Algeria

History & Background

Algeria is the second largest country in Africa, after the Sudan. Located in northern Africa, Algeria is bordered by the Mediterranean on the north, on the west by Morocco and Western Sahara, on the southwest by Mauritania and Mali, on the southeast by Niger, and on the east by Libya and Tunisia. The present boundaries were set during the French conquest in the nineteenth century.

Algeria is rich in oil, and the economy is heavily dependent on hydrocarbons. Petroleum and natural gas and nonfuel minerals such as high-grade iron, oil phosphates, mercury, and zinc account for approximately 50 percent of the budget revenue. The state owns more than 450 of the heavy industrial enterprises, particularly steel, and envisions the creation of private small-and medium-sized businesses in commerce, tourism, and transport.

Algeria is divided into 48 wilayas (provinces). Each wilaya has a wilayat (provincial council) headed by prefects appointed by the president and 1,539 local authorities. The Director of Education for each wilaya administers the plans and operations of the schools.

In 2000, the population numbered 31,193,917 people, with 35 percent aged 0 to 14 years, 61 percent aged 15 to 64 years, and 4 percent older than 64. The growth rate in 2000 was estimated at 1.74 percent, down from 3.3 percent in 1988. The mortality rate in children under five years of age was 4.2 percent in 1997; 13 percent were reported to be malnourished. Approximately 90 percent of the inhabitants are concentrated in 12 percent of the land along the coastal area that stretches some 1200 kilometers. More than half (57.2 percent) of Algerians live in urban areas. Approximately 2.5 million Algerians live in France.

The combined Arab-Berber people comprise more than 99 percent of the population (Arabs approximately 80 percent; Berbers 20 percent), with Europeans less than one percent. Islam is the official state religion, with Sunni Muslims numbering over 98 percent of the population. There are also 110,000 Ibadigah Muslims and 150,000 Christians. Together Christians and Jews comprise about one percent of the population.

In 1999, an estimated 23 percent of the population fell below the poverty line and 39 percent were unemployed. Almost 30 percent of the working population holds government positions, 22.0 percent are in agriculture, 16.2 percent in construction and public works, 13.6 percent in industry, 13.5 percent in commerce and services, and 5.2 percent are in transportation and communication.

Algeria derives its name from Al Jazain, which is Arabic for "the Islands," referring to the small islands along the coastline of the capitol Algiers. The territory along the Mediterranean coast has recorded early history, but the areas far south in the Sahara do not have written records. The indigenous people of Algeria and the surrounding Mediterranean area were Berbers, the name given the inhabitants from western Egypt to Morocco since ancient times. The origins of the Berbers are obscure, but they are believed to have migrated across North Africa from Asia. The origin of the Berber language is unknown.

Before the arrival of the French in 1830, Algeria was known as the Barbary Coast (a corruption of Berber) and was notorious for the pirates who preyed on Christian shipping. Piracy remained a serious problem until the U.S. Navy defeated a Barbary fleet off the coast of Algiers in 1815, and it was not completely eradicated entirely until the French attached Algeria.

Algerian history is one of repeated invasions. Phoenician traders (900 through 146 B.C.) established Carthage (present day Tunisia) and established and expanded small settlements along the North African coast. They were followed by the Romans (98 through 117 A.D.), who annexed Berber territory to the Roman Empire. In 429, a Germanic tribe of 800,000 Vandals crossed into Africa from Spain and pillaged Carthage. In 533, the Byzantines (429 through 536) raided and sacked the Vandal kingdom. For more than 1,000 years (642 through 1830), Muslim armies invaded from Cairo, bringing Islam to the Berbers. The Spanish (1504 through 1792) constructed outposts and collected tribute. The Ottomans (1554 through 1830) captured Algiers and established it as the center of the Ottoman Empire. The French (1830 through 1962) captured Algeria and annexed the country. Of all the invaders, it is the Muslim and French conquests that have had the greatest lasting impact.

The Muslim expansion into Algeria dates back to the first decades of Islam. The Arabs were tent-dwelling herdsmen; the Muslim invaders of the Barbary Coast stationed Arab leaders and soldiers in towns but did not settle in Algiers. The Berbers, who were highlanders and cultivators, lived in towns and villages in the countryside, which remained essentially Berber.

The Berbers found it advantageous to join the religion of the Muslim rulers and avoid having a minority status. Islam was compatible with Berber society and conversion to Islam provided a sense of identity and belonging. Between the tenth and the fifteenth centuries, Berber-Arab dynasties developed, eventually becoming Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (collectively the Maghreb ). Although the Maghreb (literally, place of sunset) today is considered part of the Arab world, the enduring influence of the Berber population gives it a cultural identity distinct from the Islamic lands to the east, in the Mashreq (place of sunrise).

The French forces who invaded Algeria in 1830 encountered fierce resistance. Achieving control of Algeria required the expenditure of a tremendous number of troops and was not complete until 1847. Algeria however, was annexed to France in 1842, after which the French started colonizing the entire country. The French colonists wished to be ruled by the home government rather than by military authorities, and a very close connection with France developed, whereby Algeria came to be regarded as an integral part of France, with representatives in the French parliament. Assimilation, however, was never complete and Algeria enjoyed considerable autonomy.

The colonial authorities imposed a policy of cultural imperialism intended to suppress Algerian cultural identity and to remold the society along French lines. Local culture was actively eliminated, mosques were converted into churches, and old medinas (Arab cities) were pulled down and replaced with streets. Prime farming land was appropriated for European settlers. White French settlers controlled most of the political and economic power, and the indigenous peoples became subservient.

As colonization continued, a new Euro-Algerian people came into being, numbering 800,000 by 1954. Of these, half were of Spanish, Italian, Maltese, or of other non-French origin. The 150,000 Algerian Jews were completely politically assimilated into that group. The Muslim population increased from three to nine million.

The rulers appropriated the habut lands (the religious foundations constituting the main income for religious institutions, including schools) in 1843, allocating insufficient money to maintain Muslim schools and mosques properly or to provide for adequate numbers of teachers and religious leaders for the growing population. As the colonizers ushered undesired changes into Muslim society, they unintentionally created Muslim resistance—a resistance born of the fear of cultural contamination and resentment of political domination.

From 1882 forward, primary instruction for Europeans and Jews was compulsory; Muslim schools were established at the discretion of the governor general. In 1892, more than five times the money was spent educating Europeans as was spent on Muslims, who had five times as many children of school age. Since few Muslim teachers were trained, European teachers staffed Muslim schools. The curriculum was in French, and there were no Arabic studies. It is estimated that, in 1870, only five percent of Muslim children were in any kind of school.

Early attempts at mixed French and Muslim primary and secondary schools had little success, but after 1920 improvement was achieved. In 1949, French and Muslim primary schools were merged. In 1958, only 12 percent of all children attended school. Few Muslims went beyond primary school.

Under French dominion for well over a century, Algerian independence came in 1962 after an eight-year war. A national assembly was elected and a republic was declared. Three years later, a military junta overthrew the government and ruled for 10 years before new elections were held. The National Liberation Front (FLN), the sole political party in Algeria, was a party of primarily secular socialist policies.

The post independence policy of Arabization that included replacing French with Arabic as the state language led to clashes with the Berber population, who saw French as their "avenue to advancement." At the same time, a grassroots Islamic revivalist movement was created that aimed to establish an Islamic state in Algeria.

After independence, free and compulsory education was guaranteed for all. School enrollment rose from 850,000 in 1963 to 3 million in 1975.

With the steep drop in oil prices in 1986, came a number of changes. The economy moved from a rigid, centralized control and placed a greater emphasis on market forces. Public expenditures in the early 1990s were increased to upgrade education and health care. As the Islamists sought to redefine Algerian identity to be more Arabic, more Muslims questioned the legitimacy of the existing political system, which they perceived as too secular and Western. A 1988 protest against austerity measures and food shortages resulted in government promises to relax the FLN monopoly on political power and to work toward a multiparty system.

In 1992, democratic elections were cancelled just as the militant Islamic Salvation Front (FIS)was headed for a landslide victory. The president resigned and handed power over to the military, which led to a civil war between the government and the Islamic fundamentalists. The FIS laid siege to the secular government, which escalated into the destruction of academic institutions, the assassination of students and scholars, and the exodus of over 1,000 academics from the country. By the 1995 election, the violence had become so widespread that the death toll was placed at 45,000. Bombings even reached Paris.

Reports differ on the effects of a 1999 government offer of amnesty to the FIS. Some sources report that, as a result of the offer, the Islamic Salvation Army disbanded in January 2000 and many of the insurgents surrendered under the amnesty program. However, all violence did not end. Other sources reported that, while some of the rebels responded to the offer and disarmed, the FIS still exists and is suspected of assassinations aimed at derailing peace efforts.

The transition from a state-owned economy and one-party regime to a liberal economy and a multiparty regime was accompanied by violence, both physical and symbolic. Officials of the authoritarian, centralist government that has ruled since independence are products of French education and are seen by many Algerians as a "political-economic mafia." Berbers (more specifically Kabyles), whom the French favored in education and employment, moved into administrative jobs after independence, much to the frustration of lesser-educated Arabs. Political turmoil ensued, as the angry Islamic Salvation Front sought to gain power by imposing fundamentalist ideology to transform Algeria into an Islamic state. At stake in the ongoing violence was the complete re-negotiation of the distribution of power.

The dramatic downturn in international petroleum prices in 1998 led to a decline of more than 25 percent of government revenues from oil and gas, amounting to as much as 60 percent of total revenue. Educational expenditures suffered at a time when educational needs were growing. In 1999 however, a degree of optimism was seen regarding Algeria's economic prospects, thanks to rising petroleum prices, and hopes that a return to domestic political stability would attract foreign investment and form the basis for sustained growth.

Algeria, more formally the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a multiparty socialistic state based on French and Islamic law. Suffrage is universal and begins at age 18. The government established the multiparty system in September 1989. One year later, there were an estimated 30 to 50 legal parties. The right to form political parties is guaranteed, provided such parties are not based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, or region.

Language: Three languages are widely spoken. Arabic, the official language, is spoken by 83 percent of the population, although many government and business functions occur in French, which is still widely spoken. Arabic has replaced French as the language of instruction. In 1992, English was introduced in primary schools on an equal footing with French as a first foreign language. Berber, with dialects spoken by approximately 17 percent of the population, was introduced into the schools in 1995.

Two forms of Arabic are used: the classical Arabic of the Quran (Koran) and Algerian dialectical Arabic. Classical Arabic is the essential base of written Arabic and formal speech throughout the Arab world. Written Arabic is psychologically and sociologically important as the vehicle of Islam and Arabic culture and as the link with other Arabic countries. It is the repository of a vast religious, scientific, historical, and literary heritage. Berber is primarily a spoken language with approximately 10 dialects, some with considerable borrowing of Arab words. An ancient Berber ceremonial script, tiffinaugh, survives in some areas.

Literacy: Prior to French occupation in 1830, the literacy rate in Algeria was 40 percent. After 130 years of French rule, it was even worse, as Algeria was left with one of the lowest literacy rates in the world—as low as 15 percent, according to the United Nations. Illiteracy was attacked in stages, with the greatest emphasis initially placed on developing formal education. The National Center for Literacy Education was established in 1964 to supervise the work of local literacy centers. Literacy is regarded as essential to economic development, and from the beginning, it was a prime objective of the independent government. In 1966, only 7.9 percent of women and 29.9 percent of men were literate. In the 1970s, massive efforts to reduce illiteracy resulted in vast improvements, as nominal literacy rose steadily, reaching 48.6 percent in 1985 (62.7 percent male, 35.0 percent female) and 57.4 percent in 1991 (69.8 percent male, 45.5 percent female). In 2000, literacy rates ranged from 62 to 72 percent (males, 73 to 80 percent; females, 43 to 63 percent). Female literacy is improving, but continues to lag in comparison to males.

Culture: Islamic culture constitutes a comprehensive holistic system of thought and behavior, with an equal emphasis on both the spiritual and physical aspects of life and their integration. All Muslims are equal before God and equal among themselves, an orientation that carries over into their philosophy of education for all. Learning in the Muslim culture, a necessity and a religious duty, occupies a central position in Muslim thought. Muslims often quote The Prophet: "God eases the way to paradise for him who seeks learning" and the Quran: "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the tomb;" and "To acquire knowledge is a duty for all Muslims."

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

Algeria was under French constitutional rule until independence was gained in 1962. The first Algerian constitution was adopted in 1963, and a second followed in 1976, which was amended in 1988 and 1989 and revised in 1996.

In the 1996 constitution, the preamble emphasized the Arab, Islamic, and Amazigh (Berber) identity of Algeria. The beginning articles of the constitution declared that Algeria was to be democratic and republic, Islam was to be the state religion, and Arabic was to be the national and official language. The constitution established the High Islamic Council (advisory) and prohibited practices contrary to Islamic morality. Although the constitution declared Islam the state religion, Shari'a (Islamic law) was not incorporated into the state's legal system. Sovereignty rested with the people through their elected representatives.

The Constitution guaranteed the right to free education, made fundamental education compulsory, and allocated to the state the power to organize the educational system and legislate the general rules for scientific research. Control of education, originally vested in the Ministry of Education, now rested in two ministries:the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, and the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education.

In 1995, the Higher Council for Education was created to improve the efficiency of the educational structure and to link the ministries of Education, Higher Education, and Employment. An Arabization law, implemented in 1998, required governmental and educational functions to be conducted in Arabic. The deadline for Arabization in higher education was extended to July 5, 2000. By that time, officials in government ministries had to acquire at least a minimal facility in literary Arabic. Additionally, the media had to increase the use of Arabic.

Modern day education in Algeria has roots first in Moslem and later in French philosophies. The high value placed on knowledge by the Quran and the Prophet Mohammed provided Muslims with incentives to develop education in order to read and learn the Quran and The Prophet. In the earliest schools at the mosques and in other early Quran schools—and even in private homes—instruction was offered in the Quran, the life of the Prophet, and in the grammar, structures, and forms of the Arabic language.

