Sri Lanka

PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-SRI LANKAN RELATIONS
TRAVEL

Compiled from the November 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 65,610 sq. km. (25,332 sq. mi.); about the size of West Virginia.

Cities: Capital—Colombo (pop. est. 1.3 million—urban area). Sri Jayewardenepura-Kotte is the officially designated capital and is the site of Parliament, but it is currently only an administrative center. Other cities—Kandy (150,000), Galle (110,000), Jaffna (100,000).

Terrain: Coastal plains in the northern third of country; hills and mountains in south-central Sri Lanka rise to more than 2,133 meters (7,000 ft.).

Climate: Tropical. Rainy seasons—light in northeast, fall and winter, with average rainfall of 50 in.; heavy in southwest, summer and fall, with average rainfall of 200 in.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Sri Lankan(s).

Population: 20.1 million.

Annual growth rate: 1.1%.

Ethnic groups: (2002) Sinhalese (74%), Tamils (18%), Muslims (7%), others (1%).

Religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity.

Languages: Sinhala and Tamil (official), English.

Education: Years compulsory—to age 14. Primary school attendance—96.5%. Literacy—91%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—14/1,000. Life expectancy—72 yrs. (male); 77 yrs. (female).

Work force: 7.5 million (excluding Northern and Eastern provinces).

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: February 4, 1948.

Constitution: August 31, 1978.

Suffrage: Universal over 18.

Government branches: Executive—president, chief of state and head of government, elected for a 6-year term. Legislative—unicameral 225-member Parliament. Judicial—Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, High Court, subordinate courts.

Political subdivisions: Nine provinces and 25 administrative districts.

Political parties: Janatha Vimuk-thi Peramuna, Jathika Hela Uru-maya, Sri Lanka Freedom Party, Tamil National Alliance, United National Party, several small Tamil and Muslim parties, and others.

Economy (2007 est.)

GDP: $32.4 billion.

Annual growth rate: 6.7%.

Natural resources: Limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gems, and phosphate.

Agriculture: (16.8% of GDP) Major products—rice, tea, rubber, coconut, and spices.

Services: (56.2% of GDP) Major types—tourism, wholesale and retail trade, transport, telecom, financial services.

Industry: (27% of GDP) Major types—garments and leather goods, rubber products, food processing, chemicals, refined petroleum, gems and jewelry, non-metallic mineral-based products, and construction.

Trade: Exports—$7.6 billion: garments, tea, rubber products, jewelry and gems, refined petroleum, and coconuts. Major markets—U.S. ($ 2.1billion), U.K., India Imports—$11.5 billion. Major suppliers—India, Singapore, Hong Kong, China, Iran, Malaysia, Japan, U.K., U.A.E., Belgium, Indonesia, South Korea, U.S. ($210 million).

PEOPLE

The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (formerly known as Ceylon) is an island in the Indian Ocean about 28 kilometers (18 mi.) off the southeastern coast of India with a population of about 19 million. Density is highest in the southwest where Colombo, the country's main port and industrial center, is located. The net population growth is about 1.3%. Sri Lanka is ethnically, linguistically, and religiously diverse. Sinhalese make up 74% of the population and are concentrated in the densely populated southwest. Ceylon Tamils, citizens whose South Indian ancestors have lived on the island for centuries, total about 12% and live predominantly in the north and east.

Indian Tamils, a distinct ethnic group, represent about 5% of the population. The British brought them to Sri Lanka in the 19th century as tea and rubber plantation workers, and they remain concentrated in the "tea country" of south-central Sri Lanka. In accordance with a 1964 agreement with India, Sri Lanka granted citizenship to 230,000 "stateless” Indian Tamils in 1988. Under the pact, India granted citizenship to the remainder, some 200,000 of whom now live in India. Another 75,000 Indian Tamils, who themselves or whose parents once applied for Indian citizenship, chose to remain in Sri Lanka and have since been granted Sri Lankan citizenship.

Other minorities include Muslims (both Moors and Malays), at about 7% of the population; Burghers, who are descendants of European colonists, principally from the Netherlands and the United Kingdom (U.K.); and aboriginal Veddahs. Most Sinhalese are Buddhist; most Tamils are Hindu. The majority of Sri Lanka's Muslims practice Sunni Islam. Sizable minorities of both Sinhalese and Tamils are Christians, most of whom are Roman Catholic. The 1978 constitution, while assuring freedom of religion, grants primacy to Buddhism.

Sinhala, an Indo-European language, is the native tongue of the Sinhalese. Tamils and most Muslims speak Tamil, part of the South Indian Dravidian linguistic group. Use of English has declined since independence, but it continues to be spoken by many in the middle and upper middle classes, particularly in Colombo. The government is seeking to reverse the decline in the use of English, mainly for economic but also for political reasons. Both Sinhala and Tamil are official languages.

HISTORY

The actual origins of the Sinhalese are shrouded in myth. Most believe they came to Sri Lanka from northern India during the 6th century BC. Buddhism arrived from the subcontinent 300 years later and spread rapidly. Buddhism and a sophisticated system of irrigation became the pillars of classical Sinhalese civilization (200 BC-1200 AD) that flourished in the north-central part of the island. Invasions from southern India, combined with internecine strife, pushed Sinhalese kingdoms southward.

The island's contact with the outside world began early. Roman sailors called the island Taprobane. Arab traders knew it as “Serendip,” the root of the word “serendipity” Beginning in 1505, Portuguese traders, in search of cinnamon and other spices, seized the island's coastal areas and spread Catholicism. The Dutch supplanted the Portuguese in 1658. Although the British ejected the Dutch in 1796, Dutch law remains an important part of Sri Lankan jurisprudence. In 1815, the British defeated the king of Kandy, last of the native rulers, and created the Crown Colony of Ceylon. They established a plantation economy based on tea, rubber, and coconuts. In 1931, the British granted Ceylon limited self-rule and a universal franchise. Ceylon became independent on February 4, 1948.

Post-Independence Politics

Sri Lankan politics since independence have been strongly democratic. Two major parties, the United National Party (UNP) and the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), have generally alternated rule.

The UNP ruled first from 1948-56 under three Prime Ministers—D.S. Senanayake, his son Dudley, and Sir John Kotelawala. The SLFP ruled from 1956-65, with a short hiatus in 1960, first under S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike and then, after his assassination in 1959, under his widow, Sirimavo, the world's first female chief executive in modern times. Dudley Senanayake and the UNP returned to power in 1965.

In 1970, Mrs. Bandaranaike again assumed the premiership. A year later, an insurrection by followers of the Maoist “Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna” (JVP, or “People's Liberation Front”) broke out. The SLFP government suppressed the revolt and declared a state of emergency that lasted 6 years.

In 1972, Mrs. Bandaranaike's government introduced a new constitution, which changed the country's name from Ceylon to Sri Lanka, declared it a republic, made protection of Buddhism a constitutional principle, and created a weak president appointed by the prime minister. Its economic policies during this period were highly socialist and included the nationalization of large tea and rubber plantations and other private industries.

The UNP, under J.R. Jayewardene, returned to power in 1977. The Jayewardene government opened the economy and, in 1978, introduced a new constitution based on the French model, a key element of which was the creation of a strong executive presidency. J.R. Jayewardene was elected President by Parliament in 1978 and by nationwide election in 1982. In 1982, a national referendum extended the life of Parliament another 6 years.

The UNP's Ranasinghe Premadasa, Prime Minister in the Jayewardene government, narrowly defeated Mrs. Bandaranaike (SLFP) in the 1988 presidential elections. The UNP also won an absolute majority in the 1989 parliamentary elections. Mr. Prema-dasa was assassinated on May 1, 1993 by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (“LTTE” or “Tigers”), and was replaced by then-Prime Minister Dingiri Banda Wijetunga, who appointed Ranil Wickremesinghe Prime Minister.

The SLFP, the main party in the People's Alliance (PA) coalition, returned to power in 1994 for the first time in 17 years. The PA won a plurality in

the August 1994 parliamentary elections and formed a coalition government with Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga as Prime Minister. Prime Minister Kumaratunga later won the November 1994 presidential elections and appointed her mother (former Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike) to replace her as Prime Minister. President Kumaratunga won re-election to another 6-year term in December 1999. In August 2000, Mrs. Bandaranaike resigned as Prime Minister for health reasons, and Ratnasiri Wickra-manayaka was appointed to take her place. In December 2001, the UNP assumed power, led by Prime Minister Ranil Wickremasinghe. Chandrika Kumaratunga remained as President. In November of 2003, President Kumaratunga suddenly took control of three key ministries, triggering a serious cohabitation crisis.

In January 2004, the SLFP and the JVP formed a political grouping known as the United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA). In February, President Kumaratunga dissolved Parliament and called for fresh elections. In these elections, which took place in April 2004, the UPFA received 45% of the vote, with the UNP receiving 37% of the vote. While it did not win enough seats to command a majority in Parliament, the UPFA was able to form a government and appoint a cabinet headed by Prime Minister Mahinda Rajapaksa. The JVP later broke with the SLFP and left the government, but has often supported it from outside.

Presidential elections were held in November 2005. Mahinda Rajapaksa became President, and Ratnasiri Wickramanayake became Prime Minister. The current government has a majority in the Parliament through a coalition with a number of small minority parties and the backing of 18 dissident UNP members.

Communal Crisis

Historical divisions continue to have an impact on Sri Lankan society and politics. From independence, the Tamil minority has been uneasy with the country's unitary form of government and apprehensive that the Sinhalese majority would abuse Tamil rights. Those fears were reinforced when S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike triumphed in the 1956 elections after appealing to Sinhalese nationalism. His declaration that Sinhala was the country's official language—an act felt by Tamils to be a denigration of their own tongue—was the first in a series of steps over the following decades that appeared discriminatory to Tamils. Tamils also protested government educational policies and agriculture programs that encouraged Sinhalese farmers from the south to move to newly irrigated lands in the east. The decades following 1956 saw intermittent outbreaks of communal violence and growing radicalization among Tamil groups. By the mid-1970s Tamil politicians were moving from support for federalism to a demand for a separate Tamil state—“Tamil Eelam”—in northern and eastern Sri Lanka, areas of traditional Tamil settlement. In the 1977 elections, the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) won all the seats in Tamil areas on a platform of separatism. Other groups—particularly the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE or Tamil Tigers)—sought an independent state by force.

In 1983, the death of 13 Sinhalese soldiers at the hands of the LTTE unleashed the largest outburst of communal violence in the country's history. Hundreds of Tamils were killed in Colombo and elsewhere, tens of thousands were left homeless, and more than 100,000 fled to south India. The north and east became the scene of bloodshed as security forces attempted to suppress the LTTE and other militant groups. Terrorist incidents occurred in Colombo and other cities. Each side in the conflict accused the other of violating human rights. The conflict assumed an international dimension when the Sri Lankan Government accused India of supporting the Tamil insurgents.

In October 1997, the U.S. Government designated the LTTE as a foreign terrorist organization under provisions of the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 and has maintained this designation since then, most recently redesignating the group in October of 2003. The U.S. Government in November 2007 froze the U.S.-held assets of the Tamils Rehabilitation Organisation, a charitable organization associated with the LTTE.

Indian Peacekeeping

By mid-1987, India intervened in the conflict by air-dropping supplies to prevent what it felt was harsh treatment and starvation of the Tamil population in the Jaffna Peninsula caused by an economic blockade by Colombo. Under a July 29, 1987, accord (the Indo-Lanka Accord) signed by Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and President Jayewardene, the Sri Lankan Government made a number of concessions to Tamil demands, which included devolution of power to the provinces, merger—subject to later referendum—of the northern and eastern provinces, and official status for the Tamil language. India agreed to establish order in the north and east with an Indian Peace-Keeping Force (IPKF) and to cease assisting Tamil insurgents. Militant groups, although initially reluctant, agreed to surrender their arms to the IPKF.

Within weeks, however, the LTTE declared its intent to continue its armed struggle for an independent Tamil Eelam and refused to disarm. The IPKF found itself engaged in a bloody police action against the LTTE. Further complicating the return to peace was a burgeoning Sinhalese insurgency in the south. The JVP, relatively quiescent since the 1971 insurrection, began to reassert itself in 1987. Capitalizing on opposition to the Indo-Lankan Accord in the Sinhalese community, the JVP launched an intimidation campaign against supporters of the accord. Numerous UNP and other government supporters were assassinated. The government, relieved of its security burden by the IPKF in the north and east, intensified its efforts in the south. The JVP was crushed but at a high cost in human lives.

From April 1989 through June 1990, the government engaged in direct communications with the LTTE leadership. In the meantime, fighting between the LTTE and the IPKF escalated in the north. India withdrew the last of its forces from Sri Lanka in early 1990, and fighting between the LTTE and the government resumed. Both the LTTE and government forces committed serious human rights violations. In January 1995, the Sri Lankan Government and the LTTE agreed to a cessation of hostilities as a preliminary step in a government-initiated plan for peace negotiations. After 3 months, however, the LTTE unilaterally resumed hostilities. The government then adopted a policy of military engagement with the Tigers, with government forces liberating Jaffna from LTTE control by mid-1996 and moving against LTTE positions in the northern part of the country called the Vanni. An LTTE counteroffensive begun in October 1999 reversed most government gains and by May 2000 threatened government forces in Jaffna. Heavy fighting continued into 2001.

Peace Process and Resumption of Conflict

In December 2001, with the election of a new UNP government, the LTTE and government declared unilateral cease-fires. In February 2002, the Government of Sri Lanka (GSL) and LTTE signed a ceasefire agreement sponsored by peace process facilitator Norway. Peace talks began in Norway in December 2002. The Tigers dropped out of talks in February 2003, however, claiming they were being marginalized. In July 2004, the first suicide bomb since 2001 struck Colombo.

In March 2004, Eastern Tiger commander Karuna broke with the LTTE, going underground with his supporters. In March 2006, the Karuna faction registered a political party, the Tamil People's Liberation Tigers. The LTTE and the Karuna faction have targeted each other in low-level attacks since that time.

Over 30,000 Sri Lankans died in the December 2004 tsunami, and hundreds of thousands of others fled their homes. In June 2005, the GSL and LTTE reached an agreement to share $3 billion in international tsunami aid. However, the agreement was challenged in court and was never implemented. In August 2005, the LTTE assassinated Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar, an ethnic Tamil. Parliament passed a state of emergency regulation that has been renewed every month since then.

During the November 2005 presidential election, the LTTE enforced a voting boycott in areas under its control. As a result, perceived hard-liner Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) Mahinda Rajapaksa won by a narrow margin. Low-level violence between the LTTE and security forces escalated. In December 2005, pro-LTTE Tamil National Alliance MP Joseph Pararajasingham was assassinated within a GSL high security zone in the eastern town of Batticaloa.

In February 2006, exactly four years after the ceasefire agreement was signed, the GSL and LTTE renewed their commitment to the agreement at talks in Geneva. There was a lull in violence until April 2006, when an explosion rocked a Sinhalese market in Trincomalee, followed by limited Sinhalese backlash against Tamils. Several days later, an LTTE suicide bomber attacked the main army compound in Colombo, killing eight soldiers and seriously wounding Army Commander General Fonseka. The government retaliated with air strikes on Tiger targets. In June 2006, an LTTE suicide bomber succeeded in killing Army third-in-command General Kulatunga in a suburb of Colombo.

The European Union banned the LTTE as a terrorist organization on May 30, 2006. In June 2006, GSL and LTTE delegations flew to Oslo to discuss the future of the Scandinavian-led Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission (SLMM). The Tigers refused to sit for talks with the GSL and instead demanded the SLMM remove any monitors from EU-member nations.

Heavy fighting in August 2006, the worst since the 2002 ceasefire, killed hundreds of people and caused tens of thousands to flee their homes when the Tamil Tiger rebels clashed with government forces in the north and east. In September 2006, the government carried out the first major seizure of enemy territory by either side since the 2002 ceasefire when it drove Tamil Tiger rebels from the entrance of the strategic Trincomalee harbor.

In October 2006, the LTTE attacked a Navy bus convoy at a transit point in Habarana, killing 90 sailors, and a few days later, attacked the Sri Lankan Navy Headquarters in Galle, a major tourist destination in the far south. Peace talks in Geneva at the end of October ended with no progress. The LTTE attempted to assassinate the Defense Secretary by bombing his motorcade in December 2006, but he escaped unharmed. Government troops took control of the LTTE's eastern stronghold of Vakarai in January 2007, resulting in thousands more internally displaced persons. In March 2007, the Tamil Tiger rebels launched their first-ever air attack, which targeted the Katunay-ake Air Force base adjacent to Bandaranaike International Airport. By July 2007, however, the government had recaptured the remaining territory held in the Eastern Province from the Tigers. In November 2007, a Sri Lankan Air Force bomb killed LTTE political chief and number two leader, S.P. Tamilchelvan. Also during that month, the LTTE detonated a bomb in a busy Colombo shopping center, killing 17 and wounding many more. Despite the fighting, neither side has formally abrogated the ceasefire.

GOVERNMENT

Under the 1978 constitution, the president of the republic, directly elected for a 6-year term, is chief of state, head of government, and commander in chief of the armed forces. Responsible to Parliament for the exercise of duties under the constitution and laws, the president may be removed from office by a two-thirds vote of Parliament with the concurrence of the Supreme Court.

The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers responsible to Parliament. The president's deputy is the prime minister, who leads the ruling party in Parliament. A parliamentary no-confidence vote requires dissolution of the cabinet and the appointment of a new one by the president.

Parliament is a unicameral 225-member legislature elected by universal suffrage and proportional representation to a 6-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament. Parliament reserves the power to make all laws.

Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, High Court, and a number of subordinate courts. Sri Lanka's legal system reflects diverse cultural influences. Criminal law is fundamentally British. Basic civil law is Roman-Dutch. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.

Under the Indo-Sri Lankan Accord of July 1987 and the 13th amendment to the constitution, the Government of Sri Lanka agreed to devolve significant authority to the provinces. Pro-vincial Councils are directly elected for 5-year terms. The leader of the council majority serves as the province's chief minister; a provincial governor is appointed by the president. The councils possess limited powers in education, health, rural development, social services, agriculture, security, and local taxation. Many of these powers are shared or subject to central government oversight. As a result, the Provincial Councils have never functioned effectively. Devolution proposals under consideration as a means of finding a political solution to the ethnic conflict foresee a strengthening of the Provincial Councils, with greater autonomy from central control. Predating the accord are municipal, urban, and rural councils with limited powers.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Pres.: Mahinda RAJAPAKSA

Prime Min.: Ratnasiri WICKREMANAYAKE

Min. of Agricultural Development & Agrarian Services Development: Maithripala SIRISENA

Min. of Child Development & Women's Empowerment: Sumedha JAYASENA

Min. of Community Development & Social Inequity Eradication: P. CHANDRASEKARAN

Min. of Constitutional Affairs & National Integration: D. E. W. GUNASEKARA

Min. of Construction & Engineering Services: Rajitha SENARATNE

Min. of Cultural Affairs: Mahinda Yapa ABEYWARDENA

Min. of Defense: Mahinda RAJAPAKSA

Min. of Disaster Management & Human Rights: Mahinda SAMARASINGHE

Min. of Education: Susil PREMAJAYANTHA

Min. of Enterprise Development & Investment Promotion: Sarath AMUNUGAMA

Min. of Environment: Champika RANAWAKA

Min. of Export Development & International Trade: G. L. PEIRIS

Min. of Finance & Planning: Mahinda RAJAPAKSA

Min. of Fisheries & Aquatic Resources: Felix PERERA

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Rohitha BOGOLLAGAMA

Min. of Foreign Employment Promotion & Welfare: Kehelilya RAMBUKWELLA

Min. of Heath Care & Nutrition: Nimal Siripala DE SILVA

Min. of Higher Education: Wisva WARNAPALA

Min. of Highways & Road Development: Jeyaraj FERNANDOPULLE

Min. of Housing & Common Amenities: Ferial ASHRAFF

Min. of Indigenous Medicine: Tissa KARALLIYADDE

Min. of Industrial Development: Kumara WELGAMA

Min. of Internal Admin.: Ratnasiri WICKREMANAYAKE

Min. of Irrigation & Water Management: Chamal RAJAPAKSA

Min. of Justice: Amarasiri DODANGODA

Min. of Labor Relations & Manpower: Athauda SENAVIRATNE

Min. of Land & Land Development: Jeewan KUMARATUNGE

Min. of Livestock Development: R. M. C. B. RATNAYAKE

Min. of Local Govt. & Provincial Councils: Janaka Bandara TENNEKOON

Min. of Mass Media & Information: Anura Priyadharshana YAPA

Min. of National Herritage: Anura BANDARANAIKE

Min. of Parliamentary Affairs: M. H. MOHAMED

Min. of Petroleum & Petroleum Resources Development: A. H. M. FOWZIE

Min. of Plan & Implementation: P. DAYARATNE

Min. of Plantation Industries: D. M. JAYARATN

Min. of Ports & Aviation: Chamal RAJAPAKSA

Min. of Posts & Telecommunications: Rauff HAKEEM

Min. of Power & Energy: John SENAVIRATNE

Min. of Public Admin. & Home Affairs: Karu JAYASURIYA

Min. of Public Estate Management & Development: Milroy FERNANDO

Min. of Resettlement & Disaster Relief Service: Abdul Risath BATHIYUTHEEN

Min. of Rural Industries & Self-Employment Promotion: R. M. S. B. NAVINNA

Min. of Science & Technology: Tissa WITARANA

Min. of Social Services & Social Welfare: Douglas DEVANANDA

Min. of Special Projects: Mahinda WIJESEKERA

Min. of Sports & Public Relations: Gamini LOKUGE

Min. of Supplementary Crops Development: Dharmadasa BANDA

Min. of Tourism: Milinda MORAGODA

Min. of Trade, Marketing Development, Cooperatives, & Consumer Affairs: Bandula GUNAWARDENA

Min. of Transport: Dullas ALAHAPPERUMA

Min. of Urban Development & Sacred Area Development: Dinesh GUNAWARDENA

Min. of Vocational & Technical Training: Piyasena GAMAGE

Min. of Water Supply & Drainage: A. L. M. ATHAULLAH

Min. of Youth Affairs: Pavithra WANNIARACHCHI

Min. of Youth Empowerment & Socioeconomic Development: Arumugam THONDAMAN

Governor, Central Bank: Ajith Nivard CABRAAL

Ambassador to the US: Bernard GOONETILLEKE

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Prasad KARIYAWASAM

Sri Lanka maintains an embassy in the United States at 2148 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-483-4025).

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Sri Lanka's two major political parties—the UNP and the SLFP—embrace democratic values, international nonalignment, and encouragement of Sinhalese culture. Past differences between the two on foreign and economic policy have narrowed. The SLFP, however, envisions a broader role for the state in general.

Sri Lanka has a multi-party democracy that enjoys considerable stability despite relatively high levels of political violence. LTTE violence is largely confined to the Northern and Eastern provinces, which are 6 to 8 hours by road from the capital. Before the advent of the peace process, LTTE-perpetrated terrorist bombings directed against politicians and civilian targets were common in Colombo, Kandy, and elsewhere in the country. LTTE terrorist activities have generally been aimed at destabilizing Sri Lanka politically, economically, and socially. LTTE attacks on key political figures include the attempted assassinations of Social Affairs Minister Douglas Devananda in November 2007 and of Secretary of Defense Gothabaya Rajapaksa in December 2006, the assassination of Army General Kulatunga in June 2006, the attempted assassination of Army Commander General Fonseka in April 2006, the assassination of Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar in August 2005, the killing of the Industrial Development Minister by suicide bombing in June 2000, and the December 1999 attempted assassination of President Kumaratunga.

Economic targets included the airport in July 2001, the Colombo World Trade Center in October 1997, and the central bank in January 1996. In January 1998, the LTTE detonated a truck bomb in Kandy, damaging the Temple of the Tooth relic, the holiest Buddhist shrine in the country.

ECONOMY

Sri Lanka is a lower-middle income developing nation with a gross domestic product of about $33 billion. This translates into a per capita income of $1,600. Sri Lanka's 91% literacy rate in local languages, and life expectancy of 72 years rank well above those of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. English language ability is relatively high but has declined significantly since the 1970s.

Sri Lanka's income inequality is severe, with striking differences between rural and urban areas. About a quarter of the country's population of 20.1 million remains impoverished. Civil conflict, falling agricultural labor productivity, lack of income-earning opportunities for the rural population, and poor infrastructure outside the Western Province are impediments to poverty reduction.

In 1978, Sri Lanka shifted away from a socialist orientation and opened its economy to foreign investment. But the pace of reform has been uneven. A period of aggressive economic reform under the UNP-led government that ruled from 2002 to 2004 was followed by a more statist approach under former President Chandrika Kumaratunga and current President Mahinda Rajapaksa.

Despite a brutal civil war since 1983, economic growth has averaged around 4.5%. In 2001, however, GDP growth was negative 1.4%—the only contraction since independence. Growth recovered to 4.0% in 2002. Following the 2002 ceasefire and subsequent economic reforms, the economy grew more rapidly, recording growth rates of 6.0% in 2003 and 5.4% in 2004. The December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami killed 32,000 people, displaced 443,000, and caused an estimated $1 billion in damage. The tsunami's overall economic impact was less severe than originally feared, with the economy growing by 6% in 2005 as the damage was offset by the reconstruction effort. The economic situation in Sri Lanka in 2006 was stable, despite a resumption of hostilities between the government and the LTTE and escalating oil prices. GDP growth in 2006 was a strong 7.4%. GDP grew in the first half of 2007 at an annual rate of 6.2%.

President Rajapaksa's broad economic strategy was outlined in his election manifesto “Mahinda Chin-tana” (Mahinda's Thoughts), which now guides government economic policy. Mahinda Chintana policies focus on poverty alleviation and steering investment to disadvantaged areas; developing the small and medium enterprise (SME) sector; promotion of agriculture; and expanding the already enormous civil service. The Rajapaksa Government rejects the privatization of state enterprises, including “strategic” enterprises such as state-owned banks, airports, and electrical utilities. Instead, it plans to retain ownership and management of these enterprises and make them profitable.

The future of Sri Lanka's economic health primarily depends on political stability, return to peace, and continued policy reforms—particularly in the area of fiscal discipline and budget management. Rising oil costs and the 24-year conflict have contributed to Sri Lanka's high public debt load (90% of GDP in 2007). Sri Lanka needs economic growth rates of 7-8% and investment levels of about 30% of GDP for a sustainable reduction in unemployment and poverty. In the past 10 years, investment levels have averaged around 25% of GDP.

Sri Lanka depends on a continued strong global economy for investment and for expansion of its export base. The government plans an ambitious infrastructure development program to boost growth. It hopes to diversify export products and destinations to make use of the Indo-Lanka and Pakistan-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreements, GSP+ treatment by the European Union and other regional and bilateral preferential trading agreements.

The service sector is the largest component of GDP at around 56%. In 2007, the service sector continued its strong expansion, fueled primarily by strong growth in telecom, trading, transport, and financial services. Public administration and defense expenditures increased in 2007 due to resumption of hostilities, expansion of public sector employment, and the expenses associated with maintaining a 104-minister cabinet. There also is a growing information technology sector, especially information technology training and software development. The tourism sector has been impeded by the volatile security situation.

Industry accounts for 27% of GDP. The textile, apparel, and leather products sector is the largest, accounting for 39% of total industrial output. The second-largest industrial sector, at 22% of total manufacturing output, is food, beverages, and tobacco. The third-largest industrial sector is chemical, petroleum, rubber, and plastic products. The construction sector accounts for 7% of GDP. Mining and quarrying accounts for 2% of GDP.

Agriculture has lost its relative importance to the Sri Lankan economy in recent decades. It employs 33% of the working population, but accounts for only about 17% of GDP. Rice, the staple cereal, is cultivated extensively. The plantation sector consists of tea, rubber, and coconut; in recent years, the tea crop has made significant contributions to export earnings.

Trade and Foreign Assistance

Sri Lanka's exports (mainly apparel, tea, rubber, gems and jewelry) are estimated at $7.6 billion and imports (mainly oil, textiles, food, and machinery) are estimated at $11.5 billion for 2007. The resulting large trade deficit was financed primarily by foreign assistance, commercial borrowing, and by remittances from Sri Lankan expatriate workers. Sri Lanka must diversify its exports beyond garments and tea. Garment exports face increased competition following the 2005 expiration of the worldwide Multifiber Arrangement. The tea industry is challenged by a shortage of plantation labor and by growing competition. Exports to the United States, Sri Lanka's most important market, are estimated to be around $2.1 billion in 2007, or 27% of total exports. For many years, the United States has been Sri Lanka's biggest market for garments, taking almost 60% of total garment exports. India is Sri Lanka's largest supplier, accounting for 21% of imports valued at over $2 billion. United States exports to Sri Lanka are estimated to be around $210 million in 2007, consisting primarily of textiles and specialized fabrics, tobacco, newsprint, food and beverages, chemicals, synthetic rubber-primary, electrical apparatus, telecommunications equipment, computers and accessories, and industrial supplies.

Sri Lanka is highly dependent on foreign assistance, with the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, Japan, and other donors disbursing loans totaling $912 million in 2006. Foreign grants amounted to $301 million in 2006. While implementation of aid projects has been spotty over the years, the government is trying to improve this record by streamlining tender processes and increasing project management skills.

