforts. Significant attention is being placed on developing training materials that will better prepare Tunisian students for jobs in the high-technology and business sectors, where a major increase in service-sector employment is expected to occur over the coming years. In addition, increasing the transferability of skills from the classroom to the workplace has been the focus of curricular reforms. Substantial investments already were being made by the year 2000 by the Tunisian government, the World Bank, and bilateral donors to modernize and improve the curricula used in Tunisian schools and to improve the match between the job skills of graduating youth and the needs of the labor market.

Role of Education in Development: As already noted, Tunisia has long recognized the important role played by education in the socioeconomic development of a country. In fact, this was true as early as the 1960s and 1970s, when Tunisia became one of the first countries in the region to receive development assistance from the World Bank and the U.S. Peace Corps to expand education, build schools, make schooling more accessible to the rural poor, and increase the enrollment of girls. Tunisia's continuing collaboration with international organizations and donors to improve its education system and training opportunities and to increase the employability of youth represents further evidence that Tunisians at official levels and among the general public strongly support the belief that education offers the best chance for improving the quality of life for Tunisian citizens. Other key donors supporting Tunisia's efforts to upgrade education and strengthen economic development include the European Union, the Kuwait Fund, and several national governments such as France, Italy, Japan, Germany, Belgium, and Switzerland.

Preprimary & Primary Education

General Survey: Although kindergartens exist in Tunisia, improving and expanding quality early-childhood programs will be supported through future World Bank funding, in collaboration with the Tunisian government. Primary schools, in contrast, are now plentiful throughout Tunisia, the government having made it a priority over the last several decades of the twentieth century to expand primary education so that all Tunisian children could be enrolled, an effort rewarded with remarkable success. School subjects taught at the primary levels include spoken and written Arabic and French, mathematics, science, history, religion, art, and music. Future plans to include training in computers and information technology at the primary level will be implemented after all secondary and preparatory schools in Tunisia are outfitted with computers and connected to the Internet.

In 1998, approximately 1.5 million students were enrolled in the primary cycle of basic education, grades 1-6. In 1995-1996 there were 4,349 public primary schools delivering basic education to almost 1.5 million primary students, 47.1 percent of which were girls. Taught by 59,430 teachers, the students were grouped in classes averaging 24.6 students each. An additional 8,900 students received primary education in private schools. By the late 1990s, about 92 percent of all primary students were reaching grade 5. Gross primary enrollment rates at that time were 116 percent (119 percent for boys and 112 percent for girls); corresponding net enrollment figures were 97 percent for boys and 94 percent for girls. The enrollment ratio of girls to boys for the primary grades was 94 percent by the late 1990s.

Repeaters & Dropouts: For years, repetitions and dropouts have been serious problems in Tunisian schools from the primary through university cycles. In 1994-1995 the global repetition rate at the primary level was 17.27 percent; greater than one child in six was a repeater. The same year, the dropout rate for the first six grades was 4.4 percent. In 1995-1996 high repetition rates were apparent in all six of the primary grades, ranging from 13.8 percent to 25.4 percent, with the worst repetition rate occurring in grade 6, marking the transition from primary to lower-level secondary school. These problems of high repetition and dropout rates already drew attention in 1982, when an educational analyst wrote, "As does its French counterpart, the highly selective Tunisian school system generates large numbers of repeaters and dropouts at all levels. Students are forced out of school if they fail the end-of-cycle exams repeatedly or if they reach the age limit" (Allman 34).

Secondary Education

General Survey: In 1998, approximately 800,000 students were enrolled in secondary schools covering the three grades of the second cycle of basic education (the lower-secondary level) and the four final grades of secondary education. Secondary schools numbered 760 public institutions in 1995-1996, educating 725,900 students who were taught by 30,170 teachers in classes averaging 24.1 students each. An additional 68,500 students were served by private secondary schools that year. Of the five areas of pre-specialization taught in the final two years of public secondary schools in 1995-1996, the greatest proportion of students (37.3 percent) chose the field of letters and the smallest (9.8 percent) chose the technical track. An additional 17,700 students were enrolled in special technical training schools that year. By the late 1990s, 74.3 percent of students in the age-relevant groups for the secondary grades were enrolled in secondary education.

Educational reforms during the 1990s at the secondary level were supported by a World Bank loan-funded project, "Secondary Education Support Project." The objectives of the project were to assist the Tunisian government in implementing basic and secondary education reforms designed to improve quality and efficiency and to enable schools to accommodate the expected increase in numbers of upper-basic and secondary students in the coming years. These objectives were to be met through Bank financing to improve educational performance evaluation and assessment systems, to promote better teaching and training practices for an estimated 26,000 teachers, pedagogic and orientation counselors, and school inspectors, to strengthen feedback mechanisms between the secondary schools and the Ministry of Higher Education, to construct 30 upper-basic and 44 secondary schools, to rehabilitate upper-basic and secondary schools in greatest need of repair and to establish preventive maintenance for schools, and to provide teaching equipment, training, and technical assistance.

Repeaters & Dropouts: Only three-fourths of secondary students were promoted in 1994-1995, and the global retention rate was 16.5 percent, meaning one in every six students was held back. The global dropout rate that year was 8.7 percent, reflecting a continual problem in Tunisian schools of students' falling out of the educational system along the way. A review of the size of each grade level indicates that as students progressed through secondary school, their numbers diminished with each grade, the result of which was that in 1995-1996 the grade 7 class of secondary students was only 36 percent as large as the grade 1 secondary class.

Secondary-Level Vocational & Nonformal Education: In addition to the technical skills-training classes included within the regular public secondary schools, private schools, and the special technical-training secondary schools, on-the-job training and apprenticeships have been utilized in Tunisia as alternative methods of preparing skilled workers for employment. For example, local artisans such as the potters and ceramics workers of the eastern coastal city of Nabeul have long used the apprenticeship method to train skilled crafts workers. Besides the more organized apprenticeships, on-the-job, and vocational training programs, informal training has traditionally been provided at home, especially in the rural areas, in traditional crafts. For example, many rural girls and young women learn to weave traditional kilim, the colorful, geometrically patterned Bedouin dyed-wool rugs of North Africa, in their homes, often using locally grown wool they have spun into yarn. As Tunisia increasingly engages itself in tourism as a means of economic development and advancement for the country, the crafts produced by local artisans become increasingly valuable and marketable. To this end, the Tunisian government has established a cooperative society of artisans (SOCOPA) to assist in marketing artisanal crafts in Tunisia and abroad. Throughout Tunisia, SOCOPA display rooms and stores attract buyers and tourists interested in purchasing locally produced crafts ranging from basketwork to pottery to glassware to leatherwork to finely detailed gold and silver jewelry to delicately embroidered clothing.

The Tunisian educational reforms currently underway include fostering public-private partnerships between Tunisian schools and the business sector, leading to greater collaboration on such educational programs as on-the-job training and apprenticeships. The goal of Tunisia's efforts in this area is to better match the skills needed by business and industry with those in which young Tunisians are being trained in order to reduce unemployment and stimulate the private economy. Additionally, efforts are being made to train students for self-employment so they can earn a living even when wage-labor jobs are in short supply.

Higher Education

Rapid growth in the student population of Tunisia's higher education system in the decades since independence has posed a challenge to educators and administrators interested in developing a high-quality, well-integrated system of public institutions to satisfy the demands of the labor market and the interests of students. Over a 25-year period student enrollments in the higher education system grew more than ten-fold, jumping from an enrollment of 10,350 in the 1970-1971 academic year to an enrollment of 112,630 in the 1995-1996 academic year. The average annual growth rate in higher education over these years ranged from 6.6 percent to 18.1 percent, with the greatest leap occurring at the start of the 25-year run. Tunisia's higher education system consequently was due for widespread reforms and restructuring by the 1990s, reforms which were supported in the latter part of the decade in large measure by a World Bank loan. Explaining the rationale behind Bank funding of this "Higher Education Reform Project" in Tunisia, one Bank analyst wrote in 1997:

Higher Education in Tunisia, an overwhelmingly state-owned, state-operated and state-funded sector, is currently relatively well organized, well staffed and oriented towards quality. However, the combined effect of demographic pressure, increased internal efficiency at pre-university level, and automatic access for all secondary education graduates to higher education will result in the doubling of enrollments within the next 10 years; such an expansion will create a considerable strain under current financial, managerial and pedagogical conditions.

Consequently, the Bank has supported Tunisian efforts to increase the amount and quality of higher education, improve management and heighten the flexibility of the higher education sector, and make public higher education more financially sustainable. The Higher Education Reform Project was estimated to cost about US$150 million, of which US$80 million was anticipated to come as a World Bank loan. Various partner donors in the international community (e.g., the EU and bilateral donors) have supplemented the funding provided by the World Bank to facilitate the desired reforms in Tunisia's higher education system.

Public & Private: Tunisia has seven publicly funded universities, encompassing a total of 90 higher-education establishments in all: Université Ezzitouna (the university for Islamic studies), Université de Tunis, Université de Tunis El Manar, Université 7 novembre àCarthage, Université de La Manouba, Université du Centre, and Université du Sud à Sfax. The total enrollment in academic year 2000-2001 was 207,388, with the Université du Centre having the greatest number of students (41,149) and the Université Ezzitouna having the smallest number (888). In addition, six Instituts Supérieurs de Formation des Maîtres (ISFM), which are training institutes for primary-level teachers, matriculated 1,538 students, and eleven Instituts Supérieurs des Etudes Technologique (ISET) enrolled 15,138 in 2000-2001.

At the close of the 1999-2000 academic year 21,442 diplomas were awarded to students graduating from the first and second cycles of tertiary education. The average success rate for the different cycles of higher education studies that year was 64 percent. Of the 207,388 students enrolled in the three cycles of higher education in the public universities and institutes in 2000-2001, almost 52 percent (107,673) were women approximately 48 percent (99,715) were men, a notable achievement for women, considering past discrepancies between male and female school enrollment and completion rates, and a tribute to the efforts of the Tunisian government to promote gender equity in education.

University education in Tunisia is provided virtually free of charge, and the seven public universities and two sets of public institutes charge no tuition but only a registration fee. Students at the universities generally live the first two years of their studies in dormitories, after which they are free to rent apartments. Fees for student room and board are charged based on family income level, with scholarships provided by the National Offices of Students (l'Offices des Oeuvres Universitaires —one in the North, one in the Center, one in the South) for students who cannot afford to cover these costs on their own. Students unable to pass the bacc but otherwise qualified for higher-level studies may choose to attend private universities and postsecondary schools such as the Free University of Tunis, provided they have the financial means to cover the costs of private schooling.

Admission Procedures: Admission to public universities in Tunisia is relatively automatic once students have passed the bacc. At the close of their secondary studies, students list their preferences of the schools and areas of study they wish to pursue at the tertiary level; several weeks after passing the bacc, graduates learn which university or institute has accepted them. For students who fail the bacc but can afford to study privately, admissions procedures vary depending on the school or institute of higher education to which they apply.

Administration: The Ministry of Higher Education administers Tunisia's publicly funded postsecondary education system through an elaborate array of government bureaus and agencies. Besides a ministerial oversight committee (comité supérieur du ministère ) and a board of directors (conseil de direction ), the Ministry includes a cabinet, administrative and financial inspections department, common services, and specific services. The cabinet is further composed of seven bureaus and a group of consultative committees, while each of the services contains several departments.

Teaching Styles & Techniques: The style of teaching in Tunisia traditionally has emphasized rote learning of a set curriculum over the development of creative thinking, critical reasoning, and problem solving skills, a problematic situation noted as early as 1982 (see Jones 42). Tunisian education officials and professionals recognized in the 1990s that this style of education needed to be changed since many Tunisian students could not apply their classroom learning to real world situations outside of school. University courses typically have been delivered in a lecture format, but there is increasing recognition of the value of interspersing on-the-job training, apprenticeships, research, and other forms of practical assignments with academic coursework so that students are given the benefit of learning to apply the concepts they are taught in classrooms before they graduate.

Professional Education: As noted above, the public university system contains two sets of institutes, ISET and ISFM, whose mission is to prepare professionals in the areas of engineering, technology, and teaching. ISFM graduates are qualified to teach primary education. Higher levels of education require diplomas conferred by other university programs preparing teachers and faculty in specific areas of instruction and expertise. In addition, training in law and in medicine is provided through various faculties of the public university system located around the country. The Ministry of Professional Training and Employment, created March 3, 1990, has the responsibility of overseeing the training programs that prepare skilled and highly skilled workers, technicians, and master technicians in Tunisia.

Research Centers & Institutes: With the reorganization of Tunisian higher education in the 1990s came the establishment of a large number of publicly funded research centers and institutes throughout the country. Additional plans for research centers include attaching them to university "poles" in the various geographical regions of Tunisia so that each area of the country has its own university center replete with research facilities. Nine research centers exist in Tunisia for the sciences and technology in the new millennium, located in Tunis, Sfax, Salambo, and Hammam Lif. Ten research centers exist for humanities and the social sciences, all in Tunis except for one located in Kairouan, including a national institute dedicated to preserving Tunisia's cultural heritage and archaeological artifacts. Five additional research centers for the agricultural sciences are located in Ariana, Sfax, Medénine, and Tunis.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Government Education Organs & Agencies: Besides the Ministry of Higher Education already described, the Tunisian public education system includes first and foremost the Ministry of Education as well as several other ministries whose functions also include the administration of training and educational programs and programs serving children and youth. These are the Ministry of Youth, Childhood, and Sports, the Ministry of Women's and Family Affairs, and the Ministry of Professional Training and Employment. Like the Ministry of Higher Education, all the other education-related ministries consist of complex bureaucratic structures serving specific functions and goals.

Because of its central role in administering public education in Tunisia, discussion here will focus on the Ministry of Education. This Ministry was most recently reorganized in 1998 and is composed of a ministerial oversight committee (comite supérieur du ministère ), a board of directors (conférence de direction ), and a permanent evaluation committee coupled with the following structures: the cabinet, the general, administrative, and financial inspection department, the general department of common services, specific services, general departments, and a National Commission for Education, Science and Culture. Each of these ministerial organs is likewise composed of various sub-units, including regional departments to some extent so the Ministry's work can be appropriately decentralized.

Educational Budgets & Expenditures: In the 1990s Tunisia spent about 19 percent of the national budget on education, 7 percent on healthcare, and 6 percent on defense. In the mid-1990s government expenditures on education were equivalent to 7.7 percent of the GNP, and preprimary, primary, and secondary education expenditures accounted for 79.7 percent of all public funding for education. At the turn of the millennium, educational expenditures reportedly were almost 30 percent of the total national budget, which allocated 60 percent to social expenditures. In 2000, approximately 3.54 percent of Tunisia's national budget of about US$7.256 trillion went to the Ministry of Higher Education. The World Bank loan granted to Tunisia in 2000 for the Education Quality Improvement Project, valued at US$99 million, represented additional funding for education, supplemented by other grants and loans provided to Tunisia in the form of overseas development assistance for educational programming and improvements.

Nonformal Education

Adult Education: Until recently Tunisians have had little opportunity to change their careers. Based on recent recommendations made by Tunisian government leaders, however, this is likely to soon change. As Tunisia adjusts to the demands of the information age and prepares its population for the new service-sector jobs appearing on the horizon, particularly in the high-technology and scientific fields, additional opportunities will open for adults to return to school to resume their studies, supplement their education, or change careers. This was made evident in President Ben Ali's presentation in October 1999 of his recommendations for necessary education reforms, especially in the area of higher education. The private business sector already provides ongoing seminars, computer-related courses, and business-management courses for businessmen and businesswomen. Expanding educational programming in other areas of study for the general adult population also will be of clear benefit to Tunisia as the country seeks to compete with its more economically developed business partners across the Mediterranean in Europe and around the globe.

One clear exception to the present relative lack of opportunity for adult study in Tunisia is the well-known and well-regarded Habib Bourguiba School of Living (Modern) Languages, located in Tunis with a network of language training centers throughout the country. The Habib Bourguiba Institute is a university institution linked to the University of Tunis-El Manar. Its primary objective is to teach modern languages to all—students and employees, adult Tunisians and foreigners alike. The Institute also carries out applied research on pedagogical methods for teaching modern foreign languages to adults. Courses are available in modern standard Arabic, Tunisian Arabic, specialized Arabic, general and specialized English, German, Spanish, general and specialized French, Italian, Persian, Russian, Chinese, Hebrew, and Turkish. Courses are offered in Tunis and in 23 other centers in other cities around Tunisia through day and evening courses and summer sessions. The day courses are available in intensive and semi-intensive versions depending on the number of hours one wishes to study each week (16 for intensive, 8 for semi-intensive). The annual courses last from October through June, and a national examination is given to culminate course studies and to qualify students for the diploma issued by the Institute. In all of the Institute's courses, cultural activities are blended in with formal language study to reinforce and complement classroom learning. These activities take the form of music, pronunciation exercises, videos, assemblies, and calligraphy during the courses themselves as well as parallel activities conducted after class hours such as cultural workshops conducted by specialists in oriental dance, theater, Arabic music, the traditional culinary arts, and diction, film showings, and Arabic educational games. Additionally, guided visits and excursions outside of class hours and during weekends provide Institute students with the opportunity to visit and learn about Tunisia's historical and archaeological treasures, Arabic Muslim civilization, and modern Tunisia. The summer courses carry a residential option as well.

Distance Education: Efforts to develop new methods for delivering education at a distance are underway in Tunisia as of 2001, with special attention being given to developing computer technology so that courses can be conducted via the Internet. The European Commission at the turn of the millennium visited Tunisia and several other countries to assess government and business policies on information technology and determine how the European Commission could encourage the growth of an information society. Regarding Tunisia, an analyst working with the Commission noted in the year 2000, "The development of information society (including IT, telecom, new technologies) is understood by many high ranking Tunisian officials as a strategic focus, that should be part of Tunisia's preparation to play an important part in the service sector in the Mediterranean when the free trade area opens in 2008." One challenge yet to be overcome seemed to be that posed by Tunisian government censorship. The analyst observed, "We should note that the major brake on Internet development in Tunisia is essentially political: censorship policy applied on the Internet is an important block to all activities on the Net." By 1999 Tunisia had four Internet service providers.

Television and radio have long been used as educational tools throughout Tunisia, where many families even in remote rural areas have access to their own satellite dishes (parabol ) with which they can receive not only transmissions from Tunisia's television broadcasting stations but also from Europe, other parts of the Maghreb, and the Middle East. In 1997 there were about 920,000 televisions in Tunisia (about 1 for every 10 people), and 2.06 million radios (224 per 1,000 people), making entertainment and educational programming accessible to the vast majority of Tunisians, particularly as Tunisia continued its electrification campaign throughout the countryside. In 1998 seven AM radio stations were operating in Tunisia, 20 FM radio stations, and two short-wave radio stations, while 19 television broadcast stations and some low-power stations were transmitting television programs around the country.

Micro-Credit & Micro-Enterprise Training: The Tunisian government, Tunisian women's associations, and international aid donors have cooperated since March 1999 to make micro-credit loans and grants available especially to rural women in order to stimulate local enterprise and prepare greater numbers of self-employed individuals who can generate income for themselves and their families and spark economic growth in their communities. The Ministry of Women's and Family Affairs, created in August 1992 by President Ben Ali, manages the technical assistance funds for women's micro-enterprise from the Tunisian government side in partnership with women's nongovernmental organizations in Tunisia and community development NGOs who assist in organizing and training the micro-credit beneficiaries. Tunisian funds provided for this program are issued through the Tunisian Solidarity Bank (Banque Tunisienne de Solidarité ) at low interest rates, with interest accruing to the benefit of the partner NGOs.

Rural Women's Associations: Besides the micro-credit training projects described above, special government support is being provided for implementing a national action plan for rural women. The plan, adopted by a ministerial council of the Ministry of Women's and Family Affairs in December 1998, involves the creation in each governorate of a regional commission headed by the governor charged with the task of planning and carrying out a customized plan of action for the rural women in the governorate. Activity centers for rural women are envisioned that will help mobilize community participation and respond to rural women's needs regarding information and training.

Teaching Profession

Training & Qualifications: As noted above, teacher training takes place largely through a set of institutes established to prepare primary-education teachers. The question of how to best upgrade teachers' skills and improve the quality of curriculum design and methods of instruction, as already mentioned, has received special attention from educators and government educational officials in Tunisia since the late 1990s. Similarly, improving pedagogical research throughout the country, both at special research institutes and through the applied research conducted on a daily basis by teachers in their classrooms, is the subject of recent study among educators and administrators who want to ensure that Tunisia is ready for the demands it must face as jobs become technologically more complex and Tunisian students must be prepared to meet the demands of a rapidly shifting job market.

Unions & Associations: National organizations and community associations are increasingly being organized in Tunisia where members participate in developing and implementing programs whose goals often resemble those of Tunisia's more formal educational programs and institutions. The National Union of Tunisian Women, for example, promotes rural education, healthcare, and micro-enterprise development for women and girls. The National Chamber of Women Heads of Enterprises (Chambre Nationale des Femmes Chefs d'entreprises ) offers management training to women and assists women in preparing investment proposals. Additionally, attached to some of the government ministries are branches and organs that carry out education-related work with specific emphases. For instance, the Center for Research, Study, Documentation, and Information on Women is a scientific arm of the Ministry of Women's and Family Affairs and monitors women's progress in social and economic areas, some of them related to education and training. As international donor agencies provide funding to support the development of civil society, Tunisia is bound to flourish in the area of community mobilization and participation, having already gotten off to a good start with Tunisian government-sponsored social welfare and assistance programs and rural development initiatives under President Ben Ali, who has consistently worked to provide the necessary support for the social and economic development of Tunisia's population, both rural and urban. The President's efforts have been well appreciated across Tunisia and have built him a strong base of public support.

Summary

General Assessment: Tunisia has come a very long way in a few short decades in its efforts to spread educational institutions and programs to the Tunisian people, no matter how far apart they may live from the capital. Whereas few women and relatively few men in the rural countryside were literate before independence, school participation rates throughout the country are now sufficiently high that Tunisia is faced with the challenge of creating enough institutes of higher education rapidly enough to meet the needs of the growing numbers of young women and men reaching university age. With vigorous national programs to extend educational efforts and diversify the types of programming and courses offered to Tunisia's youth, coupled with foreign assistance from international donors and other national governments, Tunisia's government appears poised to satisfy the educational requirements of the near future. Considerable challenges remain to be met, however, so that the extension of education proceeds in an equitable manner for women and men, urban and rural, and so Tunisia will be ready to adapt to the demands of the changing global economic environment in which it is increasingly and consciously becoming involved.

Proposed Education Reforms: As President Ben Ali observed in announcing his new priorities for Tunisia's social and economic development in October 1999, key challenges to be met in Tunisia over the next few years, all of which have bearing on education, include: 1) increasing employment opportunities, especially to meet the swell in labor expected to occur from 2000 to 2004; 2) consolidating educational reforms and gains and preventing school dropouts before age 16, strengthening pre-primary education, and promoting and facilitating distance learning; 3) investing more aggressively in information technology and telecommunications, and in scientific and technological research; 4) continuing economic reforms, stabilizing finances, and increasing private investment so Tunisia becomes better prepared to compete economically in a globalizing world; 5) continuing poverty-reduction measures, including access to basic services and better social security provisions; 6) upholding women's equality, preserving the importance of family, and promoting cultural activities; and 7) encouraging regional growth through public investments, by providing fiscal incentives to private investors, and by giving regions greater autonomy over their economic affairs. In order to meet these challenges, Tunisian schools will need to be retooled to a major extent so that students emerge better equipped to apply their school learning to problem-solving in the world of work and so they are trained in the types of job skills the Tunisian economy will need.

Among the reforms in the educational sector that the World Bank identified for Tunisia in its country assessment of March 2000, the most significant appear to involve upgrading teacher skills so instructors are better prepared to deliver high-quality educational programming adapted to student abilities, interests, and needs, revising the curriculum at the basic- and secondary-education levels so that students are given the skills they will need in an increasingly technological and scientifically oriented world, and improving the match between university-level training programs and the needs of the job market so graduates will be able to find employment and will not be faced with a future where their education seems to have little value in the real world. Melded with these efforts to improve education in Tunisia must always be the vision of a motivated student population whose efforts are rewarded by progressive advancement through the educational grades and cycles and who do not become discouraged by overly zealous educators whose instructional demands do not match the students' abilities or preparation levels. What must be turned around clearly is the unfortunate problem of high rates of student retention and dropout—Tunisia cannot afford to lose its students along the way, neither can it afford to educate students so poorly that they are unable to function in a world of increasingly complex demands where their skills will be tested ever more sharply.

Tunisia has done an admirable job of moving from a level of economic underdevelopment to one of great promise and accomplishment. The best the country can do for the Tunisian people in this new millennium is to offer them educational programming that provides them the keys to a future of rapidly transforming opportunities and challenges—keys forged in an educational atmosphere of warm discussion, heated debate, thoughtful inquiry, and experimental reasoning where each student's abilities are sharpened in the unique direction to which that student is attuned so that each individual can contribute his or her best to the community and the larger society as a successful member of the continually evolving, collaborative social venture popularly called Al Jamhuriyah at-Tunisiyah.

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—Barbara Lakeberg Dridi

TUNISIA

Republic of Tunisia
Al-Jumhuriyah at-Tunisiyah

CAPITAL: Tunis

FLAG: Centered on a red ground is a white disk bearing a red crescent and a red five-pointed star.

ANTHEM: Al-Khaladi (The Glorious).

MONETARY UNIT: The Tunisian dinar (d) is a paper currency of 1,000 millimes. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 millimes and of ½, 1, and 5 dinars, and notes of 1, 5, 10, and 20 dinars. d1 = $0.78125 (or $1 = d1.28) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Independence Day, 20 March; Martyrs' Day, 9 April; Labor Day, 1 May; Victory Day, 1 June; Republic Day, 25 July; Women's Day, 13 August; Evacuation Day, 15 October; Accession of President Ben Ali, 7 November. Movable religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', 1st of Muharram (Muslim New Year), and Milad an-Nabi.

TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated on the northern coast of Africa, Tunisia has an area of 163,610 sq km (63,170 sq mi), extending 792 km (492 mi) n–s and 350 km (217 mi) e–w. Comparatively, the area occupied by Tunisia is slightly larger than the state of Georgia. It is bounded on the n and e by the Mediterranean Sea, on these by Libya, and on the w by Algeria, with a total boundary length of 2,572 km (1,598 mi), of which 1,148 km (713 mi) is coastline.

Tunisia's capital city, Tunis, is located on the northern coast.

TOPOGRAPHY

The Nemencha mountains—eastern extensions of the Atlas chain—divide the country into two distinct regions, the well-watered north and the semiarid south. The latter includes Tunisia's highest point, Jebel Chambi, 1,544 m (5,064 ft), near Kasserine. The northern region is further divided into three subregions: the northwest, with extensive cork forests; the north-central, with its fertile grasslands; and the northeast, from Tunis to Cape el-Tib, noted for its livestock, citrus fruits, and garden produce. The southern region contains a central plateau and a desert area in the extreme south, which merges into the Sahara and is characterized by date palm oases and saline lakes, the largest of which is Chott el Djerid. The Medjerda, the most important river system, rises in Algeria and drains into the Gulf of Tunis.

