Pre-1600: Chapter One: World Events: Selected Occurrences Outside North America

MAJOR POWERS AND LEADERS

China —Ming Hong Zhi, born Zhu You-Tang (1488–1505), Ming Zheng De, born Zhu Hou-Zhao (1506–1521), Ming Jia Jing, born Zhu Hou-Cong (1522–1566), Ming Long Qing, born Zhu Zai-Hou (1567–1572), Ming Wan-Li, born Zhu Yi-Jun (1573–1619).

Denmark and Norway —John (1481–1513), Christian II, “the Cruel” (1513–1523), Frederick I (1523–1533), Christian III, “Father of the People” (1534–1558), Frederick II (1558–1588), Christian IV (1588–1648).

England— Henry VII (1485–1509), Henry VIII (1509–1547), Edward VI (1547–1553), Mary (1553–1558), Elizabeth I (1558–1603).

France— Louis XII (1498–1512), Francis I (1515–1547), Henry II (1547–1559), Francis II (1559–1560), Charles IX (1560–1574), Henry III (1574–1589), Henry IV (1589–1610).

Holy Roman Empire— Maximilian I (1493–1519), Charles V (1519–1556), Ferdinand I (1556–1564), Maximilian II (1564–1576), Rudolph II (1576–1612).

Hungary and Bohemia —Ladislas II (Hungary, 1490–1516, Bohemia, 1471–1516), Louis II (1516–1526), Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (1526–1564), Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor (1564–1576), Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612).

Ottoman Empire— Bayezid II (1481–1512), Selim I, “the Inexorable” (1512–1520), Suleiman the Magnificent or the Lawgiver (1520–1566), Selim II, “the Sot” (1566–1574), Murad III (1574–1595), Mehmed III (1595–1603).

Papacy— Alexander VI (1492–1503), Pius III (1503), Julius II (1503–1513), Leo X (1513–1521), Adrian VI (1521–1523), Clement VII (1523–1534), Paul III (1534–1549), Julius III (1550–1555), Marcellus II (1555), Paul IV (1555–1559), Pius IV (1559–1565), St. Pius V (1566–1572), Gregory XIII (1572–1585), Sixtus V (1585–1590), Urban VII (1590), Gregory XIV (1590–1591), Innocent IX (1591), Clement VIII (1592–1605).

Poland— John Albert (1492–1501), Alexander (1501–1506), Sigmund I (1506–1548), Sigmund II (1548–1572), Interregnum (1572–1573), Henry (1573–1574), Interregnum (1575–1576), Stephen (1575–1586), Interregnum (1586–1587), Sigmund III (1587–1632).

Portugal —Emanuel the Fortunate (1495–1521), John II, “the Perfect Prince” (1521–1557), Sebastian I (1557–1578), Philip I, who was also Philip II of Spain (1580–1598), Philip II, who was also Philip III of Spain (1598–1621).

Russia— Ivan III, “the Great” (1462–1505), Basil III (1505–1533), Ivan IV, “the Terrible” (1533–1584), Theodore I (1584–1598), Boris Godunov (1598–1605).

Spain —Isabel of Castile (1474–1504), Ferdinand of Aragon (1479–1516), Charles I, who was also Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (1516–1556), Philip II (1556–1598), Philip III (1598–1621).

Sweden— Gustav Vasa (1523–1560), Eric XIV (1560–1568), John III (1568–1592).

United Provinces of the Netherlands —William I, “the Silent” (1572–1584), Maurice of Nassau (1585–1621).

MAJOR CONFLICTS

1519–1522— Conquest of Mexico

1521–1529 —Turkish invasion of southern Europe

1522–1559— Hapsburg- Valois Wars

1524–1525— Peasants’ War

1546–1547— Schmalkaldic War

1557–1582— Livonian War

1562–1598 —French wars of religion

1585–1589— War of the Three Henries

IMPORTANT EVENTS TO 1600

1492

Alonso de Nebrija publishes his grammar of Spanish, the first grammar of any vernacular language in Europe. In his introduction he writes that “language is the companion of empire.”
1 Jan . Ferdinand and Isabella conquer the kingdom of Granada, ending eight hundred years of Muslim rule on the Iberian peninsula.
31 Mar . The decree of expulsion is issued in Spain, requiring all Jews to leave or convert to Christianity within three months.
12 Oct . After six weeks at sea Christopher Columbus makes landfall in the Caribbean.

1493

Maximilian I is the first to take the title of “Holy Roman Emperor elect.”

1494

Pope Alexander VI approves the Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal. The treaty specifies that Spain can claim all territory west of a line in the Atlantic while Portugal can claim all territory east of that line, including its current holdings in Africa and Asia.

1495

The Diet of Worms attempts to modernize the Holy Roman Empire through various administrative reforms.

1496

The decree of expulsion is issued for the Jews of Portugal. When the Jewish population is assembled at the docks, they are not permitted to leave but instead are forced to convert. New converts are given a fifty-year period to assimilate into Christian society.

1497

The Jews of Navarre, the last Jews of Iberia, are forced to leave the kingdom.
John Cabot, in the service of the English Crown, explores Newfoundland.
Amerigo Vespucci makes his first voyage to the Western Hemisphere, exploring the Caribbean.
Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama sails around the southern tip of Africa and reaches India; he returns to Portugal in 1499.

1498

John Cabot is lost at sea while exploring the western Atlantic.

1499

The Turks defeat a Venetian fleet at Sapienza.

1500

The Treaty of Granada is signed between Ferdinand and Isabella and the Muslim population of Granada. The treaty guarantees that Muslims in Granada can maintain their religious faith under Spanish authority.
The African kingdom of Monomotapa, centered in present-day Zimbabwe, is formed.

1501

The first African slaves are brought to Hispaniola. Spaniards hope that they will help alleviate the labor shortage caused by the death of much of the indigenous population.

1502

The Spanish consolidate their power in Naples through a combination of force and diplomacy.