Labor

The unemployment rate has declined in recent years to about 6.3% in 2007. The rate of unemployment among women and high school and college graduates, however, has been proportionally higher than the rate for less-educated workers. The government has embarked on educational reforms it hopes will lead to better preparation of students and better matches between graduates and jobs.

More than 20% of the 7.5 million-strong work force is unionized, but union membership is declining. There are more than 1,650 registered trade unions, many of which have 50 or fewer members, and 19 federations. Many unions have political affiliations. The Ceylon Workers Congress (CWC) and Lanka Jathika estate workers union are the two largest unions, representing workers in plantation sector. The president of the CWC also is Minister of Youth Empowerment and Socio Economic Development. Other strong and influential trade unions include the Ceylon Mercantile Union, Sri Lanka Nidhahas Sevaka Sangamaya, Jathika Sevaka Sangayama, Ceylon Federation of Trade Unions, Ceylon Bank Employees Union, Union of Post and Telecommunication Officers, Conference of Public Sector Independent Trade Unions, and the JVP-aligned Inter-Company Trade Union.

Public sector trade unions have recently resisted Government moves to restructure the state-owned electrical utility board and the petroleum company.

There are 1.5 million Sri Lankan citizens working abroad. A majority are women working as housemaids. Remittances from migrant workers, estimated at around $2.6 billion in 2007, are an important source of foreign exchange for Sri Lanka, second only to earnings from apparel exports.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Sri Lanka traditionally follows a nonaligned foreign policy but has been seeking closer relations with the United States since December 2001. It participates in multilateral diplomacy, particularly at the United Nations, where it seeks to promote sovereignty, independence, and development in the developing world. Sri Lanka was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). It also is a member of the Commonwealth, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM, while also stressing the importance it places on regionalism by playing a strong role in SAARC.

U.S.-SRI LANKAN RELATIONS

The United States enjoys cordial relations with Sri Lanka that are based, in large part, on shared democratic traditions. U.S. policy toward Sri Lanka is characterized by respect for its independence, sovereignty, and moderate nonaligned foreign policy; support for the country's unity, territorial integrity, and democratic institutions; and encouragement of its social and economic development. The United States is a strong supporter of ethnic reconciliation in Sri Lanka and the peace process that began in December 2001.

U.S. assistance has totaled more than $1.63 billion since Sri Lanka's independence in 1948. Through the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), it has contributed to Sri Lanka's economic growth with projects designed to reduce unemployment, improve housing, develop the Colombo Stock Exchange, modernize the judicial system, and improve competitiveness. At the June 2003 Tokyo Donors' Conference on Sri Lanka, the United States pledged $54 million, including $40.4 million of USAID funding. Following the 2004 tsunami, the United States is providing $135 million in relief and reconstruction assistance. In addition, the International Broadcast Bureau (IBB)—formerly Voice of America (VOA)—operates a radio-transmitting station in Sri Lanka. The U.S. Armed Forces maintain a limited military-to-military relationship with the Sri Lanka defense establishment.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

COLOMBO (E)
210, Galle Road, Colombo 3,, 94-11-249-8500,
Fax 94-11-243-7345, Workweek: M-Th:0800-1730,
F:0800-12:00, Website: http://colombo.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

January 22, 2008

Country Description: Sri Lanka is a presidential parliamentary democracy with a developing economy. Civil war and terrorism have seriously disrupted the country since 1983. Over the past several years, incidents of violence have increased. From December 2005 to January 2008 more than 5,000 persons, including combatants and civilians, have been killed in the conflict, in violation of the Ceasefire Agreement the Government of Sri Lanka signed with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in February 2002. On January 2, 2008, the Government of Sri Lanka announced its withdrawal, effective January 16, from the Ceasefire Agreement. Despite the armed insurgency, Sri Lanka's beaches, hill country, and archeological sites continue to attract thousands of visitors each year from around the world. The capital city of Colombo, the Cultural Triangle (Kandy, Anuradhapura, and Polonnaruwa), and many southern beach towns all have good tourist facilities.

The Asian Tsunami on December 26, 2004 caused severe damage and loss of life to several coastal areas of eastern, southern, and southwestern Sri Lanka. Many affected resorts have completely recovered.

Entry Requirements: A passport and onward/return ticket and proof of sufficient funds are required. A no-cost visitor visa, valid for 30 days, will be granted to tourists at the time of entry into Sri Lanka. Business travelers are required to have a visa prior to arrival. Individuals traveling to Sri Lanka for purposes other than tourism (i.e. volunteering or working), will need to obtain an entry visa from the nearest Sri Lankan Embassy or Consulate before your arrival in Sri Lanka. Visitors staying more than 30 days for any purpose must pay residency visa fees.

Travelers need yellow fever and cholera immunizations if they are arriving from an infected area. All travelers departing Sri Lanka (except diplomats and certain exempted travelers) must pay an airport tax, in cash. Sri Lankan law requires all foreign guests in private households to register in person at the nearest local police station.

Individuals who stay in private households without registering may be temporarily detained for questioning. This requirement does not apply to individuals staying in hotels or guesthouses.

Specific inquiries should be addressed to the Embassy of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, 2148 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008, telephone (202) 483-4025 through 26, fax numbers (202) 232-7181, e-mail address: consular@slembassyusa.org, the Sri Lankan Consulate General in Los Angeles at 3250 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1405, Los Angeles, CA 90010, telephone (213) 387-0210, or the U.N. Mission in New York City, telephone (212) 986-7040.

There are several honorary Sri Lankan consuls general and consuls in the United States. They can be located at the Sri Lankan Embassy web site. Visit the Embassy of Sri Lanka web site at http://www.slem-bassyusa.org for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: Due to the outbreak of hostilities in July 2006, the Department of State issued a Travel Warning for Sri Lanka that strongly advises American citizens not to travel to the North and East of Sri Lanka. Several thousand people have been killed since the fighting began, including over 1,000 security personnel. Since 1997, the State Department has included the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) on its list of foreign terrorist organizations. Terrorist activities such as suicide bombings and targeted assassinations in the capital city of Colombo and other areas of the country remain a serious threat. The LTTE have targeted many Tamil moderates, Sri Lankan military and government officials, and the High Commissioner of Pakistan to Sri Lanka. As the conflict continues, the U.S. Embassy expects that targeted assassinations and bombings in the Colombo area will continue. The government's announcement of its withdrawal from the Ceasefire Agreement may increase the risk of such attacks. The Department of State strongly advises against all travel to the North and East of Sri Lanka.

Throughout its history, the LTTE have engaged in numerous terrorist acts, including suicide bombings at political rallies, government buildings, and major economic targets. The group is also suspected in conducting assassinations. Most recently, on January 16, 2008, a terrorist attack against civilians traveling on a bus in Uva Province killed at least 24 people, including many women and children, and more than 60 people were injured. On January 8, 2008 Non-Cabinet Minister D.M. Dassanayake was fatally wounded by a fragmentation mine (claymore) explosion in the vicinity of Ja-Ela, on the main road between Colombo and Sri Lanka's International Airport. The blast claimed two lives and injured more than ten security personnel and civilians. In December 2006, the LTTE attacked the motorcade of Defense Secretary Gotabaya Rajapaksa in downtown Colombo. In August 2005 Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar was assassinated at his residence in Colombo.

Economic facilities have also been impacted by the conflict. In November of 2007, a bomb exploded near a clothing store at Nugegoda Junction, a busy suburb of Colombo, killing at least seventeen and injuring more than thirty civilians. Earlier in the year, Bandaranaike International Airport briefly curtailed operations following an attack by LTTE fixed-wing aircraft on March 26, 2007against the adjacent Katunay-ake Air Force Base in Colombo. Subsequently, on April 29, 2007, LTTE aircraft attacked two oil facilities in the Colombo area. In response to these incidents, the government announced that, beginning May 10, 2007, the Bandaranaike International Airport would be closed from 10:30 p.m. to 4:30 a.m. every day. On July 1, the airport resumed 24-hour operations; however, not all airlines have resumed their flights. Prior to the March 26, 2007 aerial attack, the LTTE attacked the Colombo International Airport in 2001 and destroyed both commercial and military aircraft located at the adjacent military base.

LTTE activity has also taken place in the vicinity of Colombo's harbor and port, including the sinking of LTTE boats by Sri Lankan forces as they attempted to enter Colombo Harbor in February 2007. In June 2006, LTTE frogmen were apprehended north of Colombo, possibly attempting to attack ships in the port of Colombo. In 2003, the LTTE attacked several foreign commercial ships in the waters off the north and east coasts of Sri Lanka. Several military personnel were killed, while both military and airport employees were injured. Civilians were also caught in the crossfire.

Although U.S. citizens have not been specifically targeted, LTTE operations have been planned and executed with the knowledge that Americans and other foreigners might be killed or injured. American citizens traveling or residing in Sri Lanka may be inadvertently caught up in random acts of violence. Travel in restricted areas is dangerous. In the past, the LTTE have detonated bombs near major hotels, a tourist site in Kandy, and have targeted buses and trains. In January 2007, two bombs on public buses outside Colombo killed more than 20 people and injured dozens more. In May 2006, seven people were killed when a jeep carrying Sri Lankan tourists hit a landmine in Wilpattu National Park in the northwest of the country. The park had reopened in 2003, after being closed for 17 years due to the ongoing conflict. In October 2007, the LTTE attacked a Sri Lankan army camp at Thalgasmankada in the Yala Wildlife Sanctuary, killing six soldiers and wounding three others. The incident took place in a tourist area of the wildlife park, but foreigners were not the target of the attack and none were injured. However it highlights the prevailing risk to non-combatants of being in the wrong place at the wrong time. Tourists should be aware that the LTTE have the capability to operate in many national parks located in the North and East of Sri Lanka. Travelers should also be aware that the LTTE have employed vehicle-mounted bombs.

The Department of State strongly advises Americans tourists to stay away from military bases and vehicles in Sri Lanka. In March 2007, the U.S. Ambassador to Sri Lanka sustained a minor injury when a Sri Lankan military helicopter he was traveling in landed at a military base in Batticaloa and came under LTTE mortar fire. The Ambassador was not the specific target of the LTTE attack. In October 2006, the LTTE attacked military targets in Galle and Habarana. On June 6, 2006 a claymore mine exploded 50 meters from the Welisara Sri Lanka Navy (SLN) camp in Ragama, on Colombo-Nego-mbo Road. In April 2006, a female suicide bomber attacked the vehicle of the Commander of the Sri Lankan Army at army headquarters in Colombo, killing several members of his staff and injuring many more bystanders. While these attacks occurred near tourist areas, foreign tourists were not the target of these attacks and none were injured. American citizens should also be alert to outbreaks of communal violence, such as that which occurred in April 2003 when two hand grenades were detonated in tourist hotels in Arugam Bay. Arugam Bay also experienced communal violence in September 2006 following the murder of 10 Muslim youths. There are also reports of increasing ethnic unrest in the Ampara district.

Americans are strongly advised to avoid political rallies and other mass gatherings as well as public transportation, and to limit their exposure to government buildings if possible. Non-Sri Lankan citizens of Tamil heritage have occasionally been detained during security operations. U.S. citizens of any ethnic heritage are encouraged to keep their passports with them at all times. In the event of a terrorist attack, Americans should monitor local radio and television, seek cover away from windows, and return to their homes or hotels when it is safe to do so. In light of the recent LTTE air attacks, Americans are advised to remain in their homes or hotels away from windows during possible air attacks in order to avoid falling shrapnel or bullets. If traveling, individuals should find a safe location in a building as soon as possible. The Government of Sri Lanka has periodically imposed curfews in Colombo; Americans should strictly observe curfew regulations and monitor local radio and television. Travelers in Colombo are often the subject of searches by the police, as security forces increase their vigilance. U.S. citizens should expect frequent delays in travel due to the deteriorating security situation in Sri Lanka. American citizens should comply with instructions from the security forces. Americans are also strongly advised against taking photographs of Sri Lankan military bases, foreign missions in Sri Lanka and government buildings, which could be a violation of the law under current security restrictions in the country.

American citizens are strongly advised not to travel north of a line from Puttalam on the west coast through Anuradhapura in the central north to Polonnaruwa, Bibile, and Pottuvil on the east coast. However, thus far the U.S. Embassy does not perceive any threat to the tourist areas in the Cultural Triangle, including the tourist sites at Polonnaruwa and Dambulla. Areas north of this line contain many land mines, making travel very dangerous. The security forces have bombed several locations in LTTE-controlled areas. Ongoing fighting between government and LTTE forces may pose severe hazards to American citizens traveling in this region. Official travel by U.S. Government personnel to these areas in the North and East is restricted, and unofficial travel is prohibited. Americans should consider their personal security foremost before considering traveling or working in northern or eastern Sri Lanka.

In addition, roads in these areas are often substandard, and police, medical and other emergency help is severely limited or unavailable. Communications within the eastern areas are also limited, with no cell phone accessibility and very limited landline telephone access. The U.S. Embassy may not be able to provide consular services in a timely manner to American citizens who travel to the North and East.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affair's Internet site at http://travel.state.gov, where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution can be found.

Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: While Sri Lanka has a high crime rate, relatively few incidents have been directed against the American community residing in Colombo. Most of the violent crimes occur within the local community and involve people who know each other, although violent crime directed at foreigners is not unheard of. Routine petty crime, especially theft of personal property and pick pocketing, is not uncommon if the traveler does not take appropriate safeguards. Street hustlers or “touts” are common around hotels, shopping centers and tourist sites. Incidents of credit card fraud are increasing, and travelers should consider paying in cash, whenever possible, and should carefully review billing statements to ensure that purchases displayed on the statements are accurate.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. American citizens, who are victims of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, should contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/ Consulate staff can, for example, assist with finding appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can provide information on the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities outside Colombo are limited. The U.S. Embassy maintains a list of private physicians who may be consulted. Medical supplies are uneven; travelers should carry any special medications with them. There are six large hospitals in the Colombo area, including three with emergency trauma service—Asiri Hospital, Apollo Hospital, and the government-run General Hospital. Serious medical problems may require evacuation to the United States or to the nearest country where adequate medical facilities or treatment is available, usually Thailand or Singapore. Neither Thailand nor Singapore requires American citizens to have an entry visa.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's web site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about out-breaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith/en.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Sri Lanka is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Vehicular traffic moves on the left (British style). Traffic in Colombo is very congested. Narrow, two-lane highways, overloaded trucks, dangerously-driven buses and a variety of conveyances on the road, ranging from ox carts, elephants and bicycles to new four-wheel-drive jeeps, make driving a challenge and dangerous. Many visitors hire cars and drivers for long trips through the country. Individuals choosing to hire three-wheeled vehicles should negotiate prices beforehand to avoid confrontations. Visit the web site of Sri Lanka's national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.lanka.net.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Sri Lanka, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Sri Lanka's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Sri Lanka recognizes dual nationality in some cases. For further information, please contact the Sri Lankan Embassy in Washington DC, the Consulate General in Los Angeles, or the U.N. Mission in New York City.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Sri Lanka's laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Sri Lanka are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Sri Lanka are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy through the State Department's travel registration web site so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security within Sri Lanka. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy in Colombo. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency.

The U.S. Embassy in located at 210 Galle Road, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka. The Embassy's telephone number during normal business hours Monday through Friday is (94) (11) 249 8500. The after-hours and emergency telephone number is (94) (11) 249 8888. The Consular Section fax number is (94)-(11)-249 8590. The Embassy's Internet address is http://colombo.usembassy.gov. The Consular Section has a specific email address dedicated to American Citizens Services at ColomboACS@ state.gov. The general email address for the consular section is consularcolombo@state.gov. The Embassy in Colombo also covers the Republic of Maldives.

International Adoption

March 2007

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Important Notes: The Commissioner of Probation and Child Care Services in Colombo, Sri Lanka's capital, has advised the U.S. Embassy that foreign nationals residing in Sri Lanka are not permitted to adopt Sri Lankan children. In addition, foreign citizens may not adopt children under three months old. U.S. citizens interested in adopting from Sri Lanka are strongly encouraged to contact U.S. consular officials in Sri Lanka before formalizing an adoption agreement to ensure that appropriate procedures have been followed that will make it possible for the Embassy to issue a U.S. immigrant visa for the child.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: The government office responsible for adoptions in Sri Lanka is:

Department of Probation and Child
Care Services,
LHP Building, 2nd floor
150/8 Nawala Rd.,
Nugegoda, Sri Lanka.
Telephone No. 94-11-285-3575 or
94-11-2853553 Fax No. 94-11-2852393
Website: usembassy.colombo.gov;
email address:
consularcolombo@state.gov

The Department's hours of operation are from 8.30 a.m. to 4.15 p.m.

Every application for adoption must be in conformity with the provisions of the Adoption of Children's Ordinance (Chapter 61), as amended. The Sri Lankan Department of Probation and Child Care Services may, as needed, amend the adoption procedures.

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: Under Sri Lankan law, adoption by single persons is not permitted. An application for adoption must be made jointly by a husband and wife. Each of the applicants must be over the age of 25 years and not less than 21 years older than the child for whom the application is made. Both husband and wife must be present during the court proceedings unless the court waives personal appearances on the grounds of ill health (supported by a medical practitioner recognized by the U.S. Government). In such cases, a power of attorney will also be necessary.

Residency Requirements: As was noted earlier in this flyer, the Commissioner of Probation and Child Care Services has advised the U.S. Embassy in Colombo that foreign nationals residing in Sri Lanka are not permitted to adopt Sri Lankan children.

Time Frame: The process for adopting a child from Sri Lanka is lengthy. Under Sri Lankan procedures, an application from foreign prospective adoptive parents to adopt a Sri Lankan child must be registered with the Sri Lankan government for at least one year before a child may be matched with that family. This is even before the actual court process or any required travel by the prospective parents to Sri Lanka. Prospective adoptive parents should be prepared to stay for a period of about four weeks for the court procedures to be finalized. Once the child has received a U.S. immigrant visa, the family should be able to depart the country the following day.

Fees: Prospective adoptive parents should abstain from making any payment or giving any reward to any person in consideration of the adoption except such as the Court may sanction. Legal action would be taken against those who commit this offense. The fee a lawyer would charge for an adoption case is approximately about $500 and the court fees will be only $1 (Rs. 100/-). The lawyers' fees could vary from lawyer to lawyer and the court does not have any control over this.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: Foreign prospective adoptive parents are not allowed, on their own, to locate children for adoption. Only the Sri Lankan State Receiving Homes and Voluntary Children's Homes that have been registered with the Department of Probation and Child Care Services for over five years may perform this function. These Homes (also referred to in this flyer as Sri Lankan adoption agencies) must also have specific authorization of the Commissioner of Probation.

Adoption Procedures: The District Court of Colombo and the District Court of Colombo South are empowered to make orders of adoption of Sri Lankan children by persons not resident and domiciled in Sri Lanka. Foreigners who do not reside in Sri Lanka should note and follow the procedures below in order to pursue the adoption of a Sri Lankan child.

• Have a home study conducted in the United States.
• Collect other required documents.
• Send in the application. The application should be in the form of a letter, in duplicate, addressed to the Commissioner of Probation and Child Care Services.
• File I-600A Petition with U.S. Immigration.
• Wait for the “Letter of Allocation” from the Sri Lankan Adoption Agency.
• Make Arrangements to Travel.
• Immediately upon arrival in Sri Lanka, prospective adoptive parents should contact the U.S. Embassy in Colombo to ensure that everything is in order for the processing of an immigrant visa and to obtain additional information on adoption procedures.
• Contact the Social Worker. The Commissioner of Probation & Child Care Services will have assigned a social worker to the case.
• Visit the Child. After the interview, the prospective parents will be issued a letter from the Commissioner authorizing them to see the child at the specified children's home.
• Prospective adoptive parents must engage a Sri Lankan attorney for the legal proceedings. The U.S. Embassy in Colombo has a list of Sri Lankan attorneys who have indicated a willingness to assist U.S. citizens in Sri Lankan legal cases. This list may be found at: http:\\colombo.usembassy.gov. The attorney will petition for the adoption. If all is in accordance with the applicable laws and regulations, the court issues an order of adoption.
• Obtain the Certificate of Adoption.
• Obtain a Sri Lankan Passport for the Adopted Child.
• Apply for and Obtain a U.S. Immigrant Visa for the Child.
• Submit Post-Placement Reports.

Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Embassy of Sri Lanka
2148 Wyoming Ave. N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20008
Tel: 202-483-4026 to 28 Fax: 202-232-7181
Email address: slembassy@clark.net

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adopting parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

U.S. Embassy
210, Galle Road
Colombo 03, Sri Lanka
Tel: 94-1-437345, 436943
Home page:
http://www.usia.gov/posts/srilanka
or www.travel.state.gov

Additional Information: Specific questions regarding adoption in Sri Lanka may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Colombo. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/ OCS/CI, SA-29, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, DC 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747 with specific questions.

Travel Warning

October 19, 2007

This Travel Warning provides updated security information and alerts American citizens traveling to or living in Sri Lanka about the continuing danger of terrorist actions against military, government, and economic targets in certain areas of the country. This supersedes the Travel Warning for Sri Lanka dated April 5, 2007. The Department of State specifically warns Americans against travel to northern and eastern areas of Sri Lanka.

While the government has effectively controlled the eastern part of the country since July 2007, security is not yet assured. Some LTTE members and larger numbers of armed paramilitary members are active in the area, leading to instability and incidents of violence. This situation is likely to continue for some time. Americans are particularly warned against travel to LTTE-controlled areas in the north, which may pose severe hazards.

Official travel by U.S. Government personnel to areas north of a line following the highway from Puttalam through Anuradhapura to Polonar-uwa, Bibile, and Pottuvil in the northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka is restricted, and unofficial travel is prohibited. In March 2007, the U.S. Ambassador to Sri Lanka sustained a minor injury just after a Sri Lankan military helicopter he was traveling in was attacked shortly after landing at a military base in Batticaloa. The Ambassador was not the specific target of the LTTE attack.

The Department also alerts American citizens to the dangers posed by recent acts of terrorism throughout Sri Lanka. Although other parts of the country remain largely unaffected, the LTTE has conducted attacks outside of the northern and eastern areas. On March 26, 2007, the Katunayake Air Force Base in Colombo came under attack from LTTE aircraft, causing the adjacent Bandaranaike International Airport briefly to curtail operations. On April 29, 2007, the LTTE attacked two oil facilities in the Colombo area. On October 15, 2007, the LTTE attacked a Sri Lankan Army camp in Yala National Sanctuary, located in southeastern Sri Lanka. Foreign tourists were not the objects of these attacks and none were injured.

Although there is no specific indication that American citizens or institutions are targets, there is a general risk of American citizens being victims of violence simply by being in the wrong place at the wrong time. Politically-motivated assassinations have taken place throughout Sri Lanka, including several in the Colombo area. In many cases, these assassinations involve the use of fragmentation bombs. American citizens in Sri Lanka should be aware of their personal surroundings and follow good security practices. Americans should avoid large crowds or public gatherings and should particularly stay away from political rallies and military bases in Sri Lanka.

Americans should comply with all instructions from security forces and police when traveling in Sri Lanka. American citizens, including those of Sri Lankan origin, living in Sri Lanka or traveling there for even a few days are strongly urged to register with the Embassy.

Registration will allow the embassy to provide direct information on the security situation as necessary. Registration is done on-line and can be done in advance of travel at https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs. Information on registering can also be found at the Embassy website: http://srilanka.usembassy.gov or at the Department of State's Consular Affairs website: http://travel.state.gov/travel.

As the Department continues to develop information on any potential security threats to U.S. citizens overseas, it shares credible threat information through its consular information documents, available on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov. In addition to information on the Internet, travelers may obtain up-to-date information on security conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll-free in the U.S. and Canada or, outside the U.S. and Canada, on a regular toll line at 1-202-501-4444.

SRI LANKA

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

Major Cities:
Colombo, Kandy

Other Cities:
Anuradhapura, Galle, Jaffna, Matara, Negombo, Ratnapura, Trincomalee

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report for Sri Lanka. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

SRI LANKA has often been described as a tropical paradise. The vegetation of the coastal belt is lush and dramatic, and the mountainous areas of the interior are spectacular. Pleasant sea breezes temper the coast's tropical climate through most of the year; the hills and mountains in the island's center are cool at night. Arab traders of long ago knew the island as Serendib, which is the origin of the word serendipity, reflecting the unexpected pleasures of the land.

Sri Lanka, once known as the British Crown Colony of Ceylon, became independent in 1948, although it remained under dominion status. Its 1972 constitution proclaimed it an independent republic, and changed the country's name. Finally, in 1978, a new constitution officially declared the island the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka.

MAJOR CITIES

Colombo

Colombo, the capital city, lies on a flat coastal plain on the southwestern side of the island. It grew up around the harbor, which has been expanded by a breakwater. The main business section is near the port in what is known as the Fort (the old fort walls no longer remain). The buildings in this area are typically British and Dutch colonial, and the streets are generally congested. Parking is a problem. The Pettah, or traditional bazaar, adjoins the main business area. It consists of narrow, crowded streets and small shops and stalls.

The original Sinhalese name, Kalantotla (meaning Kelani ferry) was corrupted to Kolambu by Arab traders, and was changed to Colombo by the Portuguese.

Main residential sections of the city are south and southeast of the business area and are generally pleasant. Flowering trees line the streets, and old mansions with lovely gardens lend an exotic tropical air. Cinnamon Gardens is a wealthy residential and recreational area.

The country's first free trade zone is near Colombo International Airport, Katunayake. Its success prompted the establishment of additional zones at Biyagama, 15 miles from the capital, and near the southern port of Galle.

Colombo's port is one of the world's largest man-made harbors. It is a popular port of call for passenger ships and has become a major cargo transshipment hub.

The population of Sri Lanka's capital was estimated at 645,000 in 2000.

Colombo is known for its gem cutting and ivory carving. Other industries include food and tobacco processing, metal fabrication, engineering, and the manufacture of chemicals, textiles, glass, cement, leather goods, clothing, jewelry, and furniture. An oil refinery is located nearby.

Historically, Colombo has been known for over two thousand years, in its early days as an open anchorage for oceangoing ships of Greco-Roman, Arab, and Chinese traders. Muslims settled here in the eighth century, and the Portuguese arrived in the 16th century, building a fort to protect their spice trade. The Dutch, also interested in the spice trade, gained control of the city in the 17th century. Colombo passed to the British in 1796, and it became capital of the Crown Colony of Ceylon in 1802. Colombo replaced Galle (Point de Galle) as the country's chief port in the 1880s, becoming a major refueling and supply center for merchant ships on the Europe-Far East route. During World War II, Colombo served as an Allied naval base, and became the capital of independent Ceylon in 1948.

Clothing

Clothing worn in Washington, DC, during the hottest summer weeks is suitable year round in Colombo, although men's office attire is more casual than that in Washington, DC. A short-sleeved shirt, with or without a tie, or a bush suit are most frequently worn by expatriate men here. A sports jacket or suit are suitable for business calls.

For up-country wear, light wool suits, wool slacks, sweaters, and flannel shirts may be needed. In Nuwara Eliya, the privately owned Hill Club requires men to wear jackets and ties to dinner and will provide these items for a small rental fee for those who arrive without.

Locally made shirts, shorts, ties, and socks are generally unsatisfactory, and should be brought from the U.S. Local tailoring of bush shirts, suits, and trousers is good, but fabric is generally not as satisfactory as that available in the U.S.

Women's office attire is the same as that worn in a southern American city during the summer months. As in the U.S., many of the air-conditioned offices can be cool. Women are not expected to wear hosiery at any functions, but this is a matter of personal choice and comfort. Casual clothing for women can be made locally either with imported or local batik material.

Sewing fabrics, with the exception of some batiks and polyesters, are limited. A good supply of wash-and-wear fabric, thread, zippers, buttons, trim, elastic, etc., should be brought from home.

Children's clothing needs are simple but, whenever possible, should be brought or ordered from the U.S. The fit of shoes is a particular problem, except for sandals.

Garment bags are useful for clothing protection. Extreme dampness during the monsoon season can cause clothes and shoes to mildew unless kept in air-conditioned rooms. Lightweight shoes and sandals are particularly desirable here. Sports shoes should be brought from home.

Clothing will not last as long here as in the U.S. The tropical climate and frequent laundering shortens the useful life of most items. Underwear, particularly with elastic, tends to wear out quickly.

Food

A variety of seasonal, fresh tropical fruits and vegetables is available at reasonable prices. Some vegetables are similar to those in temperate climates but may not have a familiar flavor. All raw or unpeeled vegetables and fruits must be soaked in disinfectant to reduce the danger of amoeba or other parasite infestation. Milton, a satisfactory brand-name disinfectant, is sometimes available. Clorox also may be used.

Because the local market is unpredictable, and food quality is not usually up to U.S. standards, most families prefer to have a stock of imported foods and frozen meats on hand, particularly basic cooking items.

Supplies & Services

In general, local dry cleaning is mediocre, although some Colombo hotels offer fairly good service. Because of the limited dry cleaning services and the warm climate, lightweight washable clothing (including men's suits and ties) is preferable.

