‘Ali ibn Abi Talib

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‘Ali ibn Abi Talib

Circa 599–661

Fourth khalifah

Early Years . ’Ali ibn Abi Talib is possibly the second most famous Muslim after Muhammad because of his close family relationship with the Prophet and his famous early political role in establishing Islam. ‘Ali’s father was the Prophet’s benefactor and uncle, Abu Talib (circa 564–619), who sent ‘Ali to live in the Prophet’s household; although ‘Ali was thus the Prophet’s first cousin, he was treated as a son. Tradition avers that ‘Ali was about ten when Islam was first revealed to Muhammad around 609 and was among the first who accepted it after the Prophet and Khadijah. Thus, ‘Ali grew up in the teachings of Islam from a young age, and deeply imbibed its universalizing aspect, as he became freer of the old tribal loyalties than many of the other Companions.

Strong Bonds . At first, perhaps, ‘Ali was necessarily subordinate to his much older brother Ja’far (circa 589–629), who was also an early Muslim but spent many years as the head of the Muslim exiles in Abyssinia (circa 615–627). However ‘Ali gradually assumed a greater importance, being especially renowned as a warrior in the battles of the Madinan period. In 624, he married the Prophet’s youngest daughter, Fatimah (circa 604–632). They had four children who survived to adulthood, two sons, al-Hasan (625–669) and al-Husayn (626–680), and two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum, and it is only through these that all the Prophet’s later descendants are traced (as the line from Fatimah’s sister Zaynab through her daughter Umaymah soon became extinct). The young family of ‘Ali and Fatimah further endeared ‘Ali to the Prophet, who loved children and enjoyed playing with his young grandsons. These circumstances gave ‘Ali easy access to the Prophet, which may have also fueled a rivalry with Fatimah’s young stepmother ‘a’ishah, the daughter of Abu Bakr, who was perhaps slightly younger than Fatimah. This split had important political consequences later.

Succession . Nevertheless, when the Prophet died in 632, ‘Ali put aside his own potential legitimist political claims for the sake of internal Muslim harmony. The Shi’ah assert that the Prophet had indeed predesignated him as his successor as imam or leader of the Muslim community, though not as Prophet (Qur’an 33:40). The Sunnis assert that, although the Prophet gave some indirect indications that he preferred Abu Bakr to succeed him, the community had to elect a successor, and chose Abu Bakr as amir or commander, and that he also took the title of Khalifah (caliph or deputy). At the time, however, this difference did not cause a final political break, and ‘Ali eventually acknowledged Abu Bakr as ruler and paid allegiance to him when Fatimah died about six months after the Prophet. On Abu Bakr’s own death in 634, ‘Ali likewise paid allegiance to ‘Umar, who sometimes consulted him on matters of state. ‘Ali also married his youngest daughter by Fatimah, Umm Kulthum, to ‘Umar, although possibly with some reluctance. When ‘Umar was assassinated in 644, with his last breathe he appointed a council of six high-ranking Quraysh tribe members including ‘Ali to elect a successor, and from that time the political split became worse, because ‘Ali always had a more universalist view of Islam than the Quraysh nobles, who expected to be the privileged group.

Rebels . ‘Ali’s broader view may have derived from his close friendship with the Ansar, the native people of Madinah, who had provided most of the troops for the military campaigns in the Prophet’s lifetime but found themselves increasingly shunted aside by the Quraysh. When the Umayyad ‘Uthman (circa 574–656) was elected as the third Khalifah in succession to ‘Umar, tempers flared immediately. ‘Uthman’s attempted to prevent separatist fiefs from developing in the newly-acquired outer provinces by appointing his close relatives as governors. Such a policy only alienated even his Quraysh supporters, however, so that a revolutionary situation developed which led to his assassination in his house by rebels from the outer provinces. The rebels, in collaboration with the Ansar in Madinah, immediately elected ‘Ali to be Khali-fah and imam.

Civil War . This revolution broke the fragile legitimacy of the Madinan khilafah that had been dominated by the Quraysh. The Muslims thereupon split into several factions, each of which ‘Alifought in succession in the First Civil War (656–661). He initially defeated the old Quraysh nobles led by ‘A’ishah, Talhah, and al-Zubayr, preventing their comeback (656). Then he fought the well-established governor of Syria, Mu’awiyah (circa 600–680) to a stalemate (657). Because he accepted arbitration to save further bloodshed among the Muslims, ‘Ali was now denounced by his own true-blue faction, who became the Kharijites. He tried to suppress this group as well (658). Another faction of Muslims held back from fighting altogether and refused to take sides. Thus, the war remained unsettled, much blood had been shed, and ‘Ali’s title to rule had been severely tested. The fighting ended when ‘Ali was himself assassinated in 661, and his son al-Hasan, after gaining promise of an amnesty, surrendered to Mu’awiyah.

Legacy . ’Ali left behind him the memory of a sincere commitment to Islam and to justice, however, and a loyal cadre of followers who commemorated him, who in time became the Shi’ah. The Sunnis likewise claim him as a just ruler, and thus his fame and influence continue to reverberate after fourteen centuries.