Maktab or kuttab were developed as learning centers for children as were masjid and majlis, adult study groups associated with mosques. Discussion was part of the learning process at the centers and included topics such as legal matters and poetry, as well as the Prophet's life, sayings, and devotional practices. Jami, the Friday mosques, eventually became seats of higher learning. As the Muslims engaged in learning and writing, a number of libraries developed. They were often attached to courts, where collections of books were organized. These large and informal institutions also housed books from other cultural traditions.

From its earliest beginnings, Moslem learning focused on life skills and theological concerns. The Moslem heritage is a philosophy that places high value on education, prescribes it for all Muslims, and uses a comprehensive approach to learning infused with religious teachings. Moslem educational philosophy is based on acquiring self-knowledge, balanced with the recognition of the need for skills to live in the world. The Moslem learning during the medieval period (800 to 1000 A.D.) was conceived as six sciences: celestial spheres and heavenly bodies, earth and geography, medicine and natural science, crafts and vocations, religion and creeds, and political administration. Throughout the medieval period, Muslim women's education was affected by local cultural factors that imposed constraints on their training and role in society. The tenth century saw organized institutional development supported by the state. By the eleventh century, medersa (primary schools) developed into Muslim schools of law and became the primary centers for religious and legal education. They received state support and had endowed professorships and residential facilities. Educational philosophy rested with the intellectuals in informal teaching until the 1880s.

In the early decades of the 1800s, Algerian education was comprised of quranic schools, primary schools, and secondary schools (zaouias ). Jurisprudence, geometry, philology, physics, and astronomy were taught. Higher education institutions did not exist in Algeria and students attended universities in neighboring countries.

Moslems initially withdrew from the French-imposed educational system, a condition that changed when veterans returned from World War I. In 1917, the French made primary education compulsory for boys who lived within two miles of a public Algerian school. The lack of schools and teachers deterred implementation of this decree. In 1944, a plan to enroll one million Algerian boys and girls in primary school by 1964 was introduced. In 1947, Arabic became an official language and was introduced into schools. The destruction of the Moslem schools and the imitation French system imposed by the colonizers left independent Algeria with a strong desire to establish an authentic Algerian system of education. In the way of this major educational change stood a host of impediments.

Political freedom did not bring cultural freedom; the heritage of colonialism was still felt strongly in the educational system. French ideas and influence remained after the departure of French teachers and administrators in 1962. The French left behind a rigid school curriculum complete with very selective formal examinations: La Sixieme (primary school, in the sixth year), the Brevet d'Etudies du Premier Cycle (secondary school, in the fourth year), the Probatoire (secondary school, in the sixth year), and the Baccalauréat (secondary school, in the seventh year). The French educational heritage was a highly centralized, rigid structure designed for the elite; a fact-acquisition based system of learning with major exams throughout the curriculum.

Algerian Philosophy: In 1961, African ministers of education met in Addis Ababa and developed a comprehensive educational plan to set the stage for educational change in Algeria. The plan called for universal primary schooling, rapid increases in secondary and higher education enrollments, and major improvements in the quality of education. With Algerian independence the following year, educational opportunities were opened to all people, marking a shift from the French exclusive elitist system to an Algerian system with equal opportunities for all. Education became a right rather than a privilege.

Algerian authorities recognized very early the role of education in economic development. They realized that for Algeria to develop economically, a literate and trained workforce was a necessity. They planned to channel students into scientific and technical fields, which were most needed by the Algerian industrial and managerial sectors.

The departure of French teachers in 1962 left a gap in the classrooms that was first filled by teachers from the quranic schools and medersas. The marked decline in teaching quality however, led authorities to abandon this practice before these teachers became entrenched in the system. Temporary teachers from nearly 50 countries were brought in to fill the void and to try to overcome the complete disarray caused by independence. Enrollment was only 850,000 at that time (1962), but it quickly swelled. The change in philosophy from education for the few to education for the many was admirable, but the pedagogical and human resources necessary to provide a quality education for all simply were not available—Algeria was not prepared for the massive number of students. In the decade following independence, large enrollments meant hastily trained teachers and improvised classrooms, many in the vacated homes of former French residents. The growing enrollments reached 3.0 million by 1975 and 6.5 million by 1991.

The early independence period between 1962 and 1970 was marked by a series of educational reforms using models and philosophies imported from Europe, the United States, and the Middle East. The profusion of imported educational theories and ideas contributed to disorganization and incoherence in the overburdened system. There was a lack of facilities, trained teachers, and instructional materials; confusion caused by differing educational philosophies; rigidity caused by the highly centralized system together; and, unwieldy, large classes. These mounting problems were dealt with on the local level in very sporadic fashion. Critics complained of the lack of long-term planning and integration. A new phenomenon appeared with mass schooling: mass dropouts. These dropouts and other young "un-employeds" developed a kind of antiestablishment attitude and become known as hittiste (those who lean on walls).

This period was called the "impossible emancipation" due to the restrictive political, social, economic, and education factors. This period included a lack of teachers, schools, colleges (only one university existed), financing, managers, and educational expertise. Illiteracy remained very high. The productive and the educational sector of the economy operated independently and without coordination or apparent consultation, forcing the industrial sector to develop its own training capabilities and to draw heavily upon foreign technical aid to meet its needs for skilled manpower. Graduates in scientific and technical fields from public institutions often were inappropriately trained for employment in industry. The guarantee of free universal education that led to a massive influx of students brought large problems.

Riding on the economic crest of the oil boom, the decades of the 1970s and 1980s produced educational reforms, which were more carefully planned than previous attempts. The reforms were often based on imported theories. The goals remained the same—to provide equal opportunity for all, with free, or nominally priced, schooling and scholarships. Priority was given to reducing illiteracy. The policies put in place all aimed toward the Arabization of all curricula, the Arabization of the medium of instruction, and the Algerization of the teaching staff. A number of major policy decisions were made as educational structure developed over the years.

In 1976 the National Charter was created. The highly centralized control of Algerian education was codified in this charter. It was intended to politically unify all or nearly all of the educational institutions. By this time, the public education system was virtually the only education provider, in large part because of the diplomas, titles, and certificates it awarded. Algerians are said to value degrees (more than expertise) for social promotion purposes to the point that degrees are said to exercise a "fatal attraction."

In 1977 the Abolition of Private Education was formed. Private education, primarily in the realm of foreign institutions and schools that were often run by Roman Catholic missions, was abolished.

The Polytechnic Curriculum Theory came into existence in 1978. The theory from East Germany was adopted for the first nine years of schooling, which resulted in the creation of the Foundation School. It was intended to reduce dropouts by combining primary school (at the end of which most dropouts occurred) with middle school.

The École Fondamentale et Polytechnique resulted from pressure for more and better education in 1976-1979, and was designed to bridge the gap between academic and practical studies by combining theory with practice. It was aimed at improving the dropout problem, which had reached epidemic proportions. Also in 1979, Technical colleges were ended just when industry needed large numbers of skilled and semiskilled workers.

The Ministry of Vocational Education was created in 1983. It was given the responsibility of developing a national training system to satisfy the skill requirements of the economy and provide training for as many young people as possible.

In 1985 and 1986 additional reforms developed core programs in general secondary education and channeled university students into vocational specializations, exact sciences, or experimental and human sciences. The Carte Universitere defined Algeria's graduate and postgraduate needs to the end of the century, with each higher education center expected to fill its quota of the national trained manpower requirement.

The University of Further Training (l'Université de la Formation Continué) targeted those students who were oriented toward vocational learning but who were not going to earn the baccalauréate. It was a place for students completing six years of primary school (ending at age 12) who were not old enough to work. The university began operating in 1991. The Ministry of Vocational Education was transferred to the Ministry of Education. The carefully planned educational reforms were often not realistic and were rarely realizable. Either the resources to implement them were lacking or the planning was so remote from the realities of the situation that they reflected no real remedy for the target problem. From 1988 on, social and economic conditions and shortcomings in the education system led to the formation of informal, voluntary educational activities.

In 1989 the National Commission was appointed to study educational reforms. The first baccalauréates that used nothing but Arabic instruction were completed.

In 1995 the Higher Education Council was created. It aimed to structure the education system more effectively by linking the work of the ministries of Education, Higher Education, and Employment.

The Arabization Law replaced French as the language of government and education in 1996. In spite of the reforms and intensive efforts to create an Algerian system, education in 1996 was still often described as consisting of the "wholesale adoption of European theories, policies and practices" that critics lamented "failed to connect with Algerian realities and needs."

Educational System—Overview

The educational system is structured into primary foundation school for nine years, followed by secondary education school for three years, and then the tertiary (university) level. Algerian education is still grounded in the French fact-acquisition orientation, and teaching is almost exclusively in the lecture and memorization mode. In 1996, the total enrollment at primary and secondary schools was equivalent to 86 percent of the school age population (89 percent of the boys, 82 percent of the girls). Enrollment at primary schools in the relevant age group was 97 percent for boys and 91 percent for girls.

A 1995 UNICEF study reported that early childhood education services for children up to 6 years of age were limited. Fewer than 50,000 children were enrolled, exclusive of those in quranic preschools (quranic schools accommodate large numbers of preschool children.). Of those enrolled, 10 percent of children up to 3 years old were in nurseries and 90 percent of 3 to 6 year olds were in kindergartens. Fifty-five percent of those in kindergarten were urban children. Estimates in 1995 of the percentage of preschool age children enrolled in some form of preschool (including quranic schools) ranged from 3 to 20 percent. Reports from 1995 indicated that no preschool services existed for children with special educational needs except for special sections in kindergartens attached to primary schools for those with hearing impairments. Preprimary schools are conducted in Arabic and are not compulsory.

The Foundation School (École Fondamentale et Polytechnique), replaced the French 10-year compulsory school model with a nine-year model. Primary and middle schools were combined, scientific and technical literacy stressed, and closer connections sought between schooling and work. Classes are taught in Arabic, with French considered the first foreign language. Students are oriented either toward secondary school or toward vocational training.

Primary education (Enseignement Primaire ) is organized into three cycles, each comprising of three years. It is compulsory for the nine years between ages 6 and 15. Students completing primary education follow one of three tracks—general, technical or vocational. Students take a final exam (brevet d'enseignement fondamental ) that they must pass for admission to secondary education.

In 1996, the total enrollment in primary schools included 94 percent of the appropriate age groups (97 percent of the boys, 91 percent of the girls). The ministry reports that in 1996 there were 15,426 state primary schools with 4,674,947 students (46 percent were girls) and 149,958 teachers for the first through the sixth years, and 3,038 middle schools (for those age 7 to 9) with 1,762,761 students, of which 38 percent were girls.

There are two types of secondary education: technical and general. Secondary education (Enseignement Secondaire ) begins at age 15 and ends when students take the baccalauréat examination before they proceed to one of the universities, state technical institutes, or vocational training centers, or move directly into employment. The academic year is from September to July, with a 15-day break in December and another in March. Schooling is free, although some scholarships are offered by the state for living expenses.

In 1996, enrollment in the secondary schools included 56 percent of the appropriate age groups (58 percent of the boys and 54 percent of the girls). There were 1,033 secondary schools with 52,210 teachers and 853,303 students. Admission to secondary schools is based upon the student's primary school grades and the student quota at each institution, as set by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education. Instruction is in Arabic.

Higher education is comprised of universities, national institutes for higher education, engineering schools, and teachers' colleges. The institutions administered by the Ministry of Education produce about 90 percent of the bachelor's degrees. The remaining institutions come under the control of other ministries.

In 1995-1996, a total of 347,410 students enrolled in higher education. Admission is based on the student quota for each institution (set by the ministry) and grades. Allocation to fields of study depends on how well students did in primary subjects in each field. The teaching staff is largely Algerian.

Undergraduate Programs: Admission to undergraduate programs requires the baccalauréat or equivalent (cours préparatoires aux études superiéres, capacité en droit, etc. ). Some popular fields, such as medicine, have additional requirements. Foreign students are admitted if they meet admission requirements and their parents live in Algeria, or if they receive an Algerian scholarship. Scholarships and room and board are arranged by the Centres des Oeuvres Scholaires et Universitaires. The academic year lasts from September to July and consists of two semesters, with a 21-day break in January.

There are two levels of higher education: Level Five, lasting five semesters, and Level Six, lasting eight to 12 semesters. Generally, Level Five leads to qualification as a technologist, while Level Six leads to a first degree (licence ), higher education diploma (diplomé d'études superiéures ), or other professional degree in medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, and engineering.

Graduate Programs: Graduate student enrollment climbed to 11,987 in 1988-1989, an increase of 998 percent from 1974-1975. Graduate education is designed to train teachers and professors, to answer the need for Arabic in teaching, and to get universities involved in Algeria's development effort. Graduate education is not yet fully developed. Master's (magister ) programs require a first degree (license) or equivalent and take two years (four semesters). Students spend the first year on course work, directed research, seminars, and one foreign language. The second year is spent writing a thesis. Entrance to doctoral level programs (doctorat d'état ) requires a master's degree or equivalent. Foreign students are accepted into graduate school if the Ministry of Education authorizes them.

The diploma of magister contains a "mention" of the performance of the student. The possible mentions are: "Passable" when the general average is at least equal to 10/20 and lower than 12/20; "Rather Well" when the general average equals or exceeds 12/20 but is less than 14/20; "Well" when the general average is at least 14/20 and lower than 16/20; and "Very Well" when the general average is equal or higher than 16/20. The general average is calculated by giving equal weighting to the average of the examinations and the thesis defense. Only those who earn the rating of Very Well, Well, and Rather Well can gain admittance to a doctoral program. Doctoral candidates must also complete a thesis reporting original research and an oral thesis defense.

Language: In the postcolonial Arabization program, restoring Arabic as the general language required teaching citizens who had been educated in a foreign language to learn and use their own. The Higher Council for the National Language oversees the Arabization process. Every government organization created an Arabization department to plan lessons for its workers.

In a radical reversal of policy, the Haut-Commissariat a l'amazighité was created (following an eight-month boycott of school by nearly a million students) and Berber dialects (Amazigh) were introduced into the schools in 1995 by decree of the president. This was a tremendous political-cultural victory for the Berbers (Amazigh means "free men"). Barely 15 years earlier, scribbling a few words in tiffinagh, the characters of the Berber language, meant a stay in prison. One-third of the 48 provinces introduced pilot classes in Berber in the last year of middle school (ninth year) and the first year of high school (tenth year). Training courses for teachers were organized and exams planned for the brevet d'enseignement moyen (middle school certificate) and for the baccalauréat.