Dressmakers are available at reasonable fees for making women's and children's clothing and men's shirts. Normally, dressmakers prefer to work in their customers' homes and do not supply their own sewing machines or notions. Shoe repair is done by hand and is adequate and inexpensive. Shoes, particularly sandals, also can be made inexpensively.

In Colombo, many beauticians are familiar with Western styling. European or Australian products are generally used.

Religious Activities

English is spoken in many of the larger Colombo churches: Roman Catholic, Church of Sri Lanka (Episcopalian), Scots (Presbyterian), Baptist, Methodist, Christian Science, Mormon, and Dutch Reformed. No Orthodox churches are available. Sri Lanka has no synagogue. In Kandy, English services are held in Anglican, Roman Catholic, Baptist, and other churches. Most have Sunday school programs. Many churches also have services in Sinhala and Tamil.

Footwear and headgear should be removed before entering Buddhist shrines. Photographing statues of the Buddha is acceptable, but posing beside them is not. Discreet dress in public places is appreciated.

Domestic Help

Most Americans here employ domestic help, usually a combination cook-houseperson, or a cook and a houseperson and a part-time gardener. Total wages for these domestics average about $100-$150 a month. Uniforms and medical bills are added expenses. A nurse-maid (nanny) charges about $60 a month. Occasionally, a driver also is hired (about $50 monthly).

A single person ordinarily would have a combination cook-houseperson and a part-time gardener. Some singles employ sewing nannies and laundry people on a weekly basis at an added cost of $10 to $20 a month.

Education

Younger children of most foreigners resident in Colombo attend the Overseas Childrens School (OCS). At present, the school has an enrollment of over 450, representing more than 40 nations. Americans represent eight to 12% of the student. Originally established to cater to the needs of the British business community, this school has strong Western orientation, with most of the textbooks in the primary and middle school now coming from the United Kingdom and the United States. OCS, offering classes from nursery through 12th grade, has 75 teachers, of whom more than one-third are expatriates, with most being British and American.

The school, which at one time operated on an extremely limited budget, has made remarkable academic and financial strides since 1981. The school is self-funding from fees. In addition, it receives grants from the U.S. State Department's Office of Overseas Schools. It is located on a five-acre campus; more expatriate teachers are being recruited; teacher evaluations and training and curriculum development receive priority attention; and the supply of books, computers, and other teaching aids is expanding. The school is an active member of the Near East/South Asia Council of Overseas Schools and also of the European Council of International Schools and the Association for Advancement of International Education.

Students completing school at OCS can be expected to compete favorably with their peers for entrance into college, with International Baccalaureate (IB) diploma graduates likely to have access to the top colleges. Transfer students are generally not accepted into grade 12 unless they have successfully completed grade 11 in an IB program elsewhere.

The school offers French, Spanish, and Sinhala as the main foreign languages in grades seven through 10, and students are able to follow mother-tongue courses for the IB diploma in grades 11 and 12. OCS also offers an extensive English course as a second-language program for nonnative speakers. OCS follows a two-semester school year starting at the beginning of September and ending in June. Parents should bring as detailed records as possible from their children's previous school (s), and a health record is required at the time of admission. Placement at grade level is based on an internally administered test.

Although the school provides guidance by learning and disability specialists, the physical layout of the campus makes it impossible for the school to accept children whose physical handicaps confine them to a wheel chair. Although the school does not require a specific uniform attire, a dress code exists, and students should look presentable. For physical education, white shorts and a T-shirt (available from the school) are required.

OSC has a good sports program and numerous other extracurricular activities.

Overseas Children's School's address is: Pelawatte, P.O. Box 9, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.

A few American children attend the Colombo International School (CIS), a private British curriculum school with over 800 students. CIS was founded in 1982 and offers classes for students ages two to 18. The teacher student ratio is 1 to 9.

CIS offers the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), and achievement test classes to prepare students for admission to U.S. universities.

Extracurricular activities are an important part of school life, and sports, music, and drama are included in the school program.

The address of the Colombo International School is 28, Gregory's Road, Colombo 7, Sri Lanka.

Universities in Sri Lanka offer courses leading to bachelor's and master's degrees in Buddhism, Oriental studies, arts, science, law, engineering, agriculture, and medicine. Instructions are in Sinhala, Tamil, or English, depending on student demand. Courses are based on the British university system, which concentrates on a major subject and allows few outside studies. Although foreigners are officially welcomed, few if any Americans have attended in recent years.

Recreation

Colombo is the only large city in Sri Lanka. Bombay and Madras, the closest large cities abroad, are about one to two hours away by air. New Delhi can be reached by air via Madras or Bombay. Plane service is not available directly between Colombo and New Delhi. The Maldive Islands are easily accessible by air and offer many resorts.

Sri Lanka has many interesting places for weekend outings or longer holiday trips. The principal spots in the hill country are Kandy, about 70 miles away (two-and-a-half hours by car, altitude 1,674 feet); Nuwara Eliya, about 110 miles away (five hours by car, altitude 6,185 feet); and Bandarawela, about 125 miles away (five hours by car, altitude 4,017 feet).

The Cultural Triangle of Sri Lanka's ancient cities is well worth seeing. Sigiriya (three-and-a-half hours from Colombo by car) is a rock fortress with famous frescoes. Sightseers also will enjoy the ancient ruins at Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa (five to six hours by car) and the Yala and Wilpatu wild-life sanctuaries (seven and three hours respectively, by car).

Perhaps the most awesome and forbidding region of Sri Lanka is Horton Plains, hard to reach but well worth the effort. Located about an hour's drive from Nuwara Eliya, Horton Plains is part of the Peak Wilderness Sanctuary. One of the major attractions here is World's End, considered by many the finest view in all of Sri Lanka. For those who enjoy trout fishing and hiking, this is the place. Also, the Sinharaja Forest is one of the few tropical rain forests left in the world.

Hotel accommodations at tourist destinations outside Colombo are excellent. The government operates a large number of rest houses and, in certain areas (notably Nuwara Eliya, Horton Plains, and the game parks), bungalows are available for rent. The rest houses vary widely in quality; all are reasonably priced.

The Colombo Zoological Gardens has a fine and large collection of animals, birds, and reptiles housed in a beautiful setting. A special feature of the zoo is an exhibition of trained elephants every evening.

Sri Lanka has beaches on both east and west coasts; but the east coast beaches may not be accessible due to ethnic conflict. Swimming is unsafe at certain times of the year because of the strong currents generated by the monsoons. Scuba diving is good during the season. The most popular beaches on the west coast, which are safe from about November to May, are Mt. Lavinia (20 minutes from the city) and Bentota (about a one-hour drive). Hikkaduwa, near Bentota, features a coral garden.

Sports commonly found in other tropical areas are also found in Sri Lanka. The most popular sports available to foreign residents are tennis, golf, and swimming. Others are snorkeling, scuba diving, soccer, cricket, rugby, badminton, squash, fishing, and sailing. Instruction in karate is also available. Many of the sports require club membership.

Some of the clubs open to membership are the Royal Colombo Golf Club, Nuwara Eliya Golf Club (rated among the best in South Asia, in the mountains at 6,200 feet), Royal Colombo Yacht Club, Colombo Rowing Club, Otter Aquatic Club, Colombo Motor Yacht Club, Gymkana Club, and the Colombo Swimming Club. In addition, the hotels offer yearly pool memberships. The Galle Face Hotel has a saltwater pool, and the Intercontinental, Lanka Oberoi, Hilton, Ramada Renaissance, and the Taj Samudra offer memberships in their sport centers.

Entertainment

A few movie theaters show Western movies, but most films are Indian or Sinhalese. Amateur dramatic groups and symphony, chamber, and choral groups give regular performances. Occasionally, entertainers from foreign countries (including the U.S.) also perform. Indian movie and dance concerts are fairly frequent.

Colombo has a few nightclubs, a range of restaurants serving ethnic foods (Italian, Chinese, French, Korean, German, Japanese, and Indian), and several hotels. Menu selection, culinary expertise, and musical entertainment are limited. Both Eastern and Western menus are available at major hotels.

The American Women's Association conducts charitable and social activities, and introduces new arrivals to other Americans and to local customs and shopping. All resident American women may join the association. Branches of the YMCA, YWCA, and the Salvation Army are also active. Some American women join the International Women's Club, which has tennis courts as well as social activities.

The national tourist agency—Ceylon Tourist Board—is located at 78, Steuart Place, P.O. Box 1504, Colombo 3.

Kandy

Kandy is the capital of the hill country. It is 1,674 feet above sea level, and 72 miles from Colombo. The average temperature here is 77°F, with pleasantly warm days and cool nights. Kandy is a mountain resort and the market center for an area producing tea, rubber, rice and cacao. The main part of the city overlooks a scenic artificial lake built by Kandy's last king in 1806.

Kandy is noted for local handicrafts such as reed and lacquer work and silver and brassware. The population here is over 100,000.

Clothing

Although Kandy is cooler than Colombo, the same type of clothing is generally appropriate for both. A sweater may be necessary in the evening, especially in December and January. Ready-made clothing, except for batiks, is not readily available in Kandy. Tailoring is good, but some fabrics are available.

Food

Staples are generally available here. The local beef is quite good. Chicken, ham, pork, and bacon—available at Cargills, Elephant House, and almost all grocery stores—are also good. The imported food generally is expensive.

Supplies & Services

Some foreign and local toiletries, cosmetics, perfumes, etc., are available. A limited supply of medicines can be found at Cargills and at Lanka Medicals. Shoes, as well as most mechanical and electrical items, can be repaired. Beauty shops and dry cleaning facilities offer adequate services. Domestic help is available and is well trained. Salaries for domestic help are generally lower than in Colombo.

Kandy has a general hospital, seldom used by Americans, and the Lakeside Medical Center (a Seventh Day Adventist institution), which has acceptable facilities. Local specialists may be called in for consultation at the center or seen at the Channeled Practice Services, a facility permitting government physicians to have private patients. The Japanese have built and equipped a teaching hospital on the campus of the School of Medicine at Peradeniya. This provides additional services and facilities. For major medical and hospitalization problems, facilities are better in Colombo.

Recreation

The Temple of the Tooth, visited by Buddhist pilgrims from all over the world, is in Kandy. The sacred tooth relic of the Buddha is said to have been brought to Sri Lanka early in the fourth century, hidden in the hair of an Indian princess. The temple, which is Sri Lanka's holiest Buddhist shrine, was bombed in early 1998. The government accused the Tamil Tigers of committing the bombing.

Kandy, the island's chief city in medieval times, was the final stronghold of the Sinhala kings and the last place to fall under foreign rule. Things to see include the kings' audience hall, the four devales (temples), the artificial lake constructed by Sri Wickrema Rajasinghe (last king of Kandy) in 1806, the elephants' bathing place in Katugastota, the botanical gardens and university at Peradeniya, and the Kandyan Art Association.

The most spectacular religious festival, the Esala Perahera, generally takes place in July or August, depending on the astrologically auspicious moment, and ends on the day following the night of the full moon. By the last night, as many as 80 to 100 elephants, caparisoned in velvet, satin, and silk with silver ornaments, move in the procession. Chief of all elephants is the Maligawa (district where Kandy is located) tusker, bearing a replica of the casket which holds the sacred tooth relic. Temples in the Kandy area are Lankatilaka Vihare, Gadalendeniya Vihare, Galmadawa Vihare, and Degalkoruwa Vihare.

In Kandy, active sports may be enjoyed either at the Garden Club, which has tennis courts, or at the Hotel Suisse, which opens its pool and tennis courts to membership by monthly subscription and entrance fee. Newer hotels, e.g., Citadel, Mahaweli Reach, and Topaz, also have similar pool facilities. Nuwara Eliya, 48 miles (three hours) from Kandy, in Sri Lanka's beautiful tea country at an elevation of 6,000 feet, has an 18-hole golf course. Rugby, soccer, and cricket matches are held in season.

Occasionally, English-language movies are shown in Kandy cinemas. French movies with English subtitles can be seen at the Kandy branch of Alliance Française. Classic American movies, shown periodically at the Kandy American Center, are open to a limited number of Americans. Occasionally, movies also are shown at the British Council Library.

Concerts by local or foreign artists, sponsored by various Kandy organizations, are scheduled about every two months. A local dance band plays on alternate nights at two Kandy hotels. The Kandy Lake Club is a gambling casino.

There are a few nice picnic spots near the city, particularly the Victoria Dam area. Mountains, beaches, and wildlife parks are from three to seven hours from Kandy by car.

OTHER CITIES

Situated 106 miles northeast of Colombo, ANURADHAPURA is near the Aruvi River. The city was founded in 437 B.C. and was the capital of the ancient Sinhalese kings of Ceylon for four centuries. Today, it is one of the world's leading Buddhist centers. An ancient pipal tree here is thought to have grown from a piece of the Bo Tree at Buddh Gaya (in India), under which Guatama Buddha attained enlightenment. Interesting sites include a palace, ruins of a rock-hewn temple, large stupas, and other relics.

GALLE (formerly Point de Galle) is located at the extreme southern end of Sri Lanka on the Indian Ocean. With a population of over 168,000, Galle is an agricultural market center, exporting tea, rubber, coconut oil, cloves, and other products from the surrounding region. Known as early as 100 B.C. as a trade center for the Chinese and Arabs, Galle became important under Portuguese rule, 1057-1640, when it was the island's chief port. Under the Dutch, it was the capital of Ceylon from 1640 to 1656. The Dutch built a fort here to guard the harbor and it still stands today. The city came under British rule in 1796, and its commercial importance continued until the Suez Canal was opened in 1869. It further declined when the British built the modern harbor at Colombo in 1885.

JAFFNA is situated on a peninsula in the northernmost part of Sri Lanka. Separated from India by the Palk Strait, Jaffna and the peninsula are densely populated. There are approximately 130,000 inhabitants here, most of whom are Tamil-speaking people. Tobacco, rice, coconuts, palmyra palm, and vegetables are grown in the region, and fishing is an important occupation. Industries include those for salt, cement, chemical, and tobacco production, as well as textile weaving and gold filigree work. Elephants, peppers, and other commodities are traded. Remains of the ancient Tamil culture, as well as traditions from the Portuguese and Dutch occupations in the 17th and 18th centuries, are found here.

Located in southern Sri Lanka, on the Indian Ocean, MATARA is 24 miles east of Galle. It has a population of more than 125,000. Matara is centered in a region rich with coconut palms and cinnamon trees. An old Portuguese fort is among the sites located here.

NEGOMBO , with a population of over 120,000, is located on the west coast of Sri Lanka at the mouth of the Negombo Lagoon, just north of Colombo. The city is a fishing center and a market for coconut products and cinnamon; handicrafts include ceramics and brassware. Many 17th-century Dutch buildings still stand in Negombo. Sri Lanka's international airport is located just outside the city.

Situated in southwest-central Sri Lanka, RATNAPURA is 42 miles southeast of Colombo. It is the center of the precious-stone industry. The Buddhist temple, Maha Saman Dewale, is nearby. Ratnapura has a population of over 40,000.

TRINCOMALEE is situated on Sri Lanka's east coast, on the Bay of Bengal. With a population exceeding 52,000, Trincomalee has one of the world's finest natural harbors. Exports traded here include tea, hides, and dried fish. A railroad terminus and an important road junction, Trincomalee (sometimes written Trinkomali) is also known for its coconut and rice plantations, and some pearl fishing. Early Tamil settlers from south India built the Hindu Temple of a Thousand Columns in Trincomalee, but it was destroyed by the Portuguese in 1622. On its site, the Dutch built Fort Frederick in 1676. Captured by the British in 1795, the city was British naval headquarters in the Pacific theater during World War II. U.S. planes used its airfield for operations against the Japanese in Burma and Malaya (now part of Federation of Malaysia).

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

Sri Lanka is a pear-shaped island in the Indian Ocean—18 miles from India at its closest point. The country, roughly the size of West Virginia, is 270 miles long and 140 miles wide at its extremities, and comprises 25,332 square miles. It lies in the tropical zone between 5° and 9°N and between 79° and 82°S.

Sri Lanka has many spots of scenic beauty and historic interest. Topographically, the island consists of two main sections: the mountainous south-central region which rises to more than 8,200 feet above sea level, and the low-lying northern, eastern, and southwestern coastal plains. Dense vegetation covers a large part of Sri Lanka, particularly the southern and western coasts. Rubber and coconut trees grow in the midlands and lowlands, and there are vast tea estates in the highlands.

Sri Lanka has a varied effect on Westerners who remain on the island a considerable time without a break. People who like hot weather and are active in sports usually enjoy themselves and keep physically fit and mentally alert. Those accustomed to seasonal changes find the tropical climate monotonous and enervating. The climate, except in the mountains, is hot and humid. In Colombo, the capital, temperatures rarely rise above 90°F or drop below 70°F. Humidity is always high, often in the 90s. In the mountainous districts, the average temperature is about 60°F during the day but, at night, it cools off rapidly, sometimes dropping to near freezing in places like Nuwara Eliya (at an altitude of 6,200 feet).

The monsoons produce two main rainy seasons. The southwest monsoon lasts roughly from mid-May into early fall. During this period the southwestern part of the island, including Colombo, receives much of its average annual rainfall of 100 inches. The northeast monsoon lasts from about October or November through February. The northern and eastern parts of the island receive virtually all of their average annual rainfall of 60 inches at this time.

Monsoon showers range from gentle to torrential in the Colombo area. December through March are usually the driest months. Because of the massive Mahaweli hydroelectric and irrigation scheme, water shortages and interruptions of electricity during the dry months are less frequent than in the past.

Colombo's climate compares to the hot, humid summers in Washington, DC. Even during the cooler period (December and January), most Americans depend on electric fans or air-conditioning to keep comfortable.

Population

The population of Sri Lanka is 19.4 million (2000 est.) and, although it has more than doubled over the past 30 years, the overall growth rate is slowing. Currently it stands at.87%; this is somewhat understated since it takes into account outward migration to the Middle East.

Ethnically, 74% of the population is Sinhalese and speaks Sinhala, the national language; 18% is Tamil (people of South Indian origin) and speaks Tamil, an official language since 1978. About 70% of the Tamils are "Ceylon Tamils"—citizens whose ancestors have lived in Sri Lanka for many generations and who have full voting rights. Most live in the northern and eastern provinces, but many Ceylon Tamils live in Colombo and throughout the island. The other 30% of the Tamil population are the so-called "Indian Tamils," whose ancestors were brought from South India in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to work on tea and rubber plantations. Most were disenfranchised in Sri Lanka by legislation passed in 1948. Because India also refused to recognize them as citizens, the Indian Tamils were considered stateless.

A 1964 agreement with India provided for repatriation of many to India and the granting of Sri Lankan citizenship to others on a 60-40 ratio. In 1988, Sri Lankan citizenship was extended to 230,000 stateless Indian Tamils.

Other minority groups include Sri Lankan Muslims (including both Moors and Malays and totaling 7% of the population) and Eurasians. Most Sinhalese are Buddhists, most Tamils are Hindu, and Moors and Malays are Muslims. Christians constitute 8% of the population, most of whom are Roman Catholic. Christians can be found in both the Sinhalese and Tamil communities.

Racial tension between the Sinhalese and Tamil communities erupted into violence in 1983 and continued in varying degrees of intensity until 1995, when the government and Tamil rebels announced a cease-fire. The peace only lasted a few months, however, before Tamil rebels renewed their attacks on government installations. Since 1983, over 51,000 people have been killed, and more than 300,000 Tamils have fled the island.

Government

The 450-year foreign presence on the island (Portuguese, Dutch, and British) has influenced Sri Lanka's government, jurisprudence, and administration. Sri Lanka became independent in 1948 after being a British colony for over 100 years. It initially opted for dominion status in the Commonwealth, like nearby India and Pakistan. But, unlike India and Pakistan, it retained dominion status only until 1972 when the island was formally proclaimed a democratic republic and a unitary state with the office of governor-general converting to a ceremonial presidency. During that period, real power was vested in Parliament and in a prime minister under the British pattern. The 1972 constitution proclaimed Sinhala the official language (with some provision for the use of Tamil) and Buddhism the foremost religion (with religious freedom guaranteed to all).

Following the overwhelming 1977 electoral victory of the United National Party (UNP), a decision was made to revamp the constitutional system more along continental than British lines. The result was the 1978 constitution which established an executive (and active) presidency, abolished the upper house of legislature, and established a system of proportional representation as the basis for future parliamentary elections. The constitution also elevated Tamil to the status of an official national language.

An executive president, elected for a six-year term, serves as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, chief of state, and head of government. The position is based largely on the French model. The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers who are responsible to a 225-seat unicameral legislature. The president's chief lieutenant is the prime minister, who is the leader of the ruling party in Parliament.

Communal tension in Sri Lanka has remained high since July 1983, when the worst communal violence in the country's post-independence history occurred. Following the killing of 13 members of an army patrol (all Sinhalese) by Tamil terrorists fighting for a separate Tamil state in the north and east, Sinhalese mobs took to the streets of Colombo and then throughout Sinhalese-majority areas, attacking Tamils and their property. Hundreds of Tamils were killed in the ensuing violence and tens of thousands were left homeless, as mobs attacked Tamils and their property throughout much of the island. The riots led to a burgeoning of Tamil militant groups in the north and east and to continued military and political confrontation between the Sri Lankan Government and the Tamil militants.

By mid-1987, the situation had reached an impasse. The government's policy of pressing the insurgents militarily, although attempting to negotiate with Tamil moderates, had not succeeded. In an attempt to break the deadlock, Sri Lanka brought India directly into its communal dispute. Under a July 29, 1987, accord signed by the President and the Indian Prime Minister, Sri Lanka made many concessions to Tamil demands, including devolution of some powers to the provinces, merger (subject to later referendum) of northern and eastern provinces, and official status for the Tamil language. India agreed to establish order in the north and east and to cease assisting Tamil insurgents.

A key element of the accord soon fell apart. The major Tamil militant group, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), within weeks declared its intent to continue its armed struggle for an independent Tamil Eelam. The 50,000-strong Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) found itself engaged in a bloody police action against the LLTE. After two-and-a-half years of conflict between the IPKF and LLTE, with over 1,000 deaths on each side, the situation had not completely resolved. By late 1989, the Indian troops were being withdrawn, but the army and LLTE continued to have confrontations.

In 1995 a cease-fire between the Tamil rebels and the Sri Lankan government was announced, with government promises to send an $816-million aid package to the northern part of the island. The peace process fell apart after a few months, when additional demands by the rebels went unfulfilled. After Tamil terrorists attacked two gun-boats and an army base, the government went on the offensive by blockading the Tamil stronghold of Jaffna and attacking rebel positions. By the end of 1996 the death toll from almost 15 years of civil war had surpassed 50,000.

Presidential elections were held in December 1988 and Ranasinghe Premadasa won with just over 50% of the votes cast in an election marked by considerable violence instigated mostly by the radical revolutionary Janatha Viimukthi Peramuna (JVP). Despite JVP violence, a parliamentary general election was held in February 1989. President Premadasa's United National Party won 125 of the 225 seats in Parliament in the first national election held under the system of proportional representation, which had been established by the 1978 constitution.

The JVP began asserting itself in mid-1987, capitalizing on opposition in the Sinhala community to the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, it launched an intimidation campaign. Using terrorist tactics, including assassinations, strikes, and other weapons of intimidation, it brought the country to a virtual standstill several times in 1988 and 1989. Several thousand people died in JVP-instigated violence and much property, particularly government-owned property, was destroyed. The deaths included government officials, members of political parties who supported the Accord, and innocent civilians. The government fought back, killing another several thousand people suspected to be JVP party members, supporters, or their families. In late 1989, the JVP party leaders had virtually all been killed or arrested, and the JVP threat appeared to have failed.

On May 1, 1993, President Premadasa was killed in a May Day Parade bombing. Prime Minister Wijetunga succeeded him, and called for early elections in August 1994. Voters, however, chose a leftist coalition led by the Sri Lanka Freedom Party. Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga became president. She was reelected in 1999.

Sri Lanka's legal system reflects the interplay of cultural influences. The criminal law is fundamentally of British origin. The basic system of civil law, a legacy of the Dutch, is Roman-Dutch; but personal law (marriage, divorce, inheritance, etc.) is unique to each ethnic community. Thus Hindus, Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists have their own family codes. The judiciary is based on the British model.

Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court which is also authorized to give advisory opinions, a Court of Appeals, a High Court, and a number of subordinate courts. The Supreme Court, composed of a chief justice and six to 10 associate justices, has original jurisdiction on all constitutional matters, as well as on such other matters as election petitions, breach of parliamentary privilege, protection of fundamental rights, and other matters over which Parliament has legislative power.

The Sri Lanka Administrative Service is a direct descendent of the highly regarded colonial Ceylon Civil Service. Each ministry has a secretary, usually a career civil servant, who provides continuity as ministers and governments change. The country is divided into 25 districts, each headed by a government agent (GA) responsible for regional government activities. In colonial days, the GA was virtually overlord of a district; today, democracy has brought an increased concern for mass public opinion and socially responsive administration. An innovation of the government elected in 1977 was the introduction of a system of district ministers, senior members of Parliament usually not from the district, who oversee development efforts in the region.

Sri Lanka is a member of the United Nations, World Health Organization (WHO), and United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), as well as the following international bodies: Asian Development Bank, Colombo Plan, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Group of 77, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), Nonaligned Movement, World Bank, and World Tourism Organization. The Sri Lankan capital is the home of the international headquarters of the Colombo Plan, a program to aid the economic development of Asian nations, which was launched at a conference in Colombo in 1950. The address is 12 Melbourne Avenue, P.O. Box 596, Colombo.

Sri Lanka maintains diplomatic relations abroad in over 30 foreign countries, including Iraq, the People's Republic of China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Philippines, Germany, Kenya, India, and the United States. There are over 30 foreign embassies in Colombo, including those of Australia, Canada, Cuba, Egypt, France, Germany, the Holy See, Japan, the Maldives, Myanmar, the Netherlands, Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United States.

The outer two-thirds of the flag of Sri Lanka has a dark red background with a gold lion, sword, and bo leaves (from the former Kingdom of Kandy). The inner third of the flag has vertical green and saffron bands (for the Muslims and Tamils). The flag is bordered and divided in gold.

Arts, Science, Education

Sri Lanka's artistic and intellectual life is lively in some areas. There are eight universities, one open university, and two university colleges; both arts and sciences are taught. Facilities include four medical schools. The Institute of Aesthetic Studies is a department of the University of Kelaniya, near Colombo. Instruction includes art, crafts, music, and dance.

The Ministry of Education operates 21 teacher training colleges; of these, four train instructors to teach English as a second language and 17 cover other areas. The Ministry of Higher Education directs 13 polytechnics and eight junior technical institutes. Curricula and direction at all educational levels are increasingly related to Sri Lanka's development.

The Natural Resources, Energy, and Science Authority, established in 1968 as the National Science Council, implements central government science policies. The Sri Lanka Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (CISIR) is an autonomous, non-profit, industrial research institute, established by the government in 1955.

The Tea Research Institute established in 1925, the Rubber Research Institute (1910), and the Coconut Research Institute (1971) are all government non-profit organizations.

Private schools teach Eastern and Western dance and music. The country has several theaters, a major museum, and many specialized societies. Few art galleries exist, but interest is active in painting, batik, jewelry, sculpture, and indigenous handicrafts. A national dance troupe performs, and interest in a national theater, and national culture in general, is strong.

An active and healthy interest also flourishes in Western music, art, and drama. English-language plays are performed by a few amateur groups in Colombo, and drama groups welcome foreign members. Concerts of Eastern and Western music also are given occasionally, and Colombo has an amateur symphony orchestra; many foreigners have joined this latter group. Visiting artists regularly perform with the orchestra or give solo performances.

Commerce and Industry

Compared with the many developing countries in the region, Sri Lanka's economic potential is high. The island has rich agricultural and mineral resources and is surrounded by a bountiful sea. Population pressures are less severe than in neighboring areas, and the per capita gross domestic product (GDP) is about $$3,500 (2000 est.).

Agriculture accounts for about 21% of the GDP and employs about 38% of the population. Tea, rubber, and coconuts are the principal crops and the source of about 50% of export earnings. Rice is the major domestic food grain crop; improved seeds and yields have significantly reduced the need for rice imports.

Industrial production has grown substantially in recent years and now accounts for about 20% of the GDP. Garments, many of which are assembled in the free trade zone located just outside Colombo, account for most of Sri Lanka's exports of manufactured goods. Roughly 75% of the apparel exported is sent to the U.S. Other industrial exports include refined petroleum products and precious and semi-precious gems.

Services (i.e., transportation and tourism) and remittances from Sri Lankans working abroad are of increasing importance to the economy. Colombo's efficient port has become a major cargo transshipment hub and a significant foreign exchange earner. Tourism, which has been hurt by the security situation, remains an important source of employment and one of the best hopes for future economic growth.

The United National Party government has undertaken to reverse many basic economic policies followed by all previous governments since independence. Most significantly, the government has reduced its rice subsidy program and is placing greater reliance on the private sector in promoting economic development. The country relies on considerable international assistance from both multilateral and bilateral aid donors. Increased foreign investment, the huge Mahaweli irrigation development scheme now beginning to yield results, the successful free trade zones, and the growth of the tourist industry, have helped to reduce the country's serious unemployment problem. However, the economy has suffered in recent years due to the continuing ethnic conflict and political instability.