CLIMATE

Tunisia consists of two climatic belts, with Mediterranean influences in the north and Saharan in the south. Temperatures are moderate along the coast, with an average annual reading of 18°c (64°f), and hot in the interior south. The summer season in the north, from May through September, is hot and dry; the winter, which extends from October to April, is mild and characterized by frequent rains. Temperatures at Tunis range from an average minimum of 6°c (43°f) and maximum of 14°c (57°f) in January, to an average minimum of 21°c (70°f) and maximum of 33°c (91°f) in August. Precipitation in the northern region reaches a high of 150 cm (59 in) annually, while rainfall in the extreme south averages less than 20 cm (8 in) a year.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Tunisia has a great variety of trees, including cork oak, oak, pines, jujube, and gum. More than one-fourth of the country is covered by esparto grass, which is the characteristic vegetation of the steppe region. Jackal, wild boar, and several species of gazelle are numerous. Horned vipers and scorpions are common in the Sahara. The sleeved mouflon, a species of wild sheep, is found in the mountains. As of 2002, there were at least 78 species of mammals, 165 species of birds, and over 2,100 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Loss of agricultural land to erosion, and degradation of range and forest lands because of overgrazing or overcutting of timber for fuel are major concerns. Erosion threatens about 76% of the nation's land area. Overcrowding and poor sanitation in urban centers are also major environmental problems. Pollution from industry and farming activities threatens the nation's limited water supply. Tunisia has about four cu km of renewable water resources with 86% of annual withdrawals used for farming and 1% for industrial purposes. Only 60% of the people living in rural areas have access to improved water sources. The nation's cities produce about 0.9 million tons of solid waste; inadequate disposal of toxic and hazardous wastes poses health risks.

There are four national parks, including one natural UNESCO World Heritage Site; however, in 2003 less than 1% of the total land area was protected. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 10 types of mammals, 9 species of birds, 3 types of reptiles, 9 species of fish, and 5 species of invertebrates. Threatened species in Tunisia include the Barbary hyena, Barbary leopard, two species of gazelle (Cuvier's and slender-horned), the Mediterranean monk seal, and oryx. The Bubal hartebeest has become extinct. A World Wildlife Fund project succeeded in rescuing the Atlas deer from near extinction.

POPULATION

The population of Tunisia in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 10,043,000, which placed it at number 80 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 7% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 27% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 102 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 1.1%. The government has had a commitment to family planning and reproductive health since the 1990s. The projected population for the year 2025 was 11,583,000. The overall population density was 61 per sq km (159 per sq mi), ranging from only about 4 per sq km (10 per sq mi) in the south to over 1,000 per sq km (400 per sq mi) in the thickly settled north.

The UN estimated that 65% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.59%. The capital city, Tunis, had a population of 1,996,000 in that year. Other cities are Sfax (Safaqis); Ariana (a suburb of Tunis); Bizerte (Binzart); Gabes; and Sousse (Susa).

MIGRATION

French and Italian migration to Tunisia dates from the French military occupation of 1881. There were 255,000 Europeans in Tunisia in 1956, but most have since left the country. With the conclusion of the Franco-Algerian war in 1962, 110,000 Algerian refugees returned to their homeland.

Internal migration constitutes a serious problem. Rural unemployment has caused significant population movement to urban centers, where conditions are often harsh. Since 1964, the government has sought to decentralize industry and to resettle nomads and seminomads in permanent villages. Many Tunisians seek employment abroad; in the early 1990s there were approximately 350,000 Tunisian workers in foreign countries, mostly Libya and France. The total number of migrants in 2000 was 38,000. In 2003, the Tunisian government, along with the Algeria and Morocco, cracked down on sub-Saharan migration that was heading toward Europe.

In 2004, there were some 90 refugees and 12 asylum seekers. The net migration rate in 2005 was estimated as -0.54 migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory. Worker remittances in 2003 were $1.1 billion.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Tunisia has a highly homogeneous population, almost entirely of Arab and Berber descent (98%). The small European population (1%) consists mostly of French and Italians. Tunisian Jews and other groups make up the remaining 1% of the populace.

LANGUAGES

Arabic is the official language and one language used in commerce. French is taught to all school children and is also commonly used in commerce and administration. Small numbers of people speak Berber.

RELIGIONS

Islam is the state religion and nearly all Tunisians are Sunni Muslims. A small number are of the mystical Sufi branch. The Christian community, which contains only about 25,000 people, is made up primarily of Roman Catholics, Russian Orthodox, French Reformists, Anglicans, Greek Orthodox, and a small number of Jehovah's Witnesses and Seventh-Day Adventists. There are approximately 1,500 Jews in the country and about 150 Baha'is.

The constitution provides for the free exercise of religions that do not disturb the public order. Under this stipulation, the government restricts groups that are considered to be part of Islamic fundamentalist movements. Though members of other established, non-Muslim religions are generally allowed to practice freely, proselytizing is prohibited by law. Muslims who convert to another faith are often denied the right to vote, obtain a passport, and to enlist in the army, as well as facing social discrimination. Members of the Baha'i faith are only allowed to practice their faith in private, since the government considers the religion to be a heretical sect of Islam. The government offers some state support of the Jewish community, such as paying the salary of the grand rabbi, presumably based on the point that Judaism is considered to be indigenous to the country. The government prohibits the formation of political parties based on religious doctrines.

TRANSPORTATION

As of 2002, Tunisia had 23,100 km (14,354 mi) of highway, of which 18,226 km (11,326 mi) were paved, including 142 km of expressways. Roads connected the major cities and provided access to most regions of the country. In 2003, there were 585,194 passenger cars and 288,285 commercial vehicles. The Tunisian National Railway Co. (Société National des Chemins de Fer Tunisiens) operates over 2,152 km (1,337 mi) of standard, narrow and dual gauge track, located mostly in the northern region and central plateau. Most of the country's rail system is narrow gauge, accounting for 1,674 km (1,040 mi), followed by standard gauge at 468 km (291 mi). The remainder—10 km (6.2 mi)—consists of dual gauge right-of-way. A metro rail system for Tunis opened in 1985.

Tunisia has excellent shipping facilities at Tunis, the principal port, and at Sfax, Sousse, Bizerte, and Gabes; Sekhira is the port for oil exports. The free port terminal at Zarzis is scheduled for further development at an estimated cost of $20.8 million, in order to expand harbor and storage facilities. Tunisia's modest merchant fleet, established in 1958, operates a freighter service principally to French ports. As of 2005 there were 12 ships of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 124,733 GRT. The Tunisian Navigation Co. is the principal shipping firm.

Airports in 2004 numbered an estimated 30, of which 14 had paved runways as of 2005. Tunis-Carthage Airport, about 14 km (9 mi) from the capital, provides direct connections to most of the major cities of Europe and the Middle East. There are five other international airports, at Menzel Bourguiba (Monastir), Zarzis (Jerba), Tozeur, Tabarka, and Sfax. Tunis Air, the national airline, is owned by the Tunisian government (51%), Air France, and Tunisian citizens. In 2003, about 1.720 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

The history of early Tunisia and its indigenous inhabitants, the Berbers, is obscure prior to the founding of Carthage by seafaring Phoenicians from Tyre (in present-day Lebanon) in the 9th century bc. A great mercantile state developed at Carthage (near modern-day Tunis), which proceeded to dominate the western Mediterranean world. The great Carthaginian general Hannibal engineered the monumental trans-Alpine assault on Rome in 211 bc and inflicted costly losses on the Roman Empire until choosing suicide rather than capture in 183 bc. Carthage was eventually burned to the ground by the Romans at the culmination of the Punic Wars in 146 bc. The Romans subsequently rebuilt the city, making it one of the great cities of the ancient world. With the decline of the Roman Empire, Tunisia fell successively to Vandal invaders during the 5th century ad, to the Byzantines in the 6th century, and finally to the Arabs in the 7th century. Thenceforth, Tunisia remained an integral part of the Muslim world.

In the 9th century, the governor of Tunisia, Ibrahim ibn Aghlab, founded a local dynasty nominally under the sovereignty of the 'Abbasid caliphs of Baghdād. The Aghlabids conquered Sicily and made Tunisia prosperous. In 909, the Fatimids ended Aghlabid rule, using Tunisia as a base for their subsequent conquest of Egypt. They left Tunisia in control of the subordinate Zirid dynasty until the 11th century, when the Zirids rebelled against Fatimid control. The Fatimids unleashed nomadic Arab tribes, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, to punish the Zirids, a move resulting in the destruction of the Zirid state and the general economic decline of Tunisia. In the 13th century, the Hafsids, a group subordinate to the Almohad dynasty based in Morocco, restored order to Tunisia. They founded a Tunisian dynasty that, from the 13th century to the 16th, made Tunisia one of the flourishing regions of North Africa. In the beginning of the 16th century, however, Spain's occupation of important coastal locations precipitated the demise of Hafsid rule.

In 1574, the Ottoman Turks occupied Tunisia, ruling it with a dey appointed by the Ottoman ruler. The dey's lieutenants, the beys, gradually became the effective rulers, in fact if not in name. Ultimately, in 1705, the bey Husayn ibn 'Ali established a dynasty. Successive Husaynids ruled Tunisia as vassals of the Ottomans until 1881 and under the French until 1956, the year of Tunisia's independence (the dynasty was abolished in 1957). During the 19th century, the Tunisian dynasts acted virtually as independent rulers, making vigorous efforts to utilize Western knowledge and technology to modernize the state. But these efforts led to fiscal bankruptcy and thus to the establishment of an international commission made up of British, French, and Italian representatives to supervise Tunisian finances. Continued rivalry between French and Italian interests culminated in a French invasion of Tunisia in May 1881. A protectorate was created in that year by the Treaty of Bardo; the Convention of La Marsa (1883) allowed the Tunisian dynasty to continue, although effective direction of affairs passed to the French. French interests invested heavily in Tunisia, and a process of modernization was vigorously pursued; at the same time, direct administration in the name of the dynasty was gradually expanded. The Tunisians, in turn, supported France in World War I.

The beginnings of modern nationalism in Tunisia emerged before the outbreak of the war, with hopes of greater Tunisian participation in government encouraged during the war by pronouncements such as the Fourteen Points (1918) of Woodrow Wilson. When these hopes were not realized, Tunisians formed a moderate nationalist grouping, the Destour ("Constitutional") Party. Dissatisfaction over the group's poor organization led, in 1934, to a split: the more active members, led by Habib Bourguiba, founded the Neo-Destour Party. France responded to demands for internal autonomy with repression, including the deposition and exile of the sovereign Munsif Bey. On 23 August 1945, the two Destour parties proclaimed that the will of the Tunisian people was independence. But the French still held firm. In December 1951, they again rejected a request by the Tunisian government for internal autonomy. The situation worsened when extremists among the French colonists launched a wave of terrorism. Finally, on 31 July 1954, French Premier Pierre Mendès-France promised the bey internal autonomy. After long negotiations accompanied by considerable local disorder, a French-Tunisian convention was signed on 3 June 1955 in Paris. On 20 March 1956, France recognized Tunisian independence.

In April 1956, Habib Bourguiba formed the first government of independent Tunisia, and on 25 July 1957, the National Assembly, having established a republic and transformed itself into a legislative assembly, elected Bourguiba chief of state and deposed the bey. A new constitution came into effect on 1 June 1959. Bourguiba won the first presidential election in 1959 and was reelected in 1964, 1969, and 1974, when the National Assembly amended the constitution to make him president for life.

Economic malaise and political repression during the late 1970s led to student and labor unrest. A general strike called by the General Union of Tunisian Workers (UGTT) on 26 January 1978, in order to protest assaults on union offices and the harassment of labor leaders, brought confrontations with government troops in which at least 50 demonstrators and looters were killed and 200 trade union officials, including UGTT Secretary-General Habib Achour, were arrested. Prime Minister Hedi Nouira was succeeded by Mohamed Mzali in April 1980, marking the advent of a political liberalization. Trade union leaders were released from jails, and Achour ultimately received a full presidential pardon. In July 1981, the formation of opposition political parties was permitted. In elections that November, candidates of Bourguiba's ruling Destourian Socialist Party, aligned in a National Front with the UGTT, garnered all 136 National Assembly seats and 94.6% of the popular vote. An economic slump in 1982–83 brought a renewal of tensions; in January 1984, after five days of rioting in Tunis, the government was forced to rescind the doubling of bread prices that had been ordered as an austerity measure.

After independence, Tunisia pursued a nonaligned course in foreign affairs while maintaining close economic ties with the West. Tunisia's relations with Algeria, strained during the 1970s, improved markedly during the early 1980s, and on 19 March 1983 the two nations signed a 20-year treaty of peace and friendship. Relations with Libya have been stormy since the stillborn Treaty of Jerba (1974), a hastily drafted document that had been intended to merge the two countries into the Islamic Arab Republic; within weeks after signing the accord, Bourguiba, under pressure from Algeria and from members of his own government, retreated to a more gradualist approach toward Arab unity. A further irritant was the territorial dispute between Libya and Tunisia over partition of the oil-rich Gulf of Gabes, resolved by the international Court of Justice in Libya's favor in 1982. Tunisian-Libyan relations reached a low point in January 1980, when some 30 commandos (entering from Algeria but apparently aided by Libya) briefly seized an army barracks and other buildings at Gafsa in an abortive attempt to inspire a popular uprising against Bourguiba. In 1981, Libya vetoed Tunisia's bid to join OAPEC and expelled several thousand Tunisian workers; more Tunisian workers were expelled in 1985.

Following the evacuation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from Lebanon in August 1982, Tunisia admitted PLO Chairman Yasir Arafat and nearly 1,000 Palestinian fighters. An October 1985 Israeli bombing raid on the PLO headquarters near Tunis killed about 70 persons. By 1987, the PLO presence was down to about 200, all civilians.

In 1986 and 1987, Bourguiba dealt with labor agitation for wage increases by again jailing UGTT leader Achour and disbanding the confederation. He turned on many of his former political associates, including his wife and son, while blocking two legal opposition parties from taking part in elections. Reasserting his control of Tunisian politics, Bourguiba dismissed Prime Minister Mzali, who fled to Algeria and denounced the regime. A massive roundup of Islamic fundamentalists in 1987 was the president's answer to what he termed a terrorist conspiracy sponsored by Iran, and diplomatic relations with Tehrān were broken. On 27 September 1987, a state security court found 76 defendants guilty of plotting against the government and planting bombs; seven (five in absentia) were sentenced to death.

General Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali, the trusted minister of interior who had conducted the crackdown, was named prime minister in September 1987. Six weeks later, Ben Ali seized power, ousting Bourguiba, whom he said was too ill and senile to govern any longer. He assumed the presidency himself, promising political liberalization. Almost 2,500 political prisoners were released and the special state security courts were abolished. The following year, Tunisia's constitution was revised, ending the presidency for life and permitting the chief executive three five-year terms. Elections were advanced from 1991 to 1989 and Ben Ali ran unopposed. Candidates of the renamed Destour Party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), won all of the 141 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, although the Islamist party, an-Nahda, won an average of 18% of the vote where its members contested as independents.

The constitution does not permit political parties based on religion, race, regional, or linguistic affiliation, and thus Islamist parties in Tunisia face an uphill battle in gaining official recognition. After an attack on RCD headquarters in 1990, the government moved decisively against its Islamist opposition. Thousands were arrested and in 1992 military trials, 265 were convicted.

In the March 1994 presidential election, two men not Islamist-affiliated, after announcing their candidacy for the presidency, were arrested and Ben Ali again was unopposed and was reelected with 99.9% of the vote. In the electoral system established for the 1994 Chamber of Deputies elections, the number of seats had been increased from 144 to 163. That year, a new proportional system was established where 144 of the seats were to be contested and were won by the majority party and the remaining 19 were to be distributed to the remaining contesting parties according to their vote draw at the national level. In the parliamentary elections the president's RCD took all 144 seats with the remaining six parties dividing up the 19 set-aside seats. In the 1995 municipal elections, out of 4,090 seats contested in the 257 constituencies, independent candidates and members of the 5 recognized political parties won only 6 of the seats.

In July 1998 Ben Ali announced his plans to contest the presidential elections scheduled for October 1999. Two other candidates, Mohamed Belhaj Amor of the PUP and Abderrahmane Tlili of the UDU also announced their candidacy. The parliament had again been enlarged to 182 members, with 34 seats guaranteed to the opposition. In the 1999 elections Ben Ali received 99.4% of the votes, with Amor receiving 0.3% and Tlili 0.2%. The RCD was awarded with 148 seats and the 5 other official parties splitting the remaining 34 seats.

In the 1990s Tunisia continued to follow a moderate, nonaligned course in foreign relations, complicated by sporadic difficulties with its immediate neighbors. Relations with Libya remained tense after ties were resumed in 1987. However, Ben Ali pursued normalized relations, which dramatically improved over the next few years. Thousands of Tunisians found work in Libya as the border was reopened. In 1992 the UN Security Council imposed sanctions against Libya due to its decision not to hand over for trial suspects in the Pan Am bombing affair. Tunisia did not wholeheartedly support all of the UN Security Council sanctions due to the real economic ties that the two countries have. Due to these ties Libya's difficulties impacted on the ability of Tunisia and the Union of the Arab Maghreb (UAM) to establish closer relations with the European Union. From 1995 forward, Tunisia lobbied at the international level for the cessation of the sanctions due to the suffering that was caused to the Libyan people as well as to the regional tensions that the sanctions were creating. By 1997 Tunisia had quietly resumed joint economic projects and bilateral visitation with Libya. Following Libya's 1998/99 decision to hand over the Pan Am bombing suspects for trial in the Netherlands for the 1988 Pam Am explosion over Lockerbie, Scotland, Tunisia moved to normalize relations with Libya, including resumption of TunisAir flights to Tripoli in June 2000.

Ben Ali also appeared committed to the promotion of the UAM, an organization that became formalized in 1989 with Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Ben Ali became president of the organization for 1993, though at this point the active work toward unification of the five countries was put on hold due in large part to the political and economic difficulties that Algeria and Libya faced internally and internationally. In 1999 the leaders of Morocco and Tunisia again called for a resuscitation of the organization and pledged to work toward that end in the following year.

Tunisia's relations with Algeria in the 1990s were controlled by the Islamist issue. The leadership of Tunisia's not-officially-recognized ah-Nahda party continued to be closely watched by both countries. With the decision of the Algerian military to annul their January 1992 elections in order to prevent the Islamists from gaining control of the government, relations improved between the two countries. Algeria signed a border agreement in 1993 with Tunisia, ratified during a state visit of the Algerian leader. Reciprocal visits between the leadership of the two countries reinforced their commitment to controlling their joint border and fighting "extremism."

In 1988 'Abu Jihad, the military commander of the PLO, was assassinated near Tunis by Israeli commandos, provoking a Tunisian protest to the United Nations Security Council and a following resolution of condemnation of the Israeli aggression by the Council. However, relations with Israel then improved, and in 1993, Tunisia welcomed an official Israeli delegation as part of the peace process. Joint naval exercises between the two countries took place in March 1994. The PLO offices in Tunis were closed in 1994 as the new Palestinian Authority (PA) took up residence in Gaza. In 1996, following PA elections, Tunisia moved to establish low-level diplomatic relations with Israel as it also announced its decision to recognize PA passports. However, with the slowing of the peace process and the election of the Netanyahu government in Israel, improving relations between Israel and Tunisia cooled and remained on hold.

Ben Ali also moved to normalize relations with Egypt and visited Cairo in 1990 to that end, the first such trip by a Tunisian president since 1965. In 1997 several agreements regarding economic and cultural cooperation were signed between the two countries.

Although the United States has provided economic and military aid, Tunisia opposed American support for Kuwait following Iraq's invasion in 1990. The support of Iraq in this crisis caused a rift in relations with Kuwait that were finally healed, through Ben Ali's efforts, with the visit of Kuwait's crown prince to Tunis in 1996 and a loan from the Kuwait-based Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development being granted to Tunisia. At the same time, Tunisia continued good relations with Iraq and continued to call for a cessation of UN sanctions against Baghdād.

The consistent stance of Ben Ali's government toward Islamist parties has brought him friends in the West, though his own poor human rights record has provoked consternation from Western governments and vocal criticism from Western media and human rights organizations. Complaints against his regime have included torture under interrogation, deaths in custody, secret or unfair trials and long prison sentences for opposition leaders, inhumane prison conditions, and restrictions on free speech and the press, including controls on the use of satellite dishes. Ironically, the UN Committee against Torture (along with numerous other human rights groups and including the Arab Commission of Human Rights) denounced the police and security forces in Tunisia, while Tunisia was unanimously elected to the UN Human Rights Commission in 1997. This caused international controversy, and by 2006, a Human Rights Council replaced the UN Human Rights Commission. The Human Rights Council was meant to be a standing body that would meet year-round to promote and protect human rights with a membership that excluded the worst human rights violators.

In July 1995, Tunisia signed an association agreement with the European Union that in 2007 would make the country part of a free-trade area around the Mediterranean known as the European Economic Area, the first southern Mediterranean country to be brought into the planned association. The United States has continued to offer praise to Tunisia and encouragement of US investment, but has held off on requested military aid. Relations with Italy, Tunisia's second-largest trading partner after France, have been complicated by the issues of illegal immigration from Tunisia and of fishing rights.

On 6 April 2000, Bourguiba died at age 96. A seven-day period of mourning was declared, and thousands of mourners lined his funeral procession route.

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, the United States called upon all states to implement counterterrorism measures. On 11 April 2002, a truck exploded at a synagogue on the Tunisian resort island of Djerba, killing 21 people, including 14 German tourists. German intelligence officials reported the bombing was a terrorist attack, and cited links to the al-Qaeda organization. In November, Ben Ali called for an international conference on terrorism to establish an international code of ethics to which all parties would be committed. In December, the United States praised Tunisia for its efforts in combating terrorism, and for its "record of moderation and of tolerance in the region."

In a referendum held on 26 May 2002, voters overwhelmingly approved a series of constitutional amendments that would make a marked change in the country's political structure. They included: additional guarantees regarding the pretrial and preventive custody of defendants; the creation of a second legislative body; the elimination of presidential term limits, along with the setting of a maximum age ceiling of 75 years for a presidential candidate; and the consecration of the importance of human rights, solidarity, mutual help, and tolerance as values enshrined in the constitution.

In November 2002, Ben Ali announced a series of electoral reform measures. In addition to the creation of a second legislative body (Chamber of Advisors approved by the May referendum) these included provisions to further guarantee the fairness of voter registration and election processes, and provisions to reduce the minimum requirement for campaign financing and reimbursement by the state. He also called on radio and television operators to provide wider coverage of opposition parties and nongovernmental organizations, and introduced a bill that would guarantee citizens' privacy and protection of personal data.

Presidential and legislative elections were held on 24 October 2004. Ben Ali was reelected for a fourth term with 94.5% of the vote. His contenders included Mohamed Bouchiha (PUP), Mohamed Ali Halouani (Ettajdid), and Mounir Beji (PSDL). The main opposition group, the Democratic Progressive Party (PDP), pulled out of the election two days before the vote, saying its participation would only legitimize a masquerade of democracy. The legislative election for the Chamber of Deputies was dominated by the RCD, as was the election for the new Chamber of Advisors held on 3 July 2005. The next presidential and Chamber of Deputies elections were to be held in October 2009. The next Chamber of Advisors election was to be held July 2011.

GOVERNMENT

According to the constitution of 1959, Tunisia is an Islamic republic, although since independence it has been a thoroughly secular state. The president, who is chief of state, must be a Muslim and a Tunisian citizen, born of a Tunisian father and grandfather, and at least 40 years old. He serves a five-year term. The president enjoys extensive powers, initiating and directing state policy and appointing judges, provincial governors, the mayor of Tunis, and other high officials, The cabinet, headed by a prime minister, varies in size and is under presidential domination.

The unicameral National Assembly or Chamber of Deputies (Majlis al-Ummah) was expanded in 1993 to 163 members and again in 1997 to 182 members, elected by general, free, direct, and secret ballot. Since 1994 the opposition has been guaranteed a number of seats in the assembly, with the changes introduced in 1997 guaranteeing them 20% of the assembly seats. All citizens 20 years of age or older may vote; candidates must be at least 25 years old and born of a Tunisian father or Tunisian mother. The assembly sits twice a year for five years, but may be extended in the event that a national emergency prevents new elections. Presidential ratification is required before a bill passed by the legislature can become law, but the assembly may override the president's veto by a two-thirds majority. The president may enact decrees in an emergency or when the assembly is in recess.

A series of constitutional amendments were overwhelmingly approved by voters in a 26 May 2002 referendum. Civil liberties were expanded, and human rights were guaranteed. Provisions for a second legislative body, a Chamber of Advisors, were made. Presidential term limits were abolished, and the age limit for a presidential candidate was raised from 70 to 75, thereby making Ben Ali, then age 65, eligible for reelection in 2004 and 2009.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD) dominates the country's political life. Its leader from its founding as the Neo-Destour Party in 1934 to 1987 was Habib Bourguiba. In the first national elections in 1956, all 98 seats in the National Assembly were won by the National Union, a united front of the Neo-Destour Party with the UGTT, the National Union of Tunisian Farmers, and the Tunisian Union of Craftsmen and Merchants. In the November 1959 elections for the National Assembly, the Communist Party (Parti Communiste Tunisien) presented a list of 13 candidates in Tunis and Gafsa; elsewhere, the Neo-Destour Party was unopposed, and the ruling party won all 90 seats at stake. From 1959 to 1994, the RCD (acting in 1981 as part of a National Front with the UGTT) held a monopoly of Assembly seats.

Banned in 1963, the Communist Party was the first opposition group to be fully legalized under the political liberalization of 1981. Two other parties, the Movement of Social Democrats (Mouvement des Démocrates Socialistes—MDS) and the Party of Popular Unity (Parti de l'Unité Populaire—PUP), failed to retain their provisional authorization when each fell short of receiving a 5% share of the total vote in the November 1981 election but nevertheless were formally legalized in 1983. The principal Islamist party, an-Nahda, has been outlawed. In 1992, it was hit hard by the jailing of many of its senior leaders.

Due to a change in the 1994 electoral code to guarantee the opposition would win seats, opposition parties such as the Movement of Social Democrats (MDS) entered the Chamber of Deputies. As of 2006, there were seven officially recognized opposition parties: MDS, PUP, the Union of Democratic Unionists (UDU), Ettajdid (also called the Renewal Movement), the Social Democratic Liberal Party (PSDL), plus the Democratic Progressive Party (PDP) and the Democratic Forum for Labor and Liberties (FDTL), the only two not represented in the Chamber of Deputies as of the October 2004 elections. The RCD held 152 of the 182 seats as of 2006. The Islamist an-Nahda remained an outlawed party.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Tunisia is divided into 23 provinces (wilayets, or governorates). Each province is headed by a governor appointed by the president through the secretary of interior. The governor is assisted by elected municipal councils and a governmental council, members of which are appointed for a three-year term by the central government on the governor's nomination. Each province is in turn divided into delegations (mutamadiyat ), the number of which varies with the size and social and economic importance of the province. The number of communes, or municipalities, in 2006 was 257. In local elections boycotted by the opposition in 1990, RCD candidates won control of all but one of the councils. In 1990 proportional representation for municipal elections was introduced, where the winning party would receive 50% of the council seats with the remaining seats to be proportionally divided between the other political parties according to their electoral draw.