Preprimary & Primary Education

The government pays most of the costs (approximately 83 percent) of nurseries, kindergartens, and community-based centers with parents paying the rest. In private centers, parents pay all the costs. Preschool educational institutions, authorized in 1976 by the Ministry of Labor and Social Works are governed by laws updated in 1983, 1985, 1988, 1990, and 1992. Children in preschool public institutions receive basic instruction regarding nutrition, health care, and education. There is no standardized curriculum; each institution decides on the activities in its program. Children receive around eight hours of services each day, approximately 1,280 hours a year.

In 1996, the total enrollment in primary schools included 94 percent of the appropriate age groups (97 percent of the boys, 91 percent of the girls). The Ministry reported that in 1996 there were 15,426 state primary schools with 4,674,947 students (46 percent were girls) and 149,958 teachers for the first through the sixth years, and 3,038 middle schools (for those age 7 to 9) with 1,762,761 students (38 percent were girls).

Rural-to-urban inequities exist in the system. The percentage of children enrolled in school is weakest among farmers and seasonal rural workers. In 1990, 9 percent of the students were repeating grades (boys, 11 percent; girls, 7 percent). In 1996, 10 percent of the students were repeating (boys, 13 percent; girls, 8 percent) and nearly 9 percent of all six-year-olds were not in school.

The accepted goal of primary education is to teach children to "practice, research, observe, and discover, as well as depend on themselves in acquiring knowledge and accomplishing their work." Arabic is the language of instruction, but other languages are not excluded.

Primary schools operate on a three cycle system. The curriculum in the first through third year of primary education (basic cycle) for children 6 to 9 years of age provides manual work with education and training tools to develop motor skills and help children understand and adapt to the environment. The second, or "awakening" cycle, is designed for 9- to 12-year-olds and occurs in the fourth through sixth year of education. The educational focus is on reinforcing skills acquired during the first stage plus continued learning in language, mathematics, environment, and religious and national studies. A first foreign language is offered. The third, or training, cycle (also called the middle school) comprises the seventh through the ninth year of education for children 12- to 15-years-old. The curriculum is dedicated to the study of linguistic, social, cultural, religious, and scientific education, as well as mathematics, physics, and various sciences of applied technology. A second foreign language is offered. At the end of the third stage, students take the final brevet d'enseignement fondamental (foundation education certificate, or B.E.F). If they pass, they gain access to general secondary schools, technical secondary schools, or technical training programs.

Special Education: Children and young people with special needs are neither registered nor categorized for official purposes under a policy of encouraging integration. Ministerial circulars were developed in the mid- 1990s concerning the future education of children with various difficulties, such as sensory impairments or chronic illnesses, such as diabetes or asthma.

Special education takes three forms: special classes in primary schools for children with hearing impairments, courses for students who repeat a year, and transition courses for students who arrive in school late. Special education is the combined responsibility of the Ministry of Education (concerned with pedagogy) and the Ministry of Social Affairs (concerned with administration and resourcing), with some additional responsibility shared by the Ministry of Health. The Office of Special Education within the Ministry of Education administers special education. Administrative decisions are made at national and regional levels. The National Consultative Council is responsible for the coordination of services at the national level. Children with severe handicaps are excluded from the public education system; they are placed directly in special care centers. Special education is financed entirely by the government.

Secondary Education

The first year of secondary education is comprised of a core curriculum in which courses are grouped into three general areas: accala (languages and social sciences), des sciences (natural and physical sciences and mathematics), and technologie (mathematics, physical sciences, design, and technology.) Extracurricular activities, sponsored by the school or parent associations, are important and include music, painting, and sports. Sports, music, and physical education are also part of the curriculum.

Evaluation is systematic within the secondary school and passage to the next level is based on the results obtained on homework and compositions. Parents are told the results of the evaluations periodically by means of regular bulletins containing each professor's observations and a report at the end of the academic year stating whether the student passed, would be repeating, or would be exclusion (excluded).

At the end of the first year in secondary school, a decision is made as to whether students enter the general secondary education or technical secondary education program based on the wishes of the students, their academic records, and the exigencies of the academic program. For third-year students who have failed the baccalauréate twice, special classes are offered for a total of 19 hours that are tailored to the particular needs of each student. Remedial courses are given daily in the lycées in the evening after normal class hours. The same chance is given to the children returning to the country because they receive a distinct education that permits them to sit for the official exams.

General Secondary Education: The Ministry of Education reports that in 1999, a total of 855,481 students (53 percent girls) were enrolled in secondary education. Students overwhelmingly chose general education (88 percent) over technical education. Some 496,019 students (57 percent girls) were in general education classes while 64,888 students (12 percent girls) were in technical education classes.

General education is considered the most prestigious secondary education and offers five courses of study—exact sciences, natural and life sciences, humanities, foreign language, and religious sciences. The reform of 1985-1986 arranged lessons during the first year of secondary education into core programs to help students identify appropriate specializations by the end of the year. Completion of both technical and general secondary education ends with the baccalauréate examination that determines admission to higher education institutions. Successful completion of general education leads to le diplome de l'enseignement (education diploma).

Technical Secondary Education: There are two types of secondary education: technical and general. Students in technical secondary education study electronics, electrical science/technology, mechanical science, public works and engineering, chemistry, and accounting. Technical education is considered less desirable by Algerians even though new fields of study such as information technology, applied biochemistry, and agricultural education have been added, as well as optional classes in foreign languages and design. Students can specialize in the industrial option of technical education or in the commercial option. The teaching staff is mainly Algerian. Successful study in this program ends with a technical baccalauréate diploma (le diplome du baccalauréat technique ).

Vocational Education: Vocational education in Algeria has a checkered past. Independence from the French found Algeria with no national vocational education policy. Colonial authorities often opened vocational schools as a second-class educational option for the "natives," so not surprisingly, after independence, Algerians expressed a strong distaste for this type of schooling. Also at that time, and for decades to come, the government was the principal employer in the country, and general education was viewed as the appropriate form of training for government employment.

State education initiatives of the 1960s emphasized general education programs, with only limited growth of technical and vocational schools. As late as 1979, only 65 vocational training centers existed, with a combined enrollment of 23,000 students. In the absence of a centralized policy and in spite of slow technical growth in the 1960s and 1970s, technical ministries and public industries developed many training programs to meet the demands for skilled manpower. Most were well managed; the National Petroleum Company's training center (SONATRACH) still functions well. The proliferation of these training programs did result in duplication of effort, however.

In 1983, a Ministry of Vocational Education was created to develop a national training system. Vocational education was expanded and diversified to be available to the large number of students completing primary education but "not qualified by disposition or grades" to continue secondary education.

Vocational education was intended to provide graduates with immediate employment and to provide the country with a trained work force as Algeria concentrated on developing heavy industry. Students were to be trained as apprentices for up to five years. Vocational expansion continued and more than 200 training centers were built, tripling enrollment between 1981 and 1987. In 1990, a total of 325 vocational training schools were in operation and about 200,000 apprentices were in training. Vocational skills were also taught as part of the national service program.

Expansion concentrated on building physical facilities rather than on modern equipment and materials, and without planning for the particular specializations and/or the number of trainees needed. Vocational schools operated without links to specific industries. Vocational training responsibilities were transferred to the Ministry of Education in 1987 when educational philosophy changed. The existing general educational program was refocused toward technical and vocational subjects to change the negative perceptions of technical training and manual labor and to alleviate shortages of skilled workers.

Problems arose in the late 1980s during the worldwide recession. Resources were harder to obtain, training quality declined, and jobs for graduates were scarce. The 1986 drop in oil prices exacerbated the government's financial problems and restricted budget expenditures for education. Only a few training centers actually formed relationships with employers. In spite of decreasing job opportunities, pressure for more vocational training centers increased as a growing school-age population increased the number of dropouts and "push-outs" from the general educational system.

In the early 1990s, Algeria experienced a vocational "crisis." Low student motivation and aptitude were the norm, as those who "couldn't make it" in general education ended up in vocational centers. Low teacher salaries reduced instructional quality as better teachers went to industry. Language difficulties occurred as most instruction in technical subjects was still in French. Finally, poor management and financial constraints compounded all of the other problems.

The oversupply of graduates created a phenomenon of downward vertical substitution, as people with university degrees couldn't get jobs and accepted lower positions. Employers then raised their requirements for those jobs. The lack of systematic, institutionalized job placements meant employment ended up being a very inefficient system of "who you know." A widespread phenomenon of horizontal substitution developed whereby vocational education graduates ended up in positions not related to their training. Poor quality, insufficient funding, and low external efficiency are signs of malfunctions in vocational education, but they are also a normal and logical result of the other role of these schools, that is, the "social parking" function.

The Offices for Practical Works in Vocational Training, created specifically for aiding the production activities of vocational training centers, act as intermediaries between enterprises requiring products and the training centers that provide them. They identify requirements from enterprises, particularly when the demand for products is too large for a single vocational center, fix prices and deadlines, allocate the product demands among various centers, and provide centers with raw materials.

While these offices permit economies of scale from a business perspective, there are educational problems. The main problem is that production and trading concerns very often tend to prevail over pedagogical interests, meaning trainees work on repetitive and monotonous tasks in which the pedagogical dimension is virtually neglected.

Higher Education

Universities are organized into institutes, each of which coordinates several departments. National institutes of higher education, though smaller than the universities, offer degrees in a variety of fields. The engineering schools (grandes écoles ) include polytechnic, veterinary medicine, architecture and urbanization, agriculture, information, telecommunications, and ocean science. Teachers colleges train teachers for both general and technical secondary schools.

Only the University of Algers predates independence. Founded in 1879 on the French model, it stressed autonomy for the university faculty including designing curricula. The system was unwieldy, with duplication of academic offerings and the complete loss of credits by students changing programs. Not until 1946 did the first Algerian students begin attending the University of Algers, and in 1959, only 600 Algerian students (13 percent of all the university students) were in attendance. Independence in 1962 found university attendance still low, numbering only 2,200 Algerians (from the population of 12 million). Attrition was very high.

The massive influx of students following independence led to the large-scale establishment of universities, university centers, and colleges. Within four years, in 1966, there were six universities, two universities of science and technology, five university centers, one agronomic institute, one veterinary institute, one telecommunications institute, one school of architecture and town planning, and one École Normale Superiéure. Enrollment numbered 160,000 students, with 7,947 academic staff. Additional universities were created and the system was reformed in 1971, with major reforms following in 1988. The universities loosely resemble the French model.

By 2000, enrollment in higher education climbed to 298,767 with 20,026 teachers. The number of universities has risen to nine plus two universities of science and technology, four university centers, and 12 colleges and institutes each coordinating several departments. There is a heavy emphasis on engineering institutes and "hard sciences." The academic year is from September to June. Although the central government coordinates the activities of the institutions, they have a fair degree of autonomy.

The reforms of 1985-1986 were intended to channel higher education students into vocational specializations and exact sciences, or into experimental and human sciences, as such subjects traditionally are nonpolitical. Subjects such as chemistry, biochemistry, and industrial chemistry were to be introduced. The basis for the plan, at least in part, was the perceived requirements of the country in terms of developing industry, agriculture, and the administration, as well as to "form distinguished individuals proud of their cultural heritage, their attempts to change their reality, and their contributions to their country."

The political-religious conflict in Algeria is played out in higher education. When the wave of nationalism of the 1960s and 1970s waned, Islamism took its place. Islamic fundamentalists reigned freely on university campuses in the 1980s. In 2000, Islamic fundamentalists existed as a weakened underground movement on the campuses. They have since been banned from these schools.

In 1987, student riots in Constantine and Setif led to the realization that four main university towns—Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba—hosted 76 percent of the students in higher education. Efforts were made to find ways of decreasing such large concentrations of students.

After the cancellation of the state elections in 1992, protests by the militants quickly spread to university campuses. Low-level violence started in 1992 (usually arson) and escalated dramatically in succeeding years. The violence resulted in a mass exodus of academics from the country, especially in 1994–1995. Between 1992 and 1997, nearly 1,000 academics fled Algeria and settled in France. Many more tried but failed to secure French visas.

Academics have been the victims of assassination since 1992. Faculty members are not the only targets. Rectors and students have been killed, and female students are threatened. One report states that in 1994, by official count, there were more than 2,725 acts of terrorism, more than 80 teachers assassinated, and more than 600 schools, three university centers, and nine training institutes burned down or blown up. Other victims include Communist Party members, socialists, left-wing secularists, academic and intellectual defenders of cultural freedom, academics and scholars who run research centers or who hold government positions, academics known for their fundamentalist Islamic beliefs, and foreigners.

By some accounts, the toll of violence has reached 40,000 to 50,000 victims. The assassinations are reported to be part of the strategy of Islamic fundamentalists to deter peace efforts and, in the case of foreigners, deter foreign investment. In addition to the assassinations, increasing violations of university freedoms originate from a number of sectors. Police come on campus and arrest fundamentalist teachers and staff and people professing opposition to dictatorship and other "unpopular" views. Fundamentalists pressure teachers at all levels with threats (especially foreign-language teachers) to quit teaching. Faculty members are reportedly losing control over their syllabi and careers as well as promotion standards. The Teacher Training Institute library in Algiers was turned into a prayer room, thereby forcing an end to the debates and cultural activities previously held there. University officials are pressured to separate males and females in cafeterias. "Nosey Parkers" (universitycreated security forces) harass students, thwart trade union organizing among faculty, and systematically encroach on union free speech and right of assembly. Universities interfere in the bar exam registrations by providing special dispensations to matriculate without taking the examination.

Universities are characterized by huge classes, aging equipment, out-of-date materials, equipment shortages, inadequate supervisors, and diminishing faculty control. The Arabization that already occurred in the social and human sciences reached the exact sciences in 1997. Without Arabic books and instructional materials, such as software, keyboards, and publications, and given a lack of Arabic-speaking teachers, instruction suffers. Access to the science and technology of western cultures is restricted by language limitations. Poor working conditions, inflation-eroded salaries and poor housing led teachers, professors, and assistants in Oran to strike in 1997, a strike that immediately spread to other universities.