Sri Lanka has chronic, current account and government budget deficits. Foreign aid has helped to cover these gaps somewhat, but foreign borrowing also has been significant. External debt is estimated at about $9.9 billion (2000 est.).

Import liberalization, part of the 1977-78 economic reforms, eliminated the scarcities and black-market activities which once plagued the island. The government's economic priorities are now to bring prices under better control, diversify and expand exports, increase national savings, and maintain the quality of life of its people. Although shortages of basic food items no longer occur, imported products on the local market are often expensive.

The address of the National Chamber of Commerce of Sri Lanka is P.O. Box 1375, Second Floor, YMBA Building, Colombo, Sri Lanka. The Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry of Sri Lanka is located at the People's Bank Bldg., 220 Deans Rd., Colombo 10.

Transportation

Air Lanka offers domestic service. Charter planes and helicopters are also available. The railway system, also a government enterprise, provides a reasonably satisfactory means of reaching a few points of interest on the island. First-class travel, although somewhat rigorous, should be used whenever possible; second-class accommodations frequently are the best available. The government-owned bus system, which is overcrowded and poorly maintained, normally is not used by foreign residents. Private buses offer little improvement.

Rental vehicles with a driver, although relatively expensive, may be engaged for excursion trips. Satisfactory and inexpensive three-and four-wheeled metered taxi service is available in Colombo.

Despite such problems as heavy traffic (bicycles, bullock carts, other vehicles, and pedestrians), lack of spare parts, and indifferent servicing, most resident Americans rely on automobiles for transportation within and outside Colombo. Sri Lankan roads are generally narrow and inadequately maintained. The island has an extensive network of paved surfaces.

Small, right-hand-drive cars are recommended because of the narrow roads. The highest rated gasoline is about 93 octane. The most popular cars include Peugeot, Volkswagen, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Ford, (Australia, Germany, U.K.), and British Ley-land. Parts and servicing are most readily available for Japanese vehicles. Heavy-duty tires and batteries, air-conditioning, tropical radiators, and extra undercoating against rust are worthwhile investments. Catalytic converters on newer models should be removed, since lead-free gasoline is not available.

As in England, traffic moves on the left side of the road. Sri Lanka permits import of left-hand-drive vehicles, but for safety and resale value, it is wise to import only right-hand-drive vehicles.

Third-party liability insurance is compulsory in Sri Lanka. Insurance policies are available only through the government-owned and-operated Sri Lanka Insurance Corporation and the National Insurance Corporation.

Communications

Local telephone service often is interrupted by breakdowns caused by age and weather conditions. Long-distance and international direct-dial services are available to all points in Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Australia, Japan, Europe, and the U.S., provided an advance deposit has been made. Telegraph and cable service, available day and night, is satisfactory. Telex facilities are available at most good hotels.

Airmail service to and from the U.S. is generally satisfactory. The average transit time is eight to 10 days. Radio broadcasting operates 17 and one-half hours daily, seven days a week. Programs offered by the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation cover local and international subjects and include a substantial amount of Western music, especially on FM. Programming and schedules follow British format, and some British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) programs and news features are relayed on local channels. Broadcasting is in English, Sinhala, and Tamil on shortwave, AM, and FM frequencies. Many interesting and informative programs are presented. Reasonably good worldwide radio reception is available on shortwave.

Sri Lanka initiated television transmission in 1978 and now has two stations. Each station operates from 5 p.m. until after 11 p.m. The programs on both channels consist of locally produced shows in English, Sinhala, and Tamil, and reruns of U.S. and U.K. serials in English. Regular, nightly news programs are broadcast in all three languages at different times.

Sri Lanka uses the PAL system of color TV; therefore, U.S. sets cannot operate here. Color sets are available locally through the duty-free complex; however it is a time-consuming process and purchases require Sri Lankan Foreign Ministry approval. Prices compare favorably with those in the U.S.

Most Americans bring videotape equipment to Sri Lanka. Many belong to local tape clubs which rent tapes (VHS/PAL system only) at reasonable prices.

Colombo newsstands sell current international editions of Time and Newsweek. The International Herald Tribune, USA Today, and Asian Wall Street Journal also are available.

Library facilities in Colombo are limited, but improving. The American Center library is designed to meet the needs of Sri Lankan students and academics. The Colombo municipal library system has approximately 123,000 titles in English at any one time, and subscribes to some 400 English-language journals and newspapers. The British Council's large, 52,000-volume library includes a good selection of fiction. It subscribes to about 150 periodicals and newspapers. The Colombo Swimming Club operates a small library offering book selections to both children and adult members. A modest number of expensive current paperbacks are available at the large hotel bookshops.

Mildew, termites, and silverfish are a serious threat to books not kept in air-conditioned rooms. Valuable volumes should not be brought to Sri Lanka.

Health and Medicine

Privately owned hospitals, with 24-hour English-speaking Sri Lankan-trained physicians on duty, have outpatient departments, intensive care units, operating rooms, and diagnostic facilities. However, the hospitals are not up to American standards and are utilized rarely, except for routine lab work. Medical problems requiring sophisticated treatment are sent to the nearest adequate medical facility (in Bangkok).

The U.S. Embassy maintains a health unit in Colombo for official personnel and dependents. Some limited care is occasionally provided to unofficial Americans on a fee-for-service basis.

Private physicians are the primary source of medical assistance. Specialists from the government hospitals assist when needed. Some specialists are board-certified in the U.K. Fees for medical care and treatment are reasonable.

All dental work should be done prior to arrival in Sri Lanka. Local dentists have been consulted, with satisfactory results, by some members of the American community. However, dental care is substandard, and no major dental work can be done.

Pharmaceutical supplies are not always available locally, so one should have an adequate supply of first aid materials, aspirin, or other necessary items; this includes vitamins and birth control pills.

Gastrointestinal disease is the major health problem here. Hepatitis A is common in the local population. Diarrhea is the most common illness among Americans living in the subcontinent, mainly because of contaminated food and water. City water is not potable and should be filtered and boiled for 10 minutes before using. One should thoroughly cook all meat and wash and disinfect all fruits and vegetables.

Sri Lanka has many kinds of insects. Mosquitoes carry malaria, Japanese B encephalitis, dengue fever, and filariasis. Flies carry filth that cause such endemic diseases as cholera and typhoid. Those coming here for an extended stay should bring a good supply of insecticides, pest strips, insect repellents, and fly swatters. Snakes, both poisonous and nonpoisonous, are found in Sri Lanka. Yards and lawns around the houses must be maintained by keeping grass cut and clearing leaves, which helps to deter nesting of snakes.

Parents with small children must exercise special caution as to safe play areas outdoors. The U.S. Embassy health unit maintains a stock of snake bite serum, which, if needed, is best administered in a hospital setting.

Malaria prophylaxis must be started two weeks before arrival in Sri Lanka. Also, make sure immunizations are up to date, especially those for gamma globulin, rabies, meningitis, and hepatitis B.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs & Duties

Several international airlines fly into Sri Lanka's Katunayake Airport about 20 miles northwest of Colombo (one hour by car). At present, no American carriers provide service. Air Lanka is the national airline.

A passport and an onward/return ticket and proof of sufficient funds are required. A no-cost visit visa, valid for 30 days, will be granted at the time of entry into Sri Lanka to bona fide tourists and business travelers. Visitors staying more than 30 days for any purpose must pay residency visa fees. Yellow fever and cholera immunizations are needed if arriving from an infected area. All travelers departing Sri Lanka (except diplomats and certain exempted travelers) must pay an airport tax, in cash. Sri Lankan law requires all persons, including foreigners, who are guests in private households to register in person at the nearest local police station. Individuals who stay in private households without registering may be temporarily detained for questioning. This requirement does not apply to individuals staying in hotels or guesthouses.

American citizens are advised not to travel north of a line drawn from Puttalam on the west coast through Anuradhapura in the central north and Nivaveli (just north of Trincomalee) in the east. Areas north of this line contain many land mines, making travel off paved roads very dangerous. In addition, the LTTE rather than the Government of Sri Lanka is effectively the civil administration in many sections of the north. Official travel by U.S. Government personnel to this area is restricted, and their unofficial travel is prohibited. Travel in the east in the area south of the Anuradhapura-Nivaveli line (including Trincomalee, Batticaloa and points south) poses significant safety risks. Roads are often substandard, and police, medical and other emergency help is severely limited or not available. Communications within the eastern areas are also limited, with no cell phone accessibility and very limited land-line telephone access. Because of these considerations, the U.S. Embassy may not be able to provide consular services in a timely manner to American citizens who travel to the north and east.

Sri Lankan customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Sri Lanka of items such as firearms, antiquities, business equipment, obscene materials, currency, gems and precious metals. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Sri Lanka in Washington, D.C., or one of Sri Lanka's consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Americans living in or visiting Sri Lanka are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Colombo and obtain updated information on travel and security within Sri Lanka. The U.S. Embassy is located at 210 Galle Road, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka. The Embassy's telephone number during normal business hours Monday through Friday is (94)(1) 448-007. The after-hours and emergency telephone number is (94)(1) 447-601. The Consular Section fax number is (94)-(1)-436-943. The Embassy's Internet address is http://usembassy.state.gov/srilanka. The e-mail address for the consular section is consularcolombo@state.gov. The Embassy in Colombo also covers the Republic of the Maldives. U.S. citizens are strongly encouraged to register at the Embassy upon arrival in Sri Lanka or by e-mail.

Currency, Banking and Weights and Measures

Sri Lanka's monetary unit is the rupee. Strict currency controls require customs declaration of all foreign currency brought into and taken out of the country and severely limit local importation of foreign goods. Indian, Nepalese, Pakistani, and Sri Lankan rupees are forbidden to be imported into or exported out of the country.

Sri Lanka operates on the metric system in calculating weights and measures.

The time in Sri Lanka is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) plus five-and-one-half hours.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 14 …Tamil Thai Pongal Day

Feb. 4 …National Day

Feb/Mar. … Maha Sivarathri Day^*

Mar/Apr. … Good Friday^*

Mar/Apr. … Easter^*

Apr. … Eve of Sinhala & Tamil New Year^*

Apr. … Sinhala & Tamil New Year^*

May 1…May Day

May 22…National Heroes' Day

Dec. 25 …Christmas Day

…Id al-Adha^*

…Ramadan^*

…Id-ul-Fitr

…Mawlid an Nabi^*

…Wesak^*

…Divali^*

^*variable

The Poya Day (Full Moon Day) of each month is also considered a holiday.

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Brohier, R.L. Discovering Ceylon. Colombo: Lake House Investments, Ltd., 1973.

Carter, John Ross, ed. Religiousness in Sri Lanka. Colombo: Marga Institute, 1979.

Cartman, James. Hinduism in Ceylon. Colombo: Gunasena, 1957.

Colombo Handbook. 5th ed. Colombo: American Women's Association, 1989.

Coomaraswamy, Radhika. Sri Lanka: The Crisis of the Anglo-American Constitutional Traditions in a Developing Society. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt., Ltd., 1984.

de Silva, K.M. A History of Sri Lanka. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.

——. Sri Lanka: A Survey. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1977.

Farmer, B.H. Ceylon: A Divided Nation. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.

Farmer, B.H. Pioneer Peasant Colonization in Ceylon. London: North Oxford University Press, 1957.

Gunawardana, R.A.L.H. Robe and Plough: Monasticism and Economic Interest in Early Medieval Sri Lanka. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1979.

Hulugalle, H.A.J. Ceylon Yesterday, Sri Lanka Today. Stockholm: Stureforlaget AB, 1976.

Images of Sri Lanka Through American Eyes: Travellers in Ceylon in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Compiled and edited with introduction, commentaries, and bibliography by H.A.I. Goonetileke. Colombo: USICA, 1983.

Jayawardena, V.K. The Rise of the Labor Movement in Ceylon. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1972.

Jiggins, J. Caste and Family in the Politics of the Sinhalese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.

Jupp, James. Sri Lanka—Third World Democracy. London: Frank Cass, 1978.

Kanogaran, Chelvadurai. Ethnic Conflict and Reconciliation in Sri Lanka. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1987.

Karunatilake, H.N.S. Economic Developments in Ceylon. New York: Praeger, 1971.

Kearney, Robert N. The Politics of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973.

Knox, Robert. An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon. Introduction by H.A.I. Goonetileke. New Delhi: Navrang, 1983.

Ludowyk, E.F.C. The Footprint of the Buddha. London: Allen and Unwin, 1958.

Ludowyk, E.F.C. The Modern History of Ceylon. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966.

——. The Story of Ceylon. 2nd ed. London: Faber, 1967.

Malalgoda, Kitsiri. Buddhism in Sinhalese Society 1750-1900: A Study of Religious Revival and Change. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976.

Moore, Mick. The State and Peasant Politics in Sri Lanka. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Pieris, Ralph. Sinhalese Social Organization. Colombo: Ceylon University Press Board, 1956.

Ponnambalam, Satchi. Dependent Capitalism in Crisis: The Sri Lankan Economy 1948-1980. London: Zed Press, 1981.

Rahula, Walpola. History of Buddhism in Ceylon. The Anuradhapura Period 3rd Century B.C.-10th Century A.D. 2nd ed. Colombo: Gunasena, 1968.

Raven-Hart, R. Ceylon History in Stone. Colombo: Lake House Investments, Ltd., 1964.

Robert, Michael. Caste Conflict and Elite Formation: The Rise of a Karava Elite in Sri Lanka, 1500-1931. London: Cambridge University Press, 1982.

——. Collective Identities, Nationalisms, and Protest in Modern Sri Lanka. Colombo: Marga Institute, 1979.

Ryan, Bryce. Caste in Modern Ceylon. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953.

Smith, Bardwell L., ed. Religion and Legitimation of Power in Sri Lanka. Chambersbyrg: Anima Books, 1978.

Snodgrass, Donald R. Ceylon: An Export Economy in Transition. Homewood, IL: Richard Irwin, 1966.

Still, John H. The Jungle Tide. London: Blackwood, 1955.

Vijayatunga, J. Grass For My Feet. London: Howard Baker, 1970.

Wilson, A. Jeyaratnam. The Gaullist System in Asia: The Constitution of Sri Lanka. London: Macmillan, 1980.

Woolf, Leonard. Growing: An Autobiography of the Years 1904-1911. New York: Harcourt Bruce, 1961.

——. The Village in the Jungle. Colombo: Hansa Publishers, 1974.

Wriggins, W. Howard. Ceylon: Dilemmas of A New Nation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960.

Yalman, N. Under the Bo Tree—Studies in Caste, Kinship, and Marriage in the Interior of Ceylon. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.

SRI LANKA

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Prajathanthrika Samajavadi

Janarajaya

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

LOCATION AND SIZE.

Sri Lanka is an island nation-state in the Indian Ocean. It is located 880 kilometers (547 miles) north of the equator, off the southern tip of India, and has a maximum length of 432 kilometers (268 miles) and a maximum width of 224 kilometers (139 miles). The island has an area of 65,610 square kilometers (25,332 square miles) and a total coastline of 1,700 kilometers (1,056 miles). Sri Lanka is slightly larger than West Virginia. Its capital, Colombo, lies on the country's western coast.

POPULATION.

Sri Lanka's population was estimated at 19.24 million in 2000, indicating growth of 11.5 percent compared with the 1991 population of 17.25 million. Sri Lanka has the slowest-growing population in southern Asia—estimated at 0.9 percent yearly—and its population is projected to increase to 23.55 million by the year 2025. The density of Sri Lanka's population is fairly high, at 280 persons per square kilometer (725 per square mile). In 2000 the birth rate was estimated at 16.8 per 1,000 people and the death rate at 6.4 per 1,000 people. The majority of Sri Lanka's people live in the rural sector (67 percent), in urban areas (22 percent), and on plantation estates (11 percent). The infant mortality rate (16.5 per 1,000) and overall death rate are low for a developing country, and the average life expectancy (69 years for men and 73 years for women) is the highest in southern Asia. The low fertility rate and high life expectancy has led to a larger increase in the older population than the younger population. It took most western countries 45 to 135 years for their elderly population to double, while in Sri Lanka this process is expected to take only 2 decades. Sri Lanka is expected to have the third oldest population in Asia in 2025. The rising burden of maintaining an aged population could exert considerable restraints on the government's fiscal resources, and the need to provide retirement support income and health care will have serious consequences on the economy as a whole during the next 2 decades.

An important characteristic of the Sri Lankan population is its ethnic and cultural diversity. Approximately 74 percent of the population are Sinhalese, 12.6 percent are Sri Lankan Tamils, 5.5 percent Indian Tamils, 5 percent Muslims, and the remainder consists of Burghers, Malays, and others (2.9 percent). Among the ethnic groups, the Sinhalese were the earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka and are descendants of the first colonists who occupied the island during the 5th century B.C. Most of them are Buddhist, and speak a language called Sinhala, derived from several Indo-Aryan languages. The Sri Lankan Tamils are the descendants of the early Dravidian invaders from southern India. They are predominantly Hindu and speak Tamil, one of the major Dravidian languages of southern India. Indian Tamils are the descendants of laborers brought by the British planters in the 19th century to work on plantations. The Muslims are the descendants of early Arab traders who settled in SriLanka during the 10th century. The Burghers are the descendants of the Portuguese, Dutch, and British who occupied the island from the 16th to the mid-20th century. The Burghers are predominantly Christian and speak English as their first language.

OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY

Sri Lanka is a developing economy based largely on agriculture, services, and light industry. Agriculture accounts for approximately 21 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) and employs 38 percent of the workforce. Agricultural output is divided between cash crops from plantation agriculture and food crops from subsistence agriculture. Cash crops—namely tea, rubber, and coconuts—are largely grown on plantations. Rice is the principal food crop and the main livelihood for over 70 percent of Sri Lanka's rural population. Manufacturing industries account for approximately 19 percent of the gross domestic product and employ about 17 percent of the workforce. Chief manufactures include textiles, ceramics, petroleum products, vegetable oils, fertilizers, and cement. The service sector is the largest of the Sri Lanka economy, employing 45 percent of the workforce and contributing roughly 60 percent of GDP. Tourism, banking, finance, and retail trade are the major components of the service sector.

The country is endowed with many natural resources. It has an equatorial climate with a high average rainfall. The land is fertile and suitable for growing a variety of crops, and one-third of the land is arable. Rivers cascading from the central hill country provide energy to generate hydropower, the major source of electricity in Sri Lanka. The country also has rich fishing resources. Sri Lanka's mineral resources include titanium ore, graphite, kaolin, and gemstones. It also has large deposits of unexploited iron ore.

Foreign trade is an important segment of the Sri Lankan economy. Major imports include petroleum, consumables, machinery and capital equipment, motor vehicles, and various manufactured goods. Major exports include garments, tea, rubber, coconut products, foodstuffs, gems, and jewelry. Sri Lanka is the largest exporter of black tea in the world and the third largest producer of natural rubber. A variety of gemstones, for which Sri Lanka is world famous, are also exported. Significant quantities of high-grade graphite, for which Sri Lanka is a world leader, are also exported. The industrialized countries taken together as a group accounted for 75 percent of Sri Lanka's total exports in 1999 and the United States is the largest single buyer of Sri Lanka's exports, with 39 percent in 1999. Other major export markets are the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, Russia (tea), China (rubber), India, and the Middle East. In terms of imports, Japan is the single largest exporter to Sri Lanka. Motor vehicles, spare parts, and woven fabrics are the major items imported from Japan. India is the second largest exporter, followed by Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Sri Lanka is a mixed economy, in which both the private sector and the state sector engage in the production process. Foreign investments are encouraged and several free zones have been established. The country's banking system is well developed, so that both foreign and local banks function in the economy. Sri Lanka is committed to a free market ideology and has one of the most liberal foreign trade regimes in the world. This contrasts greatly to what the Sri Lankan economy looked like during the first 3 decades after the country gained independence fromGreat Britain in 1948. The economy that evolved in Sri Lanka under British rule was predominantly oriented towards agriculture, with plantation agriculture being the major contributor to the nation's growth. The 3 plantation crops—tea, rubber, and coconuts—accounted for 30 percent of the gross domestic product in 1948 and the bulk of the output was exported. Manufacturing was an insignificant activity in the economy. Banking and commerce were, for the most part, only used to support plantation agriculture. Nearly all foreign exchange earnings were derived from the plantations. The country depended on imports for nearly three-fourths of its food requirements and almost all of its manufactured goods.

The Sri Lankan economy has since become highly diversified; it has rapidly growing manufacturing and service sectors, agricultural activities have been modernized, and the country is nearly self-sufficient in rice production. The significance of the 3 major export crops (tea, rubber, and coconuts) as the main source of export earnings has fallen (from 90 percent in the 1950s to 16 percent in 1999) and the significance of manufacturing has risen (from 1 percent of exports in 1950 to 60 percent in 1999). These changes in the structure of the Sri Lankan economy are a result of varying economic policy measures adopted by the government since independence. Development strategies that shaped the Sri Lankan economy over the last 5 decades may be distinguished under 2 eras: the first era covering the period between 1948-76, and the second era during the post-1977 period.

During the first era, development policy focused on achieving the objectives of equity and economic growth. The instruments adopted to achieve economic growth were aimed at import substitution industrialization, both in manufacturing and foodstuffs. The key measures used to achieve this growth strategy were the imposition of various restrictions on imports, and the encouragement of domestic production. Extensive social welfare programs such as price subsidies on food, statutory price controls on consumer goods , and the provision of free education and health services were the instruments used to achieve greater equity. The welfare programs achieved significant improvements in the area of human development, including lower mortality rates, increased life expectancy, and high literacy rates. However, high welfare expenditures restrained the nation's capital growth and ability to invest, slowing economic growth and causing high unemployment and low wages. During the 1951-1976 period, per capita gross domestic product grew only at an average of 0.2 percent per year. The achievements of the import substitution policies were even less noticeable, except in the production of rice and subsidiary food crops. With a worsening trade balance crisis, most newly established industries operated well below capacity due to a shortage of imported goods. This, coupled with increased government participation in industrial development, hindered industrial growth and the ability to remain commercially viable. The continued government intervention in all spheres of economic life reached its climax at the end of the first policy era.

The second era of Sri Lankan economic development (post-1977) marked a shift towards a free market economy. The strategy aimed at liberalizing the economy from excessive government controls and it chose the private sector as the engine of growth. Policies were designed to accelerate economic growth by stimulating private investment through various incentives and also to increase the country's foreign earnings by promoting export-oriented economic activities. The liberalization policies, pursued under the watchful eye and participation of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, met with success at the beginning. Stimulated by enhanced levels of foreign aid and investment, the economy was successful, recording real growth rates of about 6 percent per year until 1986. During the following 5 years, however, there was a marked deceleration of growth caused mainly by the disruptive effects of the ethnic conflict on economic activities. Gross domestic product grew at an annual average of 2.7 percent between 1986-1989, and at an annual average of 5 percent between 1990-2000. During the second era, the level of income in the economy grew significantly with per capita gross domestic product more than doubling (from US$382 in 1975 to US$802 by 2000).

The transition to a free market economy based on a liberalized trade and exchange rate regime has brought benefits to the Sri Lankan economy. Unemployment, a problem for decades, has reduced significantly, and remains at historically low levels (8 percent in 2000). Nonetheless, the high levels of inflation , fueled by the sharp deterioration of the Sri Lankan currency, combined with the mounting cost of civil war has raised the cost of living to very high levels. The soaring cost of living has made many Sri Lankans struggle to satisfy their basic needs. Over 45 percent of the population depends on benefits under the income supplement programs initiated by the government. The balance of payments problem remains unresolved. The persistent trade deficit has led to increased reliance on foreign aid to meet the country's import requirements, leading to an inevitably mounting foreign debt . Foreign debt as a percentage of the gross domestic product, which accounted for 21 percent in 1975, grew to 75 percent in 1994, and amounted to 59 percent in 1999.

POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION

When Sri Lanka obtained its independence from Britain in 1948 it had an educated electorate conscious of its voting rights and the concept of majority rule. The judiciary was respected and the rule of law was well established. The political party system was also established with the United National Party (UNP) as the foremost party of the time. Sri Lanka also had a written constitution incorporating some of the principles of the British Westminster system of government. There is a unicameral Parliament with 225 members elected to 6-year terms. The president is popularly elected to a 6-year term and is the chief executive.

The UNP was in power for 8 years until it lost the 1956 election to Sirimavo Bandaranaike. His Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP)-led coalition swept into power on the promise to make Sinhala the national language. This created disquiet among minorities, especially among Tamils. Tamil leaders opposed the introduction of Sinhala as the official language because they wanted to speak Tamil; their opposition soon led to violence. The seeds of the separatist war in Sri Lanka can be traced to incidents that occurred in 1958. But the conflict grew into a large-scale military confrontation only after 1983, when a group of Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE) followers ambushed Sinhalese troops. The LTTE, who are the Tamil protagonists of the war, have used terrorist methods to finance and promote their cause. They have assassinated moderate Tamil leaders, including President Premadasa, and several Sri Lankan ministers and party leaders. They also killed Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi because he withdrew his support of the LTTE.

Another serious problem was the emergence of a Sinhalese youth revolutionary party called the JVP, which staged an armed insurrection in 1971, lasting for 2 years and followed by 3 years of sporadic outbursts. The JVP resurrected itself in the late 1980s with a subtle form of urban terrorism, but it was brought under control by a ruthless program of suppression by the government. Both the LTTE and the JVP have been serious impediments to steady economic growth in Sri Lanka. However, Sri Lanka has been endowed with a very strong democratic tradition which has managed to survive these major conflicts, even during periods of poor economic management.

The 2 dominant parties during 50 years of independence have been the UNP (conservative) and the SLFP ( socialist -left, and more recently center-left). The 2 political parties have alternated in positions of power for half a century, with the UNP heading the government from 1948 to 1956, 1965 to 1970, and 1977 to 1994. An SLFP-led coalition government was in power from 1956 to 1965, 1970 to 1977, and since 1994 as a coalition called the Peoples Alliance (PA).

The Sri Lankan government epitomizes a classic democratic 2-party political system in operation. The UNP regimes during the period 1948 to 1970 placed emphasis on private sector participation with several ongoing subsidized programs such as free education, free health care, village land settlement, and colonization. The SLFP regimes continued the welfare programs and moved increasingly to public ownership and nationalization with limited private sector participation. In the early and the mid-1970s, they placed strict restrictions on imports and currency movement.

In 1977 the UNP government came into power and decided to run an open economy with few restrictions. The private sector became the main engine of growth. The rupee was devalued by 46 percent from its former artificial value. This immediately stimulated growth and received the backing and financial support of the World Bank. This UNP government lasted for 17 years. When the SLFP-led coalition known as the Peoples Alliance was elected to government in 1994, it accepted the importance of this open market economy as a positive growth strategy for the country.

A short time before the end of the first term of the Peoples Alliance in 2000, the LTTE attempted to assassinate the president of Sri Lanka, Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumarathunga. The bomb caused damage to one eye but she survived, and her party was elected for a second term. The PA has had a very difficult period in government because of the financial and political pressures generated by the escalation of the armed conflict with the LTTE. The election itself generated a degree of conflict never experienced before in Sri Lankan politics, but democracy survived as it had in every one of the elections held after 1948.

TAXATION AND REVENUE.

The major source of government revenue in Sri Lanka is taxes (86 percent). However, unlike the United States, the contribution of income taxes to government revenue is negligible, at 13 percent, while indirect taxes dominate government revenue. There are 3 major sources of indirect taxes: the goods and services tax (GST), excise tax , and the national security levy (NSL). The GST is a recent addition to the tax system (introduced in April 1998), replacing the business turnover tax. The GST is levied on a value-added basis at a uniform rate of 12.5 percent with full credit given to all inputs. GST revenue accounted for 26 percent of the total tax revenues in 2000. An excise tax, which contributed 23 percent of the total tax revenue during the same period, is levied mainly on liquor, tobacco, petroleum, and motor vehicles. The third important source of government revenue, the NSL, was initially introduced as an interim measure to finance the rising cost of war in the north and the east. It has become an important contributor to national tax revenue, contributing 17.5 percent. The NSL is levied at a rate of 6.5 percent. Taxes on international trade account for 16 percent of the total tax revenue. With the liberalization of trade and restructuring of the tariff regime, which began in the late 1980s, revenue from taxes on foreign trade has been declining.

The personal income tax (PIT) rate in Sri Lanka has 4 brackets, ranging from 10 percent to 35 percent. The PIT's contribution to the government tax revenue is small (about 1 percent of gross domestic product) and is lower than most other countries. The economy's high dependence on subsistence agriculture, low levels of income and tax compliance, and inefficient tax administration are the key contributors to low levels of PIT revenue. The corporate income tax (CIT) in Sri Lanka of 35 percent (flat rate) is relatively modest and is similar to the rates in other Asian economies. However, the CIT tax yield in Sri Lanka is quite low, as many firms are offered tax incentives to encourage investment.

INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS

Sri Lanka has a well-developed transport system, including a road network of approximately 100,000 kilometers (62,140 miles). A rail network consisting of about 1,944 kilometers (1,208 miles) of tracks links Colombo with the rest of the country. Road networks are under severe strain due to the rapid increase in the number of vehicles since the 1980s. The number of registered vehicles nearly tripled from 478,000 in the mid-1980s to 1.38 million in 2000, generating severe traffic congestion. With a rising number of vehicles, and the need for a more efficient road network to facilitate the movements of goods and services, the government is actively engaged in improving, rehabilitating, and extending the existing network.

Sri Lanka has 14 airfields, the largest of which is the Katunayake International Airport, the principal gateway to Sri Lanka. The country is serviced by 32 airlines, both domestic and foreign, and the national carrier, SriLankan Airlines, handles about 56 percent of international passengers to and from Sri Lanka. It has scheduled operations to 35 destinations in 26 countries covering Australia, the Indian subcontinent, the Far East, Europe, and the Middle East. The Sri Lanka Ports Authority (SLPA) is responsible for operating the ports. The SLPA operates 4 major ports in Colombo, Galle (in the south), Trincomalee (in the east), and Kankasanturai (in the north). In addition, limited shipping facilities are provided by the Ceylon Shipping Corporation and by several private sector shipping companies. A major restructuring of the cargo handling facilities in Colombo port is now taking place in conjunction with the British PNO company.

Hydropower is the major source of electricity, accounting for 66 percent of the nation's electricity supply. One of the main sources of hydropower is the gigantic Mahaweli Scheme, which has harnessed the flow of Sri Lanka's longest river in several stages. The remainder is generated through thermal power (34 percent) and most recently, wind power. Electricity generation and distribution has traditionally been a government monopoly . However, the private sector has become much more involved in power generation during the past decades.

Telecommunications is the fastest growing sector in the country. During the first half of 2000, the telecommunications sector grew by 11 percent. Sri Lanka Telecom Ltd. (SLT) is the major supplier; its network provided 44,228 new telephone connections during the first half of 2000, with total network subscriptions of 621,394. The demand for telephones is growing much faster than supply: at the end of June 2000, there were 246,560 applicants on the waiting list. To meet rising demand the SLT is expanding its capacity with assistance from international donors. In addition to the SLT subscriber network, there are 4 cellular phone operators with a subscription of 307,027. Other service providers include wireless local loop telephones (2 operators with 101,093 subscribers), data communication services such as Internet and e-mail (15 operators with 32,633 subscribers), and public phones (6 operators with 7,491 public phone booths).

ECONOMIC SECTORS

The changing structure of the economy mirrored in the relative contribution of the key industrial sectors reflect the country's potential to realize substantial growth. It also reflects the transition of the agriculture-dominated economy to a more diversified one with growing industrial and modern service sectors. In 1950, agriculture accounted for half the gross domestic product and by the year 2000, its significance was reduced to one-fifth of the gross domestic product. The contribution of industry more than doubled from about 11 percent to 19 percent while the service sector expanded significantly from 39 percent to 60 percent during the same period. Sri Lanka is rich in resources, both natural and human. It has several unexploited mineral resources (such as iron ore) and underexploited mineral and fisheries resources with substantial potential for future growth. Another area with substantial growth potential is tourism, which is interrupted by the prolonged civil unrest in the economy.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the most important sector of the Sri Lankan economy. Even though its contribution to the gross domestic product declined substantially during the past 3 decades (from 30 percent in 1970 to 21 percent in 2000), it is the most important source of employment for the majority of the Sri Lankan workforce. Approximately 38 percent of the total labor force was engaged in agriculture in 1999. In the subsistence sector, rice is the main crop and farming rice is the most important economic activity for the majority of the people living in rural areas. During the last 5 decades the rice sector grew rapidly and output more than tripled, reaching the highest ever output of 2.9 million metric tons in 1999. Increases in the area under cultivation, and improved productivity due to the modernization of agriculture are the main reasons for an increase in production. The rehabilitation of Sri Lanka's extensive ancient irrigation network and massive new investment in construction and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure led to a large increase in the area under rice cultivation. Between 1960-2000, the area used to grow rice increased 6 times to 546,249 hectares. The modernization of farming methods, such as the use of high-yielding seeds, tractors, and chemical fertilizers also led to increased productivity in the rice sector. Between 1960-1999, rice yield per hectare doubled from 1,877 kilograms to 3,672 kilograms. In addition to rice, various other food crops are produced for local consumption. They include yams, pulses, grains, vegetables, and fruits. Most of these crops are cultivated in family gardens, except for potatoes and sugar. Sugar cane is cultivated in the dry zone, and Sri Lanka produces only 15 percent of what it consumes domestically.

The major plantation crops of tea, rubber, and coconuts continue to figure prominently in the economy of Sri Lanka; however, the contribution of these commercial crops to gross domestic product declined from 11.5 percent in 1970 to 5 percent in 2000. Tea, the prominent crop of the plantation sector, grows in many parts of the wet zone, and in particular in the central hill country. Sri Lanka is famous for its high quality black tea, and is the largest supplier in the world. In 1999, 269.3 million kilograms of tea (95 percent of total tea production) was exported, earning US$621 million in foreign exchange. The United Kingdom, Russia, and the Middle East are the major export markets.

The second major commercial crop is rubber, growing in the ridge and valley country of the wet zone interior. Of 159,000 hectares under cultivation, about 80 percent was being tapped (harvested) and in 1999, 96.6 million kilograms of rubber were produced. A sizable proportion of rubber production is used in the domestic manufacturing sector (56 percent in 1999) and the remainder is exported. In 1999 export earnings amounted to US$33 million. China is traditionally the major buyer of Sri Lankan rubber. The performance of this sector has been subject to instability due to unfavorable movements in world prices. Competition from synthetic rubber producers has caused rubber prices to drop. However, with rising petroleum prices (the major ingredient for synthetic rubber) there is a chance for world rubber prices to improve.

The third commercial crop, coconuts, is grown mainly in the hinterland of the western seaboard. Production in 1999 accounted for 2,828 million nuts, the highest output since 1986. Coconut (mainly coconut milk) is a major ingredient used in food preparation in Sri Lanka, and nearly 65 percent of the output is consumed locally. The remainder is exported in the form of kernel products (desiccated coconut, coconut oil, copra), coconut cream, and coconut milk powder. In 1999, kernel products generated US$129 million in foreign exchange.

Forestry and fishing are less important components of the economy. Forests in the dry zone were cleared for settlement and agriculture early on. Unsustainable agricultural practices such as chena cultivation and logging resulted in land degradation and a reduction in the size of forest reserves. The country has abundant fishing resources, with an exclusive economic zone covering over 500,000 square kilometers (193,050 miles), a coastline of about 1,700 kilometers (1,056 miles), and a massive network of inland water reservoirs suitable for fish farming. However, this potential has not yet been exploited. Most marine fishing is concentrated in coastal areas, which account for about 12 percent of the exclusive economic zone. Total fish production in 1999 was estimated at 280 thousand metric tons, and the contribution of this activity to gross domestic product was about 3 percent in 1999. Fishing is a traditional livelihood for people living in coastal areas: in 1999 about 145,000 people were employed in fishing activities. A slow-growing sector, fish production increased at an annual average of only about 3 percent between 1992 and 1999. Poor production is mainly due to a lack of technical knowledge and equipment.

The livestock sector in Sri Lanka is small, consisting mainly of the dairy and the poultry subsections. Unlike in the United States, where dairy production takes place on large farms, in Sri Lanka dairy farming is a small-scale domestic activity. Total milk production in 1999 accounted for 342 million liters, sufficient only to meet about one-fourth of local needs. The remainder is imported in the form of powdered milk (in 1999, 54,000 metric tons of milk powder was imported). An important development in the livestock sector was the rapid increase in the poultry production. In 1999 approximately 57 million metric tons of poultry meat was produced, increasingly becoming a common source of animal protein in Sri Lanka.

INDUSTRY

INDUSTRY.

Manufacturing accounts for 16 percent of the gross domestic product and employs nearly 400,000 people. The textile industry is the largest of Sri Lanka's industries, contributing 63 percent to industrial sector growth (1999). Other major manufacturing industries include processed diamonds, food and beverages, light engineering, chemicals, petroleum, rubber and plastics, and machinery and equipment. The manufacturing sector that evolved under the import substitution development strategy in the 1960s to cater mainly to the domestic market has transformed into a sector catering to the foreign market. Much of the industrial output is exported and it is the single major export earner in the economy (in 1999, industrial exports accounted for 54 percent of total export earnings). This remarkable achievement is attributable to the policy reforms introduced during the post-1977 period. Under the reforms, the private sector was encouraged to participate in export-oriented industries through various incentives, and several free zones were established. This resulted in a significant inflow of foreign investment; the private sector emerged as the major contributor to industrial output. Overall, market-oriented policy reforms introduced during the post-1977 period have led to far-reaching changes in the structure and performance of the manufacturing sector.

MINING.

Mining is a minor economic activity contributing about 2 percent of the gross domestic product (1999). The country's mineral extraction industries include the mining of gemstones and graphite; excavation of beach sands containing ilmenite and monazite; and quarrying quartz sand, clay, and salt. Gem mining is traditionally the most important activity, producing high value gem-stones such as sapphire, ruby, and topaz, and a variety of semiprecious stones, most of which are exported. Sri Lanka leads the world in high-grade graphite mining.

SERVICES

TRADE.

Wholesale and retail trade, the largest sub-category in the service sector, accounts for about 21 percent of the gross domestic product (1999) and employs about 22 percent of the workforce (2000). With the lifting of import controls and the government monopoly in the importation and distribution of essential consumer goods during the post-1977 period, the trade sector expanded rapidly. Domestic trade accounts for half the value of the trade sector. Increased participation by foreign firms in domestic trade in Sri Lanka is a relatively recent phenomenon, with international food franchises such as McDonald's and Pizza Hut in operation. Numerous small outlets including street stalls serve the retail trade, and in the major cities there are large shopping centers and supermarkets.

FINANCIAL SERVICES.

Banking, insurance, and real estate accounted for 8 percent of gross domestic product in 2000. This sector expanded rapidly following the 1977 policy reforms that dismantled the virtual government monopoly in the insurance industry and lifted the restrictions in the banking industry. The increased incentives for the private sector led to the emergence of several new insurance companies and banks. A total of 6 new local banks were established and 11 foreign banks opened branches. The banking system consists of 11 local and 16 foreign banks. Two development finance institutions and several merchant and investment banks are also active participants in the financial markets in Sri Lanka. In addition, 22 financial institutions providing credit facilities are in operation. The Sri Lankan financial system comes under the regulation of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka, which is the monetary authority of the country.

TOURISM.

Tourism is an important activity with potential for growth. The country known as the paradise in the Indian Ocean offers a diversity of environments and tourist attractions, from tropical beaches and arid lands to lush forests, tea plantations, and a rich archaeological heritage. Promotion of tourism in Sri Lanka began in the late 1960s with the establishment of the Ceylon Tourist Board. Between 1976 and 1982, the number of tourist arrivals grew rapidly at an annual average rate of almost 24 percent, reaching a peak of 407,230 before declining to 337,342 in 1983 as a result of the civil unrest in the country. As the political violence in the country intensified, international tourist arrivals continued to fluctuate with a general trend of decline. Tourist arrivals increased to 436,440 in 1999. Tourism generates US$275 million in foreign exchange annually and employs approximately 87,600 workers. The majority of tourists to Sri Lanka come from Western Europe (65 percent), Asia (26 percent), and North America (5 percent).

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

One feature of the Sri Lankan economy, both in the past and present, is the high dependency on foreign trade. The country's dependency on trade, measured by the

Trade Dependency Ratio (TDR), defined as the ratio of the sum of exports and imports to gross domestic product, stood at 66 in 1999 compared with a TDR of 33 for the period 1970-1977. In 2000 exports stood at US$5.2 billion while imports stood at US$6.1 billion. The changing degree of trade dependency evident in the post-liberalization era has been accompanied by significant changes in the structure of Sri Lankan foreign trade. The dominance of tea, rubber, and coconuts, which accounted for 74 percent of the total exports in 1977, had fallen to 21 percent in 1999. Industrial exports have become the major contributor to export earnings with their share rising from 14 percent to 76 percent during the same period. Of industrial exports, textiles and garments are the leading sub-category, contributing 68 percent to total industrial exports in 1999. The balance consisted of machinery and equipment (6 percent), rubber-based products (5 percent), travel goods and processed diamonds (4 percent each), petroleum products and footwear (2 percent each), crustaceans and mollusks and ceramic products (1 percent each), and other industrial products (7 percent). Despite the changes in the structure of exports, tea continues to be the leading export with a share of 65 percent of total agricultural exports while textiles dominate the industrial exports with a share of 67 percent of the total industrial exports.

Intermediate goods dominate Sri Lanka's imports (51 percent of total imports), followed by investment goods (27 percent), and consumer goods (21 percent). This is in contrast to the composition of imports in the pre-liberalization era, which was dominated by consumer goods (50 percent of total imports in 1977), followed by intermediate goods (36 percent), and investment goods (12 percent). Rice, flour, and sugar dominated consumer goods in the past, accounting for 80 percent of total consumer goods imported. Their significance, however, fell to 21 percent in 1999. This changing structure of imports reflects the new economic environment resulting from the economic reforms introduced in 1977. The improvement in the domestic supply of rice and other food items helped to limit food imports. The expansion in the industrial sector resulted in higher imports of intermediate goods. Developments in infrastructure facilities, construction and the transport sector, combined with increased use of advanced technology, increased the import of investment goods.

The destination of Sri Lankan foreign trade also has changed. The United States has become the single most important trading partner, and has continued to be the largest single buyer of Sri Lanka's exports (accounting for 39 percent of exports in 1999). Garment exports accounted for 74 percent of total exports in 1999. The United Kingdom accounted for 13 percent, while Germany accounted for 5 percent of Sri Lanka's exports. On average, one-third of the Sri Lankan imports come from the industrial countries. Japan is the largest source of imports to Sri Lanka, with 10 percent in 1999. Motor vehicles, spare parts, and woven fabrics are the major items imported from Japan. India is the second largest exporter (with 9 percent), followed by Hong Kong and Singapore (8 percent each), South Korea (6 percent), Taiwan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Wheat, gold, agricultural equipment, and textiles are among the major items imported from the United Kingdom, while wheat accounted for 31 percent of imports from the United States. Textiles, tools and accessories for the garment industry, and fruits are the other major items imported from the United States.

Sri Lanka's trade with the rest of the world has changed in terms of composition, direction, and volume. However, the country has not been able to solve its fundamental problem, the unfavorable trade balance. As exports continued to grow, so did imports. Despite the persistent unfavorable trade balance, the country has managed to maintain its import levels with foreign assistance, capital flows, and an important and growing source of foreign exchange: remittances by Sri Lankan migrant workers in the Middle East. Prior to 1977 policy reforms, the fortunes of Sri Lankan exports depended primarily on the movements of world prices for the 3 major export commodities. While the export sector has diversified, the dependence on trade has also increased markedly. As the country's trade relations with industrialized countries rises, the Sri Lankan economy is vulnerable not only to changes in price levels of the major exports, but also to fluctuations in the levels of economic activity in industrialized countries.

MONEY

With the liberalization of the foreign exchange rate regime in 1977, which changed from a fixed exchange rate regime to a flexible one, the value of the Sri Lankan currency has continued to fall against major currencies. The Sri Lanka rupee (R) which was 16.5 per U.S. dollar

in 1980 fell to R40 per dollar by 1990, and collapsed to R85 in 2001. With the high dependence on imports, the falling value of the currency means that the prices of imports continue to rise, pushing up domestic inflation.

Sri Lanka has an active stock market, the Colombo Stock Exchange (CSE), the origin of which dates back to the 19th century. Share trading in Sri Lanka began in 1886 when the Colombo Brokers Association commenced the trading of shares in limited liability companies. Share trading grew since then and Colombo had a very active share market throughout the 20th century except during the 1960s and 1970s where a spate of nationalization, including the insurance companies and plantations, effectively reduced the trading to insignificant proportions. This decline was short lived, and the stock market recovered quickly following the policy reforms introduced in the latter part of 1970s, which created free and open market ideals where the private sector was given the key role in economic activities. Today the exchange has 238 companies listed with a market capitalization of approximately 10 percent of gross domestic product.

POVERTY AND WEALTH

The wealthy, representing those engaged in commerce and industry, are largely concentrated in urban areas, while the poorest live on plantations and in rural areas. While the rich live in luxury, many urban poor live

in shanty houses with no sanitary facilities. The urban poor in Sri Lanka are found mainly in the capital, Colombo. The majority of the Sri Lankan population live in rural areas, and the major source of wealth among them is land. Landlessness and unequal distribution of land are key determinants of rural poverty. Those living on plantations are laborers with no access to land ownership or alternative employment opportunities. They live in sub-standard houses supplied by the owners of plantations. A fourth group of poor, those displaced by the continuing war in the north and east, live in various refugee camps with no access to any amenity or opportunities.

The overall degree of disparity in wealth is reflected in the distribution of incomes. The wealthiest 20 percent of the population account for over 52 percent of the nation's income while the poorest 10 percent account for only 2 percent. Disparities in wealth have risen steadily during the post-1977 period, a result of policy reforms that paved the way for more wealth generation through the increased participation of the private sector. An important byproduct of the policy reforms was the soaring inflation induced by the falling value of Sri Lankan currency, raising the cost of living of the poor disproportionately. Meeting basic needs is a struggle to the poor, because average Sri Lankans spend over 40 percent of their income on food alone. Rising poverty has led to considerable social unrest; strikes in work places and protest rallies are common occurrences. The government maintains several subsidy programs to improve the position of the poor. Over 45 percent of the population benefits from one such income supplementary program called Samurdhi. Another, the dry ration program, is aimed at helping displaced families of the north and east due to the continuing civil war. International agencies such as the World Bank and Asian Development Bank have sought to help Sri Lanka reduce poverty. Several funded projects have directly targeted the poorest segments of the population. Despite low per capita income levels, and high levels of the incidence of poverty, the quality of life in Sri Lanka is relatively high when compared with its neighbor, India.

WORKING CONDITIONS

According to the Department of Census and Statistics, the labor force in Sri Lanka is about 7 million and the total number of employed persons is 6.5 million. The unemployment rate is at around 8 percent (2000). While the overall unemployment rate is lower than in the past (which was about 15 percent in 1992), unemployment among youth is relatively high. Around 22.5 percent of the youth of age between 15 and 19 were unemployed and 15 percent in the age group 20 to 29. Of the total workforce, 66.5 percent are males and 33.5 percent are females. Women play an important role in the economic life of Sri Lanka. The largest concentration of women in professions is in the areas of teaching, nursing, and clerical work. In the plantation industry, women make up 68 percent of the workforce and, in the garment industry, about 90 percent of the workforce.

The basic minimum age for employment in Sri Lanka is 15 years, and the government has enforced laws to prevent child labor. The forced or bonded labor of children is prohibited. Despite the laws governing child labor, underage children work as street vendors and hold menial jobs in tile factories, coir-making operations,

fishing, and in domestic service. Poverty leads most of these children to work. According to a government study, about 60 percent of the employed children are secondary income earners, contributing as much as 30-40 percent of household income.

The constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees the right of workers to organize and establish labor or trade unions, except those employed by the security forces and members of the judiciary. All public and private sector employees possess the right to bargain collectively. The Department of Labor provides conciliation and arbitration services to resolve labor disputes. Although trade union freedom is substantial, it has been subject to periodic modification or curtailment during times of political strife. In Sri Lanka, there is no universal basic minimum wage, and the minimum wages differ from industry to industry. Sector-specific minimum wages are set by wage boards. There are about 39 wage boards, which set minimum wages for more than 100 occupations in industry, commerce, services, and agriculture. Remuneration tribunals also set minimum wages in some cases.

In Sri Lanka, working conditions and workers' rights are well protected by legislation. However, disruptions in the workplace are common. In recent years there were a number of labor actions such as strikes and protests. The rising cost of living has driven many workers to demand higher wages. There are instances where even those in the medical profession have gone on strike for higher wages. Because of the inability of most workers to make ends meet, many Sri Lankans seek employment abroad. The total number of Sri Lankan workers abroad was estimated to be around 788,000 in 1999, of whom nearly 90 percent are employed in the Middle East.

COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

427 B.C. The legendary Sinhalese Prince Vijaya colonizes the north-central part of Sri Lanka.

250 B.C. The king of Anuradhapura, Devanpiya Tissa, embraces Buddhism.

210 B.C. Sinhala kingdom is invaded by Cholas from southern India and Elara becomes king.

161 B.C. King Dutthagamini defeats Elara and reestablishes Sinhala rule.

1055. Sinhala kingdom moves its capital to Polonnaruwa under King Vijayabahu I.

1232-1815. Sinhala kingdom moves south.

1371-1408. Dambadeniyan, Gampolan, and Kotten kingdoms.

1469-1815. Kandyan kingdom.

1521-1581. Sitawakan kingdom.

1505. The Portuguese capture the coastal belt and rule it until the Dutch oust them.

1658. The Dutch capture coastal areas.

1659. The British regain the coastal areas, displacing the Dutch.

1660. The British are invited by the Kandyan chiefs to usurp the king, gaining control. They maintain a colony in Sri Lanka until the 20th century.

1948. Sri Lanka gains political independence from the British on 4th February.

1948. The UNP is elected in Ceylon under the leadership of D. S. Senanayake.

1956. A coalition of parties (MEP) led by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike is elected.

1959. The SLFP leader is assassinated and his widow becomes prime minister in 1960.

1965. The UNP regains power under the leadership of Dudley Senanayake.

1971. Sri Lanka becomes a republic, but retains membership in the British Commonwealth.

1977. The UNP, under the leadership of J. R. Jayawar-dane, comes to power.

1978. Jayawardane becomes the first president of Sri Lanka. Liberalization reforms begin.

1979. Riots in response to the ambush and killing of 13 Singhalese soldiers by Tamil Tigers.

1980. Military action launched against the Tamil Tigers, with help from India.

1981. R. Premadasa becomes the second president of Sri Lanka.

1993. Premadasa's authoritarian rule ends as he becomes a victim of the LTTE.

1994. Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga and the Peoples Alliance gain political power.

2000. Kumaratunga wins a second term as president.

FUTURE TRENDS

Since independence, despite low levels of per capita income, Sri Lanka has achieved an impressive human development record, with many of Sri Lanka's social indicators comparing favorably to those of more advanced economies. The country has broken away from a public-sector -dominated, highly regulated economic system and has laid the foundation for dynamic growth based on a free market, liberalized trade and exchange rates, and deregulated foreign investment. This transition has led to rapid economic growth, a significant reduction in the level of unemployment, and a rise in the level of per capita income. However, the impressive growth of the economy evident during the 1977-1982 period has generated increasing economic inequality. The soaring inflation fueled by the deterioration of the value of the Sri Lankan currency has worsened the relative position of the poor. Despite the reduced levels of unemployment and the increased opportunities, nearly half of the population depends on government subsidies to meet their basic needs. The balance of payments, a fundamental problem of the economy that has persisted since the 1950s, has continued to worsen. Mounting foreign debt and the debt servicing obligations has added further burden to the already critical balance of payments.

The slowdown in the pace of economic growth over the last 2 decades, coupled with the rising costs of the civil war, seriously threatens the economy's ability to meet the challenges and changing socioeconomic needs of its population. With a rapidly aging population, the need for more resources to provide health care and income support will exert considerable pressure on the government's fiscal resources and the tax system during the coming decades. The solutions to most of the burning problems, and those bound to emerge in the near future, lie in the country's ability to achieve sustained levels of long-term economic growth. The continuing civil conflict poses the biggest obstacle to the country's growth prospects. The need for an immediate solution to the 18-year-old civil war is imperative. Given that the Sri Lankan economy managed to realize an average growth rate of about 5 percent during the last decade in spite of severe interruptions caused by the civil war, lasting peace would undoubtedly bring prosperity to the nation.

DEPENDENCIES

Sri Lanka has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Central Bank of Sri Lanka. <http://www.centralbanklanka.org>.Accessed March 2000.

"Country Profile of Sri Lanka." Indian Ocean Rim Network. <http://www.iornet.org/newiornet/Srilanka.htm>. Accessed September 2001.

Department of Census and National Statistics (DCS), Sri Lanka. <http://www.statistics.gov.lk>. Accessed September 2001.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Sri Lanka. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2001.

Embassy of Sri Lanka Online. <http://users.erols.com/slembassy/index2.html>. Accessed September 2001.

Fernando, T., and R. N. Kearney. Modern Sri Lanka: A Society in Transition. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1979.

Lakshaman, W. D. Dilemmas of Development. Colombo: SriLanka Association of Economists, 1997.

Lakshaman, W. D., and C.A. Tisdell. Facets of Development of Sri Lanka since Independence. Australia: University of Queensland, 1999.

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2001. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed September 2001.

U.S. Department of State. FY 2001 Country Commercial Guide: Sri Lanka. <http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/2001/sa/index.html>. Accessed September 2001.

—Sarath Divisekera

CAPITAL:

Colombo.

MONETARY UNIT:

Sri Lanka rupee (R). One rupee equals 100 cents. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, and 50 cents, and 1, 2, 5, and 10 rupees. There are bills of 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, and 1,000 rupees.

CHIEF EXPORTS:

Textile and apparel, tea, gems and jewelry, coconut products, rubber and rubber-based products, and spices.

CHIEF IMPORTS:

Machinery and equipment, textiles, petroleum, foodstuffs.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:

US$62.7 billion (purchasing power parity, 2000 est.).

BALANCE OF TRADE:

Exports: US$5.2 billion (f.o.b., 2000). Imports: US$6.1 billion (f.o.b., 2000).

Sri Lanka

Compiled from the October 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

PROFILE

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-SRI LANKAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 65,610 sq. km. (25,332 sq. mi.); about the size of West Virginia.

Cities: Capital—Colombo (pop. est. 1.3 million—urban area). Sri Jayewardenepura-Kotte is the officially designated capital and is the site of Parliament, but it is currently only an administrative center. Other cities—Kandy (150,000), Galle (110,000), Jaffna (100,000).

Terrain: Coastal plains in the northern third of country; hills and mountains in south-central Sri Lanka rise to more than 2,133 meters (7,000 ft.).

Climate: Tropical. Rainy seasons—light in northeast, fall and winter, with average rainfall of 50 in.; heavy in southwest, summer and fall, with average rainfall of 200 in.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Sri Lankan(s).

Population: (2005) 19.7 million.

Annual growth rate: 1.1%.

Ethnic groups: (2002) Sinhalese (74%), Tamils (18%), Muslims (7%), others (1%).

Religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity.

Languages: Sinhala and Tamil (official), English.

Education: Years compulsory—to age 14. Primary school attendance—96.5%. Literacy—91%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—14/1,000. Life expectancy—72 yrs. (male); 77 yrs. (female).

Work force: 8.1 million.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: February 4, 1948.

Constitution: August 31, 1978.

Suffrage: Universal over 18.

Government branches: Executive—president, chief of state and head of government, elected for a 6-year term. Legislative—unicameral 225-member Parliament. Judicial—Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, High Court, subordinate courts.

Political subdivisions: Nine provinces and 25 administrative districts. (The northern and eastern provinces, however, have been technically jointly administered since 1988.) Political parties: Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, Jathika Hela Uru-maya, Sri Lanka Freedom Party, Tamil National Alliance, United National Party, several small Tamil and Muslim parties, and others.

Economy (2005)

GDP: $23.5 billion.

Annual growth rate: 6.0%.

Natural resources: Limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gems, and phosphate.

Agriculture: (17.2% of GDP) Major products—rice, tea, rubber, coconut, and spices.

Services: (55.8% of GDP) Major types—tourism, transport, telecom, banking and finance.

Industry: (27.9% of GDP) Major types—garments and leather goods, food processing, chemicals, refined petroleum, wood products, basic metal products, and paper products.

Trade: Exports—$6.3 billion: garments, tea, rubber products, jewelry and gems, refined petroleum, and coconuts. Major markets—U.S. ($2 billion), U.K., India Imports—$8.9 billion. Major suppliers—India, Singapore, Hong Kong, China, Iran, Malaysia, Japan, UK, UAE, Belgium, Indonesia, South Korea, U.S. ($200 million).

PEOPLE

The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (formerly known as Ceylon) is an island in the Indian Ocean about 28 kilometers (18 mi.) off the southeastern coast of India with a population of about 19 million. Density is highest in the southwest where Colombo, the country’s main port and industrial center, is located. The net population growth is about 1.3%. Sri Lanka is ethnically, linguistically, and religiously diverse. Sinhalese make up 74% of the population and are concentrated in the densely populated southwest. Ceylon Tamils, citizens whose South Indian ancestors have lived on the island for centuries, total about 12% and live predominantly in the north and east.

Indian Tamils, a distinct ethnic group, represent about 5% of the population. The British brought them to Sri Lanka in the 19th century as tea and rubber plantation workers, and they remain concentrated in the “tea country” of south-central Sri Lanka. In accordance with a 1964 agreement with India, Sri Lanka granted citizenship to 230,000 “stateless” Indian Tamils in 1988. Under the pact, India granted citizenship to the remainder, some 200,000 of whom now live in India. Another 75,000 Indian Tamils, who themselves or whose parents once applied for Indian citizenship, now wish to remain in Sri Lanka. The government has stated these Tamils will not be forced to return to India, although they are not technically citizens of Sri Lanka. In October of 2003, an act of Parliament granted citizenship to several thousand of these “tea estate” Tamils.