Municipal elections were held in May 2005. Local council members serve five-year terms.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. The judiciary is susceptible to being influenced by the executive branch in practice. Magistrates are appointed by the president upon recommendation of the Supreme Council of the Magistracy; its members are drawn from the Department of Justice and the courts of appeal and cassation. In 2006, there were 51 cantonal courts, 23 courts of first instance, and 3 courts of appeal, located in Tunis, Sousse, and Sfax. A Court of Cassation in Tunis has three civil sections and one criminal section; it acts as the ultimate court of appeal. In addition, a High Court is constituted for the sole purpose of prosecuting a member of the government accused of high treason. The Council of State is an administrative tribunal empowered to resolve conflicts between citizens and the state and public authorities; as an accounting department, it is empowered to audit and examine government records.

Civil and criminal law generally follows French-influenced practices that evolved during the period of the protectorate. Since 1956 there has been a steady reform of existing Islamic legislation, including the abolition of polygamy. Shariah courts were abolished in 1956.

A military tribunal consisting of a presiding civilian judge from the Court of Cassation and four military judges hears cases involving military personnel as well as cases concerning civilians when national security is deemed to be at stake. Decisions of the military tribunal may be appealed to the Court of Cassation.

ARMED FORCES

As of 2005, Tunisia had an Army of 27,000 active personnel equipped with 84 main battle tanks, 48 light tanks, 60 reconnaissance vehicles, 268 armored personnel carriers, and 276 artillery pieces. The Navy numbered 4,500 personnel. Major naval units totaled over nineteen patrol boats and two logistics/support vessels. The Air Force had 3,500 personnel, with 27 combat capable aircraft that included 12 fighters and 3 fighter ground attack aircraft, in addition to 11 search and rescue, 11 support, and 37 utility helicopters. Paramilitary forces consisted of a 12,000-member National Guard. Tunisia participated in peacekeeping efforts in the DROC, Burundi, Côte d'Ivoire and Ethiopia/Eritrea. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $436 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Admitted to the United Nations on 12 November 1956, Tunisia belongs to ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the World Bank, the FAO, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, IAEA, and the WHO. The nation also participates in the African Development Bank, the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Islamic Development Bank, the Arab League, OAPEC, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), the Community of Sahel and Saharan States (CENSAD), G-77, the Arab Maghreb Union, and African Union. The nation has observer status in the OAS and Black Sea Economic Cooperation Zone. Tunisia was the site of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) headquarters from 1982–93. Tunisia is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Tunisia is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the London Convention, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Agriculture is still the mainstay of the Tunisian economy, although minerals (especially crude oil and phosphates), textiles, and tourism are the leading sources of foreign exchange. Industrial development has increased rapidly since the 1960s. Tunisians live a middle class lifestyle with almost 80% of household owning their own home. The GDP grew by 4.7% annually during 1961–70, by 7.3% during 1970–81, by only 2.9% during 1982–87, and by 4.6% during 1988–98. It stood at 4.8% in 2001. GDP growth slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% in 2002 due to agricultural drought and sluggish tourism. Better rains between 2003–05 helped push GDP growth to around 5%. An association agreement with the European Union signed in 1998 was forecast to have negative short-term effects to the economy (due to the required drop of trade barriers), but positive long-term effects. Roughly 80% of foreign trade is carried out with Europe, and a free trade zone between Tunisia and the EU is to come into effect in 2010 as a result of the association agreement.

After a period of socialist economic policies Tunisia began a structural reform program with the IMF designed to encourage a market-based economy. Privatization of state-owned enterprises began in 1987 with 67 of the government's 189 companies privatized through 1995. The privatization program, however, focused on smaller companies so as not to disrupt employment. Privatization of the energy, construction materials, and transport sectors, all of which contain unprofitable and overstaffed entities, has yet to occur. The reforms also decontrolled domestic prices and liberalized foreign trade. The private sector accounted for about 60% of output in 1999.

Tourism, increasing as a growth sector, experienced a decline in 2001 following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States: there were 13% fewer tourists arriving in Tunisia in the first half of 2002 than during the same period in 2001. However, the government doubled its expenditures on tourism promotion in 2002. A drought in 2001–02 caused a decrease in cereal production, as well as in the production of olive oil, but rains returned over the 2003–05 period. By 2006, industrial production, total exports, and the number of tourists had all increased. Overall total visitors to the country were approximately 5.1 million in 2003; goals were 2004, 5.5 million; 2005, 6 million, and 2006, 6.5 million. Half the number of visitors come from Maghreb countries such as Libya and Algeria. There was a marked increase in total visitors from European countries as France and Germany, despite a terrorist attack in early 2002 in which 21 people, mostly German tourists, were killed. The number of visitors from Eastern Europe also increased in the mid-2000s. Tourism contributes approximately 7% of GDP.

Unemployment remained high in 2005 (at an estimated 13.5%, but likely higher). In 2002, the banking and insurance sectors began to be privatized. Foreign trade, in terms both of imports and exports, increased markedly in 2001–02. The increases in exports during those years were due to the textile and clothing sector, leather and footwear sector, mechanical and electrical industries, and the agro-food, phosphates, and energy sectors.

Tunisia began to open its telecommunications sector to foreign business in 2002. Thirty-five companies were due to be privatized in 2003–04, including the national petroleum distribution company (SNDP), the state automobile manufacturer (STIA), and the joint Tunisian/Algerian white cement company (SOTACIB). Twelve hotels were also up for sale, and the sale of the government's share in the partially state-owned Banque du Sud was nearing completion.

In 2001, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, and Tunisia agreed to set up a free trade zone ahead of the 2010 target for trade barriers to end in the Euro-Mediterranean area. The Great Arab Free Trade Zone was eventually expected to encompass 10 Arab nations.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Tunisia's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $76.9 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $7,600. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4.9%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 2%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 13.8% of GDP, industry 30.7%, and services 55.6%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $1.250 billion or about $126 per capita and accounted for approximately 5.0% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $306 million or about $31 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.3% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Tunisia totaled $15.62 billion or about $1,578 per capita based on a GDP of $25.0 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 4.5%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 28% of household consumption was spent on food, 8% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 12% on education. It was estimated that in 2001 about 7.6% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

Tunisia's labor force was estimated at 3.41 million in 2005. In 1995 (the latest year for which data was available), estimated employment by sector was as follows: services 55%, industry 23%, and agriculture 22%. Since 1958, regional workshops to combat underemployment have provided jobs in land development, reforestation, terracing, and drainage. Full employment has been a goal of successive development plans; however, rates of unemployment and underemployment have remained high. The estimated unemployment rate in 2005 was 13.5%.

The only trade federation is the General Union of Tunisian Workers (Union Générale des Travailleurs Tunisiens—UGTT). In 2002, about 15% of the workforce belonged to the UGTT. Unions have the right to strike after a mandatory notice period of ten days. Regional labor councils seek to foster cooperation between management and labor. Collective bargaining contracts cover 80% of the private workforce.

The labor code sets the regular workweek at 48 hours with one 24-hour rest period for most sectors. If the workday exceeds 10 hours, overtime rates must be paid. All workers are entitled to annual paid leave of up to 18 working days. All nonagricultural employers with over 40 workers are required to have a medical facility available. In 2002, the minimum wage was $138 per month in industry and $4.27 per day in agriculture.

The minimum age for agricultural work is 13 years and the minimum age for manufacturing is 16. Children must attend school until 16 and have restricted working hours until the age of 18. The laws are somewhat effectively enforced but children can still be seen performing agricultural work in rural areas and working as vendors in urban areas.

AGRICULTURE

In 2003, about 25% of the labor force engaged in agriculture, which accounted for about 14% of GDP. Fertile land is generally limited to the north, where cereals, olives, fruits, grapes, and vegetables are produced. In the southern desert and plateau, desert farming is precarious, but barley is produced in quantity. About 4,900,000 hectares (12,108,000 acres) are arable. Cereals account for 1,347,000 hectares (3,328,000 acres), while tree crops utilized 2,000,000 hectares (4,492,000 acres).

Harvests have traditionally yielded sizable surpluses for export, chiefly to France. Tunisia's early growing season allows the nation to profit from exporting fresh produce to Europe before European crops ripen. Crops fluctuate greatly in size, however, depending upon the weather. In very poor years, wheat and barley must be imported to satisfy local food requirements.

Chief grain crops in 2004 were wheat, 1,722,000 tons, and barley, 395,000 tons. Olive trees number some 55 million; output of olives in 2004 comprised 650,000 tons, with 130,000 tons of olive oil produced in 2004/05. Other important commodities (with 2004 production estimates, in thousands of tons) were tomatoes, 970; oranges, 106; potatoes, 375; peppers, 255; dates, 122; and grapes, 122.

The government has undertaken irrigation and soil conservation projects to improve agricultural production and raise the living standard of rural areas. The 1962–71 plan aimed at constructing 40 dams, mostly in the Medjerda River system, plus opening over 1,000 new wells, particularly in the southern regions. In the period 1962–64, the government initiated a program to help the new cooperative farm system, with a total investment of d150.5 million; remaining European-owned farms were nationalized as part of the program. In 1969, however, the development of cooperatives was halted, and appropriated land was redistributed to individual Tunisian owners. Irrigation and flood-control projects, many undertaken with foreign aid, were under way in Bizerte, the Medjerda River basin, and other locales in the early 1980s. To increase and direct the flow of capital to this sector, the government has established the Agricultural Investment Promotion Agency and the National Agricultural Development Bank.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Although animal breeding is a major occupation in the central plateau and southern region, the largest herds are in the well-watered north. In 2005 there were an estimated 6,700,000 sheep, 1,400,000 goats, 750,000 head of cattle, 231,000 camels, 230,000 asses, 81,000 mules, 57,000 horses, 6,000 pigs, and 64 million chickens. Meat production in 2005 consisted of 120,600 tons of poultry, 55,000 tons of beef, 55,000 tons of mutton, and 9,500 tons of goat meat. Milk production in 2005 was 60,500 tons; cheese, 3,800 tons.

Since 1970, a great effort has been undertaken to develop the livestock sector to meet increased demands created by Tunisia's improved standard of living and expanding tourism. Poultry farming is being encouraged to provide farmers with an additional resource and to increase protein in the local diet.

FISHING

Commercial fishing takes place along the Mediterranean coast and in the Lake of Tunis and Lake Achkel. Small quantities of tuna, sardines, shrimp, and lobsters are exported. Except for some trawler and sponge fishing, most activity is on a limited scale; the 2003 catch was 92,507 tons. In 2003, fish and fishery products exports exceeded $105 million. The National Fisheries Office owns part of the trawler fleet.

FORESTRY

Forested lands cover about 510,000 hectares (1,260,000 acres), a large proportion of which was state owned. The oak and pine forests of the northern highlands provide cork for export (some 9,000 tons produced annually) and firewood for local use. Estimated forestry output in 2004 included wood for fuel, 2,137,000 cu m (75.4 million cu ft); wood-based panels, 104,000 cu m (3.67 million cu ft); paper and paperboard, 94,000 tons; and sawn wood, 20,400 cu m (720,419 cu ft).

MINING

In 2004, Tunisia's mineral production included barite, clay, gypsum, iron ore, lead, phosphate rock, silver, zinc and salt. Washed phosphate rock production in 2004 totaled 7,954 metric tons (gross weight). (12.9 million tons in 2000; 90% from open-pit mining) was entirely controlled by the government-owned Compagnie des Phophates de Gafsa (CPG), founded in 1896. CPG was the largest company in Tunisia, both in terms of employees and capital investment, directly employing 9,000 people and indirectly employing over 200,000. The Kef Eschfair Mine accounted for 29.5% of total ore volume; the Kef Eddour Mine, 19.6%; and the Jallabia Mine, 18.2%. The underground M'rata Mine was closed in 2000. Known reserves of crude phosphate, in the south, amounted to 100 million tons (5% of world reserves). High-grade iron ore was found in the north, while lead and zinc, mined intermittently since Roman times, were widely dispersed. International interest in developing Tunisia's lead-zinc deposits continued to grow. High-quality marine salt was exploited along the coast. Uranium was discovered in 1965. In 2004, preliminary mineral production included: washed phosphate rock, 7,954,000 metric tons (gross weight); iron ore (metal content), 128,000 metric tons, up from 97,000 metric tons in 2003; zinc concentrate (gross weight), 52,747 metric tons; mined lead, 5,500 metric tons (estimated); cement (hydraulic and white), 7.124 million metric tons; marine salt, 608,000 metric tons; and gypsum, 130,000 metric tons (estimated). Barite, clays, fertilizers (triple-superphosphate, phosphoric acid, diammonium-phosphate, and ammonium nitrate), gravel, lime, sand, and stone were also produced. No fluorspar was mined during 2000–04.

ENERGY AND POWER

Tunisia has only modest reserves of oil, no known reserves of coal, but fairly robust reserves of natural gas.

As of 1 January 2005, Tunisia's reserves of crude oil totaled 308 million barrels. Petroleum output in 2004 was estimated at 79,800 barrels per day, of which almost all of it was crude oil. In 2000 Tunisia became a net importer of oil. In 2002, production of refined oil products averaged 37,360 barrels per day, while demand for refined oil products that year averaged 87,860 barrels per day. Imports of all petroleum products in 2002 averaged 86,630 barrels per day, with crude oil imports accounting for 23,280 barrels per day. Exports of crude oil in 2002 averaged 60,820 barrels per day. Nearly 75% of Tunisia's oil production comes from the El Borma (the country's largest) and the Ashtart fields. Tunisia has a single oil refinery at Bizerte, which as of 1 January 2005, had a crude oil refining capacity of 34,000 barrels per day.

Tunisia's proven reserves of natural gas as of 1 January 2005, totaled 2,750 billion cu ft, of which around two-thirds of it is located offshore. In 2003, natural gas production totaled 100 billion cu ft, up from 88 billion cu ft in 2002 and 79 billion cu ft in 2001. Tunisia's consumption of natural gas is also increasing. According to Tunisia's state-owned electric and gas company, Societé Tunisienne de l'Electrcité et du Gaz (STEG), natural gas accounted for 44% of all energy consumed in 2005, up from 14% in 2003. The Miskar gas field, located about 130 km (80 mi) into the Gulf of Gabes, produces the majority of the country's natural gas.

In 2002, Tunisia's electric power generating capacity was 2.894 million kW, of which 2.894 million kW of capacity was dedicated to conventional thermal fuel plants. Hydroelectric capacity that year came to 0.054 million kW, followed by geothermal/other sources at 0.020 million kW. Electric power output that same year totaled 11.140 billion kWh, of which 11.044 billion was produced by fossil fuel burning facilities. Hydropower produced 0.066 billion kWh, followed by geothermal/other at 0.030 billion kWh. Demand for electric power in 2002 totaled 10.301 billion kWh. In 1999 more than 94% of Tunisian households had access to electrical power.

INDUSTRY

Tunisia has a relatively diversified economy, with agricultural, mining, energy, and manufacturing production. Manufacturing industries, particularly those producing for export, have fueled Tunisia's growth for many years. They contribute one-fifth of total GDP, three-quarters of export earnings, and employ more than one-fifth of the labor force. The manufacturing industry is dominated by textile and leathers operations, followed by the electrical and mechanical industries, chemical exports (mainly phosphate by-products), and agribusiness. Agribusiness includes flour milling; fish, fruit, and vegetable canning; olive oil processing; and sugar refining. As one of the world's largest sources of phosphates, the country's mineral-processing industries are dominated by the manufacture of phosphate fertilizers. Handicrafts industries produce clothing, rugs, pottery, and copper and leather goods for both local and export markets.

The skills of the Tunisian work force and their relatively low wages have led an increasing number of European clothing firms to subcontract their work to Tunisian factories, thereby causing a sharp increase in Tunisia's exports of clothing. Textiles are the primary source of foreign currency revenue, with more than 90% of production being exported. The electrical power industry in Tunisia increased dramatically in the early 2000s, with the state supporting major renovations in existing plants, and the construction of new power plants. Tunisia has approximately 60 automotive assembly plants.

An oil refinery at Bizerte has a production capacity of 34,000 barrels per day. In December 2005, the Ministry of Industry and Energy opened bidding to build a new $150 million refinery at La Skhirra; the Ministry planned to finalize the contract by 2007.

In 2005, the industrial production growth rate was estimated at 3.8%.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Pasteur Institute, founded in 1893, conducts medical research in Tunis. That city is also home to institutes for the study of veterinary science (1897) and geology (1962). There are research centers for agronomy (founded in 1914) and forestry (1967) in Ariana. Science and engineering students account for about one-third of college and university enrollments. The University of Sciences, Technologies, and Medicine of Tunis (Tunis II, founded 1988) maintains a comprehensive science program, including faculties of medicine and mathematics, physics, and natural sciences and schools of veterinary medicine, health sciences and technology, engineering, computer science, and agriculture. The University of Sfax (founded in 1988) has faculties of medicine and science.

In 2002, Tunisia had 1,013 scientists and engineers, and 34 technicians engaged in research and development per million people. In that same year, Tunisia's expenditures on research and development totaled $416.080 million, or 0.63% of GDP. Of that amount, 51.1% came from government sources, followed by higher education at 35.1%. Business provided 8% and 5.9% came from foreign sources. High technology exports in 2002 totaled $177 million, or 4% of the country's manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Rades/Tunis is the principal commercial, industrial, and distribution center; most of the import and export houses, banks, and mining firms have their central offices in the city. Other commercial and distribution centers are Sfax, noted for olive oil and phosphate shipments, and Bizerte, known for grain and olive oil. Fairs are held at various times of the year in Sfax, Sousse, Tunis, and other towns. Most businesses are family-owned and operated. The government has posed some resistance to the establishment of foreign firms, particularly foreign franchises. An extensive system of price controls was for the most part eliminated in 1998, but the government still exerts pressure on private firms to show restraint in price increases. The chief advertising media are daily newspapers, outdoor displays, and motion picture theaters. The first private radio station started broadcasting in November 2003, and a private satellite television channel started broadcasting in February 2005. Other private television and radio stations are expected in the future. Arabic is the language of sales promotion, French the language of commercial correspondence.

Normal business hours in winter are from 8:30 am to 1 pm and 3 to 5:45 pm, Monday–Friday. Summer business hours are from 8:30 am to 1 pm Monday through Saturday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Tunisia's foreign trade is based upon the export of mineral and agricultural products, textiles, and chemicals in exchange for consumer goods, raw and processed materials, and agricultural and industrial equipment. Apparel, textiles, and leather are now the major exports. By 2000 their share of exports amounted to nearly half of total export value. The petroleum industry's share in Tunisian foreign trade dropped from a peak of 44% of the total in 1984 to only 12% in 2000.

Garments make up a large portion of Tunisia's export commodities. Other exports include crude petroleum, chemicals, manufactured fertilizers, and vegetable oils. In 2000 Tunisia's imports

were distributed among the following categories: consumer goods. 12.0%; food, 5.9%; fuels, 10.6%; industrial supplies, 39.4%; machinery, 20.8%; and transportation, 11.4%.

The EU is the focus of Tunisia's foreign trade, accounting for an estimated 80% of exports and 71% of imports in 2000. France is by far Tunisia's largest trading partner, being the market for 33.1% of Tunisia's exports in 2004 and the source of 25.2% of its imports. The next three largest trading partners in 2004 were Italy, Germany, and Spain. Tunisia's main non-EU trading partner is Libya.

Overall, Tunisia's export revenue grew 12% year-on-year in 2005, led by olive oil exports. Tunisia in 2005 was the world's leading exporter of olive oil in bulk, alongside Turkey. Most of the exports go to Italy and Spain, where the oil is blended with local product for the internal market, freeing up local oils for export.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Since 1960, Tunisia has experienced perennial trade deficits. These have been partly covered by tourist income, by remittances from Tunisian workers abroad, and by foreign investment and assistance. The 8th Development Plan (1992–96) aimed at improving the balance of payments deficit from 4.2% of GDP in 1991 to 2% by 1996 by encouraging free trade, foreign direct investments, and elimination of exchange restrictions. The budget deficit declined from 4.0% of GDP in 1997, to 1.7% of GDP in 1998, due to the privatization of two cement plants. The country's trade deficit rose substantially in 2000, by nearly 20%. Imports rose 16.5%, and exports climbed 14.9%. Food exports decreased, driven by weak olive oil sales. Although textile exports still remain the country's leading source of hard currency, ready-to-wear apparel sales have fallen off in recent years. Nevertheless, high petroleum product prices made up the difference for the decline in lower-performing export sectors in the early 2000s.

In 2005, exports were estimated at $10.3 billion, and imports were valued at $12.86 billion. The current-account balance stood at -$492 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of Tunisia (Banque Centrale de Tunisie-BCT), established in September 1958, is the sole bank of issue. The Tunisian Banking Co. (Société Tunisienne de Banque-STB) was established in 1957; it is the leading commercial and investment bank; the state holds 52% of the STB's capital.

The banking system is a mixture of state-owned and private institutions which offer a variety of financial instruments and services. There are 13 commercial banks; eight development banks; eight leasing companies; eight offshore banks; a savings bank; five portfolio management institutions; two merchant banks. Commercial banks include Citibank, Amen Bank, Banque International Arabe de Tunisie (BIAT), Banque Nationale Agricole (BNA); and one merchant bank is International Maghreb.

Of the 12 commercial banks, one is fully state-owned and four others are part-owned by the state. These five banks control 70% of total bank assets. Total estimated assets of these banks amounted to $8.9 billion in 1997. In 1999, the World Bank approved a $159 million loan to support banking reform efforts in Tunisia. The weak banking system is under government duress and has a low average credit line. Commitments under the WTO and EU free trade agreement will begin to liberalize the banking sector.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $4.8 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $11.3 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 6.04%.

A stock exchange began operations in Tunis in May 1970. While its activities have been expanding steadily, they remain limited to transactions in securities issued by the state and the stocks of a few private or government-owned firms, including 46 companies, 13 of them banks. Between 2000 and 2001, the Tunisian stock exchange reported a 30% loss. As of 2004, a total of 44 companies ware listed on the Tunis Stock Exchange, which had a market capitalization of $2.641 billion. In 2004, BVM General index rose 3.7%

from the previous year to 974.8. The exchange completed a shift to fully electronic trading, but remains under the government eye.

INSURANCE

Although Tunisians have traditionally resisted taking out insurance, the insurance market has begun to grow rapidly, with turnover growing by 24% in 1994. Vehicle insurance is the biggest category. There are 22 companies in all, 15 of which are Tunisian and seven foreign, including firms from France and Italy. Four of the Tunisian companies are state-owned including the biggest, STAR, founded in 1958. The insurance business is shared roughly equally between state-owned and private companies. In 2003, the value of all direct insurance premiums written totaled $456 million, of which nonlife premiums accounted for $416 million. Star was Tunisia's top nonlife insurer in 2003, with gross written nonlife premiums of $137.6 million, while HAYETT was the leading life insurer that year, with gross written life insurance premiums of $7.1 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Each year, an administrative budget and a development budget are submitted to the National Assembly. Levies on imports provide the major sources of current revenue, but trade agreements with the WTO and the EU will disturb this pattern. Government spending amounted to about half of GDP in 1999, 60% of which was spent on social projects. The Tunisian government's economic reform programs are lauded as some of the best in the world by international financial institutions. Reforms included liberalized prices, reduced tariffs, and lowered debt-to-GDP ratios. Since the privatization program was launched in 1987, about 140 state-owned enterprises had been fully or partially privatized as of 2002.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Tunisia's central government took in revenues of approximately $7.3 billion and had expenditures of $8.3 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$982 million. Public

debt in 2005 amounted to 58.7% of GDP. Total external debt was $18.91 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2004, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were d10,296 million and expenditures were d11,091 million. The value of revenues in US dollars was us$8,267 million and expenditures us$8,907 million, based on a market exchange rate for 2004 of us$1 = d1.2455 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 16.8%; defense, 4.9%; public order and safety, 7.7%; economic affairs, 14.9%; housing and community amenities, 5.1%; health, 5.5%; recreation, culture, and religion, 3.2%; education, 20.1%; and social protection, 21.9%.

TAXATION

The standard corporate tax rate was 35% in 2005. Exporting resident companies are exempt from most taxes. However, all companies are liable to a minimum tax of 0.5% of turnover, with a ceiling of d2,000 (about us$1,470). There is also a 0.2% turnover tax on industrial and commercial establishments. Capital gains are taxed at 35%. Dividend income is not taxed, but income from royalties is subject to a 15% withholding tax if made to nonresidents.

Personal taxes include a progressive income tax and a benefits tax levied on gross salaries and paid quarterly by the employer to the National Social Security Fund. The inheritance (succession) tax is 6%.

The main indirect tax is Tunisia's value-added tax (VAT), with a standard rate of 18%, a reduced rate of 6% and a top rate of 29%. The VAT is assed on all transactions and on imports.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Tunisia's import duties, as of 2005, range from 10% to more than 200%. Most goods do not need import licenses. Exceptions include textiles and automobiles. There is a 3% customs formality fee based on the total duties paid on the import. Certain luxury goods are assessed a consumption tax as high as 700%. Most goods entering Tunisia are subject to an 18% value-added tax (VAT). However, some goods are subject to VAT rates of 6%, 10%, and 29%. As of 1999, all cotton imports were duty-free. The import of weapons and health care products is strictly controlled, while imports that go against health, morality, or cultural heritage are prohibited.

In 1969, Tunisia was granted associate membership in the European Community. Under the accord, which was renewed in 1976 and 1983, the EC countries removed customs duties and quotas on nearly all of Tunisia's industrial exports. In 1995, Tunisia signed a free trade accord with the renamed European Union that will remove tariff and other trade barriers on most nonagricultural goods, services, and capital by 2008. Tunisia is also a member of the World Trade Organization.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

In 1972, an investment law provided special benefits to companies manufacturing commodities for export, a regulation that stimulated some foreign involvement, particularly in the textile industry. Incentives consisted of partial or total tax exemption for periods of 10–20 years, as well as exemption from customs and import duties on raw materials and equipment. A similar law that encouraged investment in industries producing for local markets was enacted in 1974 and amended in 1981; the statute required that such firms exhibit partial (in many cases majority) Tunisian ownership. A 1981 law offered incentives for investment in less-developed regions. Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Algeria participated with Tunisia in development banks to channel Arab investment funds.

Tunisia's severe balance of payments crisis forced the government to reverse many of its protectionist and socialist policies under structural adjustment programs supervised by the IMF and World Bank. A new investment code was passed in 1989 offering further tax and customs concessions to local as well as foreign investors, particularly in export-oriented enterprises. Tunisian law still prohibits ownership of land by non-Tunisians, although a special 40-year land lease system permits agricultural development by foreign companies. In January 1994 the government adopted an investment incentives law that, in conjunction with added provisions, offers tax reductions on reinvested profits and revenues, and optional depreciation schedules for production equipment. For companies that export at least 80% of their output, the incentives include a 10-year profits tax holiday, with a 50% reduction thereafter; full tax and duty exemptions on materials and services used in production; full tax exemption on reinvested profits and revenue; and duty-free import of capital goods that have no local equivalent. Large investments with high job creation may qualify to use state land virtually rent-free.

Foreign property is still at risk of expropriation by the Tunisian government and in 1995 an American company had property taken without compensation. The government also reserves the right to take property by eminent domain, in which case just compensation is offered. There remain many restrictions on foreign investment as the government pursues a gradualist approach, caught between pressure to liberalize from the IMF and the WTO, and a fear of igniting a popular uprising. Under the terms of its accession to the WTO (29 March 1995), Tunisia was obligated to relax restrictions on foreign participation in its information, telecommunications, and financial services industries by 2003.