Complementary Education: Some complementary education is found at the foreign cultural centers, where language instruction is available, such as English (Centre Culturel Britannique et Centre Culturel Américan) and French (Centre Culturel Français). With one-third of Algeria's postgraduate students studying abroad in 1992, bilingualism remains a crucial asset. Libraries and documentation services at these centers are frequented and solicited by students who find the public and university libraries, as well as the bookstores, insufficient. Other activities at these centers (not so heavily frequented) include painting, photography, music, theater, and more.

Libraries: Major libraries in Algiers include the University of Algiers library containing 800,000 volumes; the National Library housing 950,000 volumes, with special collections including Africa and the Maghreb; the National Archives of Algeria; and the Department for the Distribution of Scientific and Technical Information at the French Cultural Center in Algiers. A Municipal Library containing 25,000 volumes is located in Constantine. Library holdings at universities include Batna (55,000 volumes), Mentouri (240,000 volumes), D'Oran Es-Senia (200,000 volumes), and Abou Bekr Belkaid (Tlemcen: 66,000 volumes). The university center at Mostaganem holds 75,000 volumes and a number of colleges hold modest collections, as do museums and art galleries.

It is difficult to assess the library resources, given that budget restrictions reportedly have forced many to curtail periodical subscriptions. Semiannually, the National Library issues the national bibliography. Separate lists of periodicals are not issued, nor are lists of periodical articles. The National Library is open eight hours a day. There are three library science institutes and one center that provide special training in scientific and technical information.

Some cultural centers are developing children's libraries. Student use of libraries in cultural centers is high. In Oran, Algiers, and Constantine, there are an estimated 50 readers for every reading location. School libraries are poor or nonexistent. No specific budget is allocated to libraries in Algerian schools. Few public libraries have children's sections, as loaning books to children is unlikely. There are no specialized bookshops for children's literature; few keep a section for children's reading. No publishing house specializes in this field. There is no listing of Algerian writers of children's books or systematic advertisement of children's books.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Government Educational Agencies: Algerian education remains highly centralized even though there is a stated aim of gradual decentralization. The Ministry of National Education is the controlling body. The ministry is charged with all activities relative to the education of children of school age (foundation, general secondary, technical secondary, and tertiary) including the programs, evaluation, orientation, communication, finances, planning, cultural, sports and social activities, legal studies, and personnel.

The central administration of the Ministry of Education is comprised of the Secretary General, the Cabinet, and the Inspector General, plus various directors. Four regional offices (north, south, east, and west) are concerned with pedagogy, financial, administrative, and cultural affairs, and, at the local level, each of the wilayas has a Director of Education (D.E.) to implement programs and operations.

The Ministry of Higher Education and Research administers the universities and engineering schools (grandes écoles). It also is responsible for teacher's colleges (écoles normales superiéure and école normale superiéure d'enseignement technique ) and national institutes for higher education (instituts nationaux d'enseignement superiéure ) that train teachers for secondary schools.

The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education administers preuniversity institutions (foundation and secondary schools). A number of other ministries also contain (specialized) institutes. L'Inspector Générale, created in 1995, is directly under the Minister of Education and is charged with inspecting, controlling, and evaluating local educational institutions. This office coordinates approximately 500 inspectors. There are inspectors concerned with the formation of academic disciplines, lycées and colleges, finances, and scholarly and professional orientation.

A national center (L'office national des examens et concours ) prepares the annual exams; another (Le center national de documentation pédagogique ) purchases all books and educational documents. CNDP (L'Institut national de recherch, pédagogique ) is concerned with pedagogical research and the evaluation of the educational system. The institute is comprised of university professors who serve three-year terms on a scientific council. CNF (Le centre national d'enseignement generalizé ) is charged with distance education and audiovisual methods of instruction for people who cannot go to school.

Educational Budgets: The government alone funds education. In 1994, expenditures on education totaled 79,889,000,000 dinars (5.6 percent of the gross national product and 17.6 percent of total government expenditures.) Capital expenditures totaled 10,200,000,000 dinars. In the 1997 budget, 12.5 percent of the administrative budget was allocated to education and training. Priorities were teacher training, the development of technical and scientific teaching programs, and adult literacy and training initiatives.

Algeria received substantial assistance from the World Bank. Between 1973 and 1980, Algeria contracted five education loan agreements for sums totaling US$276 million. The World Bank has continued to provide funds and technical assistance in connection with fundamental reform in education, the latest phase of which occurred in 1992.

Since the 1980s, funds for the purchase of books and the renewal and maintenance of library collections, journal subscriptions, and laboratory equipment have been reduced dramatically. The reductions coincided with swelling enrollments from the post independence baby boom.

Universities were hurt by the country's economic crisis in the 1990s. In particular, the restrictive measures imposed on the operating and equipment budgets of the Algerian state by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank heavily impacted higher education and scientific research.

Educational Research: Research, an essential ingredient of academic excellence, has returned to the Education Ministry again after a decade of reforms that splintered the national research center, split responsibility for research and higher education, and left academic researchers swamped with teaching assignments. The INRE (Le center national de formation des cadres de l'éducation ) is expected to participate in educational research and experimentation.

The University of Algers houses the National Documentation and Research Center for Education (Centre National de Documentation et de Recherche en Pedagogie ), or CNDRP. In addition, the Center for the Coordination of Studies and Research on the Infrastructure and Facilities of the Ministry of Education and on Scientific Research (Centre de Coordination des Études et des Recherches sur les Infrastructure, les Equipements du Ministére de l'Enseignement et de la Recherche Scientifique ) is located in Algiers. The University d'Algers also hosts the Institut de Psychologie et Sciences de l'Education.

Generally in Algeria, an educational institution is evaluated in terms of quantitative internal criteria such as rates of success, failure, retention and attrition. Rarely are external criteria used such as performance tests, interviews with graduates, employers, and the like.

Nonformal Education

Literacy: Adults who acquire literacy through adult programs have great difficulty retaining it, a problem that also occurs with early school dropouts. Post-literacy programs, therefore, are more than remedial measures for ensuring the retention and stabilization of literacy skills. They are intended as lifelong education aimed at improving the quality of life through the continuation and application of learning. Literacy is viewed as an integral part of continuing education.

Estimates of adult (15 years and older) literacy in 2000 ranged from 62 to 72 percent, with male literacy estimated to be from 73 to 80 percent and female literacy, 48 to 63 percent. The National Centre for Literacy Education came into being in 1964 and adopted the concept of functional literacy education with the intent of providing social, political, and vocational education in addition to traditional reading, writing, and counting literacy education.

Adult Education: Continuing education includes all age groups. It is not limited to vocational instruction. Its aim is continuing progress in all fields. Following independence, teachers in all primary schools were compelled to give part of their time to adult education.

From 1988 on, social factors fostered the development of voluntary educational activities. Conditions such as the growth of unemployment among young people, qualified as well as unqualified; the inflexibility of public schools; the effects of the French-Arabic language conflict on the educational system; and other factors led to voluntary educational activities. Some activities are aimed at making up for the inadequacy of the public schools, others are more lifelong in nature, and some provide complementary training for social groups with religious or political motivation.

Distance Education: There were 3.1 million televisions and 7,000 fax machines in 1997, and there was one Internet provider in 1999 with 2,250 Internet users. Algeria's distance education programs, utilizing 18 television broadcast stations in 1999 (not counting low power stations), are run by CNEG (Centre National d'Enseignement Généralisé ). CNEG is charged with the organization, administration, and teaching methods of the country's education system. The range and scale of CNEG's operation and activities is extensive. In 1991, it was reported that since the inception of CNEG's distance teaching programs, more than one million people had enrolled in the various courses and programs offered—including many females.

In 1990 there were approximately 100,000 students enrolled at the institution. Regional centers provide nationwide coverage of CNEGs activities. Courses are offered in general and technical education up to the baccalauréate, for certificates and diplomas at various levels, and for specialist (professional) training. Courses in education, humanities, music, arts, languages, social sciences, economics, mathematics, science, medicine, medical jobs and professions, and first aid are taught.

The first American production subtitled in Arabic was broadcast in July 1990 on ENTV, the Algerian television network. Some 85 percent of the programs on ENTV were already in dialectical Arabic and Berber as early as 1992, even though dubbing and subtitling are both difficult and expensive. French broadcasts have declined. Funding comes from the government, student fees, and receipts from the sale of course materials. The media and methods of instruction include printed course materials, local press, audio/video cassettes, radio broadcasts, telephone, and group study.

Teaching Profession

Training & Qualifications: Primary school teachers are trained at institutes of educational technology (institute de technologie de l'éducation ). Students graduating from intermediate schools enroll in these institutes for two years, the last year as a student teacher. Success on the terminal examination leads to the certificate of general culture (certificat de culture generale et professionelle ). Students who obtain a baccalauréate train at the Institut de Formation de Professeurs École Moyenne (Middle School Teacher Training Institute) to become middle (third-cycle foundation) schoolteachers. Teachers for special education are recruited from those with teaching experience in regular schools; they can participate in special education training courses lasting for one or two years.

Teachers for general and technical secondary education come from the teachers' colleges (écoles normales superierures and écoles normales d'enseignement technique ) and national institutes for higher education (institutes nationaux d'enseignement superiéure ). Secondary teachers are more specialized than foundation schoolteachers, either in a particular field such as mathematics or in a more general area such as social science. Entry-level teachers at the universities require at least the third-cycle master's-level qualification. Teacher's salaries are low, which has led to strikes at the universities.

Adult Instruction: Each group of teachers and instructors is given approximately one month of instruction on how to teach adults. Adult instructors fall into three categories. Full-time instructors, considered the best and most likely to try new methods and systems, are viewed as the backbone of the system. Second are the part-time instructors who hold other jobs. They are not under supervision and cannot be required to use specific educational methods, but nevertheless are important. The third type include the workers from different sectors who understand their sector and the workers in it, but who rarely have any training in teaching.

Summary

Arabization in the education system included replacing foreign instructors with Arabic teachers, replacing the Eurocentric curriculum with an Arabic/African one, and replacing French with Arabic as the medium of instruction. Not everyone was pleased with the results. "The Arabization in the schools has actually often been managed under disastrous conditions and has delivered a generation of illiterate bilinguals mastering neither Arabic nor French," say the critics.

Arabization was intended to be the vehicle for creating a national identity. Whether or not this has happened, it has created a number of problems, including linguistic generational differences. Parents, particularly middle class parents educated in French, have difficulty following their children's education and in transmitting to their children the culture and cultural information that they themselves have acquired, thereby depriving children of considerable cultural knowledge.

The most experienced administrators find it difficult to communicate to their young recruits (mostly Arabic speakers) their knowledge and their savoir-faire. The communication difficulties occurring between officials of different generations are due not only to purely linguistic differences, but also to psycho-cultural factors bound up with the linguistic differences.

Additional problems occur at training centers where the teachers are often technicians and qualified workers who most often acquired their knowledge and experience in the French language. The students, however, often have poor command of both French and Arabic.

In higher education, the government sought to ease the transition to Arabic by organizing a summer crash course for French-speaking teachers, promising adequate supplies of Arabic science manuals and a working party to establish new terminology. The decree proved impossible to enforce. Many academics did not take the crash course, much of the teaching material is still in French, and the student level of classical Arabic is often inadequate. There are difficulties for students entering sciences, and in particular, medicine, without adequate knowledge of French. Some of the best secondary students fail or quit.

Literacy rates have steadily risen since independence, reaching between 62 and 72 percent in 2000. These are "nominal" literacy rates, which undoubtedly overestimate functional literacy. Too often individuals barely achieving literacy don't retain it.

The first year for students at a university proves to be terribly overcrowded and the students, who are poorly prepared by the lycées, are left to the least competent staff because fully qualified academics do not take first-year students. Many university teachers began teaching when they were taking graduate courses and eventually became permanent staff members without completing their studies. With the mass exodus of the teachers fleeing the violence, a large part of the experienced teaching staff left just as the student numbers increased from 300,000 to 384,000. The exodus has seriously affected scientific research. The universities are further stressed by huge classes, overstressed infrastructures, inadequate and unskilled supervisors, insufficient and old equipment, and a lack of up-to-date educational and scientific materials.

Vocational education suffers from problems with the language of instruction, poor teaching, haphazard job placement (lack of systematization), lack of industrial linkages, and lack of flexibility. These problems produce graduates with inadequate skills in unwanted areas and the inability to adapt.

Algeria still has the fact-acquisition orientation to instruction. It is woven into the fabric of education. The teachers, as their teachers before them, are themselves products of the lecture-rote memorization system (both a French and Islamic heritage) thereby automatically perpetuating the system. The fact-recall examinations further reinforce this orientation. Teachers teach for the exams and until higher order skills such as critical thinking are measured, the situation will not change. Outdated methods and materials and a lack of internships means that students don't get practical hands-on experience. Knowledge is often out of date, citing 10-year-old computer programs. Students complain of insufficient class hours, as classes are often reduced because of strikes.

Funding is inadequate in every sector. Poor pay deters better students from entering teaching. Absent or obsolete equipment and materials lower instructional quality, as do overcrowded schools, classes, and education conducted in multiple shifts.

The Franco-Arabic language split impacts both vocational and collegiate education. The language skill levels of students and of instructors are factors, as is the availability of manuals and teaching materials in the language of instruction.

Since the late 1980s, every sector of Algerian society has been affected by a deep and on-going crisis of violence. This crisis has touched every aspect of life. It is the most serious problem impacting Algerian education today. The violence is a reaction to grinding poverty and blocked opportunity. It is far more a power struggle than a religious issue, and it will continue until the socioeconomic underpinnings are alleviated. The violence has damaged educational progress on every front.

Education in Algeria is clouded by the civil war. Beyond the human and physical damage is the damage caused by the restrictive direction the Islamists seek to impose. The isolationist approach, evidenced by the violent opposition to all foreign ideas and influences, operates to cripple educational progress. Until the violence and intimidation are curtailed, it is hard to foresee a bright future.