Other minorities include Muslims (both Moors and Malays), at about 7% of the population; Burghers, who are descendants of European colonists, principally from the Netherlands and the United Kingdom (U.K.); and aboriginal Veddahs. Most Sinhalese are Buddhist; most Tamils are Hindu. The majority of Sri Lanka’s Muslims practice Sunni Islam. Sizable minorities of both Sinhalese and Tamils are Christians, most of whom are Roman Catholic. The 1978 constitution, while assuring freedom of religion, grants primacy to Buddhism.

Sinhala, an Indo-European language, is the native tongue of the Sinhalese. Tamils and most Muslims speak Tamil, part of the South Indian Dravidian linguistic group. Use of English has declined since independence, but it continues to be spoken by many in the middle and upper middle classes, particularly in Colombo. The government is seeking to reverse the decline in the use of English, mainly for economic but also for political reasons. Both Sinhala and Tamil are official languages.

HISTORY

The actual origins of the Sinhalese are shrouded in myth. Most believe they came to Sri Lanka from northern India during the 6th century BC. Buddhism arrived from the subcontinent 300 years later and spread rapidly. Buddhism and a sophisticated system of irrigation became the pillars of classical Sinhalese civilization (200 BC-1200 AD) that flourished in the north-central part of the island. Invasions from southern India, combined with internecine strife, pushed Sinhalese kingdoms southward.

The island’s contact with the outside world began early. Roman sailors called the island Taprobane. Arab traders knew it as “Serendip,” the root of the word “serendipity.” Beginning in 1505, Portuguese traders, in search of cinnamon and other spices, seized the island’s coastal areas and spread Catholicism. The Dutch supplanted the Portuguese in 1658. Although the British ejected the Dutch in 1796, Dutch law remains an important part of Sri Lankan jurisprudence. In 1815, the British defeated the king of Kandy, last of the native rulers, and created the Crown Colony of Ceylon. They established a plantation economy based on tea, rubber, and coconuts. In 1931, the British granted Ceylon limited self-rule and a universal franchise. Ceylon became independent on February 4, 1948.

Post-Independence Politics

Sri Lankan politics since independence have been strongly democratic. Two major parties, the United National Party (UNP) and the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), have generally alternated rule.

The UNP ruled first from 1948-56 under three Prime Ministers—D.S. Senanayake, his son Dudley, and Sir John Kotelawala. The SLFP ruled from 1956-65, with a short hiatus in 1960, first under S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike and then, after his assassination in 1959, under his widow, Sirimavo, the world’s first female chief executive in modern times. Dudley Senanayake and the UNP returned to power in 1965.

In 1970, Mrs. Bandaranaike again assumed the premiership. A year later, an insurrection by followers of the Maoist “Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna” (JVP, or “People’s Liberation Front”) broke out. The SLFP government suppressed the revolt and declared a state of emergency that lasted 6 years.

In 1972, Mrs. Bandaranaike’s government introduced a new constitution, which changed the country’s name from Ceylon to Sri Lanka, declared it a republic, made protection of Buddhism a constitutional principle, and created a weak president appointed by the prime minister. Its economic policies during this period were highly socialist and included the nationalization of large tea and rubber plantations and other private industries.

The UNP, under J.R. Jayewardene, returned to power in 1977. The Jayewardene government opened the economy and, in 1978, introduced a new constitution based on the French model, a key element of which was the creation of a strong executive presidency. J.R. Jayewardene was elected President by Parliament in 1978 and by nationwide election in 1982. In 1982, a national referendum extended the life of Parliament another 6 years.

The UNP’s Ranasinghe Premadasa, Prime Minister in the Jayewardene government, narrowly defeated Mrs. Bandaranaike (SLFP) in the 1988 presidential elections. The UNP also won an absolute majority in the 1989 parliamentary elections. Mr. Premadasa was assassinated on May 1, 1993 by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (“LTTE” or “Tigers”), and was replaced by then-Prime Minister Dingiri Banda Wijetunga, who appointed Ranil Wickremesinghe Prime Minister. The SLFP, the main party in the People’s Alliance (PA) coalition, returned to power in 1994 for the first time in 17 years. The PA won a plurality in the August 1994 parliamentary elections and formed a coalition government with Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga as Prime Minister. Prime Minister Kumaratunga later won the November 1994 presidential elections and appointed her mother (former Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike) to replace her as Prime Minister. President Kumaratunga won re-election to another 6-year term in December 1999. In August 2000, Mrs. Bandaranaike resigned as Prime Minister for health reasons, and Ratnasiri Wickramanayaka was appointed to take her place. In December 2001, the UNP assumed power, led by Prime Minister Ranil Wickremasinghe. Chandrika Kumaratunga remained as President. In November of 2003, President Kumaratunga suddenly took control of three key ministries, triggering a serious cohabitation crisis. In January 2004, the SLFP and the JVP formed a political grouping known as the United People’s Freedom Alliance (UPFA). In February, President Kumaratunga dissolved Parliament and called for fresh elections. In these elections, which took place in April 2004, the UPFA received 45% of the vote, with the UNP receiving 37% of the vote. While it did not win enough seats to command a majority in Parliament, the UPFA was able to form a government and appoint a cabinet headed by Prime Minister Mahinda Rajapaksa.

Presidential elections were held in November 2005. Mahinda Rajapaksa became President, and Ratnasiri Wickramanayake became Prime Minister.

Communal Crisis

Historical divisions continue to have an impact on Sri Lankan society and politics. From independence, the Tamil minority has been uneasy with the country’s unitary form of government and apprehensive that the Sinhalese majority would abuse Tamil rights. Those fears were reinforced when S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike triumphed

in the 1956 elections after appealing to Sinhalese nationalism. His declaration that Sinhala was the country’s official language—an act felt by Tamils to be a denigration of their own tongue—was the first in a series of steps over the following decades that appeared discriminatory to Tamils. Tamils also protested government educational policies and agriculture programs that encouraged Sinhalese farmers from the south to move to newly irrigated lands in the east. The decades following 1956 saw intermittent outbreaks of communal violence and growing radicalization among Tamil groups. By the mid-1970s Tamil politicians were moving from support for federalism to a demand for a separate Tamil state—”Tamil Eelam”—in northern and eastern Sri Lanka, areas of traditional Tamil settlement. In the 1977 elections, the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) won all the seats in Tamil areas on a platform of separatism. Other groups—particularly the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE or Tamil Tigers)—sought an independent state by force.

In 1983, the death of 13 Sinhalese soldiers at the hands of the LTTE unleashed the largest outburst of communal violence in the country’s history. Hundreds of Tamils were killed in Colombo and elsewhere, tens of thousands were left homeless, and more than 100,000 fled to south India. The north and east became the scene of bloodshed as security forces attempted to suppress the LTTE and other militant groups. Terrorist incidents occurred in Colombo and other cities. Each side in the conflict accused the other of violating human rights. The conflict assumed an international dimension when the Sri Lankan Government accused India of supporting the Tamil insurgents.

In October 1997, the U.S. Government designated the LTTE as a foreign terrorist organization under provisions of the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 and has maintained this designation since then, most recently redesignating the group in October of 2003.

Indian Peacekeeping

By mid-1987, India intervened in the conflict by air-dropping supplies to prevent what it felt was harsh treatment and starvation of the Tamil population in the Jaffna Peninsula caused by an economic blockade by Colombo. Under a July 29, 1987, accord (the Indo-Lanka Accord) signed by Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and President Jayewardene, the Sri Lankan Government made a number of concessions to Tamil demands, which included devolution of power to the provinces, merger—subject to later referendum—of the northern and eastern provinces, and official status for the Tamil language. India agreed to establish order in the north and east with an Indian Peace-Keeping Force (IPKF) and to cease assisting Tamil insurgents. Militant groups, although initially reluctant, agreed to surrender their arms to the IPKF.

Within weeks, however, the LTTE declared its intent to continue its armed struggle for an independent Tamil Eelam and refused to disarm. The IPKF found itself engaged in a bloody police action against the LTTE. Further complicating the return to peace was a burgeoning Sinhalese insurgency in the south. The JVP, relatively quiescent since the 1971 insurrection, began to reassert itself in 1987. Capitalizing on opposition to the Indo-Lankan Accord in the Sinhalese community, the JVP launched an intimidation campaign against supporters of the accord. Numerous UNP and other government supporters were assassinated. The government, relieved of its security burden by the IPKF in the north and east, intensified its efforts in the south. The JVP was crushed but at a high cost in human lives.

From April 1989 through June 1990, the government engaged in direct communications with the LTTE leadership. In the meantime, fighting between the LTTE and the IPKF escalated in the north. India withdrew the last of its forces from Sri Lanka in early 1990, and fighting between the LTTE and the government resumed. Both the LTTE and government forces committed serious human rights violations. In January 1995, the Sri Lankan Government and the LTTE agreed to a cessation of hostilities as a preliminary step in a government-initiated plan for peace negotiations. After 3 months, however, the LTTE unilaterally resumed hostilities. The government then adopted a policy of military engagement with the Tigers, with government forces liberating Jaffna from LTTE control by mid-1996 and moving against LTTE positions in the northern part of the country called the Vanni. An LTTE counteroffensive begun in October 1999 reversed most government gains and by May 2000 threatened government forces in Jaffna. Heavy fighting continued into 2001.

Peace Process

In December 2001, with the election of a new UNP government, the LTTE and government declared unilateral cease-fires. In February 2002, the Government (GSL) and LTTE signed a ceasefire agreement sponsored by peace process facilitator Norway. Peace talks began in Norway in December 2002. The Tigers dropped out of talks in February 2003, however, claiming they were being marginalized. In July 2004, the first suicide bomb since 2001 struck Colombo.

In March 2004, Eastern Tiger commander Karuna broke with the LTTE, going underground with his supporters. In March 2006, the Karuna faction registered a political party, the Tamil People’s Liberation Tigers. The main LTTE and the Karuna faction have targeted each other in low-level attacks since that time.

Over 30,000 Sri Lankans died in the December 2004 tsunami, and hundreds of thousands of others fled their homes. In June 2005, the GSL and LTTE reached an agreement to share $3 billion in international tsunami aid. However, the agreement was challenged in court and was never implemented. In August 2005, the LTTE assassinated Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar, an ethnic Tamil. Parliament passed a state of emergency regulation that has been renewed every month since then.

During the November 2005 presidential election, the LTTE enforced a voting boycott in areas under its control. As a result, perceived hard-liner Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) Mahinda Rajapaksa won by a narrow margin. Low-level violence between the LTTE and security forces escalated. In December 2005, pro-LTTE Tamil National Alliance MP Joseph Pararajasingham was assassinated within a GSL high security zone in the eastern town of Batticaloa.

In February 2006, exactly four years after the ceasefire agreement was signed, the GSL and LTTE renewed their commitment to the agreement at talks in Geneva. There was a lull in violence until April, when an explosion rocked a Sinhalese market in Trincomalee, followed by limited Sinhalese backlash against Tamils. Several days later, an LTTE suicide bomber attacked the main army compound in Colombo, killing eight soldiers and seriously wounding Army Commander General Fonseka. The government retaliated with air strikes on Tiger targets. In June, an LTTE suicide bomber succeeded in killing Army third-in-command General Kulatunga in a suburb of Colombo.

The European Union banned the LTTE as a terrorist organization on May 30, 2006. In June 2006, GSL and LTTE delegations flew to Oslo to discuss the future of the Scandinavian-led Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission (SLMM). The Tigers refused to sit for talks with the GSL and instead demanded the SLMM remove any monitors from EU-member nations.

Heavy fighting in August 2006, the worst since the 2002 ceasefire, killed hundreds of people and caused tens of thousands to flee their homes when the Tamil Tiger rebels clashed with government forces in the north and east. In September 2006, the government carried out the first major seizure of enemy territory by either side since the 2002 ceasefire when it drove Tamil Tiger rebels from the entrance of the strategic Trincomalee harbor. Despite the fighting, both sides still claim to adhere to the ceasefire.

GOVERNMENT

Under the 1978 constitution, the president of the republic, directly elected for a 6-year term, is chief of state, head of government, and commander in chief of the armed forces. Responsible to Parliament for the exercise of duties under the constitution and laws, the president may be removed from office by a two-thirds vote of Parliament with the concurrence of the Supreme Court.

The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers responsible to Parliament. The president’s deputy is the prime minister, who leads the ruling party in Parliament. A parliamentary no-confidence vote requires dissolution of the cabinet and the appointment of a new one by the president.

Parliament is a unicameral 225-member legislature elected by universal suffrage and proportional representation to a 6-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament. Parliament reserves the power to make all laws.

The 1978 constitution clearly envisaged a system where the president and the prime minister were from the same party. Following the December 2001 parliamentary elections, the president and the prime minister were from different parties. This led to serious cohabitation strains. In November 2003, for example, President Kumaratunga suddenly took over three key ministries (Defense, Interior, and Mass Communications), precipitating a serious cohabitation crisis between the two sides. In February of 2004, President Kumaratunga dissolved Parliament and called for fresh elections. The UPFA, while receiving enough seats in Parliament to form a minority government, fell short of the 113 seats necessary for a majority in Parliament. Mahinda Rajapaksa of the SLFP became Prime Minister and former Prime Minister and UNP Leader Ranil Wickremesinghe became Leader of the Opposition. Presidential elections were held in November 2005. Mahinda Rajapaksa became President, and Ratnasiri Wickramanayake became Prime Minister.

Sri Lanka’s judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, High Court, and a number of subordinate courts. Sri Lanka’s legal system reflects diverse cultural influences. Criminal law is fundamentally British. Basic civil law is Roman-Dutch. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.

Under the Indo-Sri Lankan Accord of July 1987—and the resulting 13th amendment to the constitution—the Government of Sri Lanka agreed to devolve significant authority to the provinces. Provincial councils are directly elected for 5-year terms. The leader of the council majority serves as the province’s chief minister; a provincial governor is appointed by the president. The councils possess limited powers in education, health, rural development, social services, agriculture, security, and local taxation. Many of these powers are shared or subject to central government oversight. Predating the accord are municipal, urban, and rural councils with limited powers.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 1/4/2007

President: Mahinda RAJAPAKSE

Prime Minister: Ratnasiri WICKREMANAYAKE

Min. of Agriculture, Irrigation, & Mahaweli Development: Maithripala SIRISENA

Min. of Child Development & Women’s Empowerment: Sumedha JAYASENA

Min. of Constitutional Affairs & National Integration: D. E. W. GUNASEKARA

Min. of Defense: Mahinda RAJAPAKSE

Min. of Disaster Management & Human Rights: Mahinda SAMARASINGHE

Min. of Education: Susil PREMAJAYANTHA

Min. of Enterprise Development & Investment Promotion: Rohitha BOGOLLAGAMA

Min. of Environment: Maithripala SIRISENA

Min. of Finance & Planning: Mahinda RAJAPAKSE

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Mangala SAMARAWEERA

Min. of Heathcare & Nutrition: Nimal Siripala DE SILVA

Min. of Highways: Jeyaraj FERNANDOPULLE

Min. of Housing & Construction: Ferial ASHRAFF

Min. of Industries & Investment Promotions: Rohita BOGOLLAGAMA

Min. of Infrastructure Development & Fisheries Housing: A. L. M. ATHAULLA

Min. of Internal Administration: Ratnasiri WICKREMANAYAKE

Min. of Justice & Law Reforms: Amarasiri DODANGODA

MIn. of Labor Relations & Foreign Employment: Athauda SENAVIRATNE

Min. of Local Government & Provincial Councils: Janaka B. TENNEKOON

Min. of Mass Media & Information: Anura Priyadharshana YAPA

Min. of Petroleum & Petroleum Resources Development: A. H. M. FOWZIE

Min. of Ports & Aviation: Mangala SAMARAWEERA

Min. of Posts & Telecommunications: D. M. JAYARATNE

Min. of Power & Energy: John SENAVIRATNE

Min. of Public Administration & Home Affairs: Sarath AMUNUGAMA

Min. of Railways & Transport: A. H. M. FOWZIE

Min. of Rural Economic Development: D. M. JAYARATNE

Min. of Rural Industries & Self-Employment Promotion: S. B. NAVINNA

Min. of Science & Technology: Tissa VITHARANA

Min. of Social Services & Social Welfare: Douglas DEVANANDA

Min. of Tourism: Anura BANDARANAIKE

Min. of Trade, Commerce, Consumer Affairs, & Marketing Development: Jeyaraj FERNANDOPULLE

Min. of Urban Development & Water Supply: Dinesh GUNAWARDENA

Min. of Vocational & Technical Training: Piyasena GAMAGE

Governor, Central Bank: Ajith Nivard CABRAAL

Ambassador to the US: Bernard GOONETILLEKE

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Prasad KARIYAWASAM

Sri Lanka maintains an embassy in the United States at 2148 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-4834025).

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Sri Lanka’s two major political parties—the UNP and the SLFP—embrace democratic values, international nonalignment, and encouragement of Sinhalese culture. Past differences between the two on foreign and economic policy have narrowed. The SLFP, however, envisions a broader role for the state in general.

Sri Lanka has a multi-party democracy that enjoys considerable stability despite relatively high levels of political violence. LTTE violence is largely confined to the north and eastern provinces, which are 6 to 8 hours by road from the capital. Before the advent of the peace process, LTTE-perpetrated terrorist bombings directed against politicians and civilian targets were common in Colombo, Kandy, and elsewhere in the country. LTTE terrorist activities have generally been aimed at destabilizing Sri Lanka politically, economically, and socially. LTTE attacks on key political figures include the assassination of Army General Kulatunga in June 2006, the attempted assassination of Army Commander General Fonseka in April 2006, the assassination of Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar in August 2005, the killing of the Industrial Development Minister by suicide bombing in June 2000, and the December 1999 attempted assassination of President Kumaratunga. Economic targets included the airport in July 2001, the Colombo World Trade Center in October 1997, and the central bank in January 1996. In January 1998, the LTTE detonated a truck bomb in Kandy, damaging the Temple of the Tooth relic, the holiest Buddhist shrine in the country.

ECONOMY

Sri Lanka is a lower-middle income developing nation with a Gross Domestic Product of about $23.5 billion. This translates into a per capita income of $1,200. Sri Lanka’s 90 percent literacy rate in local languages, and life expectancy of 72 years rank well above those of India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. English language ability is relatively high but has declined significantly since the 1970s.

Sri Lanka’s income inequality is severe, with striking differences between rural and urban areas. About a quarter of the country’s population of 19.7 million remains impoverished. Civil conflict, falling agricultural labor productivity, lack of income-earning opportunities for the rural population, and poor infrastructure outside the Western Province are impediments to poverty reduction.

In 1978, Sri Lanka shifted away from a socialist orientation and opened its economy to foreign investment. But the pace of reform has been uneven. A period of aggressive economic reform under the UNP-led government that ruled from 2002 to 2004 was followed by a more statist approach under former President Chandrika Kumaratunga and current President Mahinda Rajapaksa.

Despite a brutal civil war that raged from 1983 until 2001, economic growth averaged around 4.5% in the last ten years. In 2001, however, GDP growth was negative 1.4%—the only contraction since independence. Growth recovered to 4.0% in 2002. Following the 2002 ceasefire and subsequent economic reforms, the economy grew more rapidly, recording growth rates of 6.0% in 2003 and 5.4% in 2004.

The economic situation in Sri Lanka in 2005 was remarkably stable, despite the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, which killed 32,000 people, displaced 443,000, and caused an estimated $1 billion in damage. The tsunami’s overall economic impact was less severe than originally feared, with the economy growing by 6% in 2005 as the damage was offset by the reconstruction effort. GDP grew by 8% in the first half of 2006.

President Rajapaksa’s broad economic strategy was outlined in his election manifesto “Mahinda Chin-tana” (Mahinda’s Thoughts), which now guides government economic policy. Mahinda Chintana policies focus on poverty alleviation and steering investment to disadvantaged areas; developing the small and medium enterprise sector (SME); promotion of agriculture; and expanding the already enormous civil service. The Rajapaksa Government rejects the privatization of state enterprises, including “strategic” enterprises such as state-owned banks, airports, and electrical utilities. Instead, it plans to retain ownership and management of these enterprises and make them profitable.

The future of Sri Lanka’s economic health primarily depends on political stability, return to peace, and continued policy reforms—particularly in the area of fiscal discipline and budget management. Rising oil costs have contributed to Sri Lanka’s high public debt load (94% of GDP in 2005). Sri Lanka needs economic growth rates of 7-8% and investment levels of about 30% of GDP for a sustainable reduction in unemployment and poverty. In the past 10 years, investment levels have averaged around 25% of GDP.

Sri Lanka depends on a continued strong global economy for investment and for expansion of its export base. The government plans an ambitious infrastructure development program to boost growth. It hopes to diversify export products and destinations to make use of the Indo-Lanka and Pakistan-Sri Lanka Free Trade Agreements, GSP+ treatment by the European Union and other regional and bilateral preferential trading agreements.

The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 55.8%. In 2005-6, the service sector continued its strong expansion, fueled primarily by strong growth in telecom, trading and financial services. Public administration and defense expenditures have remained steady in 2005, but likely to have increased in 2006. There also is a growing information technology sector, especially information technology training and software development and exports. The tourism sector suffered in 2005 following the tsunami. While beach resorts have rebuilt, tourism remains well below potential.

Manufacturing accounts for about 16% of GDP. The textile, apparel, and leather products sector is the largest, accounting for 39.5% of total industrial output. The second-largest industrial sector, at 22.4% of total manufacturing output, is food, beverages, and tobacco. The third-largest industrial sector is chemical, petroleum, rubber, and plastic products. The construction sector accounts for 7.2% of GDP and has posted strong growth rates in 2005-6. Mining and quarrying accounts of 1.9%.

Agriculture has lost its relative importance to the Sri Lankan economy in recent decades. It employs 33% of the working population, but accounts for only 17.2% of GDP. Rice, the staple cereal, is cultivated extensively. The plantation sector consists of tea, rubber, and coconut; in recent years, the tea crop has made significant contributions to export earnings.

Trade and Foreign Assistance

Sri Lanka’s exports (mainly apparel, tea, rubber, gems and jewelry) were $6.3 billion and imports (mainly oil, textiles, food, and machinery) were $8.8 billion in 2005. The resulting large trade deficit was financed primarily by foreign assistance and by remittances from Sri Lankan expatriate workers. Sri Lanka must diversify its exports beyond garments and tea. Garment exports face increased competition following the 2005 expiration of the worldwide Multifiber Arrangement. The tea industry is challenged by a shortage of plantation labor and by growing competition.

Exports to the United States, Sri Lanka’s most important market, were $2.1 billion in 2005, or 32.8% of total exports. For many years, the United States has been Sri Lanka’s biggest market for garments, taking almost 60% of total garment exports. India is Sri Lanka’s largest supplier, with exports of $1.8 billion in 2003. The United States exported approximately $160 million to Sri Lanka in 2005 (plus about $20 million of tsunami related exports), consisting primarily of industrial machinery, as well as medical instruments, pharmaceuticals and specialized fabrics and textiles for the garment industry.

Sri Lanka is highly dependent on foreign assistance, with the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, Japan, and other donors lending or giving over $1.2 billion annually. While implementation of aid projects has been spotty over the years, the government is trying to improve this record by streamlining tender processes and increasing project management skills. The United States led international efforts for tsunami relief and reconstruction, committing a total of $134 million to Sri Lanka.

Labor

The unemployment rate has declined in recent years and hovers around 7.5%. The rate of unemployment among women and high school and college graduates, however, has been proportionally higher than the rate for less-educated workers. The government has embarked on educational reforms it hopes will lead to better preparation of students and better matches between graduates and jobs.

More than 20% of the 7.5 million-strong work force is unionized, but union membership is declining. There are more than 1,650 registered trade unions, many of which have 50 or fewer members, and 19 federations. Many unions have political affiliations. The Ceylon Workers Congress (CWC) and Lanka Jathika estate workers union are the two largest unions, representing workers in plantation sector. The president of the CWC also is Minister of Youth Empowerment and Socio Economic Development. Other strong and influential trade unions include the Ceylon Mercantile Union, Sri Lanka Nidhahas Sevaka Sangamaya, Jathika Sevaka Sangayama, Ceylon Federation of Trade Unions, Ceylon Bank Employees Union, Union of Post and Telecommunication Officers, Conference of Public Sector Independent Trade Unions, and the JVP-aligned Inter-Company Trade Union.

Public sector trade unions have recently resisted Government moves to restructure the state-owned electrical utility board and the petroleum company. Private sector workers are also agitating for a “living wage” significantly higher than the current minimum wage.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Sri Lanka traditionally follows a non-aligned foreign policy but has been seeking closer relations with the United States since December 2001. It participates in multilateral diplomacy, particularly at the United Nations, where it seeks to promote sovereignty, independence, and development in the developing world. Sri Lanka was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). It also is a member of the Commonwealth, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM, while also stressing the importance it places on regionalism by playing a strong role in SAARC.

U.S.-SRI LANKAN RELATIONS

The United States enjoys cordial relations with Sri Lanka that are based, in large part, on shared democratic traditions. U.S. policy toward Sri Lanka is characterized by respect for its independence, sovereignty, and moderate nonaligned foreign policy; support for the country’s unity, territorial integrity, and democratic institutions; and encouragement of its social and economic development. The United States is a strong supporter of ethnic reconciliation in Sri Lanka and the peace process that began in December 2001. U.S. assistance has totaled more than $1.63 billion since Sri Lanka’s independence in 1948. Through the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), it has contributed to Sri Lanka’s economic growth with projects designed to reduce unemployment, improve housing, develop the Colombo Stock Exchange, modernize the judicial system, and improve competitiveness. At the June 2003 Tokyo Donors’ Conference on Sri Lanka, the United States pledged $54 million, including $40.4 million of USAID funding. In addition, the International Broadcast Bureau (IBB)—formerly Voice of America (VOA)—operates a radio-transmitting station in Sri Lanka. The U.S. Armed Forces maintain a limited military-to-military relationship with the Sri Lanka defense establishment. By February 2005, the U.S. had contributed $67 million to Sri Lankan relief following the tsunami disaster of December 26, 2004.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

COLOMBO (E) Address: 210, Galle Road, Colombo 3,; Phone: 94-11-249-8500; Fax: 94-11-243-7345; Workweek: M-Th: 0800–1730, F: 0800–12:00; Website: http://colombo.usembassy.gov/.

Last Updated: 1/27/2007

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : January 26, 2007

Country Description: Sri Lanka is a presidential parliamentary democracy with a developing economy. Civil war and terrorism have seriously disrupted the country since 1983. On February 22, 2002, the Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) signed an indefinite cease-fire agreement. Over the past several years, incidents of violence have increased. From December 2005 to January 2007 over 3700 persons, including combatants and civilians, were killed in the conflict, and the cease-fire agreement remains at risk. Despite the armed insurgency, Sri Lanka’s beaches, hill country, and archeological sites continued to attract thousands of visitors each year from around the world. The capital city of Colombo, the Cultural Triangle (Kandy, Anuradhapura, and Polonnaruwa), and many southern beach towns all have good tourist facilities.

The Asian Tsunami on December 26, 2004 caused severe damage and loss of life to several coastal areas of eastern, southern, and southwestern Sri Lanka. Many affected resorts have completely recovered. Travelers planning to visit Sri Lanka should consult with travel agencies or the Sri Lankan Tourist Board, however, to ensure their itineraries travelers should take this event into account, and plan accordingly.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport and onward/return ticket and proof of sufficient funds are required. A no-cost visitor visa, valid for 30 days, will be granted to tourists at the time of entry into Sri Lanka. Business travelers are required to have a visa prior to arrival. Visitors staying more than 30 days for any purpose must pay residency visa fees. Travelers need yellow fever and cholera immunizations if they are arriving from an infected area. All travelers departing Sri Lanka (except diplomats and certain exempted travelers) must pay an airport tax, in cash. Sri Lankan law requires all persons, including foreigners, who are guests in private households, to register in person at the nearest local police station. Individuals who stay in private households without registering may be temporarily detained for questioning. This requirement does not apply to individuals staying in hotels or guesthouses. Specific inquiries should be addressed to the Embassy of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, 2148 Wyoming Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C. 20008, telephone (202) 483-4025 through 26, fax numbers (202) 232-7181, e-mail address: consular@slembassyusa.org, home page: http://www.slembassy.org, the Sri Lankan Consulate General in Los Angeles at 3250 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1405, Los Angeles, CA 90010, telephone (213) 387-0210, or the U.N. Mission in New York City, telephone (212) 986-7040. There are several honorary Sri Lankan consuls general and consuls in the United States. They can be located at the Sri Lankan Embassy web site. Visit the Embassy of Sri Lanka website at http://www.slembassyusa.org for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: Due to the outbreak of hostilities in July 2006, the Department of State issued a Travel Warning for Sri Lanka that strongly advises American citizens not to travel to the north and east of Sri Lanka. Since 1997, the State Department has included the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) on its list of foreign terrorist organizations. Terrorist activities such as suicide bombings and targeted assassinations in the capital city of Colombo and other areas of the country remain a serious threat. The LTTE have targeted many Tamil moderates, Sri Lankan military and government officials, and the High Commissioner of Pakistan to Sri Lanka. As the conflict continues, the U.S. Embassy expects that targeted assassinations and bombings in the Colombo area will continue. We strongly advise against all travel to the north and east of Sri Lanka.