The annual inflow of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Tunisia peaked at $778.8 million in 2000, up from $368 million in 1999. The annual inflow has fallen since, caught in the global economic slowdown of 2001 and, in particular, the decline in FDI flows worldwide following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States. FDI inflow in Tunisia was $486 million in 2001 and $402 million in 2002. Tunisia attracted FDI totaling $626 million in 2003. Total FDI in Tunisia by 2004 was estimated at $14.3 billion. FDI in manufacturing industries, the main generator of jobs and exports and the real indicator of the investment climate, totaled $216 million in 2003 compared with $180 million in 2002.

As much as 75% of FDI in Tunisia has been in the petroleum sector. Other important sectors are textiles, and mechanical and electrical industries. The telecommunications industry is ready for substantial growth. France is the largest investor, followed by Italy, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

As of 2004, 2,600 companies had established operations in Tunisia as a result of FDI. About 85% are totally exporting operations, the vast majority in the textile and footwear industries.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The plan for 1973–76 proposed increasing investments by 75% over the previous ten-year plan. An annual growth rate of 6.6% was targeted for the period. Fully 75% of the plan's investments were to be financed with international aid. Manufacturing industries received the largest single allocation of total investment under the 1977–81 plan. Once again, the burden of financing the program fell on external sources, with Arab funds accounting for 30% of the anticipated foreign capital. Actual growth came close to the target of 7.5% a year in real terms. The development plan for 1982–86 set forth three main goals: employment growth, regional development, and balance of payments equilibrium. Some 33% of the total expenditure was to be invested in labor-intensive industries. Performance fell far short of the goal of 6% a year in real growth.

The inauguration of the 1987–94 development plan followed the foreign exchange crisis of 1986, and the adoption of an International Monetary Fund (IMF) sponsored economic rehabilitation scheme. Services were to receive 39%, agriculture 19%, and manufacturing 16%. This plan was successfully completed, winning the country accolades from investment institutions. The 1994–96 development plan was based on strong expansion in the manufacturing industry (8.7%) and tourism (22%). The plan called for further cuts in consumer subsidies and the privatization of many state assets. The economic development plan of 1997–2001 called for investment in telecommunications infrastructure, continued privatization of industry, and lowering of trade barriers.

The 10th economic development plan of 2002–06 aimed at improving the competitiveness of the economy; increasing the private sector's share in investment; setting up a knowledge economy; and securing sustainable economic and social development and a creation of new jobs while maintaining global balances. Targets set for economic development included: an average economic growth of 5.7% a year; an increase in private sector investment to 60% (the total investment rate would be brought to 26.6% by 2006); and the consolidation of the national savings rate to reach 26% of GNP by 2006, allowing for the financing of 91% of projected investment.

As of 2006, the tourism industry was growing. A surge in demand for new housing and luxury units and a series of plans to expand transportation infrastructure and develop Tunis's growth corridors combined to improve conditions for both the construction industry and foreign investors. Challenges for the economy remaining are high unemployment, the existence of the "gray" economy, the continued dominance of the public sector, and masses of bureaucratic red tape that increase the cost of doing business in the country.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A social insurance system provides benefits including maternity payments, family allowances, disability and life insurance, and old age insurance. The system covers private-sector employees and some categories of fishermen. There are special systems for government workers, agricultural workers, the self-employed, fishermen, artists and intellectuals. Pensions normally are provided at age 60, and benefits are equal to 40% of average earnings, plus 0.5% for each 3 months of contributions above 120. Work injury insurance is compulsory for employers and covers all salaried workers including domestic servants. Unemployment benefits are provided for all salaried nonagricultural workers and payable for six months.

Tunisian women enjoy full civil and political rights under the law. Educational and employment opportunities are growing steadily. The law specifically requires equal pay for equal work and this is generally respected. Inheritance laws, based on Muslim tenets, discriminate against women. Domestic violence occurs but the police and courts regard the issue as a family matter. In 2004 the government launched a morality campaign, which penalized women deemed immodest in dress or behavior. The rights of children are protected.

Human rights organizations are permitted to operate in Tunisia, but may be subject to some government restrictions and harassment. Continuing human rights abuses include arbitrary arrest and detention and abuse of prisoners, including torture.

HEALTH

Free health services are available to about 70% of the population, with about 90% of the population having access to health care services. As of 2004, there were an estimated 70 physicians, 287 nurses, 13 dentists, and 17 pharmacists per 100,000 people. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 5.1% of GDP.

Health conditions improved significantly in the 1990s and early 2000s, although diet and sanitation remain deficient. Epidemics have virtually disappeared and the incidence of contagious diseases has been considerably reduced. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were: tuberculosis, 75%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 90%; polio, 90%; and measles, 89%.

The government supports a family planning program. As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 16.8 and 5 per 1,000 people. About 60% of married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception. The fertility rate in 2000 was 2.1 children per woman surviving her childbearing years. Infant mortality was 24.77 per 1,000 live births in 2005 and average life expectancy was 74.89 years. Maternal mortality was 70 per 100,000 live births.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 1,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

The government has spent well over d1 billion on workers' housing. Since the mid-1960s, trade unions have provided new housing for members. Financial assistance to needy homeowners is provided by a national housing fund.

In 2000, the housing stock stood at about 2,501,000 serving about 1,999,200 households, with an average of 4.78 people per household. By 2003, the number of households had increased to 2,137,600 with an average of 4.61 people per household. About 45% of all housing was considered to be of modern construction, including detached apartment complexes and villas. About 54% of all housing was of traditional construction, such as an Arabic-style home.

In 2001, the Ministry of Housing announced that the amount of available housing had exceeded the number of families by about 13% and that there had been a decrease in slums by about 1.2%. However, squatter communities, called gourbvilles, are still prevalent in urban regions.

EDUCATION

On becoming independent in 1956, Tunisia inherited a small but efficient educational system based on French and, to a lesser extent, Islamic influence. In 1958, the government nationalized most of the existing facilities; remaining private institutions were subject to government regulation. In the same year the government began a comprehensive plan for educational development to achieve universal, free, compulsory primary education and a significant expansion of the secondary school system.

Primary school covers nine years of study in two cycles of six plus three years. Secondary school covers an additional four years, with two years of general education plus two years of specialized education in arts, mathematics, experimental sciences, technology, or economy and management. Vocational studies are also available at the secondary level. The academic year runs from September to June.

In 2001, about 19% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 97% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 64% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that nearly all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 22:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 20:1.

The University of Tunis was founded on 31 March 1960. In total there are 162 institutions of higher education, including 13 universities. In 2003, it was estimated that about 27% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in tertiary education programs. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 74.3%, with 83.4% for men and 65.3% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 6.4% of GDP, or 18.2% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Library (est. 1885) in Tunis contains a special collection of rare Arabic and Oriental manuscripts. The University of Tunis library has 220,000 volumes. The Arab League Documentation and Information Center, with 25,000 volumes, has been housed at Tunis since 1980. The collections of Tunisia's approximately 380 public libraries hold over 2.7 million volumes. There are also 23 regional libraries throughout the country.

The Bardo National Museum, founded in Tunis in 1888, has the largest collection of Roman mosaics in the world. Another fine collection is located at the museum in Sousse, which contains archaeological remains dating from the 6th century bc to the 6th century ad. The Raqqada Museum, housed in a former presidential palace near Kairouan, has the country's largest collection of Islamic art, including manuscripts of the Quran (Koran) from the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Other museums are in Monastir, Sfax, Qairouan, Maktar, Sbeitla, Sousse, and Carthage. The National Institute of Archaeology is located in Tunis, as is the Center of Living Arts and the Museum of Traditional and Popular Art.

MEDIA

Tunisia's well-developed postal, telephone, and telegraph system is government-operated and links all the important cities. A marine cable connects Tunisia with France, and a land cable links it with Algeria and Morocco. In 2003, there were an estimated 118 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 108,700 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 192 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The government-owned Tunisian Radio-Television Broadcasting (ERTT) broadcasts in Arabic, French, and Italian over one national station, one international station, and five regional stations. Relay stations bring in programs from Italian television. In 2004, the government owned the two major television networks and all but one of the national radio stations. Egyptian and British channels are available via satellite. In 2003, there were an estimated 158 radios and 207 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 40.5 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 64 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 19 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

In 2004, there were over 250 newspapers and magazines in the country. There were eight major daily newspapers, including (with language of publication and 2002 circulation rates as available) As-Sabah (Arabic, 50,000), Assahafa/La Presse (Arabic), Le Renouveau (French, 23,000), Al Amal (Arabic, 50,000), La Presse de Tunisie (Arabic/French, 40,000), L'Action (French, 40,000), and Errai El-Am (Arabic). The Arabic Ach Chourouk (110,000) and the French Le Temps (42,000) are major weeklies.

The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press. However, the government is said to limit these freedoms significantly through economic control, confiscations, imprisonment, and detention. Government permits are required for distribution of publications. Criticism of high government officials or fundamental state institutions can result in seizure or suspension of the offending publication.

ORGANIZATIONS

There are chambers of commerce in Tunis, Sfax, Sousse, and Bizerte; the Tunisian Union of Industry, Commerce, and Crafts, a national association of trade federations and business interests, is in Tunis. The National Union of Tunisian Farmers is very active. There are professional associations for several different fields, particularly those involving medicine and healthcare.

The National Union of Tunisian Women promotes greater participation by women in economic, political, and cultural affairs. National youth organizations include the Tunisian General Union of Students, the Young Constitutional Democrats, the League of Arab States Youth and Sports Division, Junior Chamber, and Scouts of Tunisia. Kiwanis and Lions Clubs have active programs. There are several sports associations, including the multinational African Boxing Confederation, African Rugby Football Union, and the African Table Tennis Federation.

The multinational Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization encourages cultural unity among Arab countries.

The Arab Institute for Human Rights and the Arab Medical Union, both based in Tunis, are multinational, social action organizations. Other international organizations with national chapters include Greenpeace, Amnesty International, Caritas, UNICEF, and the Red Crescent Society.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Tunisia's cosmopolitan capital city, Tunis, the ruins of Carthage, the ancient Muslim and Jewish quarters of Jerba, and the modern coastal resorts in the vicinity of Monastir and Sousse are among the main tourist attractions. Recreations include hunting, hiking, golf, tennis, and other water sports.

Tunisia has been investing in the tourism industry since the late 1990s. In 2003, there were 5,114,303 foreign visitors. Tourist expenditures reached about $1.9 billion that year, and hotel rooms numbered 110,009 with 222,018 beds and an occupancy rate of 42%. Visitors stayed in Tunisia an average of six nights.

According to 2005 US Department of State estimates, the daily cost of staying in Tunis or Carthage was $165, and other areas about $117.

FAMOUS TUNISIANS

Ancient Carthage was located near the site of modern Tunis. Its most famous leader was Hannibal (247–183 bc), the general who campaigned in Italy for several years (218–211 bc) but who was defeated by the Romans under Scipio Africanus at Zama in 202 bc. The dominant figure of modern Tunisia was Habib Bourguiba (Habib bin 'Ali ar-Rugaybah, 1903–2000); he led Tunisia to independence, formed its first government, and was president from 1957 to 1987. Mongi Slim (1908–69) served as president of the 16th session of the UN General Assembly (1961–62). Mohamed Mzali (b.1925) has served in numerous government posts, including prime minister in 1980–86. Gen. Zine el 'Abidine Ben 'Ali (b.1936) assumed the presidency in 1987.

Tunisia's noteworthy literary figures include Albert Memmi (b.1920), the author of The Statue of Salt (1957), who writes in French; and Mahmoud Messadi (1911–2004), who wrote in Arabic. Prominent Tunisian painters are Ammar Farhat (1911–86) and Jallah bin 'Abdallah (b.1921).

DEPENDENCIES

Tunisia has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Borowiec, Andrew. Modern Tunisia: A Democratic Apprenticeship. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998.

McDougall, James (ed.). Nation, Society and Culture in North Africa. London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2003.

Perkins, Kenneth J. Historical Dictionary of Tunisia. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1997.

Zartman, I. William (ed.). Tunisia: The Political Economy of Reform. Boulder, Colo.: L. Rienner, 1991.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Tunisia

PROFILE
PEOPLE AND HISTORY
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-TUNISIAN RELATIONS
TRAVEL

Compiled from the June 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Tunisian Republic

PROFILE

Geography

Location: North Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and Libya.

Area: 163,610 sq. km. (63,378 sq. mi.), slightly smaller than Missouri.

Cities: Capital—Tunis; Greater Tunis Area, Sfax, Nabeul, Sousse.

Terrain: Arable land in north and along central coast; south is mostly semiarid or desert.

Climate: Hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.

Land use: Arable land, 17.05%; permanent crops, 13.08%; other, 69.87%.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Tunisian(s).

Population: (2006) 10,216,000.

Annual growth rate: (2005) 1.12%. Birth rate—17.1 births/1,000 population. Death rate—5.17 deaths/1,000 population.

Ethnic groups: Arab-Berber 98%, European 1%, other 1%.

Religions: Muslim 98%, Christian 1%, Jewish less than 1%.

Languages: Arabic (official), French.

Education: Years compulsory—9. Literacy (definition—age 15 and over can read and write)—74% (2006 est.).

Health: (2006) Infant mortality rate—20.3 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy—73.5 total, 71.6 years male, 75.5 years female.

Work force: (2006) 3.503 million.

Unemployment rate: (2006) 13.9%.

Government

Type: Republic.

Constitution: June 1, 1959; amended July 12, 1988, June 29, 1999, and June 1, 2002.

Independence: March 20, 1956.

Government branches: Executive—chief of state President Zine El Abidine BEN ALI (since November 7, 1987) head of government, Prime Minister Mohamed GHANNOUCHI (since November 17, 1999) cabinet, Council of Ministers appointed by the president; president elected by popular vote for a 5-year term; election last held October 24, 2004 (next to be held in October 2009); prime minister appointed by the president. Election results: President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali reelected for a fourth term; candidates from opposition: Mohamed Bouchiha (PUP), Mohamed Ali Halouani (Et-Tajdid) and Mounir Beji (PSL); percent of vote—Zine El Abidine Ben Ali 94.49% (officially). Legislative—bicameral. Chamber of Deputies or Majlis al-Nuwaab (189 seats; 5-year terms; 152 seats are elected by popular vote for party lists on a winner-take-all basis). An additional 37 seats (20% of the total) are distributed to opposition parties on a proportional basis as provided for in 1999 constitutional amendments. Elections last held October 24, 2004 (next to be held in October 2009). Election results: percent of vote by party—RCD 92%; seats by party—RCD 152, MDS 14, PUP 11, UDU 7, Et-Tajdid 3, PSL 2. Note: The opposition increased number of seats from 34 to 37. A referendum in 2002 created a second chamber, the Chamber of Advisors. Elections for the Chamber of Advisors were held in July 2005. Judicial—Nominally independent District Courts, Courts of Appeal, Highest Court (Cour de Cassation). Judges of the Highest Court are appointed by the President.

Political parties: Democratic Constitutional Rally (Rassemblement Constitutionnel Democratique—ruling party) or RCD, President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali; Et-Tajdid Movement (Mohamed Harmel); Democratic Forum for Labor and Liberties or FDTL (Mustapha Ben Jaafar); Liberal Social Party or PSL (Mond-her Thabet); Movement of Democratic Socialists or MDS (Ismail Boulahia); Popular Unity Party or PUP (Mohamed Bouchiha); Unionist Democratic Union or UDU (Ahmed Inoubli); Progressive Democratic Party or PDP (Maya Jribi); Green Party for Progress or PVP (Mongi Khamassi).

Political pressure groups and leaders: Authorized—Tunisian Human Rights League or LTDH (Mokhtar Trifi); Tunisian Association of Democratic Women or ATFD (Khadija Cherif); Tunisian Bar Association (Adbessatar Ben Moussa); Tunisian Journalists’ Association or AJT (Fouzi Bouzayane). Unauthorized —An-Nahdha (Renaissance) the Islamic fundamentalist party (Rached El Ghanouchi, in exile); National Council for Liberties in Tunisia or CNLT (Sihem Ben Sedrine); Movement of 18 October (Nejib Chebbi, Hamma Hammami, et. al) Congress for the Republic or CPR (Moncef Marzouki); Tunisian Communist Labor Party or POCT (Hamma Hammami); Tunisian Green Party or PVT (Abdelkader Zitouni); International Association for the Support of Political Prisoners or AISPP (Co-ordinator: Mokhtar Yahyaoui); Tunisian Journalists’ Syndicate or SJT (Lotfi Hajji).

Political subdivisions: 24 governorates—Ariana, Beja, Ben Arous, Bizerte, El Kef, Gabes, Gafsa, Jen-douba, Kairouan, Kasserine, Kebili, Mahdia, Manouba, Medenine, Monastir, Nabeul, Sfax, Sidi Bou Zid, Siliana, Sousse, Tataouine, Tozeur, Tunis, Zaghouan.

Suffrage: Universal at 20. (Active duty members of the military cannot vote.)

Economy

Real GDP: (2006) $25.498 billion.

Real GDP growth rate: (2006) 5.2%.

Per capita GDP, PPP: (2006) $8,898.

Natural resources: natural gas, crude oil, phosphates, salt, iron ore.

Agriculture: Products—olives, dates, citrus, almonds, grains.

Industry: Types—petroleum, mining (particularly phosphate), textiles, footwear, food processing.

Services: Tourism, commerce, transport, communications.

Sector information as % GDP: (2006 est.) Agriculture, 12%; industry, 33%; services, 55%.

Trade: (2005) Exports—$11.7 billion: hydrocarbons, agricultural products, phosphates, chemicals, textiles, mechanical, electric components. By region—Africa 9.9%, Americas 3.1%, Asia 3.7%, Europe 83.3%. By country (U.S.$million)—France, $3807.07, Italy, $2598.46, Germany, $926.0, Spain, $739.0; Libya, $635.15; Belgium, $282.61; UK, $322.0; U.S. $145.6. Imports ($15.2 billion)— industrial goods and equipment, hydrocarbons, food, consumer goods. By region—Africa 7.8%, Americas 5.9% Asia 10.5%, Europe 75.8%. By country (U.S.$million)—France $3461.61, Italy $2836.15, Germany $1200.61, Spain $714.69, Libya $743.0, China $501.84, U.S. $435.15.

PEOPLE AND HISTORY

Modern Tunisians are the descendents of indigenous Berbers and of people from numerous civilizations that have invaded, migrated to, and been assimilated into the population over the millennia. Recorded history in Tunisia begins with the arrival of Phoenicians, who founded Carthage and other North African settlements in the 8th century B.C. Carthage became a major sea power, clashing with Rome for control of the Mediterranean until it was defeated and captured by the Romans in 146 B.C. The Romans ruled and settled in North Africa until the 5th century, when the Roman Empire fell and Tunisia was invaded by European tribes, including the Vandals. The Muslim conquest in the 7th century transformed Tunisia and the make-up of its population, with subsequent waves of migration from around the Arab and Ottoman world, including significant numbers of Spanish Muslims and Jews at the end of the 15th century. Tunisia became a center of Arab culture and learning and was assimilated into the Turkish Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. It was a French protectorate from 1881 until independence in 1956, and retains close political, economic, and cultural ties with France.

Nearly all Tunisians (98% of the population) are Muslim. There has been a Jewish population on the southern island of Djerba for 2000 years, and there remains a small Jewish population in Tunis and other cities, which is mainly descended from those who fled Spain in the late 15th century. A small Christian community is dispersed throughout the country, and includes foreign residents, as well as a few hundred native-born citizens who have converted to Christianity. Small nomadic indigenous minorities have been mostly assimilated into the larger population.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Tunisia is a republic with a strong presidential system dominated by a single political party. President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali has been in office since 1987, when he deposed Habib Bourguiba, president since Tunisia's independence from France in 1956. The ruling party, the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD), was the sole legal party for 25 years—including when it was known as the Socialist Destourian Party (PSD)—and still dominates political life. The president is elected to 5-year terms—with virtually no opposition—and appoints a prime minister and cabinet, who play a strong role in the execution of policy. Regional governors and local administrators are also appointed by the central government; largely consultative mayors and municipal councils are elected. There is a bicameral legislative body. The Chamber of Deputies has 189 seats, 20% of which are reserved for the opposition. It plays a limited role as an arena for debate on national policy but never originates legislation and virtually always passes bills presented by the executive with only minor changes. A referendum in 2002 created a second chamber, the Chamber of Advisors. First-time elections for the Chamber of Advisors were held in July 2005. The judiciary is nominally independent, but responds to executive direction, especially in politically sensitive cases. The military is professional and does not play a role in politics.

Tunisia's independence from France in 1956 ended a protectorate established in 1881. President Bourguiba, who had been the leader of the independence movement, declared Tunisia a republic in 1957, ending the nominal rule of the Ottoman Beys. In June 1959, Tunisia adopted a constitution modeled on the French system, which established the basic outline of the highly centralized presidential system that continues today. The military was given a defined defensive role, which excluded participation in politics. Starting from independence, President Bourguiba placed strong emphasis on economic and social development, especially education, the status of women, and the creation of jobs, policies that continued under the Ben Ali administration. The result was strong social progress—high literacy and school attendance rates, low population growth rates, and relatively low poverty rates—and generally steady economic growth. These pragmatic policies have contributed to social and political stability.

Progress toward full democracy has been slow. Over the years, President Bourguiba stood unopposed for re-election several times and was named “President for Life” in 1974 by a constitutional amendment. At the time of independence, the Neo-Destourian Party (later the PSD)—enjoying broad support because of its role at the forefront of the independence movement—became the sole legal party. Opposition parties were banned until 1981.

When President Ben Ali came to power in 1987, he promised greater democratic openness and respect for human rights, signing a “national pact” with opposition parties. He oversaw constitutional and legal changes, including abolishing the concept of President for life, the establishment of presidential term limits, and provision for greater opposition party participation in political life. But the ruling party, renamed the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD), continued to dominate the political scene because of its historic popularity and the advantage it enjoyed as the ruling party. Ben Ali ran for re-election unopposed in 1989 and 1994. In the multiparty era, he won 99.44% of the vote in 1999 and 94.49% of the vote in 2004. In both elections he faced weak opponents. The RCD won all seats in the Chamber of Deputies in 1989, and won all of the directly elected seats in the 1994, 1999, and 2004 elections. However, constitutional amendments provided for the distribution of additional seats to the opposition parties by 1999 and 2004. Currently, five opposition parties share 37 of the 189 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. A May 2002 referendum approved constitutional changes proposed by Ben Ali that allowed him to run for a fourth term in 2004 (and a fifth, his final, because of age limits on presidential candidates, in 2009), and provided judicial immunity during and after his presidency. The referendum also created a second parliamentary chamber, the Chamber of Advisors, and provided for other changes.

There are currently eight legal opposition parties, the Social Democratic Movement (MDS), the Popular Unity Party (PUP), the Union of Democratic Unionists (UDU), Et-Tajdid (also called the Renewal Movement), the Liberal Social Party (PSL), and the Green Party for Progress (PVP), plus the Democratic Progressive Party (PDP) and the Democratic Forum for Labor and Liberties (FDTL), the only two not represented in the Chamber of Deputies. The parties are generally weak and divided and face considerable restrictions on their ability to organize. The Islamist opposition party, An-Nahdha, was allowed to operate openly in the late 1980s and early 1990s despite a ban on religiously based parties. The government outlawed An-Nahdha as a terrorist organization in 1991 and arrested its leaders and thousands of party members and sympathizers, accusing them of plotting to overthrow the president. The party is no longer openly active in Tunisia, and its leaders operate from exile in London. Several pro-democracy activists have been denied permission to establish other opposition political parties. While there are thousands of official, established non-governmental organizations, civil society remains weak. The Tunisian Human Rights League (LTDH), the first human rights organization in Africa and the Arab world, operates under restrictions and suffers from internal divisions. The Tunisian Association of Democratic Women (ATFD), the Young Lawyers Association, and the Bar Association also are active. The government has denied legal status to a handful of other human rights advocacy groups who, nonetheless, attempt to organize and publicize information on the human rights situation in the country.

Despite the Government of Tunisia's stated committed to making progress toward a democratic system, citizens do not enjoy political freedom. The government imposes restrictions on freedom of association and speech and does not allow a free press. Many critics have called for clearer, effective distinctions between executive, legislative, and judicial powers. Foreign media, including foreign-based satellite television channels, have criticized the Tunisian Government for the lack of press freedom. Tunisia ranked number 148 out of 167 countries in the 2006 Reporters Without Borders list of World Press Freedom rankings. As reflected in the State Department's annual human rights report, there are frequent reports of widespread torture and abuse of prisoners, especially political prisoners.

Trade unions have played a key role in Tunisia's history since the struggle for independence, when the 1952 assassination of labor leader Farhat Hached was a catalyst for the final push against French domination. The General Union of Tunisian Workers (UGTT), the country's sole labor confederation, has generally focused on bread-and-butter issues, but at some critical moments in Tunisia's history has played a decisive role in the nation's political life. Despite a drop in union membership from 400,000 to about 250,000 as the structure of the Tunisian economy changed, the UGTT continues to hold a prominent place in Tunisia's political and social life, and negotiates with government and the umbrella employer group for higher wages and better benefits. The current leadership under Abdessalem Jerad was elected at the 21st UGTT Congress held in December 2006.

Tunisia is a leader in the Arab world in promoting the legal and social status of women. A Personal Status Code was adopted shortly after independence in 1956, which, among other things, gave women full legal status (allowing them to run and own businesses, have bank accounts, and seek passports under their own authority). It also, for the first time in the Arab world, outlawed polygamy. The government required parents to send girls to school, and today more than 50% of university students are women. Rights of women and children were further enhanced by 1993 reforms, which included a provision to allow Tunisian women to transmit citizenship even if they are married to a foreigner and living abroad. The government has supported a remarkably successful family planning program that has reduced the population growth rate to just over 1% per annum, contributing to Tunisia's economic and social stability.

Tunisia's judiciary is headed by the Court of Cassation, whose judges are appointed by the president. The country is divided administratively into 24 governorates. The president appoints all governors.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Pres.: Zine el Abidine BEN ALI

Prime Min.: Mohamed GHANNOUCHI

Special Adviser to the Pres. & Spokesman of the Republic: Abdelaziz BEN DHIA

Min. of Agriculture & Water Resources: Habib HADDAD

Min. of Communication Technologies: Haj KLAI

Min. of Communications & Relations With the Chamber of Deputies & the Chamber of Counselors: Rafaa DEKHIL

Min. of Culture & Protection of National Heritage: Mohamed Aziz BEN ACHOUR

Min. of Development & Intl. Cooperation: Mohamed Nouri JOUINI

Min. of Education & Vocational Training: Sadok KORBI

Min. of Employment & Vocational Integration of Youth: Chadli LAROUSSI

Min. of Environment & Sustainable Development: Nadhir HAMADA

Min. of Equipment, Housing, & Land Development: Samira Khayache BELHAJ

Min. of Finance: Mohamed Rachid KECHICHE

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Abdelwaheb ABDALLAH

Min. of Higher Education & Scientific Research: Lazhar BOUOUNI

Min. of Industry, Energy, & Small- & Medium-Size Enterprises: Afif CHELBI

Min. of the Interior & Local Development: Rafiq BELHAJ KACEM

Min. of Justice & Human Rights: Bechir TEKKARI

Min. of National Defense: Kamel MORJANE

Min. of Public Health: Mondher ZENAIDI

Min. of Public Property & Real Estate Affairs: Ridha GRIRA

Min. of Religious Affairs: Boubaker EL-AKHZOURI

Min. of Scientific Research, Technology, & Expertise Development: Taieb HADHRI

Min. of Social Affairs, Solidarity, & Tunisians Living Abroad: Ali CHAOUCH

Min. of Tourism: Khelil LAJIMI

Min. of Trade & Handicrafts: Ridha TOUITI

Min. of Transport: Abderrahim ZOUARI

Min. of Women, Children, & Family Affairs: Sarra Kanoun JARRAYA

Min. of Youth, Sport, & Physical Education: Abdallah KAABI

Min.-Dir. of the Presidential Cabinet: Ahmed Eyadh OUEDERNI

Sec. Gen. of the Govt.: Mounir JAIDANE

Governor, Central Bank: Taoufik BACCAR

Ambassador to the US: Nejib HACHANA

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Ali HACHANI

Tunisia's embassy in the United States is located at 1515 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20005 (tel. 1-202-862-1850, fax 1-202-862-1858).