Illiteracy rates are still high, but literacy efforts appear to be working and need to be continued as a priority. There are major problems of educational quality and quantity that need to be addressed. Increased funding is part of the answer, but will not by itself cure the problems of ineffective pedagogy, language splits and fluency, lack of coherence between educational levels, and absence of linkages to the work world and to the users of the system. Rigid bureaucracy is slow to react and out of touch with the realities of the work world. Teacher training needs upgrading with models of better pedagogic techniques through in-service training, distance learning, and improved teaching materials and equipment.

Bibliography

Boubekeur, Farid. "Des Diplômés Algériens parlent de la formation universitaire." Mediterranean Journal of Educational Studies (University of Malta) 4, no. 2 (1999): 181-186.

Djerbal, Daho. "Algeria." In theme issue: "From Beijing to Belgrade: Academic Freedom Around the World." Academe 85, no. 4 (1999): 16-18.

Ellyas, Akram, and Lamia Ellyas. "Algerian Strikers Stay Out." Times (London) Higher Education Supplement, 3 January 1997, 9.

Faksh, Mahmud A. The Future of Islam in the Middle East: Fundamentalism in Egypt, Algeria, and Saudi Arabia. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997.

Festing, Sally. "Algeria's Long March Out of the Desert." Times (London) Higher Education Supplement, 19 September 1986, 14.

Fetni, Abdullatif. "Literacy and Post-Literacy in the Framework of Continuing Education: The Algerian Experience." In Learning Strategies for Post-Literacy and Continuing Education in Algeria, Egypt, and Kuwait, ed. by R. H. Dave, A. Ouane and A.M. Ranaweera, 1-39. UIE Studies on Post-Literacy and Continuing Education, no. 6. Hamburg, Germany: UNESCO Institute for Education, 1987.

Flanz, Gisbert H. "Algeria." In Constitutions of the Countries of the World, ed. by Gisbert H. Flanz. Release 97-2. Issued March 1997. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1997.

Henderson, Emma. "Switch to Arabic Adds to Deadlock Over Islam Reform."Times (London) Higher Education Supplement, 5 June 1992, 10.

Hughes, Stella. "Student Leader Murdered." Times (London) Higher Education Supplement, 24 February 1995, 10.

Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. Algeria: A Country Study. 5th ed. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1994.

Miliani, Mohamed. "Algeria." In Handbook of World Education: A Comparative Guide to Higher Education and Educational Systems of the World, ed. by Walter Wickremasinghe, 11-18. Houston, TX: American Collegiate Service, 1991.

——. "The Circulation of European Educational Theories and Practices: The Algerian Experience." Mediterranean Journal of Educational Studies (University of Malta) 1, no. 1 (1996): 1-12.

van Oudenhoven, Nico, and Rekha Wazir. "Early Childhood Development and Social Integration: The Mediterranean Experience. A Background Paper." Paper presented at the Health and Social Welfare Conference, Scheveningen, Netherlands, 9-11 December 1997. EBSCOhost, ERIC, ED416970.

Rarrbo, Kamel. L'Algérie et sa jeunesse: Marginalisations sociales et désarroi culturel. Paris: Éditions L'Harmattan, 1995.

République Algérienne Démocratique Populaire. "Ministère de l'Education Nationale." 1999-2000, 17 February 2001. Available from http://www.meducation.edu.dz.

——. "Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research—English." 1999, 17 February 2001. Available from http://www.mesrs.edu.dz/.

Salmi, Jamil. "Issues in Strategic Planning for Vocational Education: Lessons from Algeria, Egypt, and Morocco." Journal of Industrial Teacher Education 28, no. 3 (1991): 46-62.

——. "Vocational Education in Algeria, Egypt, and Morocco: The Crisis and Its Lessons." Prospects 20, no. 1 (1990): 95-106.

Singh, Madhu. "School Enterprises: Combining Vocational Learning with Production. International Project on Technical and Vocational Education (UNEVOC)," January 1998. EBSCOhost, ERIC, ED424422.

Turner, Barry, ed. The Statesman's Yearbook: The Politics, Cultures, and Economies of the World 2001. 137th ed. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000.

Wise, Michael, and Anthony Olden, ed. Information and Libraries in the Arab World. London: Library Association, 1994.

World Education Report 2000: The Right to Education: Towards Education for All Throughout Life. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 2000.

—M. June Allard and Pamela R. McKay

ALGERIA

Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Al-Jumhuriyah al-Jaza'iriyah ad-Dimuqratiyah ash-Sha'biyah

CAPITAL: Algiers (Alger)

FLAG: The national flag consists of two equal vertical stripes, one green and one white, with a red crescent enclosing a five-pointed red star in the center.

ANTHEM: Kassaman (We Pledge).

MONETARY UNIT: The Algerian dinar (da) is a paper currency of 100 centimes. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, and 50 centimes and 1, 5 and 10 dinars, and notes of 10, 20, 50, 100, and 200 dinars. da1 = $0.01395 (or $1 = da71.67) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Labor Day, 1 May; Overthrow of Ben Bella, 19 June; Independence Day, 5 July; Revolution Day, 1 November. Muslim religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', 1st of Muharram (Muslim New Year), and Milad an-Nabi. Christians observe their own religious holidays.

TIME: GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in northwestern Africa along the Mediterranean Sea, Algeria is the second-largest country on the continent. Comparatively, it is slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Texas, with a total area of 2,381,740 sq km (919,595 sq mi). Extending about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) e–w and 2,100 km (1,300 mi) n–s, Algeria is bounded on then n by the Mediterranean Sea, on the e by Tunisia and Libya, on the se by Niger, on the sw by Mali, on the w by Mauritania, and on the w and nw by the Western Sahara and Morocco; the total boundary length is 6,343 km (3,933 mi). Land boundary and claims disputes with Libya were unresolved as of late 2002.

Algeria's capital city, Algiers, is located on the northern boundary of the country on the Mediterranean Sea.

TOPOGRAPHY

The parallel mountain ranges of the Tell or Maritime Atlas, comprising coastal massifs and northern inland ranges, and the Saharan Atlas divide Algeria into three basic longitudinal zones running generally east–west: the Mediterranean zone or Tell; the High Plateaus, including the regions of Great and Small Kabilia; and the Sahara Desert, accounting for at least 80% of Algeria's total land area. About half of Algeria is 900 m (3,000 ft) or more above sea level, and about 70% of the area is from 760 to 1,680 m (2,500 to 5,500 ft) in elevation. The highest point is Mount Tahat (3,003 m/9,852 ft), in the Ahaggar Range of the Sahara.

Only the main rivers of the Tell have water all year round, and even then the summer flow is small. None of the rivers are navigable. The mountainous areas of the High Plateaus are poorly watered; most of the rivers and streams (oueds) flow irregularly, since they depend for water upon an erratic rainfall. In the High Plateaus are many salt marshes and dry or shallow salt lakes (sebkhas or shotts). Farther south, the land becomes increasingly arid, merging into the completely dry desert.

Algeria lies on the African Tectonic Plate. Northwestern Algeria is a seismically active area. Earthquakes on 10 October 1980 in a rural area southwest of Algiers left over 2,500 persons dead and almost 100,000 homeless.

CLIMATE

Northern Algeria lies within the temperate zone, and its climate is similar to that of other Mediterranean countries, although the diversity of the relief provides sharp contrasts in temperature. The coastal region has a pleasant climate, with winter temperatures averaging from 10° to 12°c (50° to 54°f) and average summer temperatures ranging from 24° to 26°c (75° to 79°f). Rainfall in this region is abundant—38 to 69 cm (15 to 27 in) per year, and up to 100 cm (40 in) in the eastern part—except in the area around Oran (Ouahran), where mountains form a barrier against rain-carrying winds. When heavy rains fall (often more than 3.8 cm/1.5 in within 24 hours), they flood large areas and then evaporate so quickly that they are of little help in cultivation.

Farther inland, the climate changes; winters average 4° to 6°c (39° to 43°f), with considerable frost and occasional snow on the massifs; summers average 26° to 28°c (79° to 82°f). In this region, prevailing winds are westerly and northerly in winter and easterly and northeasterly in summer, resulting in a general increase in precipitation from September to December and a decrease from January to August; there is little or no rainfall in the summer months.

In the Sahara Desert, temperatures range from -10° to 34°c (14° to 93°f), with extreme highs of 49°c (120°f). There are daily variations of more than 44°c (80°f). Winds are frequent and violent. Rainfall is irregular and unevenly distributed.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Characteristic trees of northern Algeria are the olive and the cork oak. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens (Aleppo pine, juniper, and evergreen oak) and some deciduous trees; the forests are inhabited by boars and jackals, about all that remain of the many wild animals once common. Fig, eucalyptus, agave, and various palm trees grow in the warmer areas. Esparto grass, alfa, and drinn are common in the semiarid regions. On the coastal plain, the grape vine is indigenous.

Vegetation in the Sahara is sparse and widely scattered. Animal life is varied but scarce. Camels are used extensively. Other mammals are jackals, jerboas, and rabbits. The desert also abounds with poisonous and nonpoisonous snakes, scorpions, and numerous insects.

ENVIRONMENT

Algeria's principal environmental problem is encroachment of the desert onto the fertile northern section of the country. Soil erosion from overgrazing adds to the effect. To impede desertification, the government in 1975 began a project to erect a "green wall" of trees and vegetation 1,500 km (930 mi) long and 20 km (12 mi) wide along the northern fringes of the Sahara. The annual cost of this 20-year afforestation project was about $100 million. In 2000, about 0.9% of the land was forested. As of 2003, about 5% of the total land area was protected. The country has two Ramsar sites: Karavasta Lagoon and Butrint.

Other significant environmental problems include water shortages and pollution. The small amount of water available in Algeria is threatened by regular droughts. The problem is further complicated by lack of sewage control and pollutants from the oil industry, as well as other industrial effluents. The Mediterranean Sea has also been contaminated by the oil industry, fertilizer runoff, and soil erosion.

As of 2002, there were at least 92 species of mammals, 183 species of birds, and over 3,000 species of higher plants. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 12 types of mammals, 11 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 1 species of amphibian, 10 species of fish, and 2 species of plants. Endangered species include the Barbary hyena, Barbary leopard, Barbary macaque, the Algerian nuthatch, the North African fire salamander, the African lion, the common otter, and the Mediterranean monk seal. The red gazelle and the Sahara oryx were listed as extinct as of 1994.

POPULATION

The population of Algeria in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 32,814,000, which placed it at number 35 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 5% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 31% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 102 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 1.5%. which the government feels is too high. The government has placed emphasis on reproductive health, with a resulting decline in fertility rates from 4.7 births per woman in 1990 to 3.6 in 2005, due in part to increased use of contraceptives. The projected population for the year 2025 was 40,604,000. The population density was 14 per sq km (36 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 49% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 2.45%. The capital city, Algiers (Alger), had a population of 3,060,000 in that year. Other large cities and their estimated populations include Batna, 948,000; Oran, 794,200; and Constantine (Qacentina), 688,100.

The population is concentrated in the cultivated areas of the northern Tell region near the Mediterranean coast. More than 90% of the populace lives in approximately one-eighth of the country. The plateau and desert regions are sparsely populated.

MIGRATION

In 1962, some 180,000 Algerian refugees were repatriated from Tunisia and Morocco; after independence was declared in July 1962, about 650,000 French Algerians and more than 200,000 harkis (Algerian Muslims who fought on the French side during the war of independence and chose to retain French citizenship) emigrated to France. The exodus reduced the French population from about 10% of the total in 1961 to less than 1% in 1981. There were around 24,000 displaced persons from Mali and Niger located in the southern Algerian region of Tamanrasset, Adrar, and Illizi. In 1995, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) started the repatriation of the Tuareg refugees back to Mali and Niger. Repatriation was complete as of June 1998, benefiting some 6,302 Malians and 3,259 Nigerians. At the closing of the refugee camps, some 200 residual refugees remained. As of May 1997, there were an estimated 4,000 Palestinians that were well integrated in Algerian society. As a result of the war between the Polisario guerrillas and Morocco over the Western Sahara, about 150,000 Sahrawi refugees fled to Algeria. In November 2005, the UN Office for the Coordination of Human Affairs reported that 165,000 refugees from Western Sahara have remained in the region of Tindouf in southwestern Algeria since 1999. In 2003, there were approximately one million internally displaced persons (IDP) within the country. As of 2004, there were 169,500 refugees remaining in Algeria. In 2004, the main countries in which over 9,700 Algerians sought asylum were France, Spain, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Belgium and Germany.

The estimated net migration rate for Algeria for 2005 was -0.37 migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The population consists almost entirely of Arabs. They are primarily of Berber origin, particularly in the Kabilia and Aurès areas and in the Sahara oases, or admixtures of Berbers with invaders from earlier periods. The Berbers, who resemble the Mediterranean subrace of Southern Europe, are descendants of the original inhabitants of Algeria and are divided into many subgroups. They account for 99% of the population. The Kabyles (Kaba'il), mostly farmers, live in the compact mountainous section in the northern part of the country between Algiers and Constantine. The Chaouia (Shawiyyah) live in the Aurès Mountains of the northeast. The Mzab, or Mozabites, include sedentary date growers in the Ued Mzab oases. Desert groups include the Tuareg, Tuat, and Wargla (Ouargla).

Europeans are of French, Corsican, Spanish, Italian, and Maltese ancestry. Algeria's European population was estimated at less than 1% of the population in 2005. About half the Jews in Algeria were descended from converted Berbers, and the remainder were mainly descendants of Spanish Jews. Within a month after Algeria became independent, about 70,000 Jews emigrated to France and 10,000 to Israel. Almost all the rest left Algeria during the next seven years; fewer than 100 Jews remained as of 1998, and virtually all synagogues had been converted to mosques.

LANGUAGES

The official and majority language is Arabic, with many variations and dialects, but many Algerians also speak French; "Arabization" has been encouraged by the government. About one-fifth of the population speaks a wide variety of Berber dialects, particularly in Kabilia, in the Aurès, and in smaller, relatively protected areas in the mountains and the Sahara. Berber is a distinct branch of the Hamitic language group; dialects vary from district to district. In antiquity, the Numidians wrote Berber in script form.

