Makandal, François

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Makandal, FranÇois

c. 1715?
January 17, 1758

After being captured and convicted of leading a small group of notorious poisoners, François Makandal was publicly executed by burning on January 17, 1758, in Cap Français, Saint Domingue (modern Haiti). There is no consensus as to the exact nature of his activities, but a majority of scholars regard Makandal as the leader of a large Maroon, or fugitive slave, conspiracy who conducted a lengthy, but ultimately unsuccessful, poisoning campaign to overthrow the French planters in the North province of the colony. Others—notably David Geggus and Pierre Pluchon—argue that the contemporary records indicate Makandal's role was significantly different in breadth and scope than is commonly believed. They contend that there was neither a large conspiracy nor an overall political element to the poisonings, but rather a concerted effort that reflected personal motivations. Both interpretations are plausible, but there is certainly much that will remain conjectural due to the limitations and discrepancies of the source material.

Born in Africa—most likely the West Central region of Kongo-Angola—François Makandal is thought to have been enslaved and brought to Saint Domingue as a youth, but relatively little is known about his early years. He was a slave on the LeNormand de Mézy plantation near Limbé, close to present-day Cap Haïtien, Haiti. While the exact details of his escape are not known, his motivations for maronnage have variously been attributed to either a work accident or a dispute with his master over a beautiful female slave. In the former, his hand was apparently crushed in the machinery of a cane mill—necessitating amputation—after which he was put in charge of tending live-stock, a situation he easily escaped from. In the latter scenario, rather than submit to the whip, he chose to defy his master and flee the plantation. Subsequently, he became a Maroon, a status he maintained for somewhere between ten and eighteen years.

He has variously been portrayed as a Muslim fluent in Arabic, or as being a Vodou high priest—otherwise known as a houngan. But perhaps he would be more appropriately described as a bókó, or sorcerer. He has been celebrated for his intelligence, rhetorical ability, sexual prowess, and organizational skill, as well as his stature as a religious cult leader. But, as Geggus has argued, he was not referred to as a Maroon leader until twenty years after his death.

There is little doubt that the scale of the poisonings prior to his execution—perhaps as many as six-thousand fatalities—inspired fear and terror, not only in the white population but also among the slaves and free people of color. But the fact that the largest number of victims came from the ranks of the slaves and free blacks has led some scholars to categorize this poisoning campaign separately from other instances of Maroon resistance.

The source of his knowledge with herbal poisons is not clear, though the sheer length of his time as a maroon may be sufficient to explain it; that he possessed great skill as a poisoner is certain. He is also said to have maintained an "open school" for those wishing to learn his techniques. Before his capture he likely had three or four close associates with whom he created and distributed the poison. They were thought to be in the process of planning to poison the water source for Cap Français, when Makandal was captured—allegedly after being betrayed by a fellow slave.

His public execution galvanized an already fearsome reputation and contributed to his legendary status. While being burnt at the stake he is said to have broken free and fallen out of the fire. Although quickly retied and put back in the blaze to expire, Makandal's adherents saw the event as proof of his supernatural powers. In the popular imagination he is understood to have transformed himself into a mosquito—sometimes reported as a fly—thus fulfilling his own prophecy that he could not be killed.

Makandal's position in the national pantheon of Haitian heroes would seem to be secure, particularly since he is so often portrayed as the revolutionary forerunner to Boukman Dutty, a leader in the first weeks of the 1791 slave insurrection. Within the modern lexicon of the Haitian language, the word makandal retains a number of significant meanings relating to magic, secret societies, and amulets. While it is believed that his execution resulted in this cultural-linguistic legacy, there seems to be compelling evidence that the word—most likely Kikongo—predates him and was already a part of the vernacular. Regardless, his name was—and still is—associated with poison, Vodou, slave resistance, and marronage.

See also Haitian Revolution; Runaway Slaves in Latin America and the Caribbean; Voodoo