ECONOMY

Tunisia's economy has emerged from rigid state control and is now mostly liberalized. World Bank and IMF support, coupled with prudent economic policies implemented by the Tunisian Government in the mid-eighties after a balance of payments crisis, has resulted in regular stable growth. Although this faltered after 9/11, the economy has since bounced back, thanks to healthy exports, renewed growth in tourism, and favorable climatic conditions which boosted agricultural production.

Manufacturing industries, producing largely for export, are a major source of foreign currency revenue. Industrial production represents about 28 percent of GDP and primarily consists of petroleum, mining (particularly phosphates), textiles, footwear, food processing, and electrical and mechanical manufactures. Textiles are a major source of foreign currency revenue, with more than 90% of production being exported. While the end of the Multifiber Arrangement in 2005 eroded Tunisia's competitiveness in its traditional European textile markets, to counteract this, manufacturers are successfully upgrading product lines and exporting smaller quantities of higher value items.

Tourism is a major source of foreign exchange, representing about 20 percent of hard currency receipts, as well as an important sector for employment. 6.5 million tourists visited Tunisia in 2006, hailing largely from Europe and North Africa. While the influx of tourists represents a boon to the economy. Tunisia's large expatriate population (about 1 million) also makes a positive and significant contribution. Over the past five years, remittances from abroad averaged 1.61 million dinars (approximately 1.21 million USD) a year, or roughly 5 percent of Tunisia's GDP and one fourth of the country's foreign currency earnings.

Soaring oil prices have hit the Tunisian economy hard. The country is a net importer of hydrocarbon products. Domestic crude production is approximately 112,000 barrels per day, but refining capacity is only about 30,000 barrels a day. Proven reserves are in the region of 300 million barrels. Tunisia has one oil refinery in Bizerte on the north coast and in May 2006 awarded a tender for a second at La Skhira near Gabes to Qatar Petroleum. Natural gas production is currently about 3 million tons oil equivalent Proven reserves are about 2.8 trillion cubic feet, two-thirds of which are located offshore. British Gas is the major developer of the natural gas industry, and the largest foreign investor in Tunisia.

Economically and commercially, Tunisia is very closely linked to Europe. Tunisia signed an Association Agreement with the EU, due to go into effect in 2008, which will eliminate customs tariffs and other trade barriers on a wide range of goods and services. In advance of the 2008 implementation of this Association Agreement, the Government of Tunisia embarked on a program, “Mise a Niveau,” (industrial upgrading) to improve the competitiveness of Tunisian industry. Launched on a pilot scale in 1996, the “Mise a Niveau” program is supported in part by EU grants. The program consists of technical assistance, training, subsidies, and infrastructure upgrades aimed at encouraging and assisting Tunisian private sector industrial restructuring.

EU member states also provide the bulk of FDI, much of which has come in under the Government of Tunisia privatization program launched in 1987. In May 2006 the Government of Tunisia announced that overall its privatization program had raised $1.9 billion, of which $1.4 billion was foreign capital. This does not include the $2.25 billion the Government of Tunisia recently received for the sale to Dubai Holding of a 35% share in the national telecommunications authority, Tunisie Telecom. Persian Gulf investments in telecommunications, real estate, and energy are also a major source of FDI.

The Ministry of Industry and Energy is responsible for a program to improve the international competitiveness of Tunisian industry in preparation for free trade with the European Union. Launched on a pilot scale in 1996, the “Mise a Niveau” (industrial upgrading) program is supported in part by EU grants incorporated into the EU Association Agreement. The program combines government technical assistance, training, subsidies, and infrastructure upgrades aimed at encouraging and assisting Tunisian private sector industrial restructuring. More than 2,300 companies have applied to join the program, with more than half accepted.

A Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA) with the U.S. was signed in October 2002 and follow-up TIFA Councils were held in October 2003 and June 2005, but little progress has been made towards generating the necessary reforms required to engender a free trade agreement between the U.S. and Tunisia. The framework for a multilateral trade agreement with Egypt, Jordan, and Morocco, known as the Agadir Agreement, has also been signed. The Agadir Agreement creates a potential market of over 100 million people across North Africa and into the Middle East.

The government still retains control over certain “strategic” sectors of the economy (finance, hydrocarbons, aviation, electricity and gas distribution, and water resources) but the private sector is playing an increasingly important role. Tunisia is a founding member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and is publicly committed to a free trade regime and export-led growth. Most goods can be imported without prior licensing, although non-tariff administrative barriers sometimes delay imports of goods. Significant import duties, coupled with high consumption taxes on certain items and a value-added tax (VAT), add considerably to the local price of imported goods.

The Government of Tunisia is beginning to take a more proactive stance on intellectual property rights (IPR) enforcement and education. Tunisia's recent intellectual property rights law is designed to meet WTO TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property) minimum standards and there is on-going collaboration between the United States and Tunisian governments to promote public awareness of these rights.

Tunisia's timely completion of its IMF program (1987-1994) and subsequent fiscal conservatism have earned it investment grade ratings from a number of international institutions, although Standard and Poor has noted that ratings on Tunisia are constrained by its highly centralized political system and the need for further structural reforms. In mid-2005 the Tunisian Central Bank issued a new Euro-denominated bond on the London financial market. The issue totaled over $450 million (400 million Euros) with a maturity of 15 years. In 2004 the Government of Tunisia sold a similar bond with a total value of nearly $550 million and seven-year maturity.

The Central Bank is moving from direct management of the financial sector towards a more traditional supervisory and regulatory role. Commercial banks are permitted to participate in the forward foreign exchange market. The dinar is convertible for current account transactions but some convertible dinar/ foreign exchange account transactions still require Central Bank authorization. Total convertibility of the Tunisian dinar is probably still some years away. The dinar is traded on an intra-bank market. Trading operates around a managed float established by the Central Bank (based upon a basket of the Euro, the U.S. Dollar and the Japanese Yen). The stock exchange remains under the supervision of the state-run financial market council, and lists about 50 companies. A new phase of the Mise a Niveau program aims to double this figure.

Tunisia has a relatively well-developed infrastructure that includes six commercial seaports and six international airports. The prequalification phase for a seventh airport near the coast at Enfidha was announced in April 2004. The project, a Build-to-Own 40-year concession eventually able to handle 30 million passengers per year, was awarded in May 2007 to a Turkish group and construction is expected to begin in July 2007. A tender for a deep water port in the same region is expected also.

Average annual income per capita in Tunisia is approaching $3000. The minimum monthly legal wage for a 48-hour week was recently raised to approximately $180. Tunisia's goal of pushing per capita incomes into the middle emerging market level calls for an average 6-7% growth rate instead of 4-5%. In 2006, GDP growth was 5.2%, but inflation spiked to 4.5%, from 2% the year before. Official figures claim unemployment is around 14%, but it is generally believed to be much higher in some regions. Despite the present low rate of population growth, a demographic peak is now hitting higher education and the job market. Tunisia has invested heavily in education and the number of students enrolled at university has soared from 41,000 in 1986 to over 360,000. Providing jobs for these highly educated people represents a major challenge for the Government of Tunisia.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

President Ben Ali has maintained Tunisia's long-time policy of seeking good relations with the West, including the United States, while playing an active role in Arab and African regional bodies. President Bourguiba took a nonaligned stance but emphasized close relations with Europe and the United States.

Tunisia has long been a voice for moderation and realism in the Middle East. President Bourguiba was the first Arab leader to call for the recognition of Israel, in a speech in Jericho in 1965. Tunisia served as the headquarters of the Arab League from 1979 to 1990 and hosted the Palestine Liberation Organization's (PLO) headquarters from 1982 to 1993. (The PLO Political Department remains in Tunis.) Tunisia consistently has played a moderating role in the negotiations for a comprehensive Middle East peace. In 1993, Tunisia was the first Arab country to host an official Israeli delegation as part of the Middle East peace process. The Government of Tunisia operated an Interests Section in Israel from April 1996 until the outbreak of the second Intifada in 2000. Israeli citizens may travel to Tunisia on their Israeli passports. Wedged between Algeria and Libya, Tunisia has sought to maintain good relations with its neighbors despite occasionally strained relations. Tunisia and Algeria resolved a longstanding border dispute in 1993 and have cooperated in the construction of a natural gas pipeline through Tunisia that connects Algeria to Italy. In 2002, Tunisia signed an agreement with Algeria to demarcate the maritime frontier between the two countries.

Tunisia's relations with Libya have been erratic since Tunisia annulled a brief agreement to form a union in 1974. Diplomatic relations were broken in 1976, restored in 1977, and deteriorated again in 1980, when Libyan-trained rebels attempted to seize the town of Gafsa. In 1982, the International Court of Justice ruled in Libya's favor in the partition of the oil-rich continental shelf it shares with Tunisia. Libya's 1985 expulsion of Tunisian workers and military threats led Tunisia to sever relations. Relations were normalized again in 1987. While supporting the UN sanctions imposed following airline bombings, Tunisia has been careful to maintain positive relations with her neighbor. Tunisia supported the lifting of UN sanctions against Libya in 2003, and Libya is again becoming a major trading partner, with 2005 exports to Libya valued at $472.2 million and imports at $509.9 million.

Tunisia has supported the development of the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), which includes Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania, and Libya. Progress on Maghreb integration remains stymied, however, as a result of bilateral tensions between some member countries. Tunisia has played a positive role in trying to resolve these tensions.

U.S.-TUNISIAN RELATIONS

The United States has very good relations with Tunisia, which date back more than 200 years. The United States has maintained official representation in Tunis almost continuously since 1795, and the American Friendship Treaty with Tunisia was signed in 1799. The two governments are not linked by security treaties, but relations have been close since Tunisia's independence. U.S.-Tunisian relations suffered briefly after the 1985 Israeli raid on PLO headquarters in Tunis, after the 1988 Tunis assassination of PLO terrorist Abu Jihad, and in 1990 during the Gulf War. In each case, however, relations warmed again quickly, reflecting strong bilateral ties. The United States and Tunisia have an active schedule of joint military exercises. U.S. security assistance historically has played an important role in cementing relations. The U.S.-Tunisian Joint Military Commission meets annually to discuss military cooperation, Tunisia's defense modernization program, and other security matters.

The United States first provided economic and technical assistance to Tunisia under a bilateral agreement signed March 26, 1957. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) managed a successful program until its departure in 1994, when Tunisia's economic advances led to the country's “graduation” from USAID funding. Tunisia enthusiastically supported the U.S.-North African Economic Partnership (USNAEP), designed to promote U.S. investment in, and economic integration of, the Maghreb region. The program provided over $4 million in assistance to Tunisia between 2001 and 2003. The Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI) was launched in 2002 and incorporated the former USNAEP economic reform projects while adding bilateral and regional projects for education reform, civil society development and women's empowerment. In 2004, the MEPI Regional Office opened in Embassy Tunis. The Regional Office is staffed by American diplomats and regional specialists. It is responsible for coordinating MEPI activities in Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia in close coordination with the American Embassies in those countries.

American private assistance has been provided liberally since independence by foundations, religious groups, universities, and philanthropic organizations. The U.S. Government has supported Tunisia's efforts to attract foreign investment. The United States and Tunisia concluded a bilateral investment treaty in 1990 and an agreement to avoid double taxation in 1989. In October 2002, the U.S. and Tunisia signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA), and in October 2003 held the first TIFA Council Meeting in Washington, DC.

American firms seeking to invest in Tunisia and export to Tunisia can receive insurance and financing for their business through U.S. Government agencies, including the Overseas Private Investment Corporation and the Export-Import Bank. The best prospects for foreigners interested in the Tunisian market are in high technology, energy, agribusiness, food processing, medical care and equipment, and the environmental and tourism sectors.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

TUNIS (E) Les Berges du Lac-1053 Tunis, APO/FPO Name and Office Symbol, Unit 6360 Box Olxx, DPO AE 09734-01xx, 216-71-107 -000, Fax 216-71-107-090, Workweek: M-F 0800-1645, Website: http://tunis.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

February 5, 2008

Country Description: Tunisia is a presidential republic with a developing economy. Tourist facilities are widely available in large urban and major resort areas.

Entry Requirements: A passport is required. For U.S. passport holders, a visa is not necessary for stays of up to four months; however, a residence permit is needed for longer stays. The residence permit can be obtained from the central police station of the district of residence. Americans born in the Middle East or with Arabic names have experienced delays in clearing immigration upon arrival. American citizens of Tunisian origin are expected to enter and exit Tunisia on their Tunisian passports. If a Tunisian-American succeeds in entering using a U.S. passport, he or she will still have to present a Tunisian passport to exit the country.

For further information concerning entry/exit requirements for Tunisia, travelers may contact the Embassy of Tunisia at 1515 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20005, tel. 202-862-1850. Tunisian/American children must always have both parents’ permission to exit the country, even if one parent has sole custody.

Safety and Security: There have been no instances in which U.S. citizens or facilities in Tunisia have been subject to terrorist attacks. However, in January 2007, Tunisian security forces announced the disruption of a terrorist group which they believe intended to attack targets including the U.S. Embassy in Tunis. On April 11, 2002, Al-Qaida terrorists used a truck bomb to attack a synagogue on the Tunisian island of Djerba and a number of Western tourists were killed. Tunisian nationals have been involved in international terrorism, and international terrorist organizations have on multiple occasions called for attacks in North Africa, including Tunisia. There have also been reported threats to tourist facilities.

The December 11, 2007 terrorist attacks in Algiers, the November 2, 2007 announcement of the merger of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group with Al-Qaida and the cancellation of the 2008 Dakar Rally are all indicative of an increased threat in the region. The December 2007 sentencing of 30 Tunisian individuals for terrorist related activities in December 2006/January 2007 may also encourage anti-Western sentiment or reactions toward the Government of Tunisia.

Tunisia has open borders with Libya and Algeria. During late 2002 and early 2003, a number of tourists, several of whom crossed into Algeria from Tunisia, were kidnapped in the Sahara desert areas of southeastern Algeria. Travelers should remain particularly alert in areas near the Algerian border.

Government security forces, including the police and National Guard, are visibly present throughout Tunisia. Travelers should heed directions given by uniformed security officials, and are encouraged to always carry a copy of their passport as proof of nationality and identity. Security personnel, including plainclothes officials, may at times place foreign visitors under surveillance. It is against Tunisian law to photograph government offices and other security facilities.

All U.S. citizens are urged to remain alert to local security developments and be vigilant regarding their personal security. Suspicious incidents or problems should be reported immediately to Tunisian authorities and the U.S. Embassy.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affair's Internet site at http://travel.state.gov, where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by call-ing 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: Criminals have targeted tourists and business travelers for theft, pick pocketing, and scams. Care should be taken with wallets and other valuables kept in handbags or backpacks that can be easily opened from behind in crowded streets or marketplaces. Criminals may violently grab at items worn around the neck (purses, necklaces, backpacks) and then run away, sometimes causing injury to their victims. Criminals have been known to rob pedestrians by snatching purses and handbags from their victims while on a motorcycle.

Harassment of unaccompanied females occurs rarely in hotels, but it occurs more frequently elsewhere. Dressing in a conservative manner can diminish potential harassment, especially for young women. It is always wise to travel in groups of two or more people. Women are advised against walking alone in isolated areas. Travelers are advised to avoid buses and commuter rail when possible, and to never enter a taxi if another passenger is present. Theft from vehicles is also common. Items high in value like luggage, cameras, laptop computers, or briefcases are often stolen from cars. Travelers are advised not to leave valuables in parked cars, and to keep doors locked, windows rolled up and valuables out of sight.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while in Tunisia, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the U.S. Embassy for assistance, telephone: 71-107-000. The Embassy staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical care in Tunisia is adequate, with a number of new, private “polyclinics” available that function as simple hospitals and can provide a variety of procedures. Specialized care or treatment may not be available. Facilities that can handle complex trauma cases are virtually non-existent. While most private clinics have a few physicians who are fluent in English, the medical establishment uses French and all of the ancillary staff in every clinic communicates in Arabic and/or French. Public hospitals are overcrowded, under-equipped and understaffed. In general, nursing care does not conform to U.S. standards.

Immediate ambulance service may not be available outside of urban areas. Even in urban areas, emergency response times can be much longer than in the United States. Doctors and hospitals expect immediate cash payment for health care services although some hospitals may accept credit cards. Over-the-counter medications are available; however, travelers should bring with them a full supply of medications that are needed on a regular basis. The U.S. Embassy in Tunis maintains a list of doctors and medical practitioners (dentists, etc.) who can be contacted for assistance.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's web site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Tunisia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in Tunisia can be dangerous. It is recommended that visitors avoid driving after dark outside of Tunis or the major resort areas. Driving practices are poor. Drivers fail to obey the rules of the road even in the presence of the police. Traffic signs and signals are often ignored, and drivers sometimes drive vehicles on the wrong side of the road. Faster drivers tend to drive on the left while slower drivers stay to the right. Traffic lane markings are widely ignored. Bicycles, mopeds and motorcycles are operated without sufficient lights or reflectors, making them difficult to see darting in and out of traffic. Motorists should also be aware of animals on the roads, particularly in rural areas.

Pedestrians present an additional challenge as they continuously dodge traffic (even on controlled-access highways) and do not pay attention to vehicles. Pedestrians and cyclists should be aware that drivers rarely yield and will not always stop at either crosswalks or stoplights. Defensive driving is a must when driving in Tunisia. Drivers may be stopped for inspection by police officers within cities and on highways at any time, and drivers should comply.

Drivers should also be aware that if they are involved in a motor accident which results in death or serious injury of another person, the police may take them into protective custody until they are absolved of responsibility. This can mean spending a period varying from one day to two months in detention. As with any arrest or detention, Americans taken into custody should immediately request that the police inform the Embassy of their whereabouts.

Travel in the desert areas of southern Tunisia presents additional challenges. Many roads are unimproved, and even well-traveled routes are subject to blowing sands that can create hazards for vehicles. Persons driving off the major paved roads are encouraged to ensure that their vehicles are appropriate for off-road driving conditions, and are equipped with appropriate spares and supplies—including water and food. Groups should generally travel in multiple vehicles, so if a vehicle becomes disabled or immobilized, the group can return in the operable vehicle(s). Desert regions are subject to extreme temperatures, from sub-freezing evenings in the winter to dangerously hot daytime temperatures in the summer. In addition, there are many areas in the southern desert regions with little or no cellular telephone service.

The Tunisian National Guard encourages persons traveling into the desert to register their travel before-hand. For details on how and where to register, please visit the U.S. Embassy's desert travel page online at http://tunis.usembassy.gov.

Emergency services are widely available in the larger towns. They can be less reliable in rural areas. Emergency service numbers are:

Police (Police secours):
197 Fire Department: 198
Ambulance (SAMU): 190
Towing (SOS Remorquage 24/24): 71 801 211, 71 840 840

Visit the website of the country's national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.tourismtunisia.com.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Tunisia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Tunisia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Currency: Travelers’ checks and credit cards are accepted at some establishments in Tunisia, mainly in urban or tourist areas. Cash machines (ATMs) are available in urban and tourist areas. The Tunisian dinar is not a fully convertible currency. While the export or import of Tunisian banknotes and coins is prohibited, the export of foreign currency declared when entering Tunisia is allowed. Tourists are expected to make foreign exchange transactions at authorized banks and to retain receipts. A tourist may reconvert to foreign currency 30 percent of the amount previously exchanged into dinars, up to a maximum of $100. Declaring foreign currency when entering Tunisia and obtaining receipts for dinars purchased thereafter will facilitate the conversion of dinars to U.S. dollars when leaving the country. Please keep all receipts of monetary transactions for presentation when departing.

Workweek: Normal working days are Monday to Friday, with government offices open on Saturday mornings. Many stores are closed on Sunday, except in resort areas where most remain open.

Proselytizing: Islam is the state religion of Tunisia and the government does not interfere with the country's religious minorities’ public worship. Many religious denominations hold regularly scheduled services. However, it is illegal to proselytize or engage in other activities that the Tunisian authorities could view as encouraging conversion to another faith. In the past, Americans who engaged in such activities were asked to leave the country.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Tunisian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Tunisia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Tunisian law includes penalties for failure to respect government officials. Individuals, including U.S. citizens, have been sentenced to jail for cursing at police officers. Homosexuality is illegal in Tunisia, and can be punished by imprisonment. Possession of pornography can also lead to criminal charges. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Tunisia are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy through the State Department's travel registration web site, so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security within Tunisia. Americans may also register directly with the U.S. Embassy. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at Zone Nord Est des Berges du Lac, Nord de Tunis 2045 La Goulette, Tunisie Tel: (216) 71-107-000, Fax: (216) 71964-360, Internet: http://tunisia.usembassy.gov

International Adoption

June 2007

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: The U.S. Embassy in Tunis has been informed that Law No. 58-27, Articles 8 to 16, covers Tunisian adoptions. The law contains no nationality or religious requirements but in practice Tunisian judges have generally held that prospective adoptive parents must be Muslim and of Tunisian descent.

Usually, they will only grant adoptions to Muslims who are living in Tunisia or an Islamic Arab country and who have some family ties to Tunisia.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority:
Institut National de la Protection de l’Enfance
2010 Manoubia
Tunis, Tunisie
Tel: (216) 71-606-938 or 71-606-890

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: The prospective adoptive parents must be at least 20 years of age, married and not legally barred from adoption. Divorced or widowed individuals may not adopt without the express consent of a judge. Single individuals or commonlaw partners may not adopt.Prospective adoptive parents must be at least 15 years older than the child. Prospective adoptive parents must be able to prove they have sufficient revenue to support the child.

It is extremely rare for foreigners to be allowed to adopt in Tunisia. Tunisian judges have generally held that prospective adoptive parents must be Muslim and of Tunisian descent. Usually, they will only grant adoptions to Muslims who are living in Tunisia or an Islamic Arab country and who also have some family ties to Tunisia.

Time Frame:

• One month for review of submitted documentation by the Institut National de la Protection de l’Enfance
• “Undetermined” amount of time for review of file by psychologists and other authorities (estimated time: 1–2 months)
• 3 months of visits by the Institut National to the home of the potential parents to make sure the home is ready for the child
• 3 months of visits by the Institut National to the home of the potential parents after the child has been placed there

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no adoption agencies operating in Tunisia. However, U.S. citizen prospective adoptive parents of a Tunisian orphan may choose to employ the services of an adoption agency or attorney to assist them with the U.S. immigration portion of the process.

Adoption Fees: There are no Tunisian government fees for processing an adoption case.

Adoption Procedures: A completed adoption file containing the documents listed below may be mailed or hand-delivered to the Institut National de la Protection de l’Enfance at:

Institut National de la Protection de
l’Enfance
2010 Manoubia
Tunis, Tunisie

Required Documents:

• Petition to adopt a child signed by the prospective adoptive parents
• Marriage certificate (or death or divorce certificate where applicable)
• 4 prepaid envelopes
• Birth certificates of both prospective adoptive parents
• A copy of Tunisian social security card
• 2 photographs of each prospective adoptive parent
• Police certificates of both prospective adoptive parents
• Medical certificates of both prospective adoptive parents
• Proof of revenue

Embassy of Tunisia
1515 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C. 20005
Phone: (202) 862-1850
Fax: (202) 862 1858

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

U.S. Embassy Tunis
1053 Les Berges du Lac
Tunis, Tunisia
Phone: +216 71-107-000
Fax: +216 71-964-360
Email: ConsularTunis@state.gov

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Tunisia may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Tunis. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

International Parental Child Abduction

February 2008

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Parental Child Abduction section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign legal counsel.

Note: Currently there are no international or bilateral treaties in force between Tunisia and the United States dealing with international parental child abduction. The Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction cannot be invoked if a child is taken from the United States to Tunisia, or vice versa, by one parent against the wishes of the other parent or in violation of a U.S. custody order.

Dual Nationality: When one of the parents is Tunisian, a child is considered Tunisian regardless of the child's place of birth or whether the child had acquired the nationality of another country.

Residency: Tunisian courts expect that parents seeking child custody have established residency in Tunisia.

Enforcement of Foreign Custody Orders: The parent can request that a foreign child custody order be recognized in Tunisia, but enforcement will result only if the custody order conforms with Tunisian child custody law. Therefore, as a practical matter, foreign child custody orders are not generally recognized in Tunisia, and the parent must seek legal representation in Tunisia and file for custody in Tunisia.

Custody Disputes: When a child custody dispute arises between parents, one of whom is a Tunisian, the courts determine which parent is awarded legal custody of a child. Child custody laws in Tunisia are codified in the Child Code Law 67 of the Code du Statut Personnel Tunisian. Tunisian judges take into consideration the welfare and protection of the child and the eligibility of the parent seeking custody. (The parent must be over 21 years old, sound of mind, able to support and care for the child, and free from contagious diseases.)

Right of Custody and Visitation: The court will conduct an investigation to determine which parent will benefit the child the most. The court will base its custody decision on its assessment of what is in the best interests of the child. The law does not specify religious or nationality conditions for the mother. Even when Tunisian courts award legal custody to the mother, the father retains certain rights. The father may control the child's welfare, enroll the child in school and provide for the child's education. Tunisian courts do grant visitation rights to the non-custodial parent.

Travel Restrictions on Minor Children: Special authorization from the court must be obtained before the child can stay overnight outside the custodial parent's home. If the custodial parent moves and the move interferes with the other parent's rights and duties, the custodial parent can lose legal custody of the child. Imprisonment can result if the non-custodial parent takes the child without the consent of the custodial parent. Unless the child is at risk, the mother, as custodial parent, must give her permission before the father can take the child from her residence. A minor child, under the age of 20 years cannot be taken outside Tunisia without the father's permission or the court's authorization, when the mother has been awarded custody.

Please Note: American citizens who travel to Tunisia place themselves under the jurisdiction of Tunisian courts. Therefore, American citizens planning a trip to Tunisia with dual national children should bear this in mind.

For further information on international parental child abduction, contact the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State at 1-888-407-4747 or visit its web site on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov/family. You may also direct inquiries to: Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-4811; Phone: (202) 736-9090; Fax: (202) 312-9743.

