Stupa
ST?PA
The Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary defines the word st?pa as "a knot or tuft of hair, the upper part of the head, crest, top, summit"; also "a heap or pile of earth, or bricks etc." Opinions about the etymology of the word st?pa differ, and the root ?st?p, "to heap up, pile, erect," seems to have been a late invention in order to explain the term. Although now inextricably linked to Buddhism, originally the st?pa was not exclusively a Buddhist structure, but also a Jaina monument.
Generally the terms st?pa and caitya, said to derive from cita, "a funeral pile," are used interchangeably. Both terms indicate a mound of earth surrounded by a wooden railing, marking the place of the funeral pyre of a significant person. While the meaning of caitya may also mean observances "relating to a funeral pile or mound," the term st?pa designates the actual structure. Originally, st?pas contained relics, mainly ash, of a saintly person, and later other objects, such as crystal beads.
Buddhist texts narrate how the Buddha's relics were divided into eight portions; these were distributed to different kingdoms within India and st?pas were built over them. These relics were redistributed during the third century b.c.e. by A?oka not only as an act of homage to the Buddhist faith, but also to ensure the Buddha's protection over his extensive empire. Thus, thousands of st?pas were built as a remembrance of the Buddha and of the crucial episodes of his life; for example, the st?pa at Sarnath commemorated the Buddha's first sermon. In time, st?pas were erected as an homage to any past or future buddha, or to any Buddhist saint.
Basically a st?pa consisted of a circular platform (me?h?) on which was erected a solid masonry hemisphere, or a??a (egg), made of unburnt bricks. In its center was a small space for a receptacle containing relics. On the summit of the plain a??a, and aligned with the reliquary, was raised a shaft surmounted by one or more chattravali (parasols), a mark of royalty that later assumed a complex metaphysical meaning. The surface of the dome was finished with a thick layer of plaster. Because it was customary to circumambulate the st?pa as a part of worship, a pradak?i?apatha (processional path) was provided both on the me?h? and at ground level by enclosing the monument within a vedika (wooden railing), leaving enough space for walking. The vedika, which, at least in theory, should be a perfect circle, was interrupted by L-shaped entrances at the four cardinal points, creating a cosmological diagram in the form of an auspicious svastika cross. An example of this early type of st?pa is that at Svayambhu Nath near Kathmandu; this st?pa has been worshiped for more than two thousand years.
This basic architectural scheme bears, in its simplicity, an infinite potential for variations dictated by local traditions, materials, and religious trends. Its crucial importance in the development of sacred buildings throughout Buddhist Asia, extending roughly from today's eastern Afghanistan throughout Central, East, and Southeast Asia, cannot be overestimated.
Early P?li texts do not pay much attention to the actual building of a st?pa because its construction, maintenance, and worship were the concern of the laity. Later, however, the building process became the focus of intense metaphysical speculation. Each part of the st?pa, beginning from the terraces at its base, to the number of parasols on the chattravali, became imbued with a profound meaning, variously interpreted by different schools.
Central India: St?pas at S?ñc? and Bh?rhut
The greatest artistic expressions of early Buddhist tradition are the monuments at S?Ñc? and Bh?rhut, in Madhya Pradesh, seats of two of the most important Buddhist communities from the third century b.c.e. Among the oldest surviving st?pas is St?pa II at S?ñc?, which dates from the ?u?ga period (second to first centuries b.c.e.). This simple monument housed the relics of several Buddhist teachers; the relics were enclosed in caskets and buried within the st?pa's solid mass. Of great interest are the interior and exterior surfaces of the stone vedika, obviously a replica of a wooden prototype, embellished with sets of vigorously carved medallions. Especially elaborate are the reliefs on the pillars flanking the L-shaped entrances at the four cardinal points.
Dating from this early period is the now ruined mah?st?pa (great st?pa) discovered by Alexander Cunnigham in 1873 at Bharhut. The conspicuous size of the monument, whose diameter measures more than twenty meters, the care lavished on the decoration of the sandstone vedika, some three meters in height, and the monumental tora?as (entryways) bear witness to the affluence of this commercial town, located on one of the major trade routes of ancient India. Although inscriptions on the vedika and the eastern tora?a proclaim that they were erected during the ?u?ga period (possibly between 100 and 80 b.c.e.), the st?pa is probably earlier in date, because it was customary to add vedikas and tora?as to earlier buildings. The tora?a consists of two upright pillars supporting three architraves spanning the entry to the st?pa complex. The crossbars of the vedika are adorned with medallions displaying floral motifs, human figures, and j?taka scenes. On the vedika's terminal uprights are carved single figures, including standing warriors, equestrian figures, and yak??s clutching a tree. Animals, plants, creepers, geometrical motifs, and scenes from Buddha's life are among the subjects carved on the tora?a. Most of the remains of this railing are now displayed at the Indian Museum in Calcutta and in the Allahabad Museum.