Throughout their history, the LTTE have engaged in numerous terrorist acts, including suicide bombings at political rallies, government buildings, and major economic targets. In December 2006 the LTTE attacked the motorcade of Defense Secretary Gotabaya Rajapaksa in downtown Colombo. On June 17, 2006, LTTE frogmen were apprehended north of Colombo; they may have been trying to attack ships in the port of Colombo. On July 7, 2004, a suicide bomber detonated in a police station in Colombo, killing herself, 4 policemen, and critically injuring 11 people. In 2003, the LTTE attacked several foreign commercial ships in the waters off the north and east coasts of Sri Lanka. In 2001, the LTTE attacked the Colombo International Airport and destroyed both commercial and military aircraft. Several military personnel were killed, military and airport employees were injured, and civilians were caught in the crossfire. The LTTE have also engaged in political assassinations, including the August 12, 2005 assassination of Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar at his residence in Colombo.

Although U.S. citizens have not been specifically targeted, LTTE operations have been planned and executed with the knowledge that Americans and other foreigners might be killed or injured. American citizens traveling or residing in Sri Lanka may be inadvertently caught up in random acts of violence. Travel in restricted areas is dangerous. In the past the LTTE has detonated bombs near major hotels, a tourist site in Kandy, and has targeted buses and trains. In January 2007, two bombs on public buses outside Colombo killed more than 20 people and injured dozens more. In May 2006, seven people were killed when a jeep carrying Sri Lankan tourists hit a landmine in Wilpattu National Park in the northwest of the country. The park reopened in 2003, after being closed for 17 years due to the ongoing conflict. While most national parks are quite safe, tourists should be aware that the LTTE has the capability to operate in many national parks located in the north and east of Sri Lanka. Travelers should also be aware that the LTTE have employed vehicle-mounted bombs. In April 2001, grenade fragments seriously injured an American citizen when she was caught in a skirmish between government and insurgent forces in the eastern part of the country.

We advise all Americans to stay away from military bases and vehicles in Sri Lanka. In October 2006 the LTTE attacked military targets in Galle and Habarana. On June 6, 2006 a claymore mine exploded 50 meters from the Welisara Sri Lanka Navy (SLN) camp in Ragama, on Colombo-Negombo Road. On April 25, 2006, a female suicide bomber attacked the vehicle of the Commander of the Sri Lankan Army at army headquarters in Colombo, killing several members of his staff and injuring many more bystanders. While these targets were near tourist areas, foreign tourists were not the target of these attacks and none were injured.

American citizens should also be alert to outbreaks of communal violence, such as that which occurred in April 2003 when two hand grenades were detonated in tourist hotels in Arugam Bay. In October 2002, riots between Muslim and Sinhala factions in the Greater Colombo area precipitated short-term curfews. In May 2001 a disturbance between Buddhist and Muslim communities near Kandy reportedly resulted in one death during a police shootout and extensive property damage.

Americans are advised to avoid entirely political rallies and other mass gatherings, public transportation, and to limit their exposure to government buildings if possible. Non-Sri Lankan citizens of Tamil heritage have occasionally been detained during security operations. U.S. citizens of any ethnic heritage are encouraged to keep their passports with them at all times. In the event of a terrorist attack, Americans should monitor local radio and television, seek cover away from windows, and return to their homes or hotels when it is safe to do so. The Government has periodically imposed curfews in Colombo; Americans should strictly observe curfew regulations and monitor local radio and television. Travelers in Colombo are often the subject of searches by the police, as security forces increase their vigilance. American citizens should comply with instructions from the security forces.

American citizens are strongly advised not to travel north of a line from Puttalam on the west coast through Anuradhapura in the central north and Nilaveli (just north of Trincomalee) in the east. Areas north of this line contain many land mines, making travel off paved roads very dangerous. Americans are also advised against travel to the city of Jaffna in the North. In addition, the Government of Sri Lanka does not exercise effective control of the civil administration in many sections of the north, where the LTTE operate openly. On April 18, 2006, the U.S. Embassy in Sri Lanka urged all American citizens to avoid travel to any location in the Jaffna Peninsula or the Trincomalee area and urged Americans in these parts to give serious consideration to departing. Furthermore, Americans are advised that travel in the east in the area south of the Anuradhapura-Nilaveli line (including Trincomalee, Batticaloa and areas south to Arugam Bay) poses significant safety risks. The security forces have bombed several areas in LTTE-controlled areas. Additionally, fighting between government and LTTE forces may pose severe hazards to American citizens traveling in this region. Official travel by U.S. Government personnel to these areas in the North and East is restricted, and their unofficial travel is prohibited. Americans should consider their personal security foremost before considering traveling or working in eastern Sri Lanka.

In addition, roads in these areas are often substandard, and police, medical and other emergency help is severely limited or not available. Communications within the eastern areas are also limited, with no cell phone accessibility and very limited landline telephone access. Because of these factors, the U.S. Embassy may not be able to provide consular services in a timely manner to American citizens who travel to the north and east.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet website where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities outside Colombo are limited. The U.S. Embassy maintains a list of private physicians who may be consulted. Medical supplies are uneven; travelers should carry any special medications with them. There are six large hospitals in the Colombo area, including three with emergency trauma service—Asiri Hospital, Apollo Hospital, and the government-run General Hospital. Serious medical problems may require evacuation to the United States or to the nearest country where adequate medical facilities or treatment is available, usually Thailand or Singapore. Neither Thailand nor Singapore requires American citizens to have an entry visa.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Sri Lanka is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Vehicular traffic moves on the left (British style). Traffic in Colombo is very congested. Narrow, two-lane highways, dangerously-driven buses, overloaded trucks and the variety of conveyances on the road, ranging from ox carts, elephants and bicycles to new four-wheel- drive jeeps, make driving a challenge and dangerous.

Many visitors hire cars and drivers for long trips through the country. Individuals choosing to hire three-wheeled vehicles should negotiate prices beforehand to avoid confrontations. Visit the website of Sri Lanka’s national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.lanka.net.

Aviation Safety Oversight: Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Sri Lanka, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Sri Lanka’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet website at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Sri Lanka recognizes dual nationality in some cases. For further information, please contact the Sri Lankan Embassy in Washington, D.C., the Consulate General in Los Angeles, or the U.N. Mission in New York City.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Sri Lanka’s laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Sri Lanka are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Sri Lanka are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy through the State Department’s travel registration website and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Sri Lanka. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy in Colombo. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy in located at 210 Galle Road, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka. The Embassy’s telephone number during normal business hours Monday through Friday is (94) (11) 249 8500. The after-hours and emergency telephone number is (94) (11) 249 8888. The Consular Section fax number is (94)-(11)-249 8590. The Embassy’s Internet address is http://usembassy.state.gov/srilanka. The Consular Section has a specific email address dedicated to American Citizens Services at ColomboACS@ state.gov. The general email address for the consular section is consularcolombo@state.gov. The Embassy in Colombo also covers the Republic of Maldives.

International Adoption : February 2007

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

General: The Sri Lankan Department of Probation and Sri Lankan Child Care Services may, as the need arises, amend the adoption procedures. Specific questions regarding adoptions in Sri Lanka should be addressed to either directly to the Department of Probation and Child Care Services, to the Sri Lankan Embassy in Washington, or to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Sri Lanka.

Availability of Children for Adoption: Please review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: The government office responsible for adoptions in Sri Lanka is the Department of Probation and Child Care Services, 95 Sir Chittampalam Gardiner Mawtha, P.O Box 546, Colombo 02, Sri Lanka. Telephone No. 94-1-327600 or 94-1-448577, Fax No. 94-1-327600. The Department’s hours of operation are from 8.30 a.m. to 4.15 p.m.

Every application for adoption must be in conformity with the provisions of the Adoption of Children’s Ordinance (Chapter 61) as amended as it relates to restricts in making of adoption orders, terms and conditions of adoption orders and court requirements.

Adoption Procedures: The District Court of Colombo and the District Court of Colombo South that have the appropriate jurisdiction, are empowered to make orders of adoption of Sri Lankan children by persons not resident and domiciled in Sri Lanka. Foreign applicants cannot find children for adoption privately. Allocation of children can only be made from the Sri Lankan State Receiving Homes and Voluntary Children’s Homes that are registered by the Department of Probation and Child Care Services for over five years and only by specific authorization of the Commissioner of Probation.

• Have a home study prepared in the U.S.
• Gather together all your supporting documents.
• Send your formal application and all the supporting documents to the Sri Lankan Embassy for authentication and transmission to the Department of Probation and Child Care Services in Sri Lanka.
• Wait for the letter of allocation from the Sri Lankan adoption agency.
• Upon receipt of the Commissioner’s letter, the prospective parents should make arrangements to travel to Sri Lanka. Expect to stay at least 4 to 5 weeks since court action for an adoption must take place in Sri Lanka.
• On arrival in Sri Lanka, contact the social worker assigned to the case by the Commissioner of Probation & Child Care Services to schedule an interview at the Department of Probation and Child Care Services.
• After the interview, the prospective parents will be issued a letter from the Commissioner authorizing them to see the child at the specified children’s home. However, the applicants will not be allowed to take the child out of the custody of the person in charge for any purpose without the prior approval of the Commissioner. Authority can be given to the applicants for the purpose of medical examination of the child.
• Engage a Sri Lankan attorney to represent you at the legal proceedings. If all is in accordance with the applicable laws and regulations, the court issues an order of adoption.
• Obtain the Certificate of Adoption using the adoption order from the courts by registering it with the Registrar General.
• Obtain a Sri Lankan passport for the adopted child.

Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Age and Civil Status Requirements: Under Sri Lankan law adoption by single persons is not permitted. An application for adoption to the courts must be made jointly by husband and wife. Each of the applicants must be over the age of 25 years and not less than 21 years older than the child for whom the application is made.

Both husband and wife must be present during the court proceedings unless the court waives personal appearances on the grounds of ill health supported by a medical practitioner recognized by the U.S. Government. In such cases a power of attorney will also be necessary.

Residential Requirements: The adoptive parents should be prepared to stay for a period of about 4 weeks for the court procedures to be finalized. Once an IV is issued the child could leave the country the very next day.

IMPORTANT NOTICE: THE COMMISSIONER OF CHILD CARE SERVICES AND PROBATION IN COLOMBO HAS ADVISED THE U.S. EMBASSY THAT, UNDER SRI LANKAN LAW, WHILE FOREIGN NATIONALS ARE RESIDING IN SRI LANKA THEY CANNOT ADOPT A CHILD FROM THAT COUNTRY.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: Foreign applicants cannot find children for adoption privately. Allocation of children can only be made from the Sri Lankan State Receiving Homes and Voluntary Children’s Homes that are registered by the Department of Probation and Child Care Services for over five years and only by specific authorization of the Commissioner of Probation.

Doctors: The U.S. Embassy maintains current lists of doctors and sources for medicines, should either you or your child experience health problems while in Sri Lanka.

Documentary Requirements:

Final Adoption Decree issued by the District Court, birth certificate issued to the biological parents or hospital records and medical reports issued by the Embassy panel physician.

Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Embassy of Sri Lanka:
2148 Wyoming Ave. N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20008
Tel: 202-483-4026 to 28
Fax: 202-232-7181
Email address: slembassy@clark.net

U.S. Embassy:
210, Galle Road
Colombo 03, Sri Lanka
Tel: 94-1-448007
Fax: 94-1-437345, 436943
Home page:
http://www.usia.gov/posts/srilanka or www.travel.state.gov

Additional Information: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Questions: Specific questions regarding adoption in Sri Lanka may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Colombo. You may also contact the Office of Children’s Issues, SA-29, 2201 C Street, NW, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-2818, Tel: 1-888-407-4747 with specific questions.

Travel Warning : October 23, 2006

This Travel Warning provides security information and alerts American citizens traveling to or living in the northern and eastern areas of Sri Lanka of the heightened potential for terrorist actions, including attacks against civilians. This situation is likely to continue for some time. Over the last several months, acts of terrorism including bombings and political assassinations have occurred in Sri Lanka. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE) and Sri Lankan military forces have clashed on several occasions, and this fighting has escalated in recent weeks. While most of the country remains largely unaffected, the Department warns Americans against traveling to areas in the North and East of the country given the dangers caused by the ongoing fighting between LTTE, other armed groups, and Sri Lankan military forces. This Travel Warning expires on April 19, 2007.

The Department of State alerts American citizens to the dangers posed by recent acts of terrorism throughout Sri Lanka, and warns against travel to the most seriously affected regions. Although there is no specific indication that American citizens or institutions are targets, there is a general risk of American citizens being victims of violence simply by being at the wrong place at the wrong time. Politically motivated assassinations have taken place throughout Sri Lanka, including several in the Colombo area. In many cases, these assassinations involve the use of fragmentation bombs. American citizens in Sri Lanka should be aware of their personal surroundings and follow good security practices. Americans should avoid large crowds or public gatherings and should particularly stay away from political rallies and military bases in Sri Lanka.

The areas in the North and East are of special concern. These areas are defined as the regions north of a line following the highway from Puttalam through Anuradhapura to Trincomalee, and east down to Batticaloa. The Department of State warns U.S. citizens that travel to these areas and into any LTTE-controlled territory may pose severe hazards. U.S. government personnel are generally prohibited from traveling in these areas, and American citizens residing in these areas should depart immediately as their safety cannot be effectively guaranteed. We have no indication at this time of a threat to tourist areas in the Cultural Triangle, including territory around Anaradhapura and Polonnoruwa.

In areas outside of the North and East, Sri Lankan nationals have been the targets of assassinations and bombings. On October 18, the LTTE targeted a Sri Lankan naval facility in Galle, on the southwest coast. Foreign tourists were not the objects of this attack and none were injured. Americans should comply with all instructions from security forces and police when traveling in Sri Lanka.

American citizens, including those of Sri Lankan origin, living in Sri Lanka or traveling there for even a few days are strongly urged to register with the Embassy. Registration will allow the embassy to provide direct information on the security situation as necessary. Registration is done online and can be done in advance of travel at https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs/.

Information on registering can also be found at the Embassy website: http://srilanka.usembassy.gov or at the Department of State’s Consular Affairs website: http://travel.state.gov.

As the Department continues to develop information on any potential security threats to U.S. citizens overseas, it shares credible threat information through its consular information documents, available on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov. In addition to information on the Internet, travelers may obtain up-to-date information on security conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll-free in the U.S. and Canada, or outside the U.S. and Canada on a regular toll line at 1-202-501-4444.

SRI LANKA

Compiled from the February 2005 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 65,610 sq. km. (25,332 sq. mi.); about the size of West Virginia.

Cities: Capital—Colombo (pop. est. 1.3 million—urban area). Sri Jayewardenepura-Kotte is the officially designated capital and is the site of Parliament, but it is currently only an administrative center. Other cities—Kandy (150,000), Galle (110,000), Jaffna (100,000).

Terrain: Coastal plains in the northern third of country; hills and mountains in south-central Sri Lanka rise to more than 2,133 meters (7,000 ft.).

Climate: Tropical. Rainy seasons—light in northeast, fall and winter, with average rainfall of 50 in.; heavy in southwest, summer and fall, with average rainfall of 200 in.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Sri Lankan(s).

Population: (2003) 19.4 million.

Annual growth rate: 0.08%.

Ethnic groups: (2002) Sinhalese (74%), Tamils (18%), Muslims (7%), others (1%).

Religions: Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity.

Languages: Sinhala and Tamil (official), English.

Education: Years compulsory—to age 14. Primary school attendance—96.5%. Literacy—91%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—15/1,000. Life expectancy—71 yrs. (male); 76 yrs. (female).

Work force: 7.2 million.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: February 4, 1948.

Constitution: August 31, 1978.

Suffrage: Universal over 18.

Branches: Executive—president, chief of state and head of government, elected for a 6-year term. Legislative—unicameral 225-member Parliament. Judicial—Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, High Court, subordinate courts.

Administrative subdivisions: Nine provinces and 25 administrative districts. (The northern and eastern provinces, however, have been technically jointly administered since 1988.)

Political parties: Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, Jathika Hela Urumaya, Sri Lanka Freedom Party, Tamil National Alliance, United National Party, several small Tamil and Muslim parties, and others. The Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, along with several small leftist parties, operate under an umbrella organization known as the "United People's Freedom Alliance." The United National Party and several other smaller parties operate as the "United National Front."

Economy (2003)

GDP: $18.4 billion (est. 2003).

Annual growth rate: 5.9%.

Natural resources: Limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gems, and phosphate.

Agriculture: (20.1% of GDP) Major products—rice, tea, rubber, coconut, and spices.

Services: (53.6% of GDP) Major types–tourism, transport, telecom, banking and finance.

Industry: (26.3% of GDP) Major types—garments and leather goods, food processing, chemicals, refined petroleum, wood products, basic metal products, and paper products.

Trade: Exports—$5.1 billion: garments and footwear, tea, rubber products, jewelry and gems, refined petroleum, and coconuts. Major markets—U.S. ($1.8 billion), U.K., Germany, Japan, Belgium. Imports—$6.4 billion. Major suppliers—India, Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, U.K., U.S. ($155 million). [U.S. data]

PEOPLE

The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (formerly known as Ceylon) is an island in the Indian Ocean about 28 kilometers (18 mi.) off the southeastern coast of India with a population of about 19 million. Density is highest in the southwest where Colombo, the country's main port and industrial center, is located. The net population growth is about 1.3%. Sri Lanka is ethnically, linguistically, and religiously diverse.

Sinhalese make up 74% of the population and are concentrated in the densely populated southwest. Ceylon Tamils, citizens whose South Indian ancestors have lived on the island for centuries, total about 12% and live predominantly in the north and east.

Indian Tamils, a distinct ethnic group, represent about 5% of the population. The British brought them to Sri Lanka in the 19th century as tea and rubber plantation workers, and they remain concentrated in the "tea country" of south-central Sri Lanka. In accordance with a 1964 agreement with India, Sri Lanka granted citizenship to 230,000 "stateless" Indian Tamils in 1988. Under the pact, India granted citizenship to the remainder, some 200,000 of whom now live in India. Another 75,000 Indian Tamils, who themselves or whose parents once applied for Indian citizenship, now wish to remain in Sri Lanka. The government has stated these Tamils will not be forced to return to India, although they are not technically citizens of Sri Lanka. In October of 2003, an act of Parliament granted citizenship to several thousand of these "tea estate" Tamils.

Other minorities include Muslims (both Moors and Malays), at about 7% of the population; Burghers, who are descendants of European colonists, principally from the Netherlands and the United Kingdom (U.K.); and aboriginal Veddahs. Most Sinhalese are Buddhist; most Tamils are Hindu. The majority of Sri Lanka's Muslims practice Sunni Islam. Sizable minorities of both Sinhalese and Tamils are Christians, most of whom are Roman Catholic. The 1978 constitution, while assuring freedom of religion, grants primacy to Buddhism.

Sinhala, an Indo-European language, is the native tongue of the Sinhalese. Tamils and most Muslims speak Tamil, part of the South Indian Dravidian linguistic group. Use of English has declined since independence, but it continues to be spoken by many in the middle and upper middle classes, particularly in Colombo. The government is seeking to reverse the decline in the use of English, mainly for economic but also for political reasons. Both Sinhala and Tamil are official languages.

HISTORY

The actual origins of the Sinhalese are shrouded in myth. Most believe they came to Sri Lanka from northern India during the 6th century BC. Buddhism arrived from the subcontinent 300 years later and spread rapidly. Buddhism and a sophisticated system of irrigation became the pillars of classical Sinhalese civilization (200 BC-1200 AD) that flourished in the north-central part of the island. Invasions from southern India, combined with internecine strife, pushed Sinhalese kingdoms southward.

The island's contact with the outside world began early. Roman sailors called the island Taprobane. Arab traders knew it as "Serendip," the root of the word "serendipity." Beginning in 1505, Portuguese traders, in search of cinnamon and other spices, seized the island's coastal areas and spread Catholicism. The Dutch supplanted the Portuguese in 1658. Although the British ejected the Dutch in 1796, Dutch law remains an important part of Sri Lankan jurisprudence. In 1815, the British defeated the king of Kandy, last of the native rulers, and created the Crown Colony of Ceylon. They established a plantation economy based on tea, rubber, and coconuts. In 1931, the British granted Ceylon limited self-rule and a universal franchise. Ceylon became independent on February 4, 1948.

Post-Independence Politics

Sri Lankan politics since independence have been strongly democratic. Two major parties, the United National Party (UNP) and the Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), have generally alternated rule.

The UNP ruled first from 1948-56 under three Prime Ministers—D.S. Senanayake, his son Dudley, and Sir John Kotelawala. The SLFP ruled from 1956-65, with a short hiatus in 1960, first under S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike and then, after his assassination in 1959, under his widow, Sirimavo, the world's first female chief executive in modern times. Dudley Senanayake and the UNP returned to power in 1965.

In 1970, Mrs. Bandaranaike again assumed the premiership. A year later, an insurrection by followers of the Maoist "Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna" (JVP, or "People's Liberation Front") broke out. The SLFP government suppressed the revolt and declared a state of emergency that lasted 6 years.

In 1972, Mrs. Bandaranaike's government introduced a new constitution, which changed the country's name from Ceylon to Sri Lanka, declared it a republic, made protection of Buddhism a constitutional principle, and created a weak president appointed by the prime minister. Its economic policies during this period were highly socialist and included the nationalization of large tea and rubber plantations and other private industries.

The UNP, under J.R. Jayewardene, returned to power in 1977. The Jayewardene government opened the economy and, in 1978, introduced a new constitution based on the French model, a key element of which was the creation of a strong executive presidency. J.R. Jayewardene was elected President by Parliament in 1978 and by nationwide election in 1982. In 1982, a national referendum extended the life of Parliament another 6 years.

The UNP's Ranasinghe Premadasa, Prime Minister in the Jayewardene government, narrowly defeated Mrs. Bandaranaike (SLFP) in the 1988 presidential elections. The UNP also won an absolute majority in the 1989 parliamentary elections. Mr. Premadasa was assassinated on May 1, 1993 by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam ("LTTE" or "Tigers"), and was replaced by then-Prime Minister Dingiri Banda Wijetunga, who appointed Ranil Wickremesinghe Prime Minister.

The SLFP, the main party in the People's Alliance (PA) coalition, returned to power in 1994 for the first time in 17 years. The PA won a plurality in the August 1994 parliamentary elections and formed a coalition government with Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga as Prime Minister. Prime Minister Kumaratunga later won the November 1994 presidential elections and appointed her mother (former Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike) to replace her as Prime Minister. President Kumaratunga won re-election to another 6-year term in December 1999. In August 2000, Mrs. Bandaranaike resigned as Prime Minister for health reasons, and Ratnasiri Wickramanayaka was appointed to take her place. In December 2001, the UNP assumed power, led by Prime Minister Ranil Wickremasinghe. Chandrika Kumaratunga remains as President. In November of 2003, President Kumaratunga suddenly took control of three key ministries, triggering a serious cohabitation crisis. In January 2004, the SLFP and the JVP formed a political grouping known as the United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA). In February, President Kumaratunga dissolved Parliament and called for fresh elections. In these elections, which took place in April 2004, the UPFA received 45% of the vote, with the UNP receiving 37% of the vote. While it did not win enough seats to command a majority in Parliament, the UPFA was able to form a government and appoint a cabinet headed by Prime Minister Mahinda Rajapakse.

Communal Crisis

Historical divisions continue to have an impact on Sri Lankan society and politics. From independence, the Tamil minority has been uneasy with the country's unitary form of government and apprehensive that the Sinhalese majority would abuse Tamil rights. Those fears were reinforced when S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike triumphed in the 1956 elections after appealing to Sinhalese nationalism. His declaration that Sinhala was the country's official language—an act felt by Tamils to be a denigration of their own tongue—was the first in a series of steps over the following decades that appeared discriminatory to Tamils. Tamils also protested government educational policies and agriculture programs that encouraged Sinhalese farmers from the south to move to newly irrigated lands in the east. The decades following 1956 saw intermittent outbreaks of communal violence and growing radicalization among Tamil groups. By the mid-1970s Tamil politicians were moving from support for federalism to a demand for a separate Tamil state—"Tamil Eelam"—in northern and eastern Sri Lanka, areas of traditional Tamil settlement. In the 1977 elections, the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) won all the seats in Tamil areas on a platform of separatism. Other groups—particularly the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE or Tamil Tigers)—sought an independent state by force.

In 1983, the death of 13 Sinhalese soldiers at the hands of the LTTE unleashed the largest outburst of communal violence in the country's history. Hundreds of Tamils were killed in Colombo and elsewhere, tens of thousands were left homeless, and more than 100,000 fled to south India. The north and east became the scene of bloodshed as security forces attempted to suppress the LTTE and other militant groups. Terrorist incidents occurred in Colombo and other cities. Each side in the conflict accused the other of violating human rights. The conflict assumed an international dimension when the Sri Lankan Government accused India of supporting the Tamil insurgents.

Indian Peacekeeping

By mid-1987, India intervened in the conflict by air-dropping supplies to prevent what it felt was harsh treatment and starvation of the Tamil population in the Jaffna Peninsula caused by an economic blockade by Colombo. Under a July 29, 1987, accord (the Indo-Lanka Accord) signed by Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and President Jayewardene, the Sri Lankan Government made a number of concessions to Tamil demands, which included devolution of power to the provinces, merger—subject to later referendum—of the northern and eastern provinces, and official status for the Tamil language. India agreed to establish order in the north and east with an Indian Peace-Keeping Force (IPKF) and to cease assisting Tamil insurgents. Militant groups, although initially reluctant, agreed to surrender their arms to the IPKF.

Within weeks, however, the LTTE declared its intent to continue its armed struggle for an independent Tamil Eelam and refused to disarm. The IPKF found itself engaged in a bloody police action against the LTTE. Further complicating the return to peace was a burgeoning Sinhalese insurgency in the south. The JVP, relatively quiescent since the 1971 insurrection, began to reassert itself in 1987. Capitalizing on opposition to the Indo-Lankan Accord in the Sinhalese community, the JVP launched an intimidation campaign against supporters of the accord. Numerous UNP and other government supporters were assassinated. The government, relieved of its security burden by the IPKF in the north and east, intensified its efforts in the south. The JVP was crushed but at a high cost in human lives.

From April 1989 through June 1990, the government engaged in direct communications with the LTTE leadership. In the meantime, fighting between the LTTE and the IPKF escalated in the north. India withdrew the last of its forces from Sri Lanka in early 1990, and fighting between the LTTE and the government resumed. Both the LTTE and government forces committed serious human rights violations. In January 1995, the Sri Lankan Government and the LTTE agreed to a cessation of hostilities as a preliminary step in a government-initiated plan for peace negotiations. After 3 months, however, the LTTE unilaterally resumed hostilities. The government then adopted a policy of military engagement with the Tigers, with government forces liberating Jaffna from LTTE control by mid-1996 and moving against LTTE positions in the northern part of the country called the Vanni. An LTTE counteroffensive begun in October 1999 reversed most government gains and by May 2000 threatened government forces in Jaffna. Heavy fighting continued into 2001.

Peace Process

In December 2001, with the election of a new UNP government, the LTTE and government declared unilateral cease-fires. In February 2002, with Norwegian Government facilitation, the two sides agreed to a joint cease-fire accord. The peace process has continued apace, affecting Sri Lankans politically, economically, and socially in numerous and overwhelmingly positive ways. After holding six rounds of talks, the LTTE withdrew from the negotiation process in April 2003. At this time, the informal peace process continues on the ground and both sides continue to observe the February 2002 ceasefire. In May 2004, the new UPFA government and the LTTE committed themselves in public and in discussions with the Norwegian facilitators to resuming the negotiation track.

LTTE violence, including the assassination of approximately 40 Tamil alleged opponents from 2002 through 2003, is largely confined to the north and eastern provinces, which are 6 to 8 hours by road from the capital. Before the advent of the peace process, LTTE-perpetrated terrorist bombings directed against politicians and civilian targets were common in Colombo, Kandy, and elsewhere in the country. In July 2001, an LTTE suicide squad attacked the Bandaranaike International Airport out-side of Colombo and destroyed a large number of military and civilian aircraft. In early March 2004, a faction of the LTTE from the east of the country broke off from the main organization and declared itself an independent body. In April, the main LTTE largely subdued this factional uprising in fighting that left up to 30 people dead.

In October 1997, the U.S. Government designated the LTTE as a foreign terrorist organization under provisions of the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 and has maintained this designation since then, most recently redesignating the group in October of 2003.

GOVERNMENT

Per the 1978 constitution, the president of the republic, directly elected for a 6-year term, is chief of state, head of government, and commander in chief of the armed forces. Responsible to Parliament for the exercise of duties under the constitution and laws, the president may be removed from office by a two-thirds vote of Parliament with the concurrence of the Supreme Court.

The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers responsible to Parliament. The president's deputy is the prime minister, who leads the ruling party in Parliament. A parliamentary no-confidence vote requires dissolution of the cabinet and the appointment of a new one by the president.