1503

The humanist scholar Erasmus of Rotterdam publishes his Enchiridion, a handbook of Christian virtues.
Cesare Borgia, illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI and tyrannical ruler of the Papal States, falls from power.
Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa.

1504

Isabella of Castile dies, and her husband, Ferdinand, rules as regent of Castile for their daughter, Juana the Mad.

1505

Czar Ivan III, “the Great,” of Russia, dies after forty-three years on the throne. He is succeeded by his son, Basil III.

1506

Christopher Columbus dies.
The Jewish community in Lisbon is massacred.
Construction of the new St. Peter’s basilica is begun in Rome under the orders of Pope Julius II.

1507

To help pay for the building of St. Peter’s, Pope Julius II begins to sell indulgences. It is this practice that later incites Martin Luther to speak out against him.
The Martin Waldseemüller map is the first to label the South American continent “America.”

1508

The League of Cambrai is formed against Venice.

1509

Henry VIII succeeds his father as king of England.
Erasmus writes In Praise of Folly, his best-known and most popular work.
Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.

1510

The Portuguese acquire Goa, a port on the west coast of India.

1511

The Portuguese seize the city of Malacca on the Malay peninsula in order to protect their spice trade.

1512

Ferdinand of Aragon conquers Navarre.
Henry VIII invades France.

1513

Niccolò Machiavelli writes The Prince, an analysis of the responsibilities of rulers, and dedicates it to the new pope, Leo X.

1514

Hungarian peasants led by George Dózsa revolt.

1515

Francis I ascends the throne of France.

1516

Ferdinand of Aragon dies and is succeeded by his grandson, Charles V.
Thomas More publishes Utopia.
Erasmus of Rotterdam publishes a new edition of the Greek New Testament using his knowledge of Greek and of the early texts still available.

1517

The Ottoman Turks conquer the Mamluk Sultanate of Syria and Egypt, thus gaining control of the Red Sea.
31 Oct . Martin Luther publishes his Ninety-five Theses in Wittenberg, listing criticisms of the Catholic Church and marking the start of the Protestant Reformation.

1518

Hernando Cortés lands at present-day Vera Cruz, Mexico.
The Peace of London ends fighting between England and France.

1519

Charles V Hapsburg of Spain is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
Huldrych Zwingli begins preaching in Zurich. Like Martin Luther he protests abuses of the church; unlike Luther he challenges the real presence of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist (transubstantiation and consubstantiation). Zwingli ultimately begins the Swiss Reformation.
Ferdinand Magellan begins his circumnavigation of the globe. Nineteen members of his crew return three years later, but Magellan himself is killed in the Philippines.

1520

Raphael, one of the great painters of the Renaissance, dies.
Martin Luther is threatened with excommunication by the papal decree (bull) Exurge Domine.
The Swede Gustav Vasa leads a rebellion against Christian II, “the Cruel,” of Denmark. By 1523 Sweden and Finland will be independent of Denmark and Norway.

1521

After several setbacks Cortés succeeds in conquering Tenochtitlan, capital city of the Aztecs of central Mexico and site of present-day Mexico City.
An army under Suleiman the Magnificent takes Belgrade.
Calusa warriors thwart Juan Ponce de Leon’s attempt to colonize Florida for Spain, kill him, and drive the invaders back to Cuba.
10 Jan. Martin Luther is excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church. Luther then begins his own movement, later known as Lutheranism.

1522

The first Hapsburg-Valois War begins in Italy, pitting the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and England against France.
Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros directs the publication of the Complutensian Polyglot Bible, which provides the text of the Bible in six parallel columns. Because Erasmus had recently published his own new edition of the Greek New Testament, however, the Complutensian Bible never achieves great popularity.
Nov. Luther’s New Testament is published in German, leading to a wave of Bible translation into the vernacular.
Rhodes falls to the Ottoman Turks as a part of their advance across the Mediterranean.

1523

Christian II of Denmark is deposed; in Sweden, Gustav Vasa becomes king#
The Knights’ Revolt in Germany is suppressed.

1524

The Peasants’ War begins in the Holy Roman Empire. Under the leadership of Thomas Müntzer the peasants take several cities.
Francis I conquers Milan.
The Council of the Indies is formed in Spain to oversee colonization of the New World.
Sailing under the French flag, Giovanni da Verrazzano explores the east coast of North America.

1525

The German peasants are defeated, and their leader, Thomas Müntzer, is executed.
The first Hapsburg-Valois War ends when the Spanish defeat the French at the Battle of Pavia.

1526

The Ottoman Turks take the city of Mohács in Hungary and continue advancing on central Europe.
William Tyndale’s translation of the New Testament into English arrives in England from the Holy Roman Empire and immediately becomes popular.

1527

The army of Charles V sacks Rome, and Pope Clement VII becomes a virtual prisoner.
Castiglione writes The Courtier about the ideal virtues of courtly life.

1528

Albrecht Dürer, one of the greatest artists and engravers of the Holy Roman Empire, dies.
The Spanish explorer Panfilo de Narváez attempts to explore the Florida interior, but attacks by the Apalachee Indians force him to retreat. He and all but four of his men disappear somewhere in the Gulf of Mexico.

1529

Vienna is besieged by the Turks but is able to fend off the invaders.

1530

Martin Luther and his assistant, Philip Melanchthon, write the Augsburg Confession, a statement of basic Lutheran belief.

1531

The Schmalkaldic League of Protestant princes is formed in the Holy Roman Empire.
Parliament recognizes King Henry VIII as Supreme Head of the Church in England.

1532

Following the example set by Hernando Cortés, Francisco Pizarro leads an invasion against the Inca Empire. Because the Inca are in the midst of civil war, he is able to gain control of the empire in only two years.
Machiavelli’s The Prince is published posthumously.
The Turks invade Hungary.

1533

Basil III of Russia dies, and Ivan IV, “the Terrible,” of Russia ascends to the throne. Ivan’s mother, Helena Glinskaia, rules as regent until 1538.
Francisco Pizarro captures and kills the Inca ruler Atahualpa.