The celebrated S?ñc? St?pa I was built between the third century b.c.e. and the first century c.e., with additions of the fifth century c.e. This imposing monument, measuring 36.6 meters in diameter, rises on top of the hill at S?ñc?. The solid hemisphere is truncated at the top by a harmik? (pedestal supporting the shaft of the umbrella) crowned by a three-tiered stone umbrella and set within a square railing. A circular terrace accessed by two staircases runs along the base of the a??a. At ground level is a stone-paved circumambulation path encircled by a vedika that is interrupted at the four cardinal points by imposing tora?as.
The present st?pa, dating from roughly the second century b.c.e., encases an older one that was built probably a century earlier. Its plain surface contrasts with the wealth of images carved on the vedika. Medallions display floral, animal, and bird motifs, as well as human figures and mythical beings. The balustrade is divided into four sections defined by the L-shaped tora?as, which were erected in the first century c.e. These are similar in design and construction technique to those at Bh?rhut, and they are covered with sculptures, whose liveliness and variety of subject matter are unsurpassed. The most famous scenes illustrate episodes from the j?takas and from the life of the Buddha.
As in the case of the previous monuments, Gautama is never represented in human form, but by emblems, such as an empty throne beneath the bodhi tree, footprints, the triratna (three refuges), and finally the st?pa. Salient events of his life and career have pride of place, such as his birth, the temptation of M?ra, the first sermon at S?rn?th, the conversion of the K??yapa brothers, and the miracles at ?r?vast? and Kapilavastu. Episodes that followed his death (e.g., the fight over the Buddha's relics) have also been illustrated. The predecessors of Gautama, the buddhas of antiquity, have been incorporated in the iconographic program of the four tora?as and are represented either by st?pas or bodhi trees. Apart from scenes related to Gautama's life, there are others depicting everyday life, music, dance, sports, and the like. These three early st?pas, of seminal importance in the formation of early Indian sculpture, exemplify two opposing facets of early Buddhist art: On the one hand, there is the strict adherence to aniconic representation of the Buddha; on the other hand, there is the unstoppable, exuberant flow of narrative. The last addition to S?ñc? St?pa I occurred in the fifth century c.e. when four Buddha images in teaching mudr? were placed against its walls, facing the entrances. Each figure is flanked by attendants.
Western Deccan
An interesting development occurred during the second and first centuries b.c.e., when a number of Buddhist cave complexes were excavated in the Western Ghats (e.g., Bh?j? and Beds?). These consisted of one or more caitya halls, pillared apsidal halls that contained a st?pa, and rock-cut cells, some of which served as accommodation for the monks and nuns. This architectural innovation brought the recluses into closer contact with the st?pa, which had to be included in their daily ritual, and eventually became the focus of worship.
An early example of this type of architecture is the monastic complex at Bh?j? (Maharashtra), which consists of a large caitya hall with a monolithic st?pa and a substantial number of smaller cells. On epigraphical and stylistic grounds, it is probable that the main phase of the works took place between 100 and 70 b.c.e. This is possibly the earliest caitya hall of this region. It is divided into three naves by slightly inward-sloping octagonal columns, thus providing a circumambulatory passage around the st?pa. The light penetrates from the door above, which opens a horseshoe window, one of the many elements that derive from wooden architecture (the horseshoe window is part of the door). This basic model was followed in Buddhist rock-cut architecture of Western India until the seventh century c.e.
Gandh?ra region
Buddhism was introduced in the Bactro-Gandh?ra regions at the time of A?oka. By around 130 b.c.e. the ?akas took control of this area in present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, and at the turn of the common era, the Parthians moved in from Iran. One of the legacies of the ?aka-Parthian domination was the terrace-st?pa. The circular base disappeared, to be replaced by a square terrace whose basement was adorned with classical elements inherited from the Hellenistic world: columns, pilasters, entablatures, and niches. In the first century c.e. the Kushan dynasty established its power over the territory of the ?aka-Parthians, and in the wake of their political influence Buddhism spread, not only throughout their territory, but also to adjacent countries, including Central Asia and China. By this time the Mah?y?na doctrine had introduced a new conception of the Buddha, in which he was seen as the epitome of wisdom, truth, and compassion, and as such, his person was worthy of worship. This led to a crucial artistic development: the almost contemporaneous creation of the Buddha image in the two main cultural centers of the Kushan empire, the Gandh?ra region, and Mathur? (Uttar Pradesh), the southern capital of the empire.