TUNISIA

Republic of Tunisia

Major Cities:
Tunis, Monastir, Kairouan

Other Cities:
Béja, Bizerta, Gabès, Hammamet, La Goulette, Mahdia, Menzil-bourguiba, Moknine, Nabeul, Qafsah, Sfax, Sousse

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated August 1994. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

TUNISIA is a land abounding in contrasts. It is not the stereotypical African desert country, even though it is enveloped by a large percentage of arid land. In fact, it was once called "the green land," describing the days when it served as a granary of Rome, and the wheat, wine, and olives introduced by the Phoenicians were sent north across the Mediterranean. Tunisia is Mediterranean in its affinity for the inland seas and in its proximity, both culturally and politically, to southern Europe. The countryside west of the capital city of Tunis is decidedly more European than African. The tree-lined roads are reminiscent of southern France, and the resort areas on the Gulf of Hammamet, which include 700 miles of white sand beaches, are similar to those of the Côte d'Azur.

Historically, Tunisia has been at the crossroads between Europe and the Middle East. Bathed in centuries of Phoenician, Roman, and Arab civilizations, it was then westernized by several decades of French presence. The legacies left behind have helped to shape this land into the most modern and sophisticated country in North Africa. History still abounds in the ruins of Carthage, Utica, and Dougga, as well as in the modern cities of Tunis and Kairouan.

To a generation of Americans and British, Tunisia is the memory of major battles fought during World War II in North Africa. In the quiet greenery of its military cemeteries and scattered burial plots lie thousands of victims of the battles of El Alamein, Kasserine, Long Stop Hill, and Hill 609. However, the intervening years have softened the image, and new generations of Westerners are converging on Tunisia. Its closeness to Europe makes Tunisia even more attractive, for, in a short time, one can change continents, culture, and civilization.

MAJOR CITIES

Tunis

Tunis is built on the west bank of a shallow salt lake on Tunisia's northeastern Mediterranean coast. Originally a Phoenician trading post, it has been the capital of what is now Tunisia since the 13th century. It comprises two adjacent districts, widely different in character—the old Arab town (the medina ) with its narrow, shop-lined streets, and the new French-influenced city of wide avenues and tall buildings. The souks, where anything from hand-woven rugs to used buttons can be found, the famous Zitouna Mosque, old residences noted for their tiles and blue grillwork, and narrow alleys that twist and turn are some of the memorable sights in the medina. The new city, developed during the French Protectorate of 1881 to 1956, resembles a typical western Mediterranean metropolis, and surrounds the old section.

Greater Tunis covers an area of more than 1,600 square miles. It has a population of 1.64 million, of whom perhaps 30,000 are Europeans, mainly French and Italian. French and Arabic are spoken; little English is heard.

Tunis has four seasons, with spring and fall the most pleasant. Summers are hot and dry, although sea breezes moderate the heat. Winters are rainy and damp, with days of brilliant sunshine intervening. Except at the highest altitudes, the temperature rarely drops below 40°F.

Agriculture remains a major source of income. Olives and cereals are the principal crops grown. There are several manufacturing companies in Tunis that produce carpets, cement, textiles and clothing.

Tunis is the center of government, and an active commercial center and seaport. The large international airport, Tunis-Carthage, is five miles from the city and, although there are many large, good hotels in town, the beach resorts on the outskirts attract most of the European visitors. Car rental agencies operate both in the city and at the airport. Detailed information about tours and hotel accommodations is available from Office National de Tourism Tunisien at avenue Mohammed V, Tunis.

Currently, more than 60 countries maintain resident diplomatic missions in Tunis. The city has been the site of the Arab League's international headquarters since 1979.

Education

In Tunis, the American Cooperative School, designated as a U.S. Government-sponsored institution and established in 1959, has facilities for 160 children from kindergarten through tenth grade.

The teachers at American Cooperative are qualified members of the U.S. and international communities. Instruction is in English, although French is taught in all grades. The curriculum is similar to, and compares favorably with, those in U.S. schools.

Almost all American children in Tunis attend American Cooperative.

Girl Scout, Brownie, Boy Scout, and Cub Scout troops are very active. The groups hold weekly meetings after class hours. American Cooperative plans periodic activities for children, such as sporting events and dances. It also has an active Hyper Club for students in grades five through nine; activities have included a bowling night, ski trip, beach parties, and a sight-seeing trip to Roman ruins. Other extracurricular activities include computer training, choral and instrumental music, and school yearbook.

Public schools and private Catholic, Jewish, and Muslim schools are available at all levels, including high school. A few private French nurseries operate in the city and its suburbs.

Tunisian schools are similar to those in France. From an American point of view, they have a rigid curriculum and long hours of class work. Fluency in French is imperative, and some classes are conducted in Arabic.

Americans have sent their children, with mixed results, to one of the three French lycées operating in Tunis and La Marsa. The tuition is considerably less than at the American Cooperative School, but parents must pay for textbooks and supplies. Uniforms are required.

Many junior and senior high school children attend schools in Morocco, Italy, Spain. The U.S. Torrejon American High School in Spain is operated by the U.S. Department of Defense. It is a coeducational institution, with instruction in English.

Notre Dame International School in Rome, conducted by the Brothers of the Holy Cross, provides a liberal education in accordance with American tradition. The faculty is mainly American, and instruction is in English. Classes are for grades four through high school. Its sister school for girls is the Marymount International School. The faculty consists mostly of nuns of the Order of the Sacred Heart of Mary.

St. Stephen's School is a four-year coeducational school emphasizing college preparatory work. It is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges.

Recreation

Tunis and its environs offer good facilities for tennis, golf, hunting, scuba diving, and some fishing. Swimming, sailing, and windsurfing are also popular, but the beaches close to and in Tunis used for swimming have been found from time to time to be contaminated and unsafe. Americans should check with the U.S. Embassy Medical Unit before going to the beach. Tunis has three municipal swimming pools, two of which are heated in winter; the weather is suitable for outdoor swimming from June through September.

Public tennis courts are available in most of the suburbs, and private courts can be found in several places around the city and at resorts. In Tunisia, white is still worn on the court, but is not mandatory everywhere. Tennis balls should be brought from home; local ones are expensive and of poor quality.

Some Americans play golf on the 18-hole course at La Soukra, about seven miles from Tunis. The course is good from October to June, but very dry in summer. The greens are a mixture of sand, crushed olive pits, and crude oil—a new experience for most American golfers. Lunch and dinner are served in the clubhouse, which may also be used for large receptions. Annual dues are high, but nonmembers can play at daily or weekly rates. The magnificent new 18-hole course at the resort of Port El Kantaoui in northern Sousse, about a three-hour drive from Tunis, is good for a golf weekend. Created by eminent golf-scape architects, the course is star-shaped and covers four miles and 170 acres. Each of the 18 holes is on a different kind of terrain. There is a luxurious clubhouse and equipment to rent.

Softball games and jogging programs are enjoyed by the American community. In addition, bowling is available at a standard six-lane alley at La Baie des Singes Hotel in a northern suburb of Tunis.

Saltwater fishing and scuba diving are popular sports. Little freshwater fishing exists in Tunisia because only one river flows year round. Motorboats may be rented, but no facilities are available for chartering boats for offshore fishing. Spearfishing with scuba equipment is prohibited, but is permitted while using snorkeling gear. No facilities currently exist for refilling scuba bottles.

Wild game is in season from September to June. A shotgun can be used for small-game hunting. Open-season dates vary only slightly each year and are published each August. Quail, duck, woodcock, snipe, partridge, and wild boar are the most common game. The latter is found in the mountainous regions close to the Algerian border. Hunters are limited exclusively to shotguns in the pursuit of game, and 12-gauge is the most common. Rifled slugs are required for boar hunting; buckshot is prohibited. Hunters must have a permit for the weapon, a hunting license, and insurance.

Camping is popular among Americans. Many undeveloped and a few developed campsites exist in the countryside. All equipment should be brought from home, as it is both scarce and expensive in Tunisia.

Kasr Sa'id, known as one of the most beautiful racetracks in North Africa, is about five miles from Tunis. The racing season begins October 1 and lasts through May. Purebred Arab and English race-horses—some locally bred and some imported—and imported trotters compete for the purses. Kasr Sa'id has a riding club; another is in La Soukra.

Sailing centers around the yacht clubs at La Goulette and at Sidi-bou-Sa'id, the exquisite artists' village near Tunis. Various types of boats, including cruisers, sailboats, sloops, and ketches are available. There is no single racing class of boats in Tunisia.

The visitor can make endless sight-seeing and picnic trips to the Roman, Punic, and Byzantine ruins scattered throughout Tunisia. Le Bardo Museum in Tunis contains the largest and most beautiful collection of Roman mosaics in the world, as well as Roman and Punic statues, coins, jewelry, and other interesting exhibits.

Tunisia's main places of interest are all within easy driving distance of Tunis, and are connected by good blacktopped roads. The port city of Bizerta is 40 miles to the north through pleasant countryside. The ruins of ancient Utica may be visited just off the Bizerta highway. Sousse (87 miles from Tunis) and Sfax (166 miles) are central Tunisian seaports. The old Arab sections of both cities are still encircled by ancient ramparts and watchtowers. Sousse, a popular tourist attraction because of its beautiful beaches, has a small, excellent museum devoted to Roman and early Christian mosaics. Nearby are catacombs as extensive as those in Rome. Just north of Sousse is the huge new complex called Port El Kantaoui, with its 18-hole golf course, magnificent harbor, luxury hotels, villas, riding school, tennis courts, pools, and beaches.

Many other smaller resorts and tourist centers can be visited. Tunisia is continuing an extensive program to improve tourist facilities throughout the country, including attractive modern hotels ranging from first class to economy. Ain Draham, in the cork and oak forests of the Kroumirie Mountains 110 miles west of Tunis, offers a change of scene and climate. At an altitude of 2,600 feet, Ain Draham is pleasantly cool in summer and often has snow in winter. It offers excellent boar hunting. About an hour south of Tunis are the picturesque seaside towns of Hammamet and Nabeul where one can swim off broad sandy beaches. At Nabeul, Tunisian artisans work on rugs, baskets, and their famous pottery.

About 350 miles south of Tunis is Djerba, a palm-covered white sand island, which retains much of the original Arab architecture. According to local tradition, it was the home of the indolent, dreamy lotophagi (lotus eaters) of Homer's Odyssey. On the island is a Jewish colony, which may antedate the Diaspora. Its beautiful synagogue at Hara Kebira is well worth a visit.

The oases of Tozeur and Nefta, which produce fine dates, are 310 and 350 miles, respectively, southwest of Tunis on the Algerian Sahara border and on the edge of the extensive Chott Djerid, a dry salt lake. Tozeur has, perhaps, the most luxurious oasis. Its 200 springs feed thousands of the best date palms. Tozeur's buildings are built with unfired yellow bricks; the town can be toured on donkey or camel. Nefta's oasis resembles a bowl. The town, made up of sand-colored homes and holy places, is situated on a plateau. A guide is needed for a trip through the oasis on donkey.

Motor trips to Djerba and the oasis country make pleasant four-or five-day journeys. The best time of year to visit these areas is from late fall to early spring. Daily flights to Djerba from Tunis are available all year.

Roman ruins are scattered throughout Tunisia. The ruins of Utica can be reached from Tunis or Bizerta. Utica was a Phoenician colony founded in 1100 B.C. After entering by a great arched gateway, the visitor will see the marble flooring of a mansion set in a garden. Mosaics depicting sea fish decorate a water basin and the pool of a former fountain. Remains of several other houses reveal decorated flooring of Phoenician, Roman, and Byzantine periods. Phoenician tombs contain interesting remains.

Carthage, historically the most famous ruins, is closest to Tunis—only 20 minutes by car. When the Romans, furious at humiliations inflicted upon them by the Carthaginians, conquered Carthage in 146 B.C., they razed and plowed it into the ground. Later they rebuilt the city, making it their provincial capital of North Africa. The Vandals further destroyed the city in 439.

More extensive ruins can be seen at Dougga (70 miles), Thuburbo Majus (32 miles), and Sbeitla (160 miles). Dougga was a major Roman city with paved streets. Its theater, built in A.D. 168 to seat 3,500, resounds again when classical plays and other performances are staged. El Djem, 125 miles south of Tunis, features a coliseum almost as large as the one in Rome.

Train and bus transportation is available to most sites, but public transportation may be uncomfortable or inconvenient for longer distances. It is an advantage to have a car for trips, although many local travel agencies and hotels now operate modern air-conditioned buses.

Entertainment

The theater season in Tunis is November through May. Two companies present a series of six to eight well-known French-language plays. The Tunis Symphony Orchestra gives monthly concerts from November through May, with guest soloists and touring groups appearing occasionally. Theater and symphony performances take place at the Municipal Theater in downtown Tunis.

Tunis and its suburbs have about two dozen movie theaters that offer a wide selection of American and English films, with French dialogue dubbed in. Italian, Spanish, Mexican, and Egyptian films are also occasionally shown. Most films, however, are French produced. Cultural centers, notably the French and Tunisian, offer films at little or no charge to the public.

Many special occasions are celebrated in Tunisia. The Orange Festival of Cap Bon in January; the Festival of the Hawks in El Haouaria in April; music and dancing festivals in Hammamet, Djerba, Dougga, and Bizerta during the summer; the International Cultural Festival of Carthage in July; Monastir's Drama Festival in August; the spectacular Festival of the Sahara in November; and a number of other events which lure visitors from Tunis.

Restaurants in Tunis and environs are attractive and the food is very good. Among those recommended are the Strasbourg, the Hungaria, the Malouf, and Chez Slah. The national dish is couscous —semolina (a specially processed wheat) prepared with vegetables, meat, fowl, or fish, and a piquant sauce called harissa (hot red peppers). Another favorite local dish is brik, a thin, fried pastry envelope with an egg, meat, or tuna stuffing.

In the summer, outdoor dining and dancing places may be found along the coast. Many restaurants in the city are closed from mid-July to September, during the beach season.

The International Women's Club is an active organization providing services to the international communities. All American women and wives of U.S. citizens residing in Tunisia are eligible to join; one-third of the total membership is composed of people from other countries. The club eases the adjustment to life in Tunisia, and provides a center for service projects and social activities.

Tunisians are kind and hospitable, and this is reflected in their warm style of entertaining. At nonofficial parties, informality is the keynote; meals are usually buffet style, with food always in great abundance. Tunisian Muslims generally do not eat pork, so alternatives must be provided when they are guests. Alcoholic beverages may be served, but soft drinks or fruit juices should also be offered.

Monastir

The seaport town of Monastir, the birthplace of former President Habib Bourguiba, is situated in northeast Tunisia, on the southernmost point of the Gulf of Hammamet. It is about 80 miles southeast of Tunis and just south of Sousse. A fort has existed on this point since the dawn of history, warding off invaders who threatened from the sea. Up until the end of the seventh century, Monastir—first as Rous Penna of the Carthaginians and later as the Roman Ruspina—has played an uninterrupted role as the defensive stronghold of the coastline. The area was further built up as a military fortification by the Aghlabites in the eighth century.

One building from this era—the Ribat —still stands today as a majestic reflection of the past. Built in the eighth century and then fortified and enlarged in the ninth and 11th centuries, the Ribat was originally a defensive fortress and a place for monastic seclusion. Today, the Ribat exudes the charm of a historical shrine. The Hall of Prayer, on the first floor, has been converted to a Museum of the Islamic Arts. A vast array of objects preserved from the past are displayed and carefully labelled.

Not only known as a military stronghold, Monastir was also a holy city from the 11th century onward. A number of sacred legends date from that era. One of the legends said that entry into heaven could be ensured with a three-day stay in Monastir. Another legend, told by the Prophet himself, was that Monastir had the distinct privilege of containing a gate to heaven.

Monastir today uses its history and location to great advantage. As a seaside resort, it welcomes visitors to enjoy the sunshine and local curiosities. Since Tunisia's independence in 1956, the government has introduced an infrastructure that has rejuvenated the economy of Monastir. The Chraga quarter has been restored and a new roadway has been constructed. Located in the heart of Monastir, the Chraga offers craft shops (where the traditional arts of tapestry, pottery, basketwork, wrought iron work, and other decorative and practical items are displayed and sold), cafe terraces, and restaurants where visitors can try local specialties. The Habib Bourguiba Mosque, rebuilt recently at the edge of this quarter, is an example of classic religious architecture.

Nostalgia is found throughout Monastir. Leaving the medina, the visitor can't help but notice the high battlement walls flanked by square towers. These are the only parts of the 18th century ancient fortified enclosure that remain standing. The century-old streets also reveal ancient Monastir and its 12 gates. In contrast to the old parts of Monastir, the city is also proud of its modern buildings. Green areas, squares, and modern intersections adjoin the old areas. A convention center was recently built to house international meetings.

University life in Monastir is developing around schools of chemistry and dental surgery affiliated with the University of Tunis. There is also a residence hall for girls, a library, and a stadium that seats 20,000.

Monastir is becoming a favorite spot for the international film world. Franco Zeffirelli shot Jesus of Nazareth here, and, in 1981, a studio was constructed to film indoor scenes.

A number of festivals and cultural events are held in Monastir during the summer. From the end of July through the beginning of August, an international folk festival is held every other year. In the intervening years, there is an international theater festival. A fair and exhibition are held from August 1 through 15.

Hotels run along the coastline to the little fishing port between the two peninsulas. On Sidi Ghedamsi Island, linked to the coast by a causeway, is the tourist complex of Cap Monastir. The area boasts many different sporting facilities including a golf course, a marina, and a fishing port. Due to its proximity to the Skanes-Monastir airport, Cap Monastir is recognized as one of the area's most comprehensive tourist centers. Monastir's current population is 59,000.

North of Monastir, in a residential area, is the Presidential Palace of Skanes. The residence is richly decorated with Arabian ornaments, marble, and decorated earthenware. It is situated in the middle of an exotic park. Beyond the park lies the oasis of Dkhila, known for its palm wine. Hotels line the beaches of Dkhila, where numerous water sports may be enjoyed. Visitors can participate in windsurfing, water skiing, and sea excursions. Beginner's lessons in horseback riding, tennis, and other sports are given at the hotels by qualified instructors approved by the Ministry of Youth and Sports. At night, discotheques play the latest European and American hits, but the Tunisian folk customs of belly dancing and snake charming may also be enjoyed.

Kairouan

Kairouan is a city of 116,000, located 100 miles southwest of Tunis in the center of a vast plain. Kairouan is the third most holy city in the Islamic world, after Mecca and Medina. Founded in 670 by the warrior, Oqba Ibn Nafaa, it grew from a simple military outpost to the greatest cultural center of the Maghreb. During the Kharijite Revolt of 758-761, the city was pillaged, but restored during the Aghlabite Dynasty (800) on an even grander scale. The Aghlabites gave the city some of its most beautiful monuments. They developed all spheres of activity in Kairouan, and soon the city rivalled all other great civilization centers of the Mediterranean.

Kairouan (also spelled Qairawan) is comprised of an old city encircled by a hugh wall of uniform brick with many imposing doorways. The ramparts were built in 1052 by Al-Moezz, the Fatimite, and restored by the Husseinites in the 18th century. The modern city, on the other side of the ramparts, has conformed to an ancient architectural style evident in its recently completed cultural and commercial center.

Long a holy city to Muslims, Kairouan's religious vocation is evident everywhere. According to legend, seven visits to Kairouan equalled one to Mecca. The city is especially known for its mosques and tombs. Its Great Mosque is the most fascinating Islamic structure in Tunisia. Dating back to the eighth century, the mosque draws thousands of visitors in prayer and admiration. The Great Mosque is the focal point of the city's medina. The vast inner sanctuary stretches out like a fortified stronghold with its imposing architecture. From the entrance, one can see the marvelous archways and immense marble-laid courtyard. The columns, done in various architectural styles; the interior of the prayer hall; the bas-relief work; the floral and calligraphic designs; and the crystal chandeliers all make this mosque one of the most beautiful in the Muslim world. Kairouan is also endowed with 50 other mosques in its medina.

The proliferation of religious activities does not prevent the inhabitants of Kairouan from enjoying life. The joyous occasion of Mouled (or Mouloud), the Prophet's birthday, brings pilgrims from all around to the city to join in lighthearted celebration. In addition to the makroudh —small cakes made of hard wheat paste stuffed with dates and soaked with honey—that are a year-round specialty of Kairouan, the city's women also prepare assida —a sweet dish—to mark the beginning of the festivities.

Kairouan is also known for its handicrafts. Metal engraving, weaving, and saddle-making are all carried out in the city. But, the most important handicraft which, along with the Great Mosque, has made Kairouan famous, is the art of carpet-weaving. The National Office of Handicraft encourages the development and production of carpets and has set up a quality control system whereby each carpet is examined by specialists in the control center before being granted the official seal of approval. The National Office of Handicraft houses a Museum of Rugs; the Museum of Islamic Art is located opposite the Great Mosque.

Lodging in Kairouan is pleasant and reasonably priced. The deluxe Aghlabite Hotel, on the city's outskirts, has a swimming pool, fine restaurant, and wooded grounds. Other hotels are located in the central city and play an important role in the activities of Kairouan. The range of restaurants in the city run from the deluxe to the corner cook-shop, giving the visitor a wide variety of local cuisine.

OTHER CITIES

BÉJA has a history dating to ancient times. Situated 65 miles west of Tunis in the Marjardah Valley, the city was the site of Vacca, a Punic town and Roman colony. Béja exports wheat and has been a major agricultural market since at least the first century B.C. Sugar refineries and an agricultural research station help employ the estimated 56,000 residents.

BIZERTA (also spelled Bizerte), on the Mediterranean, is Africa's northernmost town. Once the Roman city of Hippo Zarytus, there are reminders throughout the area of the various civilizations that succeeded one another. Oil refining and fish canning are the two principal industries. A beach resort, Bizerta is also a major exporting area and seaport. Bizerta exports fish, phosphates, iron ore, and cereals. The town is connected to Tunis, 50 miles southeast, by road and rail. Visitors will find cooler weather in Bizerta during the summer season. Its population is approximately 112,000.

GABÈS , (also spelled Gabis) located in east central Tunisia on the Gulf of Gabès, is 200 miles south of Tunis. It is a fishing port and center of an oasis known for date palms and textile milling. Founded by the Romans, Gabès was one of the chief Tunisian headquarters for the French Saharan garrison. The economy of the city was focused entirely on the needs of the army. Since then, Gabès has developed an infrastructure and industry that has made the city important throughout the country. A power station and an oil refinery have been constructed here. A large port and a railroad terminus link Gabès with the rest of Tunisia. The current population of Gabès is about 109,000.

HAMMAMET is a small fishing village which attracts numerous tourists each year with its marvelous gardens, and its luxurious hotels concealed behind orange trees, palm trees, bougainvilleas, and a thousand other perfumed plants. Located in northeastern Tunisia on the Gulf of Hammamet, at the southern base of the peninsula ending in Cap Bon, Hammamet is about 30 miles southeast of Tunis. The city's fort, built on the sea in the 15th century, has long arched passages, galleries, and square towers. In the main courtyard of the fort, there is a small museum of traditional costumes. During World War II, Hammamet served as the headquarters for the German general Erwin Rommel. Hammamet has an International Cultural Center where, during summer, there is an open-air theater and an International Cultural Festival. Hotels in Hammamet are built to blend in with the natural surroundings; there is an agreed maximum height for buildings so as to not overshadow the natural beauty. Hammamet boasts clean beaches and a wide variety of leisure activities, including swimming, tennis, golf, and horseback riding. There are also terrace cafes, restaurants, shops, and two art galleries. Hammamet's population was about 51,000 in 2002.

LA GOULETTE (also called Halq al-Wādī and Goletta) is the port of Tunis, seven miles from the capital. Its harbor manages most of the country's imports and roughly half the exports, principally fruits, vegetables, iron ore, and phosphates. The city is a renowned bathing resort and residential area of Tunis. La Goulette boasts remnants of Hispano-Turkish battlements nearby. About 79,000 people live in the city.

MAHDIA , (also spelled al-Mahdiyah) a fishing port and resort town, is 30 miles south of Monastir. The all-powerful Obaid Allah, known as the Mahdi, developed the town in the 10th century as a stronghold and capital of the Fatimite dynasty. Economic activities center around olive cultivation, olive-oil production, fishing, fish canning, and a thriving handicrafts industry. The population of Mahdia is about 44,000.

Ten miles southwest of Bizerta lies MENZIL-BOURGUIBA (also spelled Manzil Bū Rugaybah and formerly known as Ferryville). Named after Tunisia's president, Habib Bourguiba, the town is a modern one. Much of its growth took place during the French Protectorate (1881-1956) with the development of adjacent Sidi Abdallah's naval base and dockyard. Today Menzil-Bourguiba is a heavy industry center. Roads and a railway link the town with Bizerta. The population is about 49,000.

MOKNINE is a market town of 49,000, located 13 miles south of Monastir. Part of its population is Jewish, and the traditional jewelry items they make are among the exhibits in the town's small folk museum.

NABEUL (also spelled Nabul) is the administrative capital of Cap Bon, located at the southern end of the base of Cap Bon Peninsula, about 40 miles southeast of Tunis. Ancient Phoenician ruins are found along the shore; the Romans destroyed the Phoenician settlement in 146 B.C., later rebuilding it as Neapolis. Today, it is one of Tunisia's most important towns because of its special activities: ceramics, embroidery, and pottery; perfume distilleries using the oldest formulas; needlework and lace. Pottery is an art dating back to Roman times; there are hundreds of workshops in Nabeul producing both glazed and porous pottery. Functional utensils, curios, jars, and ornaments are made. The workshops of blacksmiths, weavers, embroiders, and lacemakers may also be visited. The city's weekly market—Le Vendredi—offers regional specialties, including tapestries, curios, agricultural products, and camels. The current population of Nabeul is 57,000.

QAFSAH (also spelled Gafsa) is a popular irrigated fruit-growing oasis, in the eastern part of the country, about 115 miles west of Sfax. The original town was destroyed by the Romans, rebuilt, and became a center of Byzantine, Arab, Berber, and Ottoman leaders. Today, Qafsah is a major shipping center for phosphates. The area is populated primarily by nomads and cultivators of olives, dates, and cereals. Qafsah's population is roughly 80,000.

SFAX (also called Sāfagis) is Tunisia's second largest city and a bustling commercial center. Situated in eastern Tunisia on the Gulf of Gabès, it is about 150 miles south of Tunis, and is the terminus of the Sfax-Gafsa railroad. The town was bombarded by the French in 1881 prior to their occupation of Tunisia and during World War II, when it was used as an Axis base until captured by the British in 1943. With Gabès farther south, the city serves as a major port for the export of phosphates, olive oil, cereals, and sponges. Offshore oil has been discovered in the area. Once the site of Phoenician and Roman colonies, Sfax was briefly held by Sicily (1150) and by the Spanish (16th century), and was later a stronghold of Barbary pirates. The current population of Sfax is 266,000.

Fishing and tourism provide the economic mainstays of SOUSSE (also spelled Sūsah and Sousa), located in a convenient central position on the eastern coast 75 miles south of Tunis. Once the ancient Phoenician trading post of Hadrumetum, Sousse has kept its ancient walled city in original form. The eighth century Ribat was built as one of the fortified monasteries defending North Africa from Christian attacks. Its watchtower gives a splendid view of the medina, as does the garden terrace of Sousse's museum. The city grew rapidly under the French Protectorate (1881-1956), and today is a prominent trade area. Sousse is a popular resort, with beautiful sand beaches, opportunities for horse and camel riding, and many excellent hotels. It is an export point for olive oil, and its ancient remains include Christian catacombs. About 153,000 people live in Sousse.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Republic of Tunisia lies at the northernmost tip of Africa. Together with Morocco, Algeria, and northwestern Libya, it forms the Maghreb (the Arabic name for the northwest), a place of common history, language, ethnic groups, and culture.