1534

Henry VIII of England wishes to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, and marry Anne Boleyn. To circumvent the opposition of the Roman Catholic Church he signs of the Act of Supremacy, making himself head of the English church.
St. Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish noble and soldier, undergoes a conversion to a more devout form of life. To help others achieve this same conversion and to aid the poor, he establishes the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).
The Iroquoian Indians of Stadacona and Hochelaga welcome French explorer Jacques Cartier in the first of his three voyages of exploration up the St. Lawrence River. His efforts to build a colony come to naught, and his kidnapping of several Indian youths angers the Iroquoians.

1535

After a long siege the Anabaptists of Münster in the Holy Roman Empire are massacred.
Sir Thomas More is executed in England for refusing to recognize Henry VIII’s authority over the church in England.

1536

John Calvin writes and publishes the first edition of his Institutes of Christian Religion. In laying out his detailed description of Reformed theology he emphasizes the doctrine of predestination: that some individuals are destined to be saved while others are destined for damnation.
France signs a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire.
Michelangelo paints The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel.

1537

A civil war erupts in Peru between rival conquistadors.

1538

John Calvin, expelled from Geneva, settles in Strasbourg.

1539

Over the course of the next three years thousands of North American Indians encounter the expeditions of Hernando de Soto in the southeast and Hernando Vasquez de Coronado in the Southwest. Native resistance and a lack of provisions force both exploring parties to beat hasty retreats to Mexico.

1540

The Society of Jesus, more commonly known as the Jesuits, is recognized by the Pope and formally sanctioned as a new order. Under their founder, Ignatius of Loyola, the Jesuits will travel as missionaries and educators throughout the globe.

1541

John Calvin returns to Geneva and begins to institute reforms of city life based on his reading of the Scriptures. His Ecclesiastical Ordinances, published this year, becomes the model for Reformed Protestant communities throughout Europe.
Francisco de Orellana explores the Amazon, returning the following year.
The Ottoman Turks conquer Transylvania in Romania and Budapest in Hungary.

1542

The Roman Inquisition starts.

1543

Nicholas Copernicus dies, and one of his students publishes De Revolutionibus, Copernicus’s explanation of the heliocentric theory of the universe.
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Henry VIII of England form an alliance against Francis I of France.
Portuguese sailors introduce firearms to the Japanese.

1544

The University of Königsberg is founded.

1545

In response to the rapid growth of Protestantism the Roman Catholic Church calls the first of three sessions of the Council of Trent; this first session lasts until 1547.
Silver deposits are discovered at Potosí in present-day Bolivia.

1546

The Schmalkaldic War begins.

1547

Henry VIII of England dies and is succeeded by his son, Edward VI, who moves the country toward a more thorough acceptance of Protestantism.

1548

St. Ignatius of Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises is published for the first time.

1549

The Book of Common Prayer is published in England.
St. Francis Xavier arrives in Japan.

1550

Michelangelo paints Deposition from the Cross.

1551

The second session of the Council of Trent meets and focuses on reform of the clergy and stricter standards of education for priests.
The Ottomans take the city of Tripoli.
The Hapsburg-Valois Wars resume.

1552

St. Francis Xavier dies in China. In his journeys for the Society of Jesus, Francis Xavier traveled in India, Southeast Asia, China, and Japan.
Henry II of France allies with German Protestants.
Ivan IV, “the Terrible,” starts the conquest of Astrakhan and Kazan.

1553

Edward VI of England dies and is succeeded by his half sister Mary. Daughter of Catherine of Aragon, Mary is a devout Catholic and tries to move the country back to Catholicism.

1554

Mary Tudor, queen of England, marries Philip II of Spain.

1555

The Peace of Augsburg, negotiated by Charles V and his princes, mandates that each prince in the Holy Roman Empire can choose Lutheranism or Catholicism to be the religion of his principality. This ends an extended period of religious war in the empire.

1556

Charles V abdicates as Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain and is succeeded in Spain by his son, Philip II. Charles retires to a monastery in Yuste, Spain, where he dies two years later.
Akbar the Great becomes the Mughal emperor of India and rules until 1605.

1557

The Livonian War begins when Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Poland vie for control of the Baltic territories.
The first Index of Prohibited Books is issued by Pope Paul IV.
Europe undergoes a widespread financial crisis as banks fail.
A Portuguese settlement at Macao is established.

1558

Mary of England dies and is succeeded by her half sister, Elizabeth I, who is the daughter of Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth advocates a via media, or middle ground, between Catholicism and radical Protestantism.

1559

The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis creates peace between France and Spain after decades of fighting in the Hapsburg-Valois Wars. France gives up any claims to land in Italy. At the festivities marking the conclusion of the war, King Henry II of France is fatally wounded in a tournament, and his son Francis II succeeds him.

1560

Catherine de Medici begins a five-year term as regent for her son Charles IX of France. Her attempts to placate the Huguenot minority ultimately succeed in further dividing the country.

1561

The Colloquy of Poissy, designed to reconcile Huguenots and Catholics, takes place in France.

1562

The French wars of religion begin between Catholics and Huguenots. Although the Protestants comprise only about 10 percent of the population, sporadic fighting continues until 1598.
Chief Saturnia welcomes Frenchman Jean Ribault’s Charlesfort colony in Florida. The site is abandoned two years later.
The third and final session of the Council of Trent begins. Unlike the first two sessions which dealt primarily with reform of the clergy, this session addresses doctrinal questions raised by Protestants. French bishops, in attendance for the first time at Trent, urge those present to work harder to confront Protestantism.

1563

A general outbreak of plague occurs in Europe and kills more than twenty thousand people in London.
The first printing presses begin operations in Russia.
The Peace of Amboise grants limited toleration to Huguenots.