RELIGIONS

About 99% of the population adheres to the practice of Islam, which is named in the constitution as the state religion. Except for a small minority of Kharijites (Ibadhis) in the Mzab region, most Muslims are adherents of the Maliki rite of the Sunni sect, with a few Hanafi adherents. The law prohibits assembling for purposes of practicing any faith other than Islam. However, there are Roman Catholic churches that conduct services without government interference. Non-Muslims usually congregate in private homes for worship services. Proselytizing of non-Muslim faiths is and the importation of non-Muslim religious materials are legally prohibited. In practice, however, the government does not actively interfere in religious conversions. Foreigners who practice non-Muslim faiths are generally shown a greater degree of social tolerance than non-Muslim citizens.

The number of non-Muslim residents has been estimated as being less than 5,000. Many non-Muslims have fled the country because of the civil war and acts of terrorism by Islamic extremists. The number of Christians and Jews is thus significantly lower than in the early 1990s. The largest non-Muslim groups are Methodists and Evangelists, followed by Roman Catholics and Seventh-Day Adventists.

TRANSPORTATION

In 2004, Algeria's nationally owned railroad had about 3,973 km (2,471 mi) of track, which consisted of 2,888 km (1,796 mi) of standard gauge right of way (283 km electrified), and 1,085 km (675 mi) of narrow gauge track. The system consists principally of a main east–west line linked with the railways of Tunisia and Morocco and of lines serving the mining regions of Béchar (formerly Colomb Béchar); the esparto grass country on the High Plateaus; the date-producing areas of Biskra, Touggourt, and Tebessa; and the main port cities.

Roads are most adequate in the Tell zone, but in the mountainous and rural areas, they are relatively poor. In 2002 there were 104,000 km (64,625 mi) of roads, of which about 71,656 km (44,527 mi) were paved, including 640 km (398 mi) of expressways. In 2003, there were 372,300 passenger cars and 528,000 commercial vehicles. The French colonial administration built a good road system, partly for military purposes, which after independence was allowed to deteriorate to some extent; however, new roads have been built linking the Sahara oil fields with the coast. Algeria's portion of the trans-Saharan highway, formally known as the Road of African Unity, stretching about 420 km (260 mi) from Hassi Marroket to the Niger border south of Tamanrasset, was completed in 1985.

Algiers is the principal seaport. Other significant ports are Arzew, Bejaïa (Bougie), Skikda (a large gas-exporting center also known as Philippeville), Oran, Annaba, Ghazaouet, and Mostaganem. Algeria's merchant fleet numbered 56 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 837,676 GRT as of 2005

An extensive air service used an estimated 137 airports and airstrips in 2004. As of 2005, a total of 52 had paved runways, and there was one heliport. The main international airport, H. Boumediene Airport, is about 20 km (12 mi) from Algiers. Constantine, Annaba, Tilimsen (Tlemcen), and Oran have smaller modern airports that can accommodate jet aircraft. Air Algérie, the national airline, provides international service. In 2003, a total of about 3.293 million passengers were carried on domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

Before the period of recorded history, the North African coastal area now known as Algeria was inhabited by Berber tribal groups, from whom many present-day Algerians are descended. Phoenician sailors established coastal settlements, and after the 8th century bc, the territory was controlled by Carthage. Roman dominance dates from the fall of Carthage in 146 bc. Completely annexed in ad 40, the region, known as Numidia, became a center of Roman culture. Christianity flourished, as did agriculture and commerce; Numidian wheat and olives were shipped to Rome. By the mid-3rd century there were some 20 Numidian bishops. Despite the prosperity of the Roman cities and the cereal-growing countryside, there were frequent Berber revolts. The Roman influence gradually declined, especially after the Vandal invasion of 430–31. The Byzantine conquered eastern Numidia in the 6th century.

After the Arab conquest began in 637, the area was known as Al-Maghrib al-Awsat, or the Middle West and continued for a century. The Berbers accepted Islam but preserved their own traditional political and social institutions, in effect absorbing the invaders. Arabs from the east attacked in the 11th century. These newcomers, unlike their predecessors, were nomadic herders rather than farmers; they destroyed many of the towns and farms and reinforced a more pastoral type of economy. Almoravids from Morocco also took possession of part of the region in the 11th century, and they were succeeded by Almohads a century later. Although these and other dynasties and individuals united the territory and consolidated it with Morocco and Spain, local rulers retained considerable autonomy. Meanwhile, seafaring and piracy became important.

Spain conquered part of the coast in the early 16th century, and Algerians asked the aid of 'Aruj, known as Barbarossa, a Turkish pirate. He expelled the Spaniards from some of their coastal footholds, made himself sultan, and conquered additional territory. The area of Barbarossa's control was extended by his brother, Khayr ad-Din, also called Barbarossa, who placed his territory under the suzerainty of the Ottoman sultan in Constantinople. Until 1587, Algiers was governed by beylerbeys; from 1587 to 1659, by pashas, who were appointed for three-year terms; and after 1659, by aghas and finally by deys (28 deys in all, 14 of whom were assassinated). Other parts of what is now called Algeria were ruled either by Turkish officials or by local chieftains. Spain held a small area around Oran until 1708 and controlled it again from 1732 to 1791.

Algiers became increasingly independent of Constantinople and, joining with other states of the Barbary Coast, thrived on piracy. At this time, it had diplomatic and trade relations with many European countries, including France. But with the defeat (though not suppression) of the Barbary pirates by US and European fleets during 1815–16, and with the growing European interest in acquiring overseas colonies, Algiers was seen as a possible addition to either the British or the French empire. In 1830, the French took over the principal ports; they gradually subjugated the Berbers, annexed the northern regions, and set up a system of fortified posts. Thereafter, sporadic revolts broke out, notably the guerrilla war from 1830 to 1847, led by the legendary hero, Abd al-Qadir, and the Kabyle rebellion in 1871. Other sections, however, remained independent of France until the first decade of the 20th century.

Al-Jazair, as it was called in Arabic, became, in French, Algérie, a name that France applied to the territory for the first time in 1839. In 1848, northern Algeria was proclaimed an integral part of France and was organized into three provinces. Following the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, large numbers of Alsatians and other French colonizers settled the most fertile confiscated lands, as did other Europeans at the invitation of France. Muslims had no political rights except for limited participation in local financial delegations.

Following World War I, France took the first steps toward making all Algeria an integral part of France. In 1919, voting rights were given to a few Muslims, based on education and military service qualifications. French citizenship had previously been open to Muslims who renounced their Koranic status.

During World War II, in exchange for loyalty to France, many Muslims hoped for political concessions, and moderates believed that France might be persuaded to grant Algeria a separate status while retaining close diplomatic, economic, and defense ties. In 1957, all Muslims became French subjects, but about nine million Muslims and 500,000 Europeans voted on separate electoral rolls for a joint assembly. Unsuccessful in obtaining further reforms and faring poorly in several apparently rigged elections, the moderate Muslim nationalist group led by Ferhat Abbas was greatly weakened.

The war in Algeria toppled several French governments before causing the demise of the Fourth Republic in May 1958. Gen. Charles de Gaulle was then brought to power by French rightists and military groups in Algeria. To their surprise, however, he pursued a policy of preparing for Algerian independence. He offered self-determination to Algeria in September 1958. Referendums in France and Algeria on 8 April and 1 July 1962 approved a settlement, and independence was formally proclaimed on 3 July, despite a program of counterterrorism by the French Secret Army Organization in Algeria. Meanwhile, younger nationalists had formed what would become known as the National Liberation Front (Front de Libération Nationale—FLN), and a guerrilla war was launched on 1 November 1954. The FLN's National Liberation Army (Armée de Libération Nationale—ALN) perpetrated acts of terrorism and sabotage throughout Algeria and gained increasing mass support. Eventually, France was forced to maintain at least 450,000 troops in Algeria. During the hostilities, the French army completely cleared many rural areas of their civilian populations and evacuated some two million Muslims to army-controlled regroupment centers or new large villages. Although the army gradually eliminated the power of the FLN to carry out large-scale attacks, the latter continued its terrorist acts against the French army, French settlers, and pro-French Muslims. Terrorist activities, mainly as a result of factional disputes, also were carried on by Algerian Muslims in France. During more than seven years of civil war, well over one million Muslim guerrillas and civilians and 10,000 French soldiers lost their lives.

With independence achieved, a seven-man Political Bureau, set up as the policy-making body of the FLN, took over effective control of the country on 5 August 1962. Ahmed Ben Bella became the first premier, and Ferhat Abbas was chosen speaker of the Assembly. The Assembly adopted a constitution, which was endorsed by referendum in September 1963.

Elected president in October, Ben Bella began to nationalize foreign-owned land and industry. Opposition to his authoritarian regime led to an outbreak of armed revolts in the Kabilia and Biskra areas in July 1964 and to open attacks on the regime by leading political figures. On 19 June 1965, the Ben Bella government was overthrown in a bloodless coup directed by Col. Houari Boumedienne, first deputy premier and defense minister. The 1963 constitution was suspended, and a revolutionary council headed by Boumedienne took power. The new government shifted to a gradualist approach to national development, with deliberate economic planning and an emphasis on financial stability. During the 1970s, the council nationalized the oil industry and initiated agrarian reforms. Boumedienne ruled by decree until June 1976, when a national referendum approved a Socialist constitution providing for a one-party state with a strong presidential system and an elected National Assembly. Boumedienne was elected president in December 1976 but died two years later.

The FLN Central Committee, with strong army backing, chose Col. Chadli Bendjedid as the party's leader, and his presidential candidacy was ratified by the electorate on 7 February 1979. He was reelected without opposition in January 1984 for a second five-year term. After a period of maintaining continuity with the previous regime, the Bendjedid government moved toward more moderate policies, expanding powers for the provinces and state enterprises and attempting to revitalize the FLN and government agencies. In foreign affairs, Algeria reduced its earlier support for liberation groups around the globe and for hard-line nonaligned positions. It patched up its dispute with Morocco over the Western Sahara and sharply reduced its aid to the Polisario. Algeria played a key role in helping the United States resolve the hostage crisis in 1981 and worked hard for the Arab Maghreb Union, a planned EC for North Africa. Serious internal trouble developed in 1988 when young Algerians rioted over high prices, unemployment, and the dictatorship of an aging, inept, and corrupt revolutionary regime. Shocked by the 500 deaths in the streets, Bendjedid moved to liberalize his government. Political parties were allowed to form outside the FLN and the prime minister and cabinet were made responsible to the National Assembly. He won a third term in 1989, supported by 81% of the electorate.

Burdened by heavy debts and low oil prices, Bendjedid was obliged to pursue austere economic policies and to abandon socialism for the free market—actions which further inflamed his opposition, now led by the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS). In 1989, the party won 55% of urban election seats while the FLN maintained power in the countryside. Elections to the National Assembly, postponed six months, were held in December 1991 under relatively free conditions. FIS candidates won 188 out of 231 contested seats, needing only 28 more places in a second vote to control the 430-member Assembly. The FLN won only 16 seats.

The army intervened, arresting FIS leaders and postponing indefinitely the second stage vote. Bendjedid resigned under pressure from the army and Mohammed Boudiaf, a hero of the revolution, returned from exile to lead the High State Council which the army established. A harsh crackdown on Islamists began; the FIS was banned and its local councils were closed. As acts of terrorism continued by both sides in 1992 and 1993, the regime declared a state of emergency, set up special security courts and arrested more than 5,000 persons. Boudiaf was assassinated in June 1992 to be replaced by Ali Kafi with Redha Malek as prime minister in August 1993. In January 1994, Defense Minister Liamine Zeroual was named president and the five-man presidential council was abolished.

Zeroual released two top FIS leaders in September 1994 and began a dialogue with the FIS. After six weeks of apparently half-hearted talks, Zeroual ended the dialogue and called for new presidential elections. Opposition parties—including the FLN, the FIS, and other Islamist groups—met in late 1994 and early 1995 under the auspices of the Sant' Egidio Roman Catholic community in Italy to produce a national contract to end the violence through a transitional government that would include all parties. Zeroual rejected the meeting as foreign interference in Algeria's internal affairs and condemned the contract that it produced. He continued to attempt dialogue with the legalized opposition parties with no results.

While parties accounting for nearly 80% of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections were excluded from participating, Zeroual did have three opponents for the presidency in the November 1995 elections. The elections went ahead as scheduled. Despite widespread calls for boycotts and threats of violence, the government claimed 75% of registered voters participated in the election, which gave Zeroual the office of presidency with 61% of the votes. Opposition groups disputed the turnout figures.

Zeroual's first objective after election was the passing of a new constitution greatly expanding presidential powers. The referendum approving the new constitution was passed with nearly 80% of the registered voters participating and 86% approving the new constitution. While there were widespread electoral irregularities, the vote was generally viewed as reflecting Algeria's weariness with civil war (which, as of 2003, had claimed approximately 100,000–120,000 lives since 1992) and a willingness to give the government the power to end it. At the very least, the elections showed that few of Algeria's registered voters respected the boycott calls made by opposition parties, even when those calls were backed up with threats of violence.

However, the elections did not stop the cycles of violence. When the government thought it had effectively stopped the terror campaign, the Ramadan of 1997 (the traditional high point of terrorist activity) was the bloodiest ever, with daily reports of bombings and massacres.

Despite the violence and instability, Zeroual continued to hold elections as he reshaped Algeria's government. In June 1997, parliamentary elections were held. Thirty-nine political parties registered for the elections with over 7,000 candidates contesting for the 280 seats in the National People's Assembly. Violence continued throughout the campaigning. The result of the election was a victory for pro-government parties. However, though the FIS and other religious parties were barred from participating, two other more moderate Islamist parties won more than 100 seats and received over 20% of the votes cast. Regional and municipal council elections were held in October 1997, with the RND (Rassemblement national pour la démocratie or National Democratic Rally) winning more than half of the seats.