The country's area of 63,378 square miles is slightly smaller than Missouri. Tunisia has 1,000 miles of Mediterranean coastline. Northern Tunisia is the most heavily populated part of the country, and is mountainous and relatively fertile, although elevations rarely reach 3,000 feet. The north also claims Tunisia's one major river, the Majardah. The central section of the country is semiarid highland with poor soil, little rainfall, and scant population. The south is arid and barren, except for occasional oases, as it merges with the Sahara. The desert makes up about half of Tunisia's total square miles.

Tunisia's climate is temperate, with mild winters and hot summers. The countryside becomes dry and brown in summer and quite green in winter. Summers in Tunis, the capital, are characterized by high temperatures and low humidity; evenings are pleasant. Winters are short, rainy, humid, and chilly. The temperature rarely is below freezing. Snow occurs in the northwestern mountain region. From mid-May until mid-October, the sky is usually cloudless and little rain falls. In an average year, only 120 days have any rainfall.

Population

Tunisia's population is estimated at 9.7 million; 98 percent are a mixture of Berber and Arab origin, and about one percent are European. The French comprise the largest foreign community, and the influence of the French language and culture is still quite strong. The population is young and increasingly urban.

In the 15-year period following the country's independence in 1956, the Tunisian population increased by 45 percent. As jobs are sought in urban areas, there has been a decrease in the rural population of Tunisia; in 1995 that decrease was 38 percent.

Islam is the state religion, and nearly all Tunisians belong to the orthodox Sunni sect. Other religions are tolerated; Christian and Jewish denominations continue to exist.

In 1995, an estimated 67 percent of Tunisians age 15 and over could read and write. Tunisia's relatively high literacy rate is due in large part to the strong emphasis placed on universal education. The official language is Arabic, but French is widely spoken in urban areas and is used by the government as a second working language.

Government

After 75 years of French protectionism, Tunisia gained independence in 1956. Tunisians then voted to abolish the monarchy. Today, Tunisia has a republican form of government with strong executive powers.

Habib Bourguiba, who had served as Tunisia's president since 1957, was ousted from power on November 7, 1987. The new president, Zine el Abidine Ben Ali, instituted a number of political reforms to curb the excesses of his predecessor and calm domestic unrest. One of the most significant political reforms was the legalization of opposition political parties in 1988. The president is elected to five-year terms and appoints the prime minister, the cabinet, and 23 provincial governors. In 1994 and in 1999, President Ben Ali was reelected without opposition. The Constitutional Democratic Party is the dominant political party of Tunisia.

Legislative authority is vested in a 182-member Chamber of Deputies. Elections to this legislative body are held every five years. In 1994 the government changed the electoral code to guarantee that the opposition would be able to win seats.

The former religious tribunals have been integrated into secular courts to form a single three-level judiciary: first-instance courts; courts of appeal; and the highest judicial body, the Court of Cassation, which ultimately resolves cases not solved in the lower courts. All judicial proceedings are in Arabic. In addition to the existing auditing court, there is also an administrative jurisdiction.

Women share equal rights with men on the basis of a personal-status code established shortly after independence. This code is considered a model for Arab and developing Third-World countries. Polygamy is illegal.

The Tunisian flag is red, with a central white disc containing a red crescent and a red star.

Arts, Science, Education

Tunisia's cultural and artistic heritage is a blending of Phoenician, Roman, Arab, Turkish, French, and Berber influence. Museums have magnificent collections of Roman mosaics and statues, Phoenician coins and jewelry, and early Arab manuscripts. Archaeological sites scattered through the country are constant reminders of the abundance of Tunisia's legacy. Remains of Punic ports; a Roman coliseum, aqueduct, numerous temples, and villas; and Turkish forts are all part of the country's living past.

The University of Tunis was established in 1960 under the Ministry of National Education. Entry requires passing the baccalaureate and is very selective. Most of the faculties are in the Tunis metropolitan area; others are in Sousse (medicine), Sfax (medicine), and Monastir (science). Institutes affiliated with the university also provide advanced study in public administration, management, press and communications, commerce, languages, and education.

The university, however, only represents the pinnacle of an educational system that has expanded rapidly since independence. Today, more than a million students, almost 90 percent of school-age children, attend public schools. To earn the high school baccalaureate degree they must attend at least 13 years of school and pass the qualifying exams. This achievement-oriented system results in a high literacy rate (67 percent). Concurrently, with the expansion of education, the government promoted the Arabization of instruction. Thus, many students who do not continue their educations beyond the primary level are literate in Arabic rather than French.

Commerce and Industry

The Tunisian Government has prepared a series of economic development plans aimed at raising the standard of living, diversifying agriculture, and promoting industry. Economic planning is centered on resolving Tunisia's persistent unemployment and trade deficit problems.

The largest economic sector is services, accounting for about 54 percent of GDP. Tourism, the largest source of foreign exchange, was severely affected by the Gulf War in 1991, but has since recovered. The manufacturing and industry sectors comprise 32 percent of GDP. Agriculture comprises about 14 percent.

Oil exports provide Tunisia with a large source of foreign exchange earnings. National oil production from existing fields peaked at 5.4 million tons in 1981 and now remains roughly at 3.4 million tons. Oil exploration is currently being conducted throughout the country, and involves several American firms. In 1967, the oil field at El Borma, in southern Tunisia, was established. It has 55 million tons of recoverable reserves and currently produces over three million tons. The offshore Ashtart field, in the Gulf of Gabès, produces more than 20 percent of Tunisia's annual crude oil production.

Since 1981, there have been new finds at Zarzis and El Franig-Sabria. Natural gas production is limited at present, but royalties from Algerian gas flowing through Tunisia and possible future production from the large offshore field at Miskar and several recently discovered fields promise substantial quantities of natural gas, as well as some oil.

Phosphates and some iron, fluoride, barite, lead, and zinc are also exploited. The government-owned phosphate company is the largest company in Tunisia in both number of employees and capital investment.

New industries, including textiles; paper pulp manufacture from esparto grass; a steel mill; an oil refinery; assembly plants for trucks, automobiles, and tractors; as well as the production of enriched phosphate fertilizers, have been created. An industrial complex has been developed at Gabès, based on a phosphoric acid plant, and a new port was established there in 1972. Additional fertilizer and chemical plants are being planned for the Gabès area.

Tourism is also an important foreign exchange earner for Tunisia, providing the largest source of foreign exchange earnings. Large investments in this sector from other Arab countries have led to rapid expansion of tourism infrastructure. Over 3.8 million tourists visit Tunisia annually, spending over $1 billion.

Tunisian artisans, under the leadership of L'Office National de l'Artisanat, are striving to preserve their traditional crafts, including rug making, pottery, jewelry, and iron-work.

Tunisia is meeting the challenges of economic problems and population pressures with a determination that has attracted interest from many aid-giving countries. Other than from the U.S., which has been an important source of such aid, there has been active interest in Tunisian development from Germany, Kuwait, France, Italy, Canada, Sweden, Norway, the former U.S.S.R., the People's Republic of China, Bulgaria, Belgium, and many others.

The Chambre de Commerce is at rue des Entrepreneurs, 1000 Tunis.

Transportation

Tunis Air and Air France fly daily direct flights to Paris. Daily flights to Rome are provided by Tunis Air and Alitalia. Most of these flights can be coordinated with flights from Paris or Rome to New York or Washington. KLM flies weekly to Amsterdam, and Tunis Air flies there twice weekly. Several flights to Frankfurt are available on either Lufthansa or Tunis Air, and there are six weekly flights to Casablanca. Five international airports provide service—Tunis/Carthage, Monastir, Jerba, Sfax, and Tozeur.

Personal air travel from Tunis may be paid for in Tunisian dinars which have been purchased at a bank with foreign exchange. In this case, the official exchange attestation must accompany the dinar payment. Tickets may also be purchased with a check from a convertible dinar account. All airlines accept the American Express card. Some travel agencies and airlines accept other credit cards as well. Costs for short trips are about 30 percent higher than for longer flights. No direct sea transportation is available from Tunis to the U.S., but weekly sailings of large, comfortable ferries to Naples, Genoa, and Marseille are possible on Italian (Tirrenia), and Tunisian lines. Crossings take 22 to 24 hours, and reservations must be made months in advance if a vehicle is involved. Those interested can contact NAVI-TOUR, 8 rue d'Alger, Tunis, for information on the Italian and Tunisian lines.

Local transportation is crowded and only marginally satisfactory because of overcrowding and unreliable schedules and equipment. Buses travel the more heavily populated sections of Tunis, and electric trains and buses serve the outlying suburbs. Service to most areas ends by midnight.

Taxis are plentiful in Tunis but, can be almost impossible to find at certain hours and in some areas. They carry a maximum of three passengers. Fares are metered and inexpensive within the city. For a trip to the suburbs, the price should be predetermined. All the larger Tunisian cities are connected by well-kept, hardtop roads. The railroad system covers almost 1,400 miles, and serves all of the large cities; long-distance bus service also exists.

Communications

Local and long-distance telephone service is good, although occasional interruptions occur. Direct dialing is available for many international calls. Overseas calls are expensive when initiated in Tunisia, but are only about half the price if the call is made from the U.S. Telegraph service is worldwide, and also expensive. Transit time for international mail is 10 to 14 days.

Local radio stations broadcast in both French and Arabic on standard AM frequencies. There are local FM stations; one broadcasts in Arabic, another in French. A shortwave radio offers wider reception, with broadcasts from Voice of America (VOA), British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), and the Armed Forces Radio Service.

A few television channels broadcast in Tunisia. A domestic channel features programs mainly in Arabic. A second TV channel features 90 percent of its programming in French, following a cooperative agreement which was signed with the France II TV channel. Most of the programs are in color. An Italian channel, RAI 1, offers programming relayed from Italy. Both the Arabic-language channel and the Italian channel operate daily from the afternoon through late evening. The French-language international channel operates from 11:00 a.m. until midnight, except on weekends when it begins in the afternoon.

Only sets incorporating the PAL/SECAM system are suitable. They may be purchased locally or in Europe.

The International Herald Tribune arrives in Tunis from Paris late on the same day of publication, and is available at newsstands or by subscription. International editions of Time and Newsweek may be purchased within a few days of publication. Several French-and Arabic-language dailies are published in Tunis; daily newspapers from France are also available. The U.S. Embassy library is open to all, and facilities at the British Embassy, United States Information Service (USIS), and American Cooperative School may be used with permission.

Health

Tunisian physicians represent almost all medical specialties. Most have received all or part of their training in France. Many do not speak English. Small private hospitals (clinics) and laboratory and X-ray facilities are available in Tunis. Many American women have their babies in Tunisia, although primiparas (first pregnancy/delivery) are strongly discouraged from delivering in Tunis.

Local pharmacies stock a wide range of French products. A number of dentists provide adequate general dental services. Currently, no orthodontists or periodontists practice in Tunis. There are no facilities for handicapped individuals. Public sanitation standards, although constantly improving, are still somewhat lower than in Western Europe. Trash and garbage are picked up daily, including Sunday, in Tunis and its suburbs. A municipal sewage system has been enlarged and made more efficient. Drinking water should be boiled.

Americans generally maintain good health in Tunisia, but diseases such as tuberculosis, intestinal infections, intestinal parasites, hepatitis, and schistosomiasis require some precautions. Raw fruits and vegetables must be properly cleaned, and raw shellfish avoided.

Malaria is present only in certain remote areas, and malaria suppressants, in most cases, are not required.

Mandatory inoculations include those for yellow fever (within six days of traveling from infected area). Recommended immunizations are for polio and diphtheria-tetanus, plus gamma globulin for hepatitis. Rabies pre-exposure immunization is also advised.

Clothing and Services

A normal Mid-Atlantic wardrobe is suitable for Tunis. Lightweight, washable clothing is worn from May through October; light woolens are recommended for the rest of the year. Winters are cold, damp, rainy, and windy, making raincoats with zip-out linings very practical. An umbrella and rain boots are also useful.

Clothing can be purchased locally, but the choice is limited and the prices are high, especially for imported clothes. French and British materials are good, and available most of the time. Although there are good seamstresses and tailors in Tunis, their work is expensive. Locally made sandals and summer shoes are comfortable and inexpensive, but not durable.

Children need few heavy winter garments. Sweaters and warm jackets are the most practical choices. A substantial wardrobe (especially of shoes) is advised.

Meat, poultry, fish, excellent fresh vegetables, and fruit are available year round. Tunisia has no commercial frozen food industry yet, so fruits and vegetables are available only in season. Prices are set by the government and posted in the marketplace. With the exception of bread and some dairy products, which are subsidized by the government, food is as expensive as in Washington.

Pasteurized and sterilized milk, eggs, and other dairy products are available, but occasional shortages occur. Tunisian and Italian brands of sterilized milk are good and have a long shelf life. Few imported foods are sold locally; they are expensive, and supply is sporadic.

The colorful central market in downtown Tunis has hundreds of stalls where produce, meat, fish, and dairy products are sold. Pork can be purchased there and at a few other locations in the Tunis area. Smaller central markets are found in most neighborhoods. Several large chain stores offer self-service grocery facilities.

Most services are available in Tunis. Shoe repair, dry cleaning, beauty care, radio repair, etc., all are easily obtained, but some services are not up to American standards. Dry cleaning is expensive and, occasionally, clothes are damaged in the process. Few commercial laundries exist.

Domestic Help

Domestic services are available and inexpensive. Most servants speak French; few have any knowledge of English. The employer sometimes provides food, lodging, and uniforms. Local customs require additional expenses, such as daily transportation costs and holiday gratuities.

Domestics are not included in the Tunisian government's social security system, but some customs must be respected; e.g., provision for one free day a week for full-time help, and 12 days, paid vacation after one year of employment. No regulation exists for separation pay, although it is usual to give a week's salary for each year of employment.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

No nonstop or direct flights are available between North America and Tunis. Air travel from the U.S. to Tunis is via Frankfurt, Paris, or Rome. Sea travel is via Marseille or Naples.

Valid passports are required for all visitors arriving in Tunisia; visas are not required for a stay of four months or less, or for nationals of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, the U.S., and certain other countries.

There are no restrictions on the importation of pets but, to avoid administrative delays, pets should accompany owners when possible. Owners of dogs and cats must provide a good health certificate, a rabies vaccination dated more than one month and less than six months before the entry date and (for dogs) a distemper certificate. Adequate veterinarian services are available in Tunis.

Religious denominations represented in Tunis are Muslim, Roman Catholic, Anglican, Jewish, and Greek and Russian Orthodox. Catholic and Protestant services are in French and English. Mass is said in English at St. Jeanne d'Arc Church, located near the U.S. Embassy. St. George's Church, in the medina, is Anglican and holds Sunday services in English. Jewish services are conducted every Friday and Saturday at the Grand Synagogue, 43 avenue de la Liberté.

The time in Tunisia is Greenwich Mean Time plus one hour. The official currency is the dinar, divided into 1,000 millimes. Among the foreign banks represented by branches are Bank of America and Citibank. Tunis is the main financial center. The metric system of weights and measures is used.

Special Note: Visitors to Tunisia will find no restrictions on travel within the country, but care must be exercised in visiting certain frontier regions.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan.1 … New Year's Day

Jan. 18 … Revolution Day

Mar. 20 … Independence Day

Mar. 21 … Youth Day

Apr. 9… Martyr's Day

May 1 … Labor Day

July 25 … Republic Day

Aug. 13 … Women's Day

Oct. 15… Evacuation Day

Nov. 7 … Commemoration

… Hijra New Year^*

… Id al-Adah^*

… Ramadan^*

… Id al-Fitr^*

… Mawlid an Nabi^*

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Crowther, Geoff, and Hugh Findlay. Morocco, Algeria, & Tunisia: A Travel Survival Kit. Berkeley, CA: Lonely Planet, 1989.

Dixon, Mary. Tunisia. Let's Visit Places and Peoples of the World Series. New York: Chelsea House, 1988.

Fox, Mary Virginia. Tunisia. Chicago: Childrens Press, 1990.

Hopwood, Derek. Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia: The Tragedy of Longevity. New York: St. Martin Press, 1992.

Moudoud, Ezzeddine. The State & Regional Dispurity in Developing Countries: Tunisia in Historical Perspective. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988.

Nelson, Harold D., ed. Tunisia: A Country Study. 3rd ed. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1988.

Rogerson, Barnaby. Tunisia. Chester, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 1991.

Tunisia: Crossroads of the Islamic & European Worlds. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986.

Woodward, Jerome. The City of Tunis. Clifton, NJ: Kingston Press, 1990.

Zartman, I. William, ed. Tunisia: the Political Economy of Reform. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1991.

Tunisia

Compiled from the October 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Tunisian Republic

PROFILE

PEOPLE

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-TUNISIAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 163,610 sq. km. (63,378 sq. mi.), slightly smaller than Missouri.

Cities: Capital—Tunis; Greater Tunis.

Area: 2.289 million (Includes governorates of Tunis: 986,100; Ariana: 436,700; Ben Arous: 521,100; and Manouba: 342,000); Sfax: 869,000; Nabeul: 705,300; Sousse: 557,100.

Terrain: Arable land in north and along central coast; south is mostly semiarid or desert.

Climate: Hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Tunisian(s).

Population: (2005) 10,000,000.

Annual growth rate: (2005) 1.08%.

Ethnic groups: Arab-Berber 98%, European 1%, other 1%.

Religions: Muslim 98%, Christian 1%, Jewish less than 1%.

Languages: Arabic (official), French.

Education: Years compulsory—9. Literacy—74.3% (male 83.4%; female 65.3%).

Health: (2004) Infant mortality rate—20.0/1,000. Life expectancy—71.4 years male, 75.6 years female.

Work force: (2005, 3.5 million) Services—49%; industry—32.3%; agriculture—18.7%.

Government

Type: Republic.

Constitution: June 1, 1959; amended July 12, 1988, June 29, 1999, and June 1, 2002.

Independence: March 20, 1956.

Government branches: Executive—chief of state President Zine El Abidine BEN ALI (since November 7, 1987) head of government, Prime Minister Mohamed GHANNOUCHI (since November 17, 1999) cabinet, Council of Ministers appointed by the president; president elected by popular vote for a 5-year term; election last held October 24, 2004 (next to be held in October 2009); prime minister appointed by the president. Election results: President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali reelected for a fourth term; candidates from opposition: Mohamed Bouchiha (PUP), Mohamed Ali Halouani (Et-Tajdid) and Mounir Beji (PSL); percent of vote—Zine El Abidine Ben Ali 94.49% (officially). Legislative—bicameral. Chamber of Deputies or Majlis al-Nuwaab (189 seats; 5-year terms; 152 seats are elected by popular vote for party lists on a winner-take-all basis). An additional 37 seats (20% of the total) are distributed to opposition parties on a proportional basis as provided for in 1999 constitutional amendments. Elections last held October 24, 2004 (next to be held in October 2009). Election results: percent of vote by party—RCD 92%; seats by party—RCD 152, MDS 14, PUP 11, UDU 7, Et-Tajdid 3, PSL 2. Note: The opposition increased number of seats from 34 to 37. A referendum in 2002 created a second chamber, the Chamber of Advisors. Elections for the Chamber of Advisors were held in July 2005. Judicial—Nominally independent District Courts, Courts of Appeal, Highest Court (Cour de Cassation). Judges of the Highest Court are appointed by the President.

Political parties: Democratic Constitutional Rally (Rassemblement Constitutionnel Democratique—ruling party) or RCD, President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali; Et-Tajdid Movement (Mohamed Harmel); Democratic Forum for Labor and Liberties or FDTL (Mustapha Ben Jaafar); Liberal Social Party or PSL (Mondher Thabet); Movement of Democratic Socialists or MDS (Ismail Boulahia); Popular Unity Party or PUP (Mohamed Bouchiha); Unionist Democratic Union or UDU (Ahmed Inoubli); Progressive Democratic Party or PDP (Nejib Chebbi); Green Party for Progress or PVP (Mongi Khamassi). Political pressure groups and leaders: Authorized—Tunisian Human Rights League or LTDH (Mokhtar Trifi); Tunisian Association of Democratic Women or ATFD (Khadija Cherif); Tunisian Bar Association (Adbessatar Ben Moussa); Tunisian Journalists’ Association or AJT (Fouzi Bouzayane). Unauthorized—An-Nahdha (Renaissance) the Islamic fundamentalist party (Rached El Ghanouchi, in exile); National Council for Liberties in Tunisia or CNLT (Sihem Ben Sedrine); Movement of 18 October (Nejib Chebbi, Hamma Hammami, et.al) Congress for the Republic or CPR (Moncef Marzouki); Tunisian Communist Labor Party or POCT (Hamma Hammami); Tunisian Green Party or PVT (Abdelkader Zitouni); International Association for the Support of Political Prisoners or AISPP (Mohamed Nouri); Tunisian Journalists’syndicate or SJT (Lotfi Hajji).

Political subdivisions: 24 governorates—Ariana, Beja, Ben Arous, Bizerte, El Kef, Gabes, Gafsa, Jendouba, Kairouan, Kasserine, Kebili, Mahdia, Manouba, Medenine, Monastir, Nabeul, Sfax, Sidi Bou Zid, Siliana, Sousse, Tataouine, Tozeur, Tunis, Zaghouan.

Suffrage: Universal at 20. (Active duty members of the military cannot vote.)

Economy

GDP: (2005) $16.473 billion (constant price of 2000).

Growth rate: (2005) 4.2%.

Per capita current GDP: (2005) $2,866.

Natural resources: natural gas, crude oil, phosphates, salt, iron ore.

Agriculture: (11.9% of GDP) Products—olives, dates, citrus, almonds, grains.

Industry: (27.9% of GDP) Types—petroleum, mining (particularly phosphate), textiles, footwear, food processing.

Services: (40.9% of GDP) Tourism, commerce, transport, communications.

Trade: (2005) Exports—$10.5 billion: hydrocarbons, agricultural products, phosphates, chemicals, textiles, mechanical, electric components. By region—Africa 9.0%, Americas 1.7%, Asia 3.7%, Europe 85.6%. By country (U.S.$million)—France, $3447.2, Italy, $2511.8, Germany, $884.5, Spain, $575.5; Libya, $472.2; Belgium, $288.0; UK, $279.0; U.S. $59.6. Imports ($13.2 billion)—industrial goods and equipment, hydrocarbons, food, consumer goods. By region—Africa 6.4%, Americas 5.2% Asia 9.7%, Europe 77.7%. By country (U.S.$million)—France $3093.6, Italy $2756.9, Germany $1080.7, Spain $677.4, Libya $509.9, China $381.0, U.S. $327.2.

Trade balance deficit: (2005) $2.7 billion.

PEOPLE

Modern Tunisians are the descendents of indigenous Berbers and of people from numerous civilizations that have invaded, migrated to, and been assimilated into the population over the millennia. Recorded history in Tunisia begins with the arrival of Phoenicians, who founded Carthage and other North African settlements in the 8th century B.C. Carthage became a major sea power, clashing with Rome for control of the Mediterranean until it was defeated and captured by the Romans in 146 B.C. The Romans ruled and settled in North Africa until the 5th century, when the Roman Empire fell and Tunisia was invaded by European tribes, including the Vandals. The Muslim conquest in the 7th century transformed Tunisia and the make-up of its population, with subsequent waves of migration from around the Arab and Ottoman world, including significant numbers of Spanish Muslims and Jews at the end of the 15th century. Tunisia became a center of Arab culture and learning and was assimilated into the Turkish Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. It was a French protectorate from 1881 until independence in 1956, and retains close political, economic, and cultural ties with France.

Nearly all Tunisians (98% of the population) are Muslim. There has been a Jewish population on the southern island of Djerba for 2000 years, and there remains a small Jewish population in Tunis and other cities, which is mainly descended from those who fled Spain in the late 15th century. A small Christian community is dispersed throughout the country, and includes foreign residents, as well as a few hundred native-born citizens who have converted to Christianity. Small nomadic indigenous minorities have been mostly assimilated into the larger population.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Tunisia is a republic with a strong presidential system dominated by a single political party. President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali has been in office since 1987, when he deposed Habib Bourguiba, president since Tunisia’s independence from France in 1956. The ruling party, the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD), was the sole legal party for 25 years—including when it was known as the Socialist Destourian Party (PSD)—and still dominates political life. The president is elected to 5-year terms—with virtually no opposition—and appoints a prime minister and cabinet, who play a strong role in the execution of policy. Regional governors and local administrators are also appointed by the central government; largely consultative mayors and municipal councils are elected. There is a bicameral legislative body. The Chamber of Deputies has 189 seats, 20% of which are reserved for the opposition. It plays a limited role as an arena for debate on national policy but never originates legislation and virtually always passes bills presented by the executive with only minor changes. A referendum in 2002 created a second chamber, the Chamber of Advisors. First-time elections for the Chamber of Advisors were held in July 2005. The judiciary is nominally independent, but responds to executive direction, especially in politically sensitive cases. The military is professional and does not play a role in politics.

Tunisia’s independence from France in 1956 ended a protectorate established in 1881. President Bourguiba, who had been the leader of the independence movement, declared Tunisia

a republic in 1957, ending the nominal rule of the Ottoman Beys. In June 1959, Tunisia adopted a constitution modeled on the French system, which established the basic outline of the highly centralized presidential system that continues today. The military was given a defined defensive role, which excluded participation in politics. Starting from independence, President Bourguiba placed strong emphasis on economic and social development, especially education, the status of women, and the creation of jobs, policies that continued under the Ben Ali administration. The result was strong social progress—high literacy and school attendance rates, low population growth rates, and relatively low poverty rates—and generally steady economic growth. These pragmatic policies have contributed to social and political stability.

Progress toward full democracy has been slow. Over the years, President Bourguiba stood unopposed for reelection several times and was named “President for Life” in 1974 by a constitutional amendment. At the time of independence, the Neo-Destourian Party (later the PSD)—enjoying broad support because of its role at the forefront of the independence movement—became the sole legal party. Opposition parties were banned until 1981.

When President Ben Ali came to power in 1987, he promised greater democratic openness and respect for human rights, signing a “national pact” with opposition parties. He oversaw constitutional and legal changes, including abolishing the concept of President for life, the establishment of presidential term limits, and provision for greater opposition party participation in political life. But the ruling party, renamed the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD), continued to dominate the political scene because of its historic popularity and the advantage it enjoyed as the ruling party. Ben Ali ran for re-election unopposed in 1989 and 1994. In the multiparty era, he won 99.44% of the vote in 1999 and 94.49% of the vote in 2004. In both elections he faced weak opponents.

The RCD won all seats in the Chamber of Deputies in 1989, and won all of the directly elected seats in the 1994, 1999, and 2004 elections. However, constitutional amendments provided for the distribution of additional seats to the opposition parties by 1999 and 2004. Currently, five opposition parties share 37 of the 189 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. A May 2002 referendum approved constitutional changes proposed by Ben Ali that allowed him to run for a fourth term in 2004 (and a fifth, his final, because of age, in 2009), and provided judicial immunity during and after his presidency. The referendum also created a second parliamentary chamber, and provided for other changes.