Among the numerous st?pas and monastic establishments built in this period is the second-century terrace-st?pa at Guldara in Afghanistan, a massive construction resting on an imposing square base adorned with pilasters, and a substantial superstructure now ruined. Also from this period is the large monastic establishment at Takht-i-Bahi in Pakistan, whose st?pa is completely destroyed but for its base. Its elongated appearance, however, can be reconstructed by examining smaller st?pas found in the region.
By this time the primordial hemispherical st?pa had developed into a towerlike monument by way of multiplying the layers of the base, elongating the a??a into a domelike cylinder, and stretching the chattravali to a considerable length, either by multiplying the chattras or compressing them into a compact conical spire.
Another innovation was the tower-st?pa, which plays a determinant role in the evolution of the st?pa into the East Asian pagoda. The massive cross-shaped foundations of the famous Kanishka tower-st?pa at Shahji-ki-Dheri, near Peshawar, are still preserved. According to the reports of Chinese pilgrims, this building was characterized by superimposed wooden "stories" with cornices, windows, and niches, as well as a copper mast carrying thirteen copper umbrellas. It was probably from this model that the Chinese pagoda evolved.
The Deccan: Amar?vat? and N?g?rjunako??a
In most of peninsular India and Sri Lanka, the st?pa kept its hemispherical shape and continued to be erected on a circular platform. Among the numerous
Buddhist sites in the eastern Deccan, two are noteworthy: Amar?vat? and N?g?rjunako??a (Andhra Pradesh). The st?pa at Amar?vat? achieved its final form in the second and third centuries c.e. during the ??tav?hana and Ik?v?ku periods. Almost nothing is preserved of this monument, which was the largest in the eastern Deccan, apart from an earthen mound and a surrounding pathway defined by upright slabs. A number of celebrated finely sculpted limestone slabs that have survived depict this lavishly decorated monument with imposing projecting gateways in the four directions. Among the distinctive features of this structure were four votive platforms, each with five pillars, aligned with the four entrances. The surviving uprights, capping pieces, and slabs have been removed from the site and are displayed in various museums; the largest collection is at the Government Museum Chennai (Madras).
During the third century a number of changes were occurring in Buddhist religion and art. These are reflected in the structures at N?g?rjunako??a, the most important Buddhist settlement of the region, set in a valley delimited by the K???? river on the west. In the third and fourth centuries, when N?g?rjunako??a was the capital of the Ik?v?ku rulers, the successors of the ?atav?hanas, a large number of monasteries and st?pas were erected according to the cultic needs of various Buddhist schools, of which at least four were represented there. Here the great innovation is the wheel-shaped plan of the st?pas, demonstrating the transformation of a sacred Buddhist symbol into an architectural design. Each monastic unit consisted of a st?pa, a caitya hall, and a vih?ra (monastic quarters). The residential unit would be generally separated from the st?pa by two caitya halls facing each other, one containing a st?pa and the other a buddha image, thus equating the st?pa with the buddha image. The st?pa and the image of the Buddha eventually coalesced in the fifth century in the Aja??? caves. Although most of the excavated remains at N?g?rjunako??a were submerged under the waters of the N?g?rjuna Sagar, a few monuments were recreated on a hilltop, now an island in the middle of the lake. Limestone panels and friezes once decorating various monuments have been discovered, and together with the carvings found at Amar?vat?, they are the most important remains of the flourishing Buddhist art in the Deccan.
North and eastern India in the fifth to seventh centuries
The aesthetics of the Gandh?ra and the Mathur? schools of Kushan art played a major role in the development of Gupta aesthetics. The Kushan power ebbed at the end of the third century c.e., and by the early fourth century the Gupta dynasty ruled over north and central India. Ancient sites connected with the Buddha, such as Bodh Gay? (Bihar), were refurbished; S?rn?th, near Vara?as? (the old Benares, in Uttar Pradesh), where the Buddha delivered his first sermon, became a major center of Buddhist learning and artistic development. The remains of two large st?pas, whose cores probably date from the A?okan period, as well as of a number of monasteries, are still preserved there.