In September 1998 President Zeroual gave a surprise address announcing that he would step down from power in February 1999, two years before his term was to expire. The decision was most likely due to infighting in the regime, which had become increasingly public. Forty-seven candidates presented themselves for election, but only seven made it to the final list, with Abdelaziz Bouteflika quickly emerging as the leading candidate. Tarnishing the results of the election, four of the candidates officially withdrew from the contest two days before the 15 April election day claiming massive fraud in favor of Bouteflika in the forming of election lists. They were joined the following day by the other two candidates. The fraud claims were rejected by the minister of the interior and the election went ahead with Bouteflika as the single candidate.

Following his election victory, Bouteflika instituted dialogue with opposition groups and at the end of 1999 moved against corruption. Within weeks of his election, Bouteflika announced a "Civil Concord Plan" based upon a 1997 truce between the military and the FIS's Islamic Salvation Army (AIS). In September 1999, a referendum was held on the plan, which was approved by more than 98% of the voters; voter turnout was over 85% nationwide, but was below 50% in eastern regions of the country, which are dominated by the opposition. The plan included an amnesty for those Islamists who renounced violence; up to 5,500 rebels participated in the amnesty, and the AIS formally disbanded in 2000. Those guilty of murder, rape, or the placing of bombs were to be prosecuted; however, the death penalty would not be used, and no prison sentence would be longer than 20 years. The plan was supported by the FIS; however, violence continued, and was still ongoing as of March 2003.

In April 2001, a Berber youth taken into custody by the police was killed, sparking months of demonstrations and rioting in the northeastern region of Kabylie. More than 90 people died in the unrest, which also spread beyond Kabylie. The Berber protesters' complaints went beyond the act of police brutality, addressing concerns of ethnic discrimination, corruption, housing shortages, unemployment, repression, and violence. In May, the mainly Berber party, the Rally for Culture and Democracy, withdrew from the government in protest against the government's handling of the unrest. In October, Bouteflika agreed to a constitutional amendment granting national recognition to the Berber language, Tamazight. However, the language would not be granted "official" status, like Arabic.

In the aftermath of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, the United States called upon all states to implement counterterrorism measures. Algeria pledged its support for the Bush administration's campaign against terrorism, and sent the United States a list of 350 Islamic extremists known to be living abroad who may have had contacts with Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda network. Bouteflika made two official state visits to President Bush in 2001, the first such visits by an Algerian president in 15 years. In return for Algeria's aid, the Bush administration agreed to ease restrictions on arms sales to Algeria.

In parliamentary elections held on 30 May 2002, the FLN won 199 of 389 seats in the National Assembly; it was one of 23 parties participating. Four parties, including two Berber parties, boycotted the elections, which were marred by violence and low voter turnout (47%).

On 3 March 2003, French president Jacques Chirac visited Algiers, the first state visit by a French president since Algeria won independence in 1962. Chirac stated that the two countries could not forget the brutal war for independence that had created "countless victims, tore families apart, and shattered destinies and dreams." He laid flowers at a monument for Algerians who fought the French during the war, which was regarded as an act of reconciliation. Chirac also called on the government to use dialogue to end the Islamic insurgency ongoing since 1992.

On 21 May 2003 an earthquake, which measured 6.7 on the Richter scale, struck along Algeria's northern coast. The worst hit areas were east of Algiers. More than 2,200 people were killed, over 9,000 were injured, and over 1,000 people were missing, while 51,000 were made homeless in the Algeria's most devastating quake in more than 20 years. On 27 May an aftershock of a magnitude of 5.8 was centered just a few miles away from the epicenter of the May 21 earthquake. Buildings damaged earlier fell down and survivors accused the government of a slow response and of turning a blind eye to shoddy construction in a quakeprone area. President Bouteflika was pelted with debris as he attempted to tour damaged villages.

Under Bouteflika the security situation in Algeria improved noticeably. However, terrorism was not totally eliminated. Terrorist incidents still occurred, particularly in the provinces of Boumerdes, Tizi-Ouzou, and in the remote southern areas of the country. An estimated 50–60 Algerians were killed monthly in the early 2000s, down from a high of 1,200 or more in the mid-1990s. In a landslide victory Bouteflika was reelected to a second term in April 2004. Promising to devote himself to seeking "true national reconciliation," the government promised the Berber leaders more investment in the Kabylia region and greater recognition of the Tamazight language.

Algeria assumed a two-year seat on the UN Security Council in January 2004.

In January 2005, the arrest of rebel Armed Islamic Group (GIA) head Nourredine Boudiafi was announced. His deputy was killed. It was declared that the group was virtually dismantled. GIA was an Islamic extremist group that since 1992 aimed to overthrow the secular government and replace it with an Islamic state. In August 1992, GIA's founder, Mansouri Miliani, was arrested for his role in the attack on Algiers airport. He was executed in May 1993. GIA's violent terrorist campaigns were aimed at entire villages, journalists and foreign residents. Between 1992 and 1998, GIA violence was responsible for some 100,000 deaths, averaging 1,200 per month, leading to a civil war. Killings continued at a rate of 300 civilians per month well into 2002; more than 100 expatriates were killed since 1993. In March 2005 a government-commissioned report stated that security forces were accountable for the disappearances of more than 6,000 people during the 1990s civil conflict.

Since 1976 Algeria has supported the exiled Sahrawi Polisario Front (Polisario) in the Western Sahara and rejects Moroccan administration of Western Sahara. Algeria experiences continuing border disputes with Libya and Morocco and incursions from armed bandits of the Sahel region who destabilize southern Algerian towns. Algeria and Morocco each accuse the other of harboring militants, smuggling arms, and have imposed visa requirements on each other that Morocco lifted in mid-2004; Algeria has not reciprocated the gesture.

GOVERNMENT

Algerian voters approved a new constitution in 1996 that strengthened the role of the already-dominant executive. Under the constitution, a second legislative body called the Council of the Nations (Senate) would join the already existent National People's Assembly, or Al-Majlis Ech-Chaabi Al-Watani. The number of seats in the National People's Assembly was changed from 380 seats to 389 seats in the 2002 elections; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms. In the Council of Nations (Senate) with 144 seats; one-third of the members of the Council are appointed by the president, two-thirds are elected by indirect vote (local and regional government); members serve six-year terms. The constitution requires half the Council to be renewed every three years. This body must approve, by a three-fourths vote, any legislation proceeding from the National Assembly. The president is elected for a five-year term, renewable once. A second round is held if no candidate obtains a simple majority in the first round.

Since the annulment of the 1991 election, the military has been the ultimate power in Algeria. In 1994 it appointed a retired general, Liamine Zeroual, to the presidency. In somewhat irregular elections, Zeroual was elected with 61% of the vote over three other candidates. In 1998, Zeroual announced he would step down as president before his term ended. Abdelaziz Bouteflika won the presidential election of April 1999. He was the lone candidate after all of his rivals pulled out on the eve of the poll, protesting massive fraud.

Elections for the National Assembly were held in June 1997, with pro-government parties winning 57% of the 380 seats. Moderate Islamic parties won over 100 seats, with the rest of the seats going to independent candidates and an ethnic Berber party. Several opposition parties, including the FIS, were barred from participating. Regional and municipal council elections were held in October 1997, with the government's RND winning more than half of the seats.

Elections for the National Assembly were next held on 30 May 2002. The FLN took 199 of the now 389 seats; the National Democratic Rally, Bouteflika's party, took 48 seats; Islah, the Movement for National Reform took 43 seats; the Movement for a Peaceful Society won 38 seats; the socialist Worker's Party won 21 seats; and smaller parties and independents took the remaining 40 seats. Again, the FIS was banned from participating. In local elections held 10 October 2002, the FLN won a majority of town councils and provincial assemblies.

On 8 April 2004 a presidential election took place. The election was democratically waged throughout for the first time since independence. Incumbent president, Bouteflika, competed against five other candidates. Although the Opposition candidates complained of some discrepancies and unfair media coverage, the election was considered the most untainted in Algerian history. Bouteflika was reelected in the first round of the election with 84.99% of the vote. Just over 58% of Algerians eligible to vote participated in the election.

POLITICAL PARTIES

One of the earliest active figures in the struggle for Algerian self-determination was Messali Hadj, who in 1925 formed the Star of North Africa (Étoile Nord Africaine) movement among Algerian workers and intellectuals in Paris and in 1937 founded the Algerian People's Party (Parti Populaire Algérien—PPA). Banned in 1939, the PPA operated illegally and militantly under the Vichy regime, with strong support from students and workers.

In 1944, Ferhat Abbas formed the Friends of the Manifesto and of Liberty (Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté—AML), a moderate reform group that was later transformed into the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto (Union Démocratique du Manifeste Algérien—UDMA). In 1946, some AML members joined the PPA and, under Messali Hadj's leadership, formed a legal front organization, the Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties (Mouvement pour le Triomphe des Libertés Démocratiques—MTLD). On a program favoring "the return of the Algerian people to national sovereignty," the MTLD won 5 of the 15 elected seats in the National Assembly elections of 1 November 1946; in 1948, however, the MTLD lost all its seats and was reduced to semi-illegality. Two years later, it was suppressed by the police.

In 1951, an Algerian Front was formed by the MTLD, the UDMA, the Algerian Communist Party, and the Society of 'Ulema, a political-cultural organization. Policy differences in the following years resulted in the creation of three groups: supporters of Messali Hadj; centrists, who hoped to obtain constitutional advances by cooperating with the French administration; and a militant group who proposed violent action. By 1954 there was an open split. The centrist majority repudiated Messali Hadj's leadership. An activist group of nine members formerly associated with an MTLD splinter group calling for armed rebellion then established the Revolutionary Committee for Unity and Action (Comité Révolutionnaire d'Unité et d'Action—CRUA) with headquarters in Cairo, divided Algeria into six military zones and appointed commanders for each, and launched a war with France on 1 November 1954.

Shortly thereafter, the CRUA changed its name to the National Liberation Front (Front de Libération Nationale—FLN), and its forces became known as the National Liberation Army. The FLN was an amalgamation of various nationalist tendencies in Algeria. Its membership gradually incorporated most members of the former MTLD, most members of the UDMA, and members of the Society of 'Ulema, as well as former independents and young people with no previous political allegiance. Its goal was the complete independence of Algeria, and it appeared to have the support of the great majority of Muslims. After Messali Hadj broke with the FLN, he formed the National Algerian Movement (Mouvement National Algérien—MNA), supported mainly by Algerians in France. The MNA attacked both the FLN and the war through acts of terrorism in France, but became almost completely without influence following Messali's imprisonment.

In August 1956, an FLN congress established an embryo parliament, the 34-member National Committee of the Algerian Revolution, enlarged in 1957 by 20 more members to a total of about 50, and a 5-member executive body, the Executive and Coordinating Committee, enlarged in Cairo in 1957 by additional members. In September 1958, a provisional government was established with Ferhat Abbas as president and with headquarters in Cairo and Tunis. (Benyoussef Ben Khedda succeeded Abbas as premier in August 1961.) President de Gaulle in effect recognized the FLN as the only political organization that had the authority to speak for the Muslims during peace negotiations with the French government. During this period, French expatriates in Algeria organized the Secret Army Organization, which violently opposed Algerian independence.

After independence, differences of opinion arose among the members of the Political Bureau, the FLN's policy-making body, regarding the organization of the FLN. While Ben Bella envisaged the creation of an elite party, Mohammed Khider (assassinated in Spain in January 1967) sought to create a broader mass party. The FLN mobilized popular political participation by forming mass organizations for peasants, youth, guerrilla veterans, and women. It organized itself into departmental federations, sections, and cells, staffed largely by former guerrillas (mujahedin). In April 1964, the first congress of the FLN adopted the Charter of Algiers, a guideline for government policy that provided for a wide range of agricultural, industrial, and social reforms. The FLN's National Charter of April 1976 outlined a plan for creating a Socialist system commensurate with Islamic principles. A new National Charter adopted in January 1986 de-emphasized Socialism and placed greater stress on Islam. The chief organs of the FLN are the Central Committee, the highest policy-making body of both the FLN and the nation, the Political Bureau and the Secretariat. The Islamic Salvation Front is an umbrella organization of groups, which support a government guided by Islamic law. In September 1989 the government approved a multiparty system, and by 31 December 1990, over 30 legal political parties existed, including Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), National Liberation Front (FLN), and Socialist Forces Front (FFS).

With the annulment of elections, several parties, notably the FIS, were outlawed. The main parties that participated in the June 1997 elections included the official government party known as the National Democratic Rally (Rassemblement national pour la démocratie—RND); the Movement for a Peaceful Society (formerly Hamas); Ennahda (a moderate Islamic party); two ethnic-Berber parties, the Socialist Forces Front and the Rally for Culture and Democracy; and the FLN.

Twenty-three parties participated in the May 2002 parliamentary elections. Two Berber parties boycotted the elections, including the Rally for Culture and Democracy and the Socialist Forces Front. The FLN took a majority of seats in the National Assembly. Also winning seats were Islah, the National Democratic Rally, the Movement for a Peaceful Society, the Workers' Party, the Algerian National Front, the Islamic Renaissance Movement, the Party of Algerian Renewal, and the Movement of National Understanding. Independents won 29 of 389 seats.

In June 2003, the leader of the outlawed Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) Abassi Madani and his deputy Ali Belhadj were freed after serving 12-year sentences.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

In 1969, a governorate of 48 provinces (wilayats ) system replaced the departments that had been established by the French. Each wilaya has its own elected people's assembly, executive council, and appointed governor (wali ), who is responsible to the Ministry of the Interior. The 48 wilayats have subdivisions called da'iraats (districts), which are further subdivided into 1,541 communes. The commune is the basic collective unit, governed by an assembly elected for four years. Winning a majority of local council and assembly seats in the 10 October 2002 elections was the FLN, taking control of 668 communes and 43 of the country's 48 cities. The National Democratic Rally lost its previously held majority, taking control of 171 communes. The Socialist Forces Front won 65 communes and independents took control of 77. Islamic parties declined in popularity overall.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

After independence in 1962, Algeria's judicial system was reorganized. The former French magistrates were replaced by Algerians and the judiciary was extended into regions of the country previously ignored.

The judicial system now includes civil and military courts. Within each wilayat is a court of first instance for civil and some criminal cases. At the head of the system is the Supreme Court. The Special Court of State Security was abolished in 1995.