1564

Michelangelo, last of the great Renaissance artists, dies.
The Peace of Troyes settles the conflict between England and France.
Ivan IV, “the Terrible,” battles with his boyars, or noblemen, for power.
Saturnia helps Réné de Laudonnière build a second French colony in Florida, Fort Caroline, but grows angry with the Frenchman’s unwillingness to uphold certain promises he had made.

1565

The Ottoman Turks launch a major expedition against Malta in the western Mediterranean but fail to capture the island.
Pedro Ménendez de Avilés’s Spanish force destroys the French settlement at Fort Caroline and builds the city of St. Augustine in Florida.

1566

Open resistance to Spanish rule in the Netherlands begins.
Suleiman the Magnificent dies and is succeeded as sultan by Selim II, “the Sot.”

1567

An estimated two million Indians die of typhoid fever in South America.
The duke of Alba becomes the Spanish military governor of the Netherlands and begins a reign of terror.
In Japan, Nobunaga deposes the shogunate and centralizes the government.

1568

Spanish territories in the Low Countries (present-day Holland and Belgium) revolt, protesting taxes, religious oppression, and the foreign rule of Philip II.
Muslim moriscos, or converts, revolt against Spanish rule in Granada.

1569

Approximately forty thousand inhabitants of Lisbon die from an epidemic of carbuncular fever.
A public lottery is held in London to finance repairs to port facilities.
Sigismund II of Poland unites Poland and Lithuania in the Union of Lublin.

1570

The morisco rebellion in Granada is thwarted by the Spanish.
Japan begins to permit visits by foreign ships.
The Ottoman Turks attack Cyprus and begin a war with Venice.

1571

Ottoman Turks take Cyprus as part of their advance across the Mediterranean.
7 Oct. In the greatest naval battle since Actium in 31 B.C., a Spanish-Venetian fleet defeats a Turkish fleet in the Battle of Lepan to. Out of 230 Ottoman galleys only 40 escape destruction or capture.

1572

Exiled Calvinist privateers from the Netherlands known as “Sea Beggars” seize fifty towns in the Low Countries.
The Peace of Constantinople ends Turkish attacks on Europe.
24 Aug. After a botched assassination attempt against the Protestant Gaspard de Coligny, Catholics kill at least thirty thousand Huguenots in Paris. The St. Bartholemew’s Day Massacre spreads to other cities in France, where more French Protestants are killed.

1573

Venice makes peace with the Ottoman Empire.

1574

The Ottoman Turks conquer Tunisia.
Torquato Tasso completes Jerusalem Liberated.

1575

Philip II of Spain declares bankruptcy.
Spanish traders arrive in Canton, China.

1576

The French Catholic League is formed by rural nobles who want to resist the Huguenots.

1577

Sir Francis Drake begins his circumnavigation of the globe.

1578

The catacombs of Rome are discovered.
John III of Sweden secretly converts to Catholicism.
One of the chief rulers of Japan, Otomo Yoshishige, converts to Christianity.

1579

The Union of Utrecht is established, uniting the northern Low Countries (present-day Netherlands) in opposition to Spanish rule. Under William of Nassau, prince of Orange, Dutch resistance is further organized.

1580

When the king of Portugal dies without an heir, Philip II of Spain annexes the country; Portugal and Spain will remain united until 1640.
Michel de Montaigne publishes the first two books of his Essays, which comment on the human condition.
Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage around the world.

1581

Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy is performed. It is the first romantic tragedy—a play mingling love, betrayal, and revenge.
Akbar the Great of Mughal India conquers Afganistan.

1582

Pope Gregory reforms the calendar; the Gregorian calendar is still in use today.

1583

Galileo discovers the principle of the pendulum.

1584

Ivan IV, “the Terrible,” of Russia dies, and his son, Theodore I, becomes czar.
Prince William of Orange is killed on orders of Philip II of Spain.

1585

The War of the Three Henries begins in France, a religious conflict involving Henry III of Valois, Henry of Navarre, and Henry Guise.
William Shakespeare arrives in London.
Chief Wingina allows the English to build the Virginia colony on Roanoke Island, but relations between him and the colonists deteriorate, and the colonists flee back to England the following year.

1586

Mary, Queen of Scots, is implicated in a plot to kill Elizabeth I; she is tried and convicted of treason. Meanwhile, Mary recognizes Philip II of Spain as her heir.

1587

Mary, Queen of Scots, is executed.
Christopher Marlowe’s play Tamburlaine the Great is performed in London.
A second attempt to found a Virginia colony is undertaken, but it too fails, and the colonists vanish in 1590.

1588

Boris Godunov, brother-in-law to Czar Theodore I, becomes the effective head of Russia.
Michel de Montaigne publishes his third and final book of Essays.
Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus is performed in London.
7 Aug . A British fleet defeats the Spanish Armada.

1589

Henry III, king of France, on his deathbed recognizes Henry of Navarre, a Protestant, as his successor.
Christopher Marlowe’s The Jew of Malta is performed in London.
The head of the Russian Church is elevated to the level of a Patriarch, the highest rank in the Orthodox Church. As a result the Russian Church gains new prestige and strengthens its organization.
A mutiny of the elite soldiers of the Ottoman sultan, known as janissaries, occurs; they kill the grand vizier and other officials.

1590

Theodore de Bry and his sons begin publication of the first of ten volumes of the lavishly illustrated series Great Voyages. Publication will continue for the next twenty-eight years.
Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queen is published.

1591

The Songhay Empire along the Niger River in Africa collapses.

1592

Hideyoshi of Japan fails in his attempt to invade China via Korea.
The Portuguese settle Mombasa, an island off the east coast of Africa.
The ruins of Pompeii, a Roman city destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 79 A.D., are discovered.

1593

Japan attacks the Korean peninsula, which is controlled by China, and succeeds in taking some coastal fortifications.

1594

After converting to Catholicism the previous year, Henry IV enters Paris and is crowned the king of France.

1595

The Dutch begin colonization of the East Indies.
Henry IV of France declares war on England.