There are currently seven legal opposition parties, the Social Democratic Movement (MDS), the Popular Unity Party (PUP), the Union of Democratic Unionists (UDU), Et-Tajdid (also called the Renewal Movement), the Liberal Social Party (PSL), plus the Democratic Progressive Party (PDP) and the Democratic Forum for Labor and Liberties or FDTL, the only two not represented in the Chamber of Deputies. The parties are generally weak and divided and face considerable restrictions on their ability to organize. The Islamist opposition party, An-Nahdha, was allowed to operate openly in the late 1980s and early 1990s despite a ban on religiously based parties. The government outlawed An-Nahdha as a terrorist organization in 1991 and arrested its leaders and thousands of party members and sympathizers, accusing them of plotting to overthrow the president. The party is no longer openly active in Tunisia, and its leaders operate from exile in London. Several pro-democracy activists have been denied permission to establish other opposition political parties.

While there are thousands of official, established non-governmental organizations, civil society remains weak. The Tunisian Human Rights League (LTDH), the first human rights organization in the Arab world, operates under restrictions and suffers from internal divisions. The Tunisian Association of Democratic Women (ATFD), the Young Lawyers Association, and the Bar Association also are active. The government has denied legal status to a handful of other human rights advocacy groups who, nonetheless, attempt to organize and publicize information on the human rights situation in the country.

Despite the Government of Tunisia’s stated committed to making progress toward a democratic system, citizens do not enjoy political freedom. The government imposes restrictions on freedom of association and speech and does not allow a free press. Many critics have called for clearer, effective distinctions between executive, legislative, and judicial powers. Foreign media, including foreign-based satellite television channels, have criticized the Tunisian Government for the lack of press freedom. Tunisia ranked number 147 out of 167 countries in the 2005 Reporters Without Borders list of World Press Freedom rankings. As reflected in the State Department’s annual human rights report, there are frequent reports of widespread torture and abuse of prisoners, especially political prisoners.

Trade unions have played a key role in Tunisia’s history since the struggle for independence, when the 1952 assassination of labor leader Farhat Hached was a catalyst for the final push against French domination. The General Union of Tunisian Workers (UGTT), the country’s sole labor confederation, has generally focused on bread-and-butter issues, but at some critical moments in Tunisia’s history has played a decisive role in the nation’s political life. Despite a drop in union membership from 400,000 to about 250,000 as the structure of the Tunisian economy changed, the UGTT continues to hold a prominent place in Tunisia’s political and social life, and negotiates with government and the umbrella employer group for higher wages and better benefits. The current leadership, headed by Abdes-salem Jerad, was elected at an extraordinary congress in February 2002. The current board of directors includes some former dissidents and has pledged to reinvigorate the union and increase its role in the country’s political life. Tunisia is a leader in the Arab world in promoting the legal and social status of women. A Personal Status Code was adopted shortly after independence in 1956, which, among other things, gave women full legal status (allowing them to run and own businesses, have bank accounts, and seek passports under their own authority). It also, for the first time in the Arab world, outlawed polygamy. The government required parents to send girls to school, and today more than 50% of university students are women. Rights of women and children were further enhanced by 1993 reforms, which included a provision to allow Tunisian women to transmit citizenship even if they are married to a foreigner and living abroad. The government has supported a remarkably successful family planning program that has reduced the population growth rate to just over 1% per annum, contributing to Tunisia’s economic and social stability.

Tunisia’s judiciary is headed by the Court of Cassation, whose judges are appointed by the president. The country is divided administratively into 24 governorates. The president appoints all governors.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 4/28/2006

President: Zine el Abidine BEN ALI

Prime Minister: Mohamed GHANNOUCHI

Special Adviser to the President, & Spokesman of the Republic: Abdelaziz BEN DHIA

Min. of Agriculture & Water Resources: Habib HADDAD

Min. of Communication Technologies: Montasser OUAILI

Min. of Communications & Relations With the Chamber of Deputies & the Chamber of Counselors: Rafaa DEKHIL

Min. of Culture & Protection of National Heritage: Mohamed Aziz BEN ACHOUR

Min. of Development & International Cooperation: Mohamed Nouri JOUINI

Min. of Education & Vocational Training: Sadok KORBI

Min. of Employment & Vocational Integration of Youth: Chadli LAROUSSI

Min. of Environment & Sustainable Development: Nadhir HAMADA

Min. of Equipment, Housing, & Land Development: Samira Khayache BELHAJ

Min. of Finance: Mohamed Rachid KECHICHE

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Abdelwaheb ABDALLAH

Min. of Higher Education: Lazhar BOUOUNI

Min. of Industry, Energy, & Small- & Medium-Size Enterprises: Afif CHELBI

Min. of the Interior & Local Development: Rafiq BELHAJ KACEM

Min. of Justice & Human Rights: Bechir TEKKARI

Min. of National Defense: Kamel MORJANE

Min. of Public Health: Ridha KECHRID

Min. of Public Property & Real Estate Affairs: Ridha GRIRA

Min. of Religious Affairs: Boubaker ELAKHZOURI

Min. of Scientific Research, Technology, & Expertise Development: Taieb HADHRI

Min. of Social Affairs, Solidarity, & Tunisians Living Abroad: Ali CHAOUCH

Min. of Tourism: Tijani HADDAD

Min. of Trade & Handicrafts: Mondher ZENAIDI

Min. of Transport: Abderrahim ZOUARI

Min. of Women, Children, & Family Affairs: Saloua Ayachi LABBEN

Min. of Youth, Sport, & Physical Education: Abdallah KAABI

Min.-Dir. of the Presidential Cabinet: Ahmed Eyadh OUEDERNI

Sec. Gen. of the Govt.: Mounir JAIDANE

Governor, Central Bank: Taoufik BACCAR

Ambassador to the US: Nejib HACHANA

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Ali HACHANI

Tunisia’s embassy in the United States is located at 1515 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20005 (tel. 1-202-862-1850, fax 1-202-862-1858).

ECONOMY

Tunisia’s economy has emerged from rigid state control and is now mostly liberalized. World Bank and IMF support, coupled with prudent economic policies implemented by the Tunisian Government in the mid-eighties after a balance of payments crisis, has resulted in regular stable growth. Although this faltered after 9/11, the economy has since bounced back, thanks to healthy exports, renewed growth in tourism, and favorable climatic conditions which boosted agricultural production.

Manufacturing industries, producing largely for export, are the motor of Tunisia’s economic growth and a major source of foreign currency revenue. Textiles are a major source of foreign currency revenue, with more than 90% of production being exported. Recent changes in global textile agreements have eroded Tunisia’s competitiveness in its traditional European textile markets. To counteract this, manufacturers are successfully upgrading product lines and exporting smaller quantities of higher value items.

Tourism is the other major source of hard currency. Total visitors to Tunisia number well over 6 million, with increasingly large contingents from Libya and Algeria (over 1 million each). European package holiday firms largely account for the other 4 million.

Economically and commercially, Tunisia is very closely linked to Europe. Implementation of the EU Association Agreement, covering a 12-year period up until 2008, is eliminating customs tariffs and other trade barriers on a wide range of goods and services. EU member states also provide the bulk of FDI, much of which has come in under the GOT privatization program launched in 1987. In May 2006 the GOT announced that overall its privatization program had raised $1.9 billion, of which $1.4 billion was foreign capital. This does not include the $2.25 billion the GOT recently received for the sale to Dubai Holding of a 35% share in the national telecommunications authority. Remittances from Tunisian workers abroad (just over $1 billion in 2005) are another major source of hard currency.

Soaring oil prices have hit the Tunisian economy hard. The country is a net importer of hydrocarbon products. Domestic crude production is about 65,000 barrels per day, a considerable decline from peak output of 114,000 per day in 1992. Proven reserves are in the region of 300 million barrels. Tunisia has one oil refinery in Bizerte on the north coast and plans a second at La Skhira near Gabes. Natural gas production is currently about 3 million TEP. Proven reserves are about 2.8 trillion cubic feet, two-thirds of which are located offshore. British Gas is the major developer of the natural gas industry, and the biggest foreign investor in Tunisian industry.

The Ministry of Industry and Energy is responsible for a program to improve the international competitiveness of Tunisian industry in preparation for free trade with the European Union. Launched on a pilot scale in 1996, the “Mise a Niveau” (industrial upgrading) program is supported in part by EU grants incorporated into the EU Association Agreement. The program combines government technical assistance, training, subsidies, and infrastructure upgrades aimed at encouraging and assisting Tunisian private sector industrial restructuring. More than 2,300 companies have applied to join the program, with more than half accepted.

A Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA) with the U.S. was signed in October 2002 and follow-up TIFA Councils were held in October 2003 and June 2005, but little progress has been made towards generating the necessary reforms required to engender a free trade agreement between the U.S. and Tunisia. The framework for a multilateral trade agreement with Egypt, Jordan, and Morocco, known as the Agadir Agreement, has also been signed. The Agadir Agreement creates a potential market of over 100 million people across North Africa and into the Middle East. The government still retains control over certain “strategic” sectors of the economy (finance, hydrocarbons, the national airline, electricity and gas distribution, and water resources) but the private sector is playing an increasingly important role. Tunisia is a founding member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and is publicly committed to a free trade regime and export-led growth. Most goods can be imported without prior licensing, although non-tariff administrative barriers sometimes delay imports of goods. Significant import duties, coupled with high consumption taxes on certain items and a value-added tax (VAT), add considerably to the local price of imported goods.

The GOT is beginning to take a more proactive stance on IPR enforcement and education. Tunisia’s recent intellectual property rights law is designed to meet WTO TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property) minimum standards and there is on-going collaboration between the United States and Tunisian governments to promote public awareness of these rights.

Tunisia’s timely completion of its IMF program (1987-1994) and subsequent fiscal conservatism have earned it investment grade ratings from a number of international institutions, although Standard and Poor has noted that ratings on Tunisia are constrained by its highly centralized political system and the need for further structural reforms. In mid-2005 the Tunisian Central Bank issued a new Euro-denominated bond on the London financial market. The issue totaled over $450 million (400 million Euros) with a maturity of 15 years. In 2004 the Government of Tunisia sold a similar bond with a total value of nearly $550 million and seven-year maturity.

The Central Bank is moving from direct management of the financial sector towards a more traditional supervisory and regulatory role. Commercial banks are permitted to participate in the forward foreign exchange market. The dinar is convertible for current account transactions but some convertible dinar/foreign exchange account transactions still require Central Bank authorization. Total convertibility of the Tunisian dinar is probably still some years away. The dinar is traded on an intra-bank market. Trading operates around a “fix” established by the Central Bank (based upon a basket of the Euro, the U.S. Dollar and the Japanese Yen). The stock exchange remains under the supervision of the state-run financial market council, and lists about 50 companies. A new phase of the Mise a Niveau program aims to double this figure.

Tunisia has a relatively well-developed infrastructure that includes six commercial seaports and six international airports. The prequalification phase for a seventh airport near the coast at Enfidha was announced in April 2004, but the project, a Build-to-Own 40-year concession eventually able to handle 30 million passengers per year is currently on hold. A tender is expected to be launched in 2006 for deep water port in the same region.

Average annual income per capita in Tunisia is approaching $3000. The minimum monthly legal wage for a 48-hour week was recently raised to approximately $180. Tunisia’s goal of pushing per capita incomes into the middle emerging market level calls for an average 6-7% growth rate instead of 4-5% currently being achieved. Inflation in 2006 is expected to be double the rate of 2% recorded in 2005. Official figures claim unemployment is around 14%, but it is generally believed to be much higher in some regions. Despite the present low rate of population growth, a demographic peak is now hitting higher education and the job market. Tunisia has invested heavily in education and the number of students enrolled at university has soared from 41,000 in 1986 to over 360,000. Providing jobs for these highly educated people represents a major challenge for the Government of Tunisia.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

President Ben Ali has maintained Tunisia’s long-time policy of seeking good relations with the West, including the United States, while playing an active role in Arab and African regional bodies. President Bourguiba took a nonaligned stance but emphasized close relations with Europe and the United States.

Tunisia has long been a voice for moderation and realism in the Middle East. President Bourguiba was the first Arab leader to call for the recognition of Israel, in a speech in Jericho in 1965. Tunisia served as the headquarters of the Arab League from 1979 to 1990 and hosted the Palestine Liberation Organization’s (PLO) headquarters from 1982 to 1993. (The PLO Political Department remains in Tunis.) Tunisia consistently has played a moderating role in the negotiations for a comprehensive Middle East peace. In 1993, Tunisia was the first Arab country to host an official Israeli delegation as part of the Middle East peace process. The Government of Tunisia operated an Interests Section in Israel from April 1996 until the outbreak of the second Intifada in 2000. Israeli citizens may travel to Tunisia on their Israeli passports.

Wedged between Algeria and Libya, Tunisia has sought to maintain good relations with its neighbors despite occasionally strained relations. Tunisia and Algeria resolved a longstanding border dispute in 1993 and have cooperated in the construction of a natural gas pipeline through Tunisia that connects Algeria to Italy. In 2002, Tunisia signed an agreement with Algeria to demarcate the maritime frontier between the two countries.

Tunisia’s relations with Libya have been erratic since Tunisia annulled a brief agreement to form a union in 1974. Diplomatic relations were broken in 1976, restored in 1977, and deteriorated again in 1980, when Libyan-trained rebels attempted to seize the town of Gafsa. In 1982, the International Court of Justice ruled in Libya’s favor in the partition of the oil-rich continental shelf it shares with Tunisia. Libya’s 1985 expulsion of Tunisian workers and military threats led Tunisia to sever relations. Relations were normalized again in 1987. While supporting the UN sanctions imposed following airline bombings, Tunisia has been careful to maintain positive relations with her neighbor. Tunisia supported the lifting of UN sanctions against Libya in 2003, and Libya is again becoming a major trading partner, with 2005 exports to Libya valued at $472.2 million and imports at $509.9 million.

Tunisia has supported the development of the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), which includes Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania, and Libya. Progress on Maghreb integration remains stymied, however, as a result of bilateral tensions between some member countries. Tunisia has played a positive role in trying to resolve these tensions.

U.S.-TUNISIAN RELATIONS

The United States has very good relations with Tunisia, which date back more than 200 years. The United States has maintained official representation in Tunis almost continuously since 1795, and the American Friendship Treaty with Tunisia was signed in 1799. The two governments are not linked by security treaties, but relations have been close since Tunisia’s independence. U.S.-Tunisian relations suffered briefly after the 1985 Israeli raid on PLO headquarters in Tunis, after the 1988 Tunis assassination of PLO terrorist Abu Jihad, and in 1990 during the Gulf War. In each case, however, relations warmed again quickly, reflecting strong bilateral ties. The United States and Tunisia have an active schedule of joint military exercises. U.S. security assistance historically has played an important role in cementing relations. The U.S.-Tunisian Joint Military Commission meets annually to discuss military cooperation, Tunisia’s defense modernization program, and other security matters. The United States first provided economic and technical assistance to Tunisia under a bilateral agreement signed March 26, 1957.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) managed a successful program until its departure in 1994, when Tunisia’s economic advances led to the country’s “graduation” from USAID funding. Tunisia enthusiastically supported the U.S.-North African Economic Partnership (USNAEP), designed to promote U.S. investment in, and economic integration of, the Maghreb region. The program provided over $4 million in assistance to Tunisia between 2001 and 2003. The Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI) was launched in 2002 and incorporated the former USNAEP economic reform projects while adding bilateral and regional projects for education reform, civil society development and women’s empowerment. In 2004, the MEPI Regional Office opened in Embassy Tunis. The Regional Office is staffed by American diplomats and regional specialists. It is responsible for coordinating MEPI activities in Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia in close coordination with the American Embassies in those countries.

American private assistance has been provided liberally since independence by foundations, religious groups, universities, and philanthropic organizations. The U.S. Government has supported Tunisia’s efforts to attract foreign investment. The United States and Tunisia concluded a bilateral investment treaty in 1990 and an agreement to avoid double taxation in 1989. In October 2002, the U.S. and Tunisia signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement (TIFA), and in October 2003 held the first TIFA Council Meeting in Washington, DC.

American firms seeking to invest in Tunisia and export to Tunisia can receive insurance and financing for their business through U.S. Government agencies, including the Overseas Private Investment Corporation and the Export-Import Bank. The best prospects for foreigners interested in the Tunisian market are in high technology, energy, agribusiness, food processing, medical care and equipment, and the environmental and tourism sectors.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

TUNIS (E) Address: Les Berges du Lac–1053 Tunis; APO/FPO: Name and Office Symbol, Unit 6360 Box 01, DPO AE 09734-01; Phone: 216-71-107-000; Fax: 216-71-107-090; Work-week: M-F 0800-1645; Website: usembassy.state.gov/posts/ts1.

Last Updated: 1/29/2007

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : February 7, 2007

Country Description: Tunisia is a presidential republic with a developing economy. Tourist facilities are widely available in large urban and major resort areas.

Exit/Entry Requirements: A passport is required. For U.S. passport holders, a visa is not necessary for stays of up to four months; however a residence permit is needed for longer stays. The residence permit can be obtained from the central police station of the district of residence. Americans born in the Middle East or with Arabic names have experienced delays in clearing immigration upon arrival. American citizens of Tunisian origin are expected to enter and exit Tunisia on their Tunisian passports. If a Tunisian-American succeeds in entering using a U.S. passport, he or she will still have to present a Tunisian passport to exit the country.

For further information concerning entry/exit requirements for Tunisia, travelers may contact the Embassy of Tunisia at 1515 Massachusetts Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20005, tel. 202-862-1850. Tunisian/American children must always have both parents’ permission to exit the country, even if one parent has sole custody.

Safety and Security: There have been no instances in which U.S. citizens or facilities in Tunisia have been subject to terrorist attacks. However, in January 2007 Tunisian security forces announced the disruption of a terrorist group which they believe intended to attack targets including the U.S. Embassy in Tunis. On April 11, 2002, Al-Qaida terrorists used a truck bomb to attack a synagogue on the Tunisian island of Djerba, and a number of Western tourists were killed. There have also been unsubstantiated threats to tourist facilities. Security personnel may at times place foreign visitors under surveillance. Tunisia has open borders with Libya and Algeria. During late 2002 and early 2003, a number of tourists were kidnapped in the Sahara desert areas of southeastern Algeria, several of whom crossed into Algeria from Tunisia. For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet website where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Criminals have targeted tourists and business travelers for theft, pick pocketing, and scams. Care should be taken with wallets and other valuables kept in handbags or backpacks that can be easily opened from behind in crowded streets or marketplaces. Criminals may violently grab at items worn around the neck (purses, necklaces, backpacks) and then run away, sometimes causing injury to their victims. Criminals have been known to rob pedestrians by snatching purses and handbags from their victims while on a motorcycle.

Harassment of unaccompanied females occurs rarely in hotels, but it occurs more frequently elsewhere. Dressing in a conservative manner can diminish potential harassment, especially for young women. It is always wise to travel in groups of two or more people. Women are advised against walking alone in isolated areas. Travelers are advised to avoid buses and commuter rail when possible, and to never enter a taxi if another passenger is present.

Theft from vehicles is also common. Items high in value like luggage, cameras, laptop computers, or briefcases are often stolen from cars. Travelers are advised not to leave valuables in parked cars, and to keep doors locked, windows rolled up and valuables out of sight.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while in Tunisia, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the U.S. Embassy for assistance, telephone: 71-107-000. The Embassy staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical care in Tunisia is adequate, with a number of new, private “polyclinics” available that function as simple hospitals and can provide a variety of procedures. Specialized care or treatment may not be available. Facilities that can handle complex trauma cases are virtually non-existent. While most private clinics have a few physicians who are fluent in English, the medical establishment uses French and all of the ancillary staff in every clinic communicates in Arabic and/or French. Public hospitals are overcrowded, under-equipped and under-staffed. In general, nursing care does not conform to U.S. standards.

Immediate ambulance service may not be available outside of urban areas. Even in urban areas, emergency response times can be much longer than in the United States. Doctors and hospitals expect immediate cash payment for health care services although some hospitals may accept credit cards. Over-the-counter medications are available; however, travelers should bring with them a full supply of medications that are needed on a regular basis. The U.S. Embassy in Tunis maintains a list of doctors and medical practitioners (dentists, etc.) who can be contacted for assistance.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travelFor information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Tunisia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in Tunisia can be dangerous. It is recommended that visitors avoid driving after dark outside of Tunis or the major resort areas. Driving practices are poor. Drivers fail to obey the rules of the road even in the presence of the police. Traffic signs and signals are often ignored, and drivers sometimes drive vehicles on the wrong side of the road. Faster drivers tend to drive on the left while slower drivers stay to the right. Traffic lane markings are widely ignored. Bicycles, mopeds and motorcycles are operated without sufficient lights or reflectors, making them difficult to see darting in and out of traffic. Motorists should also be aware of animals on the roads, particularly in rural areas.

Pedestrians present an additional challenge as they continuously dodge traffic (even on controlled-access highways) and do not pay attention to vehicles. Pedestrians and cyclists should be aware that drivers rarely yield and will not always stop at either crosswalks or stoplights. Defensive driving is a must when driving in Tunisia. Drivers may be stopped for inspection by police officers within cities and on highways at any time, and drivers should comply. Emergency services are widely available in the larger towns. They can be less reliable in rural areas. Emergency service numbers are:

Police (Police secours): 197
Fire Department: 198
Ambulance (SAMU): 190
Towing (SOS Remorquage 24/24): 71 801 211, 71 840 840

For specific information about Tunisian drivers licenses, vehicle inspection, road tax, mandatory insurance and towing services, contact the Tunisian National Tourist Organization Office at http://www.tourismtunisia.com.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Tunisia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Tunisia’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet website at http://www.faa.gov.

Money: Travelers’ checks and credit cards are accepted at some establishments in Tunisia, mainly in urban or tourist areas. Cash machines (ATMs) are available in urban and tourist areas. The Tunisian dinar is not a fully convertible currency. While the export or import of Tunisian banknotes and coins is prohibited, the export of foreign currency declared when entering Tunisia is allowed. Tourists are expected to make foreign exchange transactions at authorized banks and to retain receipts. A tourist may reconvert to foreign currency 30 percent of the amount previously exchanged into dinars, up to a maximum of $100. Declaring foreign currency when entering Tunisia and obtaining receipts for dinars purchased thereafter will facilitate the conversion of dinars to U.S. dollars when leaving the country. Please keep all receipts of monetary transactions for presentation when departing.

Workweek: Normal working days are Monday to Friday, with government offices open on Saturday mornings. Many stores are closed on Sunday, except in resort areas where most remain open.

Proselytizing: Islam is the state religion of Tunisia and the government does not interfere with the country’s religious minorities’ public worship. Many religious denominations hold regularly scheduled services. However, it is illegal to proselytize or engage in other activities that the Tunisian authorities could view as encouraging conversion to another faith. In the past, Americans who engaged in such activities were asked to leave the country.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Tunisian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Tunisia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Homosexuality is illegal in Tunisia, and can be punished by imprisonment. Possession of pornography can also lead to criminal charges. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration/Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Tunisia are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Tunisia. Americans may also register directly with the U.S. Embassy. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at Zone Nord Est des Berges du Lac, Nord de Tunis 2045 La Goulette, Tunisie Tel: (216) 71 107 000 Fax: (216) 71964 360, Internet: http://tunis.usembassy.gov

International Adoption : February 2007

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Legal “Adoption” in Tunisia: The U.S. Embassy in Tunis has been informed that Law No. 58-27, Articles 8 to 16 covers Tunisian adoptions. The law contains no nationality or religious requirements but Tunisian judges have held that prospective adoptive parents must be Muslim.

Specific questions regarding adoptions in Tunisia may be addressed to:

Embassy of Tunisia
1515 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C. 20005
Phone: (202) 862-1850

U.S. Embassy Tunis
144 Avenue de la Liberte
1002 Tunis-Belvedere
Tunis, Tunisia
Phone: (216) (1) 7782-566, ext. 4280
Fax (216) (1) 789-719 or 788-928

Hours: 8:00 AM to 4:30 PM, except during July & August when hours are 7:30 AM to 4:00 PM. For further information on international inter-country adoption, contact the Office of Children’s Issues at 202-736-7000, visit the State Department home page on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov, or send a nine-by-twelve-inch, self-addressed envelope to: Office of Children’s Issues, 2401 E Street, N.W., Room L127, Washington, D.C. 20037; Phone: (202) 736-7000; Fax: (202) 312-9743.

International Parental Child Abduction : February 2007

The information below has been edited from the report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Child Abduction section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign legal counsel.

NOTE: Currently there are no international or bilateral treaties in force between Tunisia and the United States dealing with international parental child abduction. The Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction cannot be invoked if a child is taken from the United States to Tunisia, or vice versa, by one parent against the wishes of the other parent or in violation of a U.S. custody order.

Dual Nationality: When one of the parents is Tunisian, a child is considered Tunisian regardless of the child’s place of birth or whether the child had acquired the nationality of another country.

Residency: Tunisian courts expect that parents seeking child custody have established residency in Tunisia.

Enforcement of Foreign Custody Orders: The parent can request that a foreign child custody order be recognized in Tunisia, but enforcement will result only if the custody order conforms with Tunisian child custody law. Therefore, as a practical matter, foreign child custody orders are not generally recognized in Tunisia, and the parent must seek legal representation in Tunisia and file for custody in Tunisia.

Custody Disputes: When a child custody dispute arises between parents, one of whom is a Tunisian, the courts determine which parent is awarded legal custody of a child. Child custody laws in Tunisia are codified in the Child Code Law 67 of the Code du Statut Personnel Tunisian. Tunisian judges take into consideration the welfare and protection of the child and the eligibility of the parent seeking custody. (The parent must be over 21 years old, sound of mind, able to support and care for the child, and free from contagious diseases.)

Right of Custody and Visitation: The court will conduct an investigation to determine which parent will benefit the child the most. The court will base its custody decision on its assessment of what is in the best interests of the child.

The law does not specify religious or nationality conditions for the mother. Even when Tunisian courts award legal custody to the mother, the father retains certain rights. The father may control the child’s welfare, enroll the child in school and provide for the child’s education. Tunisian courts do grant visitation rights to the non-custodial parent.

Travel Restrictions on Minor Children: Special authorization from the court must be obtained before the child can stay overnight outside the custodial parent’s home. If the custodial parent moves and the move interferes with the other parent’s rights and duties, the custodial parent can lose legal custody of the child. Imprisonment can result if the non-custodial parent takes the child without the consent of the custodial parent. Unless the child is at risk, the mother, as custodial parent, must give her permission before the father can take the child from her residence. A minor child, under the age of 20 years cannot be taken outside Tunisia without the father’s permission or the court’s authorization, when the mother has been awarded custody.

Please Note: American citizens who travel to Tunisia place themselves under the jurisdiction of Tunisian courts. Therefore, American citizens planning a trip to Tunisia with dual national children should bear this in mind. Specific questions regarding child custody in Tunisia may be addressed to:

Embassy of Tunisia
1515 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C. 20005
Phone: (202) 862-1850

U.S. Embassy Tunis
144 Avenue de la Liberte
1002 Tunis-Belvedere
Phone: (216) (1) 7782-566, ext. 4280
Fax (216) (1) 789-719 or 788-928

Hours: 8:00 AM to 4:30 PM, except during July & August when hours are 7:30 AM to 4:00 PM.

For further information on international parental child abduction, contact the Office of Children’s Issues, U.S. Department of State at 1-888-407-4747 or visit its website on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov. You may also direct inquiries to: Office of Children’s Issues; U.S. Department of State; Washington, DC 20520-4811; Phone: (202) 736-9090; Fax: (202) 312-9743.