Another famous center of Buddhist learning was N?land?, near R?jgir (Bihar). Despite its putative links to Gautama Buddha and to A?oka, both of whom are said to have visited this site, no remains predate the fifth century c.e. The St?pa/Temple 3 is the most prominent building at N?land?. This monument underwent various phases of construction. At its core is a small st?pa set on a square base measuring 173 centimeters each side and 137 centimeters in height. It has been suggested that this could be an A?okan st?pa, built on the caitya of ??riputra, the Buddha's disciple renowned for his wisdom. It was further enlarged three more times. However, with the fifth enlargement, in the sixth century, the monument changed appearance and plan. It became a large-sized structure with four lavishly decorated towers at the corners. This monument was renovated twice more in the eleventh and twelfth centuries just before the decline of Buddhism in India.
The st?pa beyond India
The Buddhist doctrine was introduced in Sri Lanka in the third century b.c.e. During the subsequent centuries, a conspicuous number of dagobas or dh?tugopas (relic-preservers) were built. Examples of this local version of the Indian st?pa are found at various sites, such as Anur?dhapura, the ancient capital of Sri Lanka from around the second century b.c.e. to the ninth century c.e. Here are the oldest surviving dagobas, the largest of which is the Abhayagiri dagoba. Its diameter is about 110 meters and its height from the base to the spire about 82 meters. As is the case of the st?pa in India and Nepal, the dagobas of Sri Lanka have richly carved oblong projections at each cardinal point, which were probably thrones for the Dhy?ni buddhas. More recent and smaller in size are the Buddhist remains at Polonnaruva, the capital of Sri Lanka from the ninth to the end of the thirteenth century c.e. The remains at this site are extremely important because these monuments were built at a time when Buddhists had greatly reduced, if not altogether ceased, their building activity in India. Furthermore, the architectural developments at Polonnaruva may constitute the link between the architecture on the Indian subcontinent and architecture overseas.
Buddhism arrived in Burma from important centers on the eastern coast of India, such as Amar?vat? and N?g?rjunako??a, in about the fifth century c.e. Both the mainstream Buddhist schools and Mah?y?na were present at this early date as testified by archaeological evidence from the Pyu city of ?r? K?etra, near Prome. In time, further links with southern India and Sri Lanka, and subsequently with eastern India, were established, which had a seminal influence in the formation of Burmese architecture. The Burmese st?pa, an elegant, bell-shaped construction topped by a conical finial, is raised on a series of terraces or platforms; the most famous example is the great Shwedagon pagoda in Rangoon (ca. fifteenth century).
Mainstream Buddhism was prevalent in Indonesia until the end of the seventh century c.e. By the end of the century, however, the Mah?y?na school had risen in importance and soon became the only form of Buddhism followed there. One of the most significant Buddhist monuments of the world is Borobudur in Java, dated to around 800. Every part of this magnificent building, from its ma??ala-like layout to the tiniest detail of its decorative program, is imbued with a deep symbolic meaning. Here Buddhist doctrine, the structure of the universe, and the mystery of enlightenment are expressed through plan, architectural design, and sculpture.
SeeMonastic Architecture; Relics and Relics Cults
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A. L. Dallapiccola
St?pa
The earliest form of the stūpa (e.g. from the 1st cent. CE, at Sañci, C. India) consisted of a simple base supporting an egg-shaped dome (aṇḍa) which contained the relics, and a spire with three rings—a combination in meaning of the ceremonial parasol and the Three Jewels. The whole was surrounded by railings which circumscribed the stūpa as a sanctified area. From this basic form eight theoretical types were developed of which only two were commonly built. These were the Enlightenment Stūpa, which follows the above description, and the Descending Divinity Stūpa, commemorating the descent of the Buddha to teach his mother (after a Jātaka tale), which has steps leading to a raised walkway around the dome. Mahāyāna variations of these types could have five or seven ‘umbrellas’ to represent stages on the path to Buddhahood, and a multiple base to represent the five elements, thus greatly aligning the stūpa with the maṇḍala as a cosmogrammatic representation. The stūpa continued to evolve outside India, producing the pagoda in E. Asia, and reaching the height of its symbolic richness in the Tibetan chorten.
stupa
Bibliography
Cruickshank (ed.) (1996);
Glauche (1995);
Snodgrass (1985);
Jane Turner (1996)