1596

Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet is performed in London.

1597

A second Spanish Armada leaves for England but is scattered by storms.
The Dutch found Batavia, Java.
The English Parliament approves the transportation of criminals to the colonies as a means of punishment.

1598

Philip II of Spain dies and is succeeded by his son, Philip III.
Henry IV of France decrees the Edict of Nantes, which grants limited rights to Huguenots.
Theodore I of Russia dies and is succeeded by his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov.
War between Japan and China ends when the former sues for peace.
Tycho Brahe publishes Astronomiae instauratae mechanica, a description of his astronomical experiments and calculations.
Juan de Oñate settles among the Pueblo Indians.

1599

Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar is performed in London.

1600

The English East India Company is formed to develop overseas trade.
Shakespeare’s Hamlet is performed in London.
Tokugawa Ieyasu ends decades of civil war in Japan at the battle of Sekigahara. Having defeated his enemies, this shogun (military leader) brings peace to Japan and moves the capital to Edo (known today as Tokyo).

Pre-1600: World Events: Selected Occurrences Outside North America

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Pre-1600: Chapter One: World Events: Selected Occurrences Outside North America

MAJOR POWERS AND LEADERS

MAJOR CONFLICTS

IMPORTANT EVENTS TO 1600

MAJOR POWERS AND LEADERS

England— Henry VII (1485–1509), Henry VIII (1509–1547), Edward VI (1547–1553), Mary (1553–1558), Elizabeth I (1558–1603).

France— Louis XII (1498–1512), Francis I (1515–1547), Henry II (1547–1559), Francis II (1559–1560), Charles IX (1560–1574), Henry III (1574–1589), Henry IV (1589–1610).

Holy Roman Empire— Maximilian I (1493–1519), Charles V (1519–1556), Ferdinand I (1556–1564), Maximilian II (1564–1576), Rudolph II (1576–1612).

Russia— Ivan III, “the Great” (1462–1505), Basil III (1505–1533), Ivan IV, “the Terrible” (1533–1584), Theodore I (1584–1598), Boris Godunov (1598–1605).

Sweden— Gustav Vasa (1523–1560), Eric XIV (1560–1568), John III (1568–1592).

United Provinces of the Netherlands —William I, “the Silent” (1572–1584), Maurice of Nassau (1585–1621).

MAJOR CONFLICTS

1519–1522— Conquest of Mexico

1521–1529 —Turkish invasion of southern Europe

1522–1559— Hapsburg- Valois Wars

1524–1525— Peasants’ War

1546–1547— Schmalkaldic War

1557–1582— Livonian War

1562–1598 —French wars of religion

1585–1589— War of the Three Henries

IMPORTANT EVENTS TO 1600

1492

Alonso de Nebrija publishes his grammar of Spanish, the first grammar of any vernacular language in Europe. In his introduction he writes that “language is the companion of empire.”
1 Jan . Ferdinand and Isabella conquer the kingdom of Granada, ending eight hundred years of Muslim rule on the Iberian peninsula.
31 Mar . The decree of expulsion is issued in Spain, requiring all Jews to leave or convert to Christianity within three months.
12 Oct . After six weeks at sea Christopher Columbus makes landfall in the Caribbean.

1493

Maximilian I is the first to take the title of “Holy Roman Emperor elect.”

1494

Pope Alexander VI approves the Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal. The treaty specifies that Spain can claim all territory west of a line in the Atlantic while Portugal can claim all territory east of that line, including its current holdings in Africa and Asia.

1495

The Diet of Worms attempts to modernize the Holy Roman Empire through various administrative reforms.

1496

The decree of expulsion is issued for the Jews of Portugal. When the Jewish population is assembled at the docks, they are not permitted to leave but instead are forced to convert. New converts are given a fifty-year period to assimilate into Christian society.

1497

The Jews of Navarre, the last Jews of Iberia, are forced to leave the kingdom.
John Cabot, in the service of the English Crown, explores Newfoundland.
Amerigo Vespucci makes his first voyage to the Western Hemisphere, exploring the Caribbean.
Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama sails around the southern tip of Africa and reaches India; he returns to Portugal in 1499.

1498

John Cabot is lost at sea while exploring the western Atlantic.

1499

The Turks defeat a Venetian fleet at Sapienza.

1500

The Treaty of Granada is signed between Ferdinand and Isabella and the Muslim population of Granada. The treaty guarantees that Muslims in Granada can maintain their religious faith under Spanish authority.
The African kingdom of Monomotapa, centered in present-day Zimbabwe, is formed.

1501

The first African slaves are brought to Hispaniola. Spaniards hope that they will help alleviate the labor shortage caused by the death of much of the indigenous population.

1502

The Spanish consolidate their power in Naples through a combination of force and diplomacy.

1503

The humanist scholar Erasmus of Rotterdam publishes his Enchiridion, a handbook of Christian virtues.
Cesare Borgia, illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI and tyrannical ruler of the Papal States, falls from power.
Leonardo da Vinci paints the Mona Lisa.

1504

Isabella of Castile dies, and her husband, Ferdinand, rules as regent of Castile for their daughter, Juana the Mad.

1505

Czar Ivan III, “the Great,” of Russia, dies after forty-three years on the throne. He is succeeded by his son, Basil III.

1506

Christopher Columbus dies.
The Jewish community in Lisbon is massacred.
Construction of the new St. Peter’s basilica is begun in Rome under the orders of Pope Julius II.

1507

To help pay for the building of St. Peter’s, Pope Julius II begins to sell indulgences. It is this practice that later incites Martin Luther to speak out against him.
The Martin Waldseemüller map is the first to label the South American continent “America.”

1508

The League of Cambrai is formed against Venice.

1509

Henry VIII succeeds his father as king of England.
Erasmus writes In Praise of Folly, his best-known and most popular work.
Michelangelo paints the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.

1510

The Portuguese acquire Goa, a port on the west coast of India.