Parliament is a unicameral 225-member legislature elected by universal suffrage and proportional representation to a 6-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament. Parliament reserves the power to make all laws.

The 1978 constitution clearly envisaged a system where the president and the prime minister were from the same party. Since the December 2001 parliamentary elections, however, the president and the prime minister have been from different parties. This has led to serious cohabitation strains. In November 2003, for example, President Kumaratunga suddenly took over three key ministries (Defense, Interior, and Mass Communications), precipitating a serious cohabitation crisis between the two sides. In February of 2004, President Kumaratunga dissolved Parliament and called for fresh elections. The UPFA, while receiving enough seats in Parliament to form a minority government, fell short of the 113 seats necessary for a majority in Parliament. Mahinda Rajapakse of the SLFP became Prime Minister and former Prime Minister and UNP Leader Ranil Wickremesinghe became Leader of the Opposition.

Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, High Court, and a number of subordinate courts. Sri Lanka's legal system reflects diverse cultural influences. Criminal law is fundamentally British. Basic civil law is Roman-Dutch. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.

Under the Indo-Sri Lankan Accord of July 1987—and the resulting 13th amendment to the constitution—the Government of Sri Lanka agreed to devolve significant authority to the provinces. Provincial councils are directly elected for 5-year terms. The leader of the council majority serves as the province's chief minister; a provincial governor is appointed by the president. The councils possess limited powers in education, health, rural development, social services, agriculture, security, and local taxation. Many of these powers are shared or subject to central government oversight. Predating the accord are municipal, urban, and rural councils with limited powers.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 1/12/05

President: Chandrika Bandaranaike KUMARATUNGA
Prime Minister: Mahinda RAJAPAKSA
Min. of Agricultural Marketing Development: Douglas DEVANANDA
Min. of Agriculture & Livestock: Anura Kumara DISSANAYAKE
Min. of Christian Affairs: Milroy FERNANDO
Min. of Constitutional Affairs: D. E. W. GUNASEKERA
Min. of Consumer Affairs: Jeyaraj FERNANDOPULLE
Min. of Cultural Affairs & National Heritages: VIjitha HERATH
Min. of Defense: Chandrika Bandaranaike KUMARATUNGA
Min. of Eastern Province Education & Irrigation Development: Ferial ASHRAFF
Min. of Education: Chandrika Bandaranaike KUMARATUNGA
Min. of Environment & Natural Resources: A. H. M. FOWZIE
Min. of Estate Community Infrastructure: C. B. RATNAYAKE
Min. of Finance: Sarath AMUNUGAMA
Min. of Fisheries & Aquatic Resources: Chandrasena WIJESINGHE
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Lakshman KADIRGAMAR
Min. of Healthcare, Nutrition, & Uva Wellasa Development: Minal Siripala DE SILVA
Min. of Highways: Mahinda RAJAPAKSA
Min. of Hindu Affairs & Tamil Language Schools & Vocational Training (North): Douglas DEVANANDA
Min. of Home Affairs: Amarasiri DODANGODA
Min. of Housing & Construction Industry: Ferial ASHRAFF
Min. of Indigenous Medicine: Tissa KARALIYADDE
Min. of Industry: Anura BANDARANAIKE
Min. of Information & Media: Mangala SAMARAWEERA
Min. of Infrastructure Development in the Eastern Province: A. L. M. ATHAULLA
Min. of Investment Promotion: Anura BANDARANAIKE
Min. of Justice & Judicial Reforms: John SENAVIRATNE
Min. of Labor Relations & Foreign Employment: Athauda SENAVIRATNE
Min. of Land & Irrigation: Anura Kumara DISSANAYAKE
Min. of Parliamentary Affairs: Milroy FERNANDO
Min. of Plantation Industries: Anura Priyadharshana YAPA
Min. of Ports & Aviation: Mangala SAMARAWEERA
Min. of Posts & Telecommunications: D. M. JAYARATNE
Min. of Power & Energy: Susil PREMAJAYANTHA
Min. of Provincial Councils & Local Government: Janaka Bandara TENNAKOON
Min. of Public Administration: Amarasiri DODANGODA
Min. of Regional Infrastructure Development: S. B. NAWINNA
Min. of River Basin Development & Rajarata Development: Maithripala SIRISENA
Min. of Samurdhi & Poverty Alleviation: Pavithra WANNIARACHCHI
Min. of Science & Technology: Tissa VITHARANA
Min. of Skills Development & Vocational & Technical Education: Piyasena GAMAGE
Min. of Small & Rural Industries: K. D. Lal KANTHA
Min. of Sports & Youth Affairs: Jeewan KUMARANATUNGA
Min. of Tourism: Anura BANDARANAIKE
Min. of Trade & Commerce: Jeyaraj FERNANDOPULLE
Min. of Transport: Felix PERERA
Min. of Upcountry Development: D. M. JAYARATNE
Min. of Urban Development: Dinesh GUNAWARDENE
Min. of Water Supply: Dinesh GUNAWARDENE
Min. of Women's Empowerment & Social Welfare: Sumedha JAYASENE
Governor, Central Bank: A. S. JAYAWARDENA
Ambassador to the US: Devinda R. SUBASINGHE
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York (Acting): Bernard GOONETILLEKE

Sri Lanka maintains an embassy in the United States at 2148 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-4834025).

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Sri Lanka's two major political parties—the UNP and the PA—embrace democratic values, international nonalignment, and encouragement of Sinhalese culture. Past differences between the two on foreign and economic policy have narrowed. The SLFP, however, envisions a broader role for the state in general.

Sri Lanka has a multi-party democracy that enjoys considerable stability despite relatively high levels of political violence. LTTE terrorist activities, generally aimed at destabilizing Sri Lanka politically and economically, have included assassination of politicians—killing the Industrial Development Minister by suicide bombing in June 2000; the December 1999 attempted assassination of current President Kumaratunga; bombing of economic targets such as the central bank in January 1996, the World Trade Center in October 1997, and the airport in July 2001; as well as attacks on Buddhist religious sites. In January 1998, the LTTE detonated a truck bomb in Kandy, damaging the Temple of the Tooth relic, the holiest Buddhist shrine in the country.

ECONOMY

With an economy of $18.4 billion (est. August 2004), and a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of about $950, Sri Lanka enjoyed strong growth rates in recent years. Sri Lanka began to shift away from a socialist orientation in 1977. Since then, the government has been deregulating, privatizing, and opening the economy to international competition. The ethnic disputes of 1983 precipitated a slowdown in economic diversification and liberalization. The JVP uprising in the late 1980s caused extensive upheavals and economic uncertainty.

Following the quelling of the JVP, increased privatization, reform, and a stress on export-oriented growth helped revive the economy's performance, taking GDP growth to 7% in 1993. Economic growth has been uneven in the ensuing years as the economy faced a multitude of global and domestic economic and political challenges. Overall, average annual GDP growth was 5.2% over 1991-2000. In 2001, however, GDP growth was negative 1.4%—the first contraction since independence. Growth recovered to 4.0% in 2002 and 5.2% in 2003.

Foreign exchange reserves, which fell by 11% in 1999, decreased further in 2000. In response, the government floated the rupee on January 23, 2001. This led to a significant nominal depreciation in 2001, but the rupee has since stabilized and reserves have been replenished.

In 2003, continued peace allowed further progress on macroeconomic stabilization during the first half of the year. Some progress was reversed, however, during the political uncertainty in November and December 2003. Growth in 2003 was largely driven by the services sector (particularly telecom and tourism) and trade. Both exports and imports rose over 9% in the first 10 months. Interest rates declined. The inflation rate fell under 9%. External reserves were sufficient to cover 5.6 months of imports. The Colombo Stock Exchange (CSE) rebounded to become one of the better performers in the area. The CSE rose 45% in 2002 and hit a record high in June 2003 but performance declined at the end of the year. Fortunately, the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic did not spread to Sri Lanka, and tourism was not severely affected. Sri Lanka's garment exporters reported a surge in orders, shifted from China due to SARS. On the negative side, in mid-2003 Sri Lanka experienced its worst floods in 50 years, which caused extensive damage in south and southwestern parts of the country.

Projections for 6.5% growth in 2004 did not account for political instability, which negatively impacted performance. The December 26, 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami caused extensive damage in Sri Lanka. The human and environmental tragedy was enormous: over 30,000 people were killed and another 500,000 were displaced, and the bulk of the coastline was affected, leaving most fishing fleets destroyed. The United States is leading the international effort on relief and reconstruction, with damages estimated at $1.5 billion in Sri Lanka.

The future of Sri Lanka's economic health is uncertain but is primarily dependent on continued tsunami relief and reconstruction, political stability, continuation of the peace process, and continued policy reforms—particularly in the area of fiscal discipline and direct management. Implementation of major reforms in the civil service and education sectors and more disciplined spending and improved revenue collection would help generate stronger economic growth. If export orientation strengthens, weaknesses in government will have less impact on growth.

A strong global economy should help Sri Lanka maintain and even expand its export base, while effective aid utilization will be critical in the post-tsunami reconstruction effort. Rising oil costs in 2004, coupled with lower government revenue, held Sri Lanka's fiscal deficit at about 9% of GDP. The government has indicated it intends to focus on better revenue collection mechanisms to deal with the problem. Post-tsunami investment needs may challenge government deficit reduction strategies over the coming years. Sril Lanka has a high debt burden (105% of GDP) and is reforming and modernizing its debt management structures.

Other challenges include diversification from Sri Lanka's key exportstea and garments. Garment exports will face increased competition in a quota-free era when the Multi Fiber Arrangement expires in 2005. The future of the tea industry is threatened by a shortage of plantation labor and growing competition. There are new efforts to diversify exports, explore tourism potential, and improve competitiveness. The previous government had an ambitious information and communications technology strategy to connect and service every corner of the country. This project, if continued and implemented successfully, could change Sri Lanka's economy and social fabric and would take it into the information age. The government hopes to take advantage of Sri Lanka's strategic location on shipping routes, make use of the Indo-Lanka Free Trade Agreement, and sign free trade agreements with other countries to achieve regional trading hub status. If peace returns and all these efforts bear fruit, real growth could be in the 6%-7% range beyond 2004, and will help realize the government's intention of making Sri Lanka the gateway to South Asia.

The service sector is the largest component of GDP (54%). In 2003, the service sector continued its strong expansion, fueled primarily by strong growth in telecom, tourism, and financial services. Public administration and defense expenditures have remained steady. Repatriated earnings of Sri Lankans working abroad continued to be strong. There also is a small but growing information technology sector, especially information technology training and software development and exports.

Manufacturing accounts for about 16% of GDP. The textile, apparel, and leather products sector is the largest, accounting for 44% of total industrial output. The second-largest industrial sector, at 24% of total manufacturing output, is food, beverages, and tobacco. The third-largest industrial sector is chemical, petroleum, rubber, and plastic products. Agriculture has lost its relative importance to the Sri Lankan economy in recent decades. It accounts for 20.1% of GDP and provides employment to 33% of the working population. Rice, the staple cereal, is cultivated extensively. The plantation sector consists of tea, rubber, and coconut; in recent years, the tea crop has made significant contributions to export earnings and saw production slightly decrease in 2003. Tea prices have remained stable. The construction sector accounts for 7.4% of GDP and mining and quarrying 1.8%. In recent years, the government has eliminated many price controls and quotas, reduced tariff levels, eliminated most foreign exchange controls, and sold more than 55 state-owned companies and 20 estate-holding companies. Colombo boasts one of the most modern stock exchanges in the region, and the Sri Lankan Government offers a range of tax and other incentives to attract potential investors.

Trade and Foreign Assistance

Exports to the United States, Sri Lanka's most important market, were estimated at $1.8 billion in 2003, or 38.5% of total exports. For many years, the United States has been Sri Lanka's biggest market for garments, taking more than 63% of the country's total garment exports. India is Sri Lanka's largest supplier, with exports of $835 million in 2002. Japan, traditionally Sri Lanka's largest supplier, was its fourth-largest in 2002 with exports of $355 million. Other leading suppliers include Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea. United States exports amounted to $155 million in 2003. Sri Lanka is highly dependent on foreign assistance, and several high-profile assistance projects were launched in 2003. The most significant of these resulted from an aid conference in Tokyo in June 2003; pledges at the summit, which included representatives from the IMF, World Bank, Asian Development Bank, Japan, the European Union, and the United States totaled $4.5 billion. This funding was in response to a poverty reduction strategy program laid out in "Regaining Sri Lanka," an action paper authored by the Sri Lankan Government, and a number of studies commissioned by the donor community that, together, provide a basic framework for economic revival. While implementation of previous aid projects has been spotty, the government believes it can improve this record by streamlining tender processes and improving project management skills.

The United States is currently leading the international efforts for tsunami relief and reconstruction. In addition to pledging $350 million to tsunami-affected countries, more than 15,000 U.S. military personnel were involved in providing relief support in the affected region. Twenty-five ships and 94 aircraft were participating in the effort. The U.S. military had delivered about 2.2 million pounds of relief supplies to affected nations, including 16,000 gallons of water, 113,000 pounds of food, and 140,500 pounds of relief supplies. USAID disbursed an additional $78 million.

Labor

More than 20% of the 6.1 million-strong labor force, excluding the north and east, is unionized. Trade union membership is on the decline. There are more than 1,650 registered trade unions, many of which have 50 or fewer members, and 19 federations. Many unions have political affiliations. The Ceylon Workers Congress (CWC) and Lanka Jathika estate workers union are the two largest unions representing workers in the heavily unionized plantation sector. The president of the CWC also is Minister of Livestock Development and Estate Infrastructure. The CWC's agenda includes political issues, such as citizenship status for stateless Indian Tamils. Some of the stronger and more influential trade unions include the Ceylon Mercantile Union, Sri Lanka Nidhahas Sevaka Sangamaya, Jathika Sevaka Sangayama, Ceylon Federation of Trade Unions, Ceylon Bank Employees Union, Union of Post and Telecommunication Officers, Conference of Public Sector Independent Trade Unions, and the JVP-aligned Inter-Company Trade Union.

The unemployment rate has declined in recent years and hovers at 10%. The rate of unemployment among high school and college graduates, however, remains proportionally higher than the rate for less-educated workers. The government has embarked on educational reforms it hopes will lead to better preparation of students and fewer mismatches between graduates and jobs. In addition, it also has begun a youth corps program to provide employment skills to the unemployed.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Sri Lanka traditionally follows a nonaligned foreign policy but has been seeking closer relations with the United States since December 2001. It participates in multilateral diplomacy, particularly at the United Nations, where it seeks to promote sovereignty, independence, and development in the developing world. Sri Lanka was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). It also is a member of the Commonwealth, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan. Sri Lanka continues its active participation in the NAM, while also stressing the importance it places on regionalism by playing a strong role in SAARC.

U.S.-SRI LANKAN RELATIONS

The United States enjoys cordial relations with Sri Lanka that are based, in large part, on shared democratic traditions. U.S. policy toward Sri Lanka is characterized by respect for its independence, sovereignty, and moderate nonaligned foreign policy; support for the country's unity, territorial integrity, and democratic institutions; and encouragement of its social and economic development. The United States is a strong supporter of ethnic reconciliation in Sri Lanka and the peace process that began in December 2001.

U.S. assistance has totaled more than $1.63 billion since Sri Lanka's independence in 1948. Through the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), it has contributed to Sri Lanka's economic growth with projects designed to reduce unemployment, improve housing, develop the Colombo Stock Exchange, modernize the judicial system, and improve competitiveness. At the June 2003 Tokyo Donors' Conference on Sri Lanka, the United States pledged $54 million, including $40.4 million of USAID funding.

In addition, the International Broadcast Bureau (IBB)—formerly Voice of America (VOA)—operates a radio-transmitting station in Sri Lanka. The U.S. Armed Forces maintain a limited military-to-military relationship with the Sri Lanka defense establishment. By February 2005, the U.S. had contributed $67 million to Sri Lankan relief following the tsunami disaster.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

COLOMBO (E) Address: 210 Galle Road, Colombo 3; Phone: 94-11-244-8007; Fax: 94-11-243-7345; Work-week: M-Th:0800-1730, F:0800-12:00; Website: http://usembassy.state.gov/srilanka/

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

January 21, 2005

Country Description: Sri Lanka is a presidential parliamentary democracy with a developing economy. A civil war and related urban terrorism have seriously disrupted the country since 1983. On February 22, 2002, The Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) signed an indefinite cease-fire agreement. Peace talks have stalled, but the cease-fire has not been broken to date. In the past, however, the LTTE have abandoned peace talks and reverted to terrorist activities. Despite the armed insurgency, Sri Lanka's beaches and archeological sites attract tens of thousands of visitors from around the world. The capital city of Colombo, the Cultural Triangle (Kandy, Anuradhapura, and Polonnaruwa), all have good tourist facilities. The Tsunami of December 26, 2004 caused severe damage to several hotels and tourism facilities in many coastal areas of eastern, southern and southwestern Sri Lanka. Due to the varied localized impact of the tsunami, several resorts have ceased or severely curtailed operations, while others are operating normally. Many areas of the country such as the Cultural Triangle and the Hill Country, as well as Colombo, have not been affected at all by this catastrophe.

Travelers planning to visit Sri Lanka should consult with travel agencies or the Sri Lankan Tourist Board to ensure their itineraries take this recent event into account and plan accordingly.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport and onward/return ticket and proof of sufficient funds are required. A no-cost visitor visa, valid for 30 days, will be granted to tourists at the time of entry into Sri Lanka. Business travelers are required to have a visa prior to arrival. Visitors staying more than 30 days for any purpose must pay residency visa fees. Travelers need yellow fever and cholera immunizations if they are arriving from an infected area. All travelers departing Sri Lanka (except diplomats and certain exempted travelers) must pay an airport tax, in cash. Sri Lankan law requires all persons, including foreigners, who are guests in private households to register in person at the nearest local police station. Individuals who stay in private households without registering may be temporarily detained for questioning. This requirement does not apply to individuals staying in hotels or guesthouses.

Specific inquiries should be addressed to the Embassy of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, 2148 Wyoming Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C. 20008, telephone (202) 483-4025 through 26, fax numbers (202) 232-7181, e-mail address: consular@slembassyusa.org, home page: http://www.slembassy.org. There is a Consulate General in Los Angeles at 3250 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 1405, Los Angeles, CA 90010, telephone (213) 387-0210 and the U.N. Mission in New York City telephone (212) 986-7040. There are several honorary Sri Lankan consuls general and consuls in the United States. They can be located at the Sri Lankan Embassy web site.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure. Sri Lanka is a signatory to the Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Parental Child Abducti Visit the Embassy of Sri Lanka web site at http://www.slembassyusa.org for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: Since 1997, the State Department has included the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) on its list of foreign terrorist organizations. Terrorist activities in the capital city of Colombo and other areas of the country remain a serious threat. The LTTE and the GOSL have not engaged militarily over the past sixteen months; however, the LTTE have assassinated Sri Lankans. No suicide bombings or truck bombs have been directed at civilian targets since the cease-fire; however, on July 7, 2004, a suicide bomber detonated in a police station in Colombo, killing herself, 4 policemen and critically injuring 11 people.

On July 24, 2001, the LTTE attacked the Colombo International Airport and destroyed both commercial and military aircraft. Several military personnel were killed, military and airport employees were injured, and civilians were caught in the crossfire. In the past year, the LTTE have also attacked several foreign commercial ships in the waters off the north and east coasts of Sri Lanka.

The LTTE have attempted or carried out numerous political assassinations. They have also carried out many suicide bombings at political rallies, government buildings and major economic targets. In addition to using individual suicide bombers, the LTTE have employed vehicle-mounted bombs. In the past they have detonated bombs near major hotels, a tourist site in Kandy, and have targeted buses and trains.

Although U.S. citizens have not been specifically targeted, LTTE operations have been planned and executed with the knowledge that Americans and other foreigners might be killed or injured. American citizens traveling or residing in Sri Lanka may be inadvertently caught up in random acts of violence. Travel in restricted areas is dangerous. In April 2001, grenade fragments seriously injured an American citizen when she was caught in a skirmish between government and insurgent forces in the eastern part of the country.

American citizens should be alert to outbreaks of communal violence, such as that which occurred in April 2003 when two hand grenades were detonated in tourist hotels in Arugambay, killing or injuring three tourists. In October 2002, riots between Muslim and Sinhala factions in the Greater Colombo area precipitated short-term curfews. In May 2001 a disturbance between Buddhist and Muslim communities near Kandy reportedly resulted in one death during a police shootout and extensive property damage.

Americans are advised to avoid political rallies and other mass gatherings, limit exposure to government and military installations and avoid public transportation if possible. Non-Sri Lankan citizens of Tamil heritage have occasionally been detained during security operations. U.S. citizens of any ethnic heritage are encouraged to keep their passports with them at all times. In the event of a terrorist attack, Americans should monitor local radio and television, seek cover away from windows and return to their homes or hotels when it is safe to do so. The Government has periodically imposed curfews in Colombo; Americans should strictly observe curfew regulations and monitor local radio and television.

American citizens are advised not to travel north of a line from Puttalam on the west coast through Anuradhapura in the central north and Nivaveli (just north of Trincomalee) in the east. Areas north of this line contain many land mines, making travel off paved roads very dangerous. In addition, the Government of Sri Lanka does not exercise effective control of the civil administration in many sections of the north, where the LTTE operate openly. Official travel by U.S. Government personnel to this area is restricted, and their unofficial travel is prohibited. Travel in the east in the area south of the Anuradhapura-Nivaveli line (including Trincomalee, Batticaloa and points south) poses significant safety risks. Official travel by U.S. Government personnel to Batticaloa is restricted, and their unofficial travel is prohibited due to factional fighting within the LTTE. Roads are often substandard, and police, medical and other emergency help is severely limited or not available. Communications within the eastern areas are also limited, with no cell phone accessibility and very limited landline telephone access. Because of these considerations, the U.S. Embassy may not be able to provide consular services in a timely manner to American citizens who travel to the north and east.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found.

Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

The Department of State urges American citizens to take responsibility for their own personal security while traveling overseas. For general information about appropriate measures travelers can take to protect themselves in an overseas environment, see the Department of State's pamphlet A Safe Trip Abroad.

Crime: Sri Lanka has a rising crime rate, and criminal incidents may well rise in many of the areas affected by the tsunami. Violent crime is increasing, and there have been reports of police inaction in certain cases. In February 2002, a British couple was kidnapped and robbed near the Polonnaruwa ruins. In recent years, the Embassy has received reports of violent criminal incidents, including attempted sexual assault, in the towns of Negombo, Hikkaduwa and Dambulla. American citizens should exercise caution in these towns, especially at night. Children should not be left unattended, even on hotel/resort premises. There have been reports of attempted child molestation by hotel staff.

Petty street crime such as purse snatching and pick-pocketing is common, especially on crowded local public transportation, in transportation hubs, and in public markets. Travelers should keep money or jewelry, when not in immediate use, in hotel safe deposit boxes. Cases of credit card fraud have been reported. Travelers are encouraged to either pay with cash or to watch when a merchant 'swipes' the card during a transaction to ensure it is not swiped more than once.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed. See our information on Victims of Crime at http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/emergencies/emergencies_1748.html.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities out-side Colombo are limited. The U.S. Embassy maintains a list of private physicians who may be consulted. Medical supplies are uneven; travelers should carry any special medications with them. There are six large hospitals in the Colombo area, including three with emergency trauma service—Asiri Hospital, Apollo hospital, and the government General Hospital. Serious medical problems may require evacuation to the United States or to the nearest country where adequate medical facilities or treatment is available, usually Thailand or Singapore. Neither Thailand nor Singapore requires American citizens to have an entry visa.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web-site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Sri Lanka is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Vehicular traffic moves on the left (British style). Traffic in Colombo is very congested. Narrow, two-lane highways, dangerously driven buses, overloaded trucks and the variety of conveyances on the road, ranging from ox carts, elephants and bicycles to new four-wheel drive jeeps, make driving a challenge and dangerous. Many visitors hire cars and drivers or use radio taxicabs.

Visit the website of Sri Lanka's national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.lanka.net.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Sri Lanka, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Sri Lanka's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's internet web site at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Special Circumstances: Sri Lanka recognizes dual nationality in some cases. For further information, please contact either the Sri Lankan Embassy or one of the Consulates General.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offences. Persons violating Sri Lanka's laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Sri Lanka are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in illicit sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Sri Lanka are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Sri Lanka. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy in located at 210 Galle Road, Colombo 3, Sri Lanka. The Embassy's telephone number during normal business hours Monday through Friday is (94)(11) 244 8007. The after-hours and emergency telephone number is (94)(11) 244-8601. The Consular Section fax number is (94)-(11)-243-6943. The Embassy's Internet address is http://usembassy.state.gov/srilanka. The e-mail address for the consular section is consularcolombo@state.gov. The Embassy in Colombo also covers the Republic of Maldives. U.S. citizens may register at the Embassy upon arrival in Sri Lanka or via the Embassy's e-mail address.

International Adoption

January 2005

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this circular relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign legal counsel.

The Sri Lankan Department of Probation and Sri Lankan Child Care Services may, as the need arises, amend the adoption procedures. Specific questions regarding adoptions in Sri Lanka should be addressed to either directly to the Department of Probation and Child Care Services, to the Sri Lankan Embassy in Washington, or to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Sri Lanka.

Availability of Children for Adoption: Recent U.S. immigrant visa statistics reflect the following pattern for visa issuance to orphans:

FY-1997: IR-3 immigrant visas issued to Sri Lankan orphans adopted abroad – 1. IR-4 immigrant visas issued to Sri Lankan orphans adopted in the U.S. – 4
FY-1997: IR-3 Visas—1,
IR-4 Visas – 1
FY-1999: IR-3 Visas—3,
IR-4 Visas – 2
FY-2000: IR-3 Visas—5,
IR-4 Visas – 0
FY-2001: IR-3 Visas—4,
IR-4 Visas—0

Sri Lankan Adoption Authority: The government office responsible for adoptions in Sri Lanka is the Department of Probation and Child Care Services, 95 Sir Chittampalam Gardiner Mawtha, P O Box 546, Colombo 02, Sri Lanka. Telephone No. 94-1-327600 or 94-1-448577, Fax No. 94-1-327600. The Department's hours of operation are from 8.30 a.m. to 4.15 p.m.

Every application for adoption must be in conformity with the provisions of the Adoption of Children's Ordinance (Chapter 61) as amended as it relates to restricts in making of adoption orders, terms and conditions of adoption orders and court requirements.

Sri Lankan Adoption Procedures: The District Court of Colombo and the District Court of Colombo South that have the appropriate jurisdiction, are empowered to make orders of adoption of Sri Lankan children by persons not resident and domiciled in Sri Lanka. Foreign applicants cannot find children for adoption privately. Allocation of children can only be made from the Sri Lankan State Receiving Homes and Voluntary Children's Homes that are registered by the Department of Probation and Child Care Services for over five years and only by specific authorization of the Commissioner of Probation. Please review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family or info on the adoption process.

Age and Civil Status Requirements: Under Sri Lankan law adoption by single persons is not permitted. An application for adoption to the courts must be made jointly by husband and wife. Each of the applicants must be over the age of 25 years and not less than 21 years older than the child for whom the application is made.

Both husband and wife must be present during the court proceedings unless the court waives personal appearances on the grounds of ill health supported by a medical practitioner recognized by the US Government. In such cases a power of attorney will also be necessary.

Residential Requirements: The adoptive parents should be prepared to stay for a period of about 4 weeks for the court procedures to be finalized. Once an IV is issued the child could leave the country the very next day.

Important Notice: The commissioner of child care services and probation in Colombo has advised the U.S. Embassy that, under Sri Lankan law, while foreign nationals are residing in sri lanka they cannot adopt a child from that country.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: Foreign applicants cannot find children for adoption privately. Allocation of children can only be made from the Sri Lankan State Receiving Homes and Voluntary Children's Homes that are registered by the Department of Probation and Child Care Services for over five years and only by specific authorization of the Commissioner of Probation.

Doctors: The U.S. Embassy maintains current lists of doctors and sources for medicines, should either you or your child experience health problems while in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lankan Documentary Requirements: Final Adoption Decree issued by the District Court, birth certificate issued to the biological parents or hospital records and medical reports issued by the Embassy panel physician.

Authentication Process: All documents above must be authenticated. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family

U.S. Immigration Requirements: A Sri Lankan child adopted by an U.S. citizen must obtain an immigrant visa before he or she can enter the U.S. as a lawful permanent resident. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family

Sri Lanka Embassy in the United States: Embassy of Sri Lanka; 2148 Wyoming Ave. N.W.; Washington, D.C. 20008; Tel: 202-483-4026 to 28; Fax: 202-232-7181; Email address: slembassy@clark.net

U.S. Embassy in Sri Lanka: U.S. Embassy; 210, Galle Road; Colombo 03, Sri Lanka; Tel: 94-1-448007; Fax: 94-1-437345, 436943; Home page: http://www.usia.gov/posts/sri-lanka or www.travel.state.gov

Questions: Specific questions regarding adoption in Sri Lanka may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Colombo. You may also contact the Office of Children's Issues, SA-29, 2201 C Street, NW, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-2818, Tel: 1-888-407-4747 with specific questions.