1511

The Portuguese seize the city of Malacca on the Malay peninsula in order to protect their spice trade.

1512

Ferdinand of Aragon conquers Navarre.
Henry VIII invades France.

1513

Niccolò Machiavelli writes The Prince, an analysis of the responsibilities of rulers, and dedicates it to the new pope, Leo X.

1514

Hungarian peasants led by George Dózsa revolt.

1515

Francis I ascends the throne of France.

1516

Ferdinand of Aragon dies and is succeeded by his grandson, Charles V.
Thomas More publishes Utopia.
Erasmus of Rotterdam publishes a new edition of the Greek New Testament using his knowledge of Greek and of the early texts still available.

1517

The Ottoman Turks conquer the Mamluk Sultanate of Syria and Egypt, thus gaining control of the Red Sea.
31 Oct . Martin Luther publishes his Ninety-five Theses in Wittenberg, listing criticisms of the Catholic Church and marking the start of the Protestant Reformation.

1518

Hernando Cortés lands at present-day Vera Cruz, Mexico.
The Peace of London ends fighting between England and France.

1519

Charles V Hapsburg of Spain is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
Huldrych Zwingli begins preaching in Zurich. Like Martin Luther he protests abuses of the church; unlike Luther he challenges the real presence of Jesus Christ in the Eucharist (transubstantiation and consubstantiation). Zwingli ultimately begins the Swiss Reformation.
Ferdinand Magellan begins his circumnavigation of the globe. Nineteen members of his crew return three years later, but Magellan himself is killed in the Philippines.

1520

Raphael, one of the great painters of the Renaissance, dies.
Martin Luther is threatened with excommunication by the papal decree (bull) Exurge Domine.
The Swede Gustav Vasa leads a rebellion against Christian II, “the Cruel,” of Denmark. By 1523 Sweden and Finland will be independent of Denmark and Norway.

1521

After several setbacks Cortés succeeds in conquering Tenochtitlan, capital city of the Aztecs of central Mexico and site of present-day Mexico City.
An army under Suleiman the Magnificent takes Belgrade.
Calusa warriors thwart Juan Ponce de Leon’s attempt to colonize Florida for Spain, kill him, and drive the invaders back to Cuba.
10 Jan. Martin Luther is excommunicated from the Roman Catholic Church. Luther then begins his own movement, later known as Lutheranism.

1522

The first Hapsburg-Valois War begins in Italy, pitting the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and England against France.
Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros directs the publication of the Complutensian Polyglot Bible, which provides the text of the Bible in six parallel columns. Because Erasmus had recently published his own new edition of the Greek New Testament, however, the Complutensian Bible never achieves great popularity.
Nov. Luther’s New Testament is published in German, leading to a wave of Bible translation into the vernacular.
Rhodes falls to the Ottoman Turks as a part of their advance across the Mediterranean.

1523

Christian II of Denmark is deposed; in Sweden, Gustav Vasa becomes king#
The Knights’ Revolt in Germany is suppressed.

1524

The Peasants’ War begins in the Holy Roman Empire. Under the leadership of Thomas Müntzer the peasants take several cities.
Francis I conquers Milan.
The Council of the Indies is formed in Spain to oversee colonization of the New World.
Sailing under the French flag, Giovanni da Verrazzano explores the east coast of North America.

1525

The German peasants are defeated, and their leader, Thomas Müntzer, is executed.
The first Hapsburg-Valois War ends when the Spanish defeat the French at the Battle of Pavia.

1526

The Ottoman Turks take the city of Mohács in Hungary and continue advancing on central Europe.
William Tyndale’s translation of the New Testament into English arrives in England from the Holy Roman Empire and immediately becomes popular.

1527

The army of Charles V sacks Rome, and Pope Clement VII becomes a virtual prisoner.
Castiglione writes The Courtier about the ideal virtues of courtly life.

1528

Albrecht Dürer, one of the greatest artists and engravers of the Holy Roman Empire, dies.
The Spanish explorer Panfilo de Narváez attempts to explore the Florida interior, but attacks by the Apalachee Indians force him to retreat. He and all but four of his men disappear somewhere in the Gulf of Mexico.

1529

Vienna is besieged by the Turks but is able to fend off the invaders.

1530

Martin Luther and his assistant, Philip Melanchthon, write the Augsburg Confession, a statement of basic Lutheran belief.

1531

The Schmalkaldic League of Protestant princes is formed in the Holy Roman Empire.
Parliament recognizes King Henry VIII as Supreme Head of the Church in England.

1532

Following the example set by Hernando Cortés, Francisco Pizarro leads an invasion against the Inca Empire. Because the Inca are in the midst of civil war, he is able to gain control of the empire in only two years.
Machiavelli’s The Prince is published posthumously.
The Turks invade Hungary.

1533

Basil III of Russia dies, and Ivan IV, “the Terrible,” of Russia ascends to the throne. Ivan’s mother, Helena Glinskaia, rules as regent until 1538.
Francisco Pizarro captures and kills the Inca ruler Atahualpa.

1534

Henry VIII of England wishes to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, and marry Anne Boleyn. To circumvent the opposition of the Roman Catholic Church he signs of the Act of Supremacy, making himself head of the English church.
St. Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish noble and soldier, undergoes a conversion to a more devout form of life. To help others achieve this same conversion and to aid the poor, he establishes the Society of Jesus (Jesuits).
The Iroquoian Indians of Stadacona and Hochelaga welcome French explorer Jacques Cartier in the first of his three voyages of exploration up the St. Lawrence River. His efforts to build a colony come to naught, and his kidnapping of several Indian youths angers the Iroquoians.

1535

After a long siege the Anabaptists of Münster in the Holy Roman Empire are massacred.
Sir Thomas More is executed in England for refusing to recognize Henry VIII’s authority over the church in England.

1536

John Calvin writes and publishes the first edition of his Institutes of Christian Religion. In laying out his detailed description of Reformed theology he emphasizes the doctrine of predestination: that some individuals are destined to be saved while others are destined for damnation.
France signs a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire.
Michelangelo paints The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel.

1537

A civil war erupts in Peru between rival conquistadors.

1538

John Calvin, expelled from Geneva, settles in Strasbourg.

1539

Over the course of the next three years thousands of North American Indians encounter the expeditions of Hernando de Soto in the southeast and Hernando Vasquez de Coronado in the Southwest. Native resistance and a lack of provisions force both exploring parties to beat hasty retreats to Mexico.

1540

The Society of Jesus, more commonly known as the Jesuits, is recognized by the Pope and formally sanctioned as a new order. Under their founder, Ignatius of Loyola, the Jesuits will travel as missionaries and educators throughout the globe.

1541

John Calvin returns to Geneva and begins to institute reforms of city life based on his reading of the Scriptures. His Ecclesiastical Ordinances, published this year, becomes the model for Reformed Protestant communities throughout Europe.
Francisco de Orellana explores the Amazon, returning the following year.
The Ottoman Turks conquer Transylvania in Romania and Budapest in Hungary.

1542

The Roman Inquisition starts.

1543

Nicholas Copernicus dies, and one of his students publishes De Revolutionibus, Copernicus’s explanation of the heliocentric theory of the universe.
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and Henry VIII of England form an alliance against Francis I of France.
Portuguese sailors introduce firearms to the Japanese.

1544

The University of Königsberg is founded.

1545

In response to the rapid growth of Protestantism the Roman Catholic Church calls the first of three sessions of the Council of Trent; this first session lasts until 1547.
Silver deposits are discovered at Potosí in present-day Bolivia.

1546

The Schmalkaldic War begins.

1547

Henry VIII of England dies and is succeeded by his son, Edward VI, who moves the country toward a more thorough acceptance of Protestantism.

1548

St. Ignatius of Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises is published for the first time.

1549

The Book of Common Prayer is published in England.
St. Francis Xavier arrives in Japan.

1550

Michelangelo paints Deposition from the Cross.

1551

The second session of the Council of Trent meets and focuses on reform of the clergy and stricter standards of education for priests.
The Ottomans take the city of Tripoli.
The Hapsburg-Valois Wars resume.

1552

St. Francis Xavier dies in China. In his journeys for the Society of Jesus, Francis Xavier traveled in India, Southeast Asia, China, and Japan.
Henry II of France allies with German Protestants.
Ivan IV, “the Terrible,” starts the conquest of Astrakhan and Kazan.

1553

Edward VI of England dies and is succeeded by his half sister Mary. Daughter of Catherine of Aragon, Mary is a devout Catholic and tries to move the country back to Catholicism.

1554

Mary Tudor, queen of England, marries Philip II of Spain.

1555

The Peace of Augsburg, negotiated by Charles V and his princes, mandates that each prince in the Holy Roman Empire can choose Lutheranism or Catholicism to be the religion of his principality. This ends an extended period of religious war in the empire.

1556

Charles V abdicates as Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain and is succeeded in Spain by his son, Philip II. Charles retires to a monastery in Yuste, Spain, where he dies two years later.
Akbar the Great becomes the Mughal emperor of India and rules until 1605.

1557

The Livonian War begins when Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Poland vie for control of the Baltic territories.
The first Index of Prohibited Books is issued by Pope Paul IV.
Europe undergoes a widespread financial crisis as banks fail.
A Portuguese settlement at Macao is established.

1558

Mary of England dies and is succeeded by her half sister, Elizabeth I, who is the daughter of Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth advocates a via media, or middle ground, between Catholicism and radical Protestantism.

1559

The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis creates peace between France and Spain after decades of fighting in the Hapsburg-Valois Wars. France gives up any claims to land in Italy. At the festivities marking the conclusion of the war, King Henry II of France is fatally wounded in a tournament, and his son Francis II succeeds him.

1560

Catherine de Medici begins a five-year term as regent for her son Charles IX of France. Her attempts to placate the Huguenot minority ultimately succeed in further dividing the country.

1561

The Colloquy of Poissy, designed to reconcile Huguenots and Catholics, takes place in France.

1562

The French wars of religion begin between Catholics and Huguenots. Although the Protestants comprise only about 10 percent of the population, sporadic fighting continues until 1598.
Chief Saturnia welcomes Frenchman Jean Ribault’s Charlesfort colony in Florida. The site is abandoned two years later.
The third and final session of the Council of Trent begins. Unlike the first two sessions which dealt primarily with reform of the clergy, this session addresses doctrinal questions raised by Protestants. French bishops, in attendance for the first time at Trent, urge those present to work harder to confront Protestantism.

1563

A general outbreak of plague occurs in Europe and kills more than twenty thousand people in London.
The first printing presses begin operations in Russia.
The Peace of Amboise grants limited toleration to Huguenots.

1564

Michelangelo, last of the great Renaissance artists, dies.
The Peace of Troyes settles the conflict between England and France.
Ivan IV, “the Terrible,” battles with his boyars, or noblemen, for power.
Saturnia helps Réné de Laudonnière build a second French colony in Florida, Fort Caroline, but grows angry with the Frenchman’s unwillingness to uphold certain promises he had made.

1565

The Ottoman Turks launch a major expedition against Malta in the western Mediterranean but fail to capture the island.
Pedro Ménendez de Avilés’s Spanish force destroys the French settlement at Fort Caroline and builds the city of St. Augustine in Florida.

1566

Open resistance to Spanish rule in the Netherlands begins.
Suleiman the Magnificent dies and is succeeded as sultan by Selim II, “the Sot.”

1567

An estimated two million Indians die of typhoid fever in South America.
The duke of Alba becomes the Spanish military governor of the Netherlands and begins a reign of terror.
In Japan, Nobunaga deposes the shogunate and centralizes the government.

1568

Spanish territories in the Low Countries (present-day Holland and Belgium) revolt, protesting taxes, religious oppression, and the foreign rule of Philip II.
Muslim moriscos, or converts, revolt against Spanish rule in Granada.

1569

Approximately forty thousand inhabitants of Lisbon die from an epidemic of carbuncular fever.
A public lottery is held in London to finance repairs to port facilities.
Sigismund II of Poland unites Poland and Lithuania in the Union of Lublin.

1570

The morisco rebellion in Granada is thwarted by the Spanish.
Japan begins to permit visits by foreign ships.
The Ottoman Turks attack Cyprus and begin a war with Venice.

1571

Ottoman Turks take Cyprus as part of their advance across the Mediterranean.
7 Oct. In the greatest naval battle since Actium in 31 B.C., a Spanish-Venetian fleet defeats a Turkish fleet in the Battle of Lepan to. Out of 230 Ottoman galleys only 40 escape destruction or capture.

1572

Exiled Calvinist privateers from the Netherlands known as “Sea Beggars” seize fifty towns in the Low Countries.
The Peace of Constantinople ends Turkish attacks on Europe.
24 Aug. After a botched assassination attempt against the Protestant Gaspard de Coligny, Catholics kill at least thirty thousand Huguenots in Paris. The St. Bartholemew’s Day Massacre spreads to other cities in France, where more French Protestants are killed.

1573

Venice makes peace with the Ottoman Empire.

1574

The Ottoman Turks conquer Tunisia.
Torquato Tasso completes Jerusalem Liberated.

1575

Philip II of Spain declares bankruptcy.
Spanish traders arrive in Canton, China.

1576

The French Catholic League is formed by rural nobles who want to resist the Huguenots.

1577

Sir Francis Drake begins his circumnavigation of the globe.

1578

The catacombs of Rome are discovered.
John III of Sweden secretly converts to Catholicism.
One of the chief rulers of Japan, Otomo Yoshishige, converts to Christianity.

1579

The Union of Utrecht is established, uniting the northern Low Countries (present-day Netherlands) in opposition to Spanish rule. Under William of Nassau, prince of Orange, Dutch resistance is further organized.

1580

When the king of Portugal dies without an heir, Philip II of Spain annexes the country; Portugal and Spain will remain united until 1640.
Michel de Montaigne publishes the first two books of his Essays, which comment on the human condition.
Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage around the world.

1581

Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy is performed. It is the first romantic tragedy—a play mingling love, betrayal, and revenge.
Akbar the Great of Mughal India conquers Afganistan.

1582

Pope Gregory reforms the calendar; the Gregorian calendar is still in use today.

1583

Galileo discovers the principle of the pendulum.

1584

Ivan IV, “the Terrible,” of Russia dies, and his son, Theodore I, becomes czar.
Prince William of Orange is killed on orders of Philip II of Spain.

1585

The War of the Three Henries begins in France, a religious conflict involving Henry III of Valois, Henry of Navarre, and Henry Guise.
William Shakespeare arrives in London.
Chief Wingina allows the English to build the Virginia colony on Roanoke Island, but relations between him and the colonists deteriorate, and the colonists flee back to England the following year.

1586

Mary, Queen of Scots, is implicated in a plot to kill Elizabeth I; she is tried and convicted of treason. Meanwhile, Mary recognizes Philip II of Spain as her heir.

1587

Mary, Queen of Scots, is executed.
Christopher Marlowe’s play Tamburlaine the Great is performed in London.
A second attempt to found a Virginia colony is undertaken, but it too fails, and the colonists vanish in 1590.

1588

Boris Godunov, brother-in-law to Czar Theodore I, becomes the effective head of Russia.
Michel de Montaigne publishes his third and final book of Essays.
Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus is performed in London.
7 Aug . A British fleet defeats the Spanish Armada.

1589

Henry III, king of France, on his deathbed recognizes Henry of Navarre, a Protestant, as his successor.
Christopher Marlowe’s The Jew of Malta is performed in London.
The head of the Russian Church is elevated to the level of a Patriarch, the highest rank in the Orthodox Church. As a result the Russian Church gains new prestige and strengthens its organization.
A mutiny of the elite soldiers of the Ottoman sultan, known as janissaries, occurs; they kill the grand vizier and other officials.

1590

Theodore de Bry and his sons begin publication of the first of ten volumes of the lavishly illustrated series Great Voyages. Publication will continue for the next twenty-eight years.
Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queen is published.

1591

The Songhay Empire along the Niger River in Africa collapses.

1592

Hideyoshi of Japan fails in his attempt to invade China via Korea.
The Portuguese settle Mombasa, an island off the east coast of Africa.
The ruins of Pompeii, a Roman city destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 79 A.D., are discovered.

1593

Japan attacks the Korean peninsula, which is controlled by China, and succeeds in taking some coastal fortifications.

1594

After converting to Catholicism the previous year, Henry IV enters Paris and is crowned the king of France.

1595

The Dutch begin colonization of the East Indies.
Henry IV of France declares war on England.

1596

Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet is performed in London.

1597

A second Spanish Armada leaves for England but is scattered by storms.
The Dutch found Batavia, Java.
The English Parliament approves the transportation of criminals to the colonies as a means of punishment.

1598

Philip II of Spain dies and is succeeded by his son, Philip III.
Henry IV of France decrees the Edict of Nantes, which grants limited rights to Huguenots.
Theodore I of Russia dies and is succeeded by his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov.
War between Japan and China ends when the former sues for peace.
Tycho Brahe publishes Astronomiae instauratae mechanica, a description of his astronomical experiments and calculations.
Juan de Oñate settles among the Pueblo Indians.

1599

Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar is performed in London.

1600

The English East India Company is formed to develop overseas trade.
Shakespeare’s Hamlet is performed in London.
Tokugawa Ieyasu ends decades of civil war in Japan at the battle of Sekigahara. Having defeated his enemies, this shogun (military leader) brings peace to Japan and moves the capital to Edo (known today as Tokyo).

American Eras