The constitution guarantees independence of the judiciary. However, executive branch decrees have restricted some of the judiciary's authority. Judges are appointed by the executive branch without legislative approval, and the government can remove judges at will. A judge's term is 10 years.

Algeria's present legal codes, adopted in 1963, are based on the laws of Islam and of other Northern African and Socialist states, as well as on French laws. Efforts were made to harmonize the laws and legal procedures with those of the Maghreb nations. A first plan for judicial reorganization was approved in 1965; this was followed in 1966 with the beginning of large-scale structural reforms. A new civil code was promulgated in 1975 and a new penal code in 1982.

In civilian courts, Shariah (Islamic law) is applied in resolving social issues. Defendants in civilian courts are afforded a wide range of procedural protections including a public trial, right to counsel, right to confront witnesses, and right of appeal.

Military courts have jurisdiction in cases involving military personnel and have heard some cases in which civilians are charged with security-related and terrorism offenses.

The Constitutional Council reviews the constitutionality of treaties, laws, and regulations. The Constitutional Council is not part of the judiciary but it has the authority to nullify unconstitutional laws. The constitution prohibits torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention. In criminal cases, the suspect must be charged or released within 48 hours of incommunicado detention. However, the 1992 Antiterrorist Law provides up to 12 days of prearraignment detention.

President Bouteflika announced a major reorganization of the judiciary in August 2000. He changed approximately 80% of the heads of the 187 lower courts and all but three of the presidents of the 37 higher-level courts. By the end of 2001, women sat at the head of 26 courts.

ARMED FORCES

Six months of military service is compulsory for males. Algeria's armed forces in 2005 totaled 137,500 active personnel. The Army had 120,000 officers and men, plus reserves of up to 150,000. Weaponry included 920 main battle tanks, 139 reconnaissance vehicles, 1,084 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 910 armored personnel carriers, and 1,019 artillery pieces. The Navy had an estimated 7,500 active personnel. Major naval units included 2 tactical submarines, 3 frigates, 6 corvettes, 24 patrol/coastal vessels, 3 amphibious landing craft and 3 logistics/support ships. The Air Force had an estimated 10,000 active members. Equipment included 178 combat capable aircraft, including 88 fighter aircraft and 72 fighter ground attack aircraft, and 33 attack helicopters. Algerian paramilitary forces totaled an estimated 181,200 personnel, including 20,000 gendarmerie, 16,000 national security forces and 1,200 Republican Guards. Algeria's defense budget was $2.87 billion in 2005.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Algeria was admitted to the United Nations on 8 October 1962 and is a member of ECA and all the nonregional specialized agencies, such as the ICAO, IFC, FAO, IAEA, ILO, IMF, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, WHO, and the World Bank. Algeria is an observer in the WTO and was a temporary member of the UN Security Council until December 2005. Algeria also participates in the African Development Bank, G-77, G-15, G-24, League of Arab States, African Union, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the Arab Maghreb Union, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), OAPEC, and OPEC. The country is a partner in the OSCE. Algeria is a member of the Nonaligned Movement and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. In cooperation on environmental issues, Algeria participates in the Basel Convention, Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, MARPOL, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN conventions of the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Saharan oil and natural gas have been important export items since 1959, and they now dominate Algeria's economy, accounting for over 96% of total export value, 60% of government revenue, and 30% of GDP. Algeria is the largest supplier of natural gas to the EU. During the late 1970s, as oil prices rose, real economic growth topped 20% annually, with the manufacturing sector averaging about 15%; during 1980–81, however, the rate dropped to 7–8% because of the weakening oil market, and a decline of 5% was registered in 1982, followed by an average annual growth rate of 4.5% during 1983–86. Because of the weak oil market, growth continued to fall, to 3.4% in 1989, 1.1% in 1990, and negative growth in 1994 of -1.1%. Debt restructuring accomplished in 1994 and 1995 allowed increased imports and restored economic growth to an estimated 3% per year. The real growth rate in 1998 was 3.2%, and was estimated at 6.1% in 2004. It was expected to reach 6.9% in 2005. These healthy growth rates in the early 21st century were driven by real export growth, based on expanding crude oil production, although government consumption played a role. As of 2005 Algeria had a large trade surplus, high foreign exchange reserves, and had reduced its foreign debt.

Although 14% of Algerians make their living directly from the soil, agriculture produces only about 10–11% of Algeria's GDP in an average year, and 9% in drought years, and meets only a small portion of the country's needs. The government targeted agricultural development as a priority in the late 1990s, but drought in 1997 dimmed agricultural prospects. However, good rains in 2002 produced a stronger performance for cereals in terms of real growth.

Before independence, the Algerian economy was almost completely dependent on the Europeans, who employed more than 90% of those working in industry and commerce, accounted for about 90% of gross business earnings, and provided some 90% of the country's private investment. The exodus of most Europeans in 1962 temporarily disrupted Algeria's economic life. The FLN governments established a Socialist economy by nationalizing the mining industry and creating state farms and state-owned industries on abandoned farms and on expropriated French landholdings. The nationalization with compensation of all foreign-owned companies was completed in 1974, although certain companies operating in partnership with Algerian state enterprises were allowed to continue. In the 1980s, decentralization was emphasized, with over 90 state corporations split into 300 specialized units. It was announced in 1987 that these enterprises would adopt their own annual plans, decide on the prices of their products, and invest their profits freely. In 1990 the money and credit law opened the way for substantial international participation in Algeria's economy. The 1993 investment code opened up Algeria to foreign investment, and investment promotion agencies were created in 1995 in order to stimulate the economy. Since then, Algeria has taken steps to liberalize foreign trade, the price structure, and foreign exchange system, and to reevaluate the public sector while encouraging the private sector and competition.

The dramatic decline in oil prices in 1985–86 affected Algeria at a time when it also faced a heavy foreign debt burden. The Algerian government thus attempted to diversify the economy and privatize business. In the late 1990s and into the 2000s, challenges to the Algerian economy included civil strife, inefficient agricultural methods, and an unemployment rate of 25.4% in 2004 (and possibly as high as 50% for those under the age of 30) that extended into the ranks of professionals, engineers, and highly trained workers. Although the government remains committed to greater economic deregulation and will continue to solicit foreign investment in such sectors as telecommunications, water, and power, the hydrocarbons sector remained the engine of GDP growth in 2005–06. With average crude oil prices rising during that period, Algeria was able to increase its export earnings and trade surplus.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Algeria's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $237.0 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $7,300. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 7.1%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 4.7%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 10% of GDP, industry 59.5%, and services 30.5%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $1.090 billion or about $34 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.6% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $232 million or about $7 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.4% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Algeria totaled $27.37 billion or about $861 per capita based on a GDP of $68.0 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 0.7%. It was estimated that in 1999 about 23% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2005, the estimated workforce stood at 10.15 million. The government employed around 32% of the labor force in 2003, with agriculture accounting for 14%, industry 13.4%, construction and public works 10%, trade 14.6%, and other occupations 16%. An estimated 22.5% of the workforce was unemployed in 2005.

Algerian law permits collective bargaining for all unions. While there is no legal restrictions on a worker's right to join a union, government approval is required by those workers seeking to form a union. Approximately two-thirds of Algerian workers were unionized as of 2005. Minimum wages are set by the government with the advice of the General Union of Algerian Workers (Union Générale des Travailleurs Algériens—UGTA). The standard workweek is 37.5 hours, and those employees who worked past the standard workweek were subject to recieving "time-and-a-half " or "double-time," on whether they worked during a holiday, a weekend, or on a normal work day. As of 2005, the minimum wage was around $138 per month. This amount does not provide a family with a decent standard of living. Health and safety regulations are also specified by law, but enforcement is irregular. The minimum age for employment is 16 years. However, child labor remains a problem in agriculture and in the informal economy. UNICEF last reported in 2003, that around 3% of Algerian children worked in some capacity.

AGRICULTURE

Although almost 24% of the population is engaged in agriculture (including subsistence farming), only 3.5% of Algeria's land is cultivated. The soil is poor and subject to erosion, and the water supply is generally irregular and insufficient; about one-quarter of northern Algeria is completely unproductive. Agriculture contributed 13% to GDP in 2004.

Before independence, European-owned agriculture accounted for about two-thirds of vegetable production and employed about 800,000 farm laborers, 700,000 of them Muslims. Most Muslim-owned farms were small—10 hectares (25 acres) or less—and were located mainly in marginal areas on the interior plains and on mountain slopes. The Muslim sector, comprising the bulk of the agricultural population, accounted for only one-third of vegetable production but nearly all the livestock raising.

Within six months after independence was declared, at least half the European-owned land had been vacated. Algerian peasants soon began to work on these abandoned farms under a self-management system. During the 1960s, the government established more than 2,300 state farms on expropriated French landholdings; by the end of the decade, these farms accounted for two-thirds of total agricultural production and employed about 500,000 workers. In July 1971, President Boumedienne announced an agrarian program providing for the breakup of large Algerian-owned farms and their reorganization into cooperatives. The first stage of the plan, the registration of land ownership, began in March 1972. In the second stage, many absentee landlords were forced to hand over part of their land to the state. By July 1973, of a total of 5 million hectares (12.4 million acres) of public land, 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres) of cultivable land had been redistributed to 54,000 families of landless peasants (fellahin ), and 1,348 cooperatives had been created. By 1980, the number of cooperatives had increased to about 6,000; in the early 1980s, however, the government split large cooperatives into smaller units to improve efficiency. In 1982–83, about 450,000 hectares (1.1 million acres) of land previously nationalized were returned to private ownership, mostly in plots of 10 hectares (25 acres) or less. In 1987, a further breakup of large state-owned farms into private cooperatives was implemented. Long-term leases of land to cooperatives were begun. Farmers were given autonomy in production and investment decisions, including the right to keep profits. The National Union of Algerian Peasants, established in March 1973, played a leading role in the land reform program and has about 1.2 million members. By 1995, most of the cooperatives had been dispersed because of internal disputes and land was divided into individual plots. The government does not officially endorse this development, which compels farmers to sell their output on the black market. The Ministry of Agriculture is considering land privatization as a way to stimulate private investment.

Government policy aims at increased use of fertilizers and improved seeds, conversion of vineyards to the production of cereals and other staple foods, and achievement of self-sufficiency in food production. The main agricultural products continue to be wheat, barley, pulses, fresh vegetables, dates, table and wine grapes, figs, olives, and citrus. Grain and pulse production varies significantly and depends upon the frequency and amount of rainfall during the growing season. Estimated agricultural output in 2004 included 2,600,000 tons of wheat; 1,314,000 tons of barley; 1,800,000 tons of potatoes; 815,000 tons of tomatoes; 360,000 tons of oranges; 275,000 tons of grapes; and 450,000 tons of dates. In 2002, nearly 7.6 million tons of cereals were imported. Modest agricultural productivity growth along with rapid population increase makes Algeria one of the world's largest agricultural import markets; imports of food and agricultural products amount to about $3 billion per year. Food and agricultural products accounted for over 22% of all imports in 2004.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Algeria has 31,800 hectares (78,600 acres) of permanent pastures and grazing land, 13% of the country's total area. About half of the livestock is owned by only 5% of the herdsmen. In 2004 there were an estimated 18,700,000 sheep, 3,200,000 goats, 1,560,000 head of cattle, 245,000 camels, 170,000 donkeys, 44,000 horses, and 43,000 mules. There were also 125 million chickens. Algeria is self-sufficient in poultry meat and eggs, but must import all inputs (chicks, hatching eggs, feed, veterinary products, equipment). Algeria has a severe shortage of milk, meat, and cheese and must therefore rely on imports. Algeria produces about one billion liters of milk annually, while consumption amounts to three billion liters.

FISHING

Fishing is fairly extensive along the coast, but the industry is relatively undeveloped. Sardines, bogue, mackerel, anchovies, and shellfish are caught. The 2003 catch was 142,000 tons, 54% sardines.

FORESTRY

Only 1.6% of the land area is forested. The mountain ranges contain dense forests of evergreens (evergreen oak, Aleppo pine, and cedar) and deciduous trees, whereas the warmer regions contain large numbers of fruit and palm trees. Algeria is an important producer of cork; other forestry products are firewood, charcoal, and wood for industrial use. Roundwood production was estimated at 7.5 million cu m (94.7 million cu ft) in 2003.

Two-thirds of the French-planted forests in eastern Algeria were burned by French forces during the 1954–62 war. Reforestation was begun on 12,100 hectares (30,000 acres) of unused land in the semiarid region in 1960. By 1964, 25 million trees had been planted: eucalyptus in clay soils, Aleppo pine in calcareous regions, and olive trees. Current reforestation projects include the planting of a "green wall" across Algeria from the Moroccan to the Tunisian frontier to halt the encroachment of the Sahara. During the first half of the 1980s, reforestation proceeded at a rate of 52,000 hectares (128,000 acres) per year, but from 1984 to 1994, deforestation averaged about 45,000 hectares (111,200 acres) per year, so that Algeria now has 10% less forested land than in 1979.

MINING

In 2000, the government proposed allowing foreign investors to develop mineral deposits held by the national mining companies. The national geologic and mineral research office has identified many mineral deposits. However, they were located in remote areas that lacked infrastructure or government funding for development. With Algeria's proximity to Europe, its major minerals customer, the country's base and precious metals are of interest to foreign investors. Guerrilla activity, though, remains a significant deterrent.

Algeria's phosphate deposits at Djebel Onk, in the northeast, are among the largest in the world, covering about 2,072 sq km (800 sq mi), with an output of 905,000 metric tons in 2003, down from 1.16 million tons in 1998. There are deposits of high-grade iron ore at Ouenza, near the Tunisian border. Production totaled 1.378 million metric tons in 2003; half is exported. Among other mineral production in 2003, zinc concentrate output was 2,796 metric tons, down from 10,452 metric tons in 2000; bentonite, 25,346 metric tons in 2003, up from 22,708 metric in 2000; lead concentrate, 1,105 metric tons in 2002, the last year for which there is any data, according to the US Geological Survey, and up from 818 metric tons in 2000; mercury, 175,00 kg in 2003, down from 215,625 kg, in 2000; crude barite, 45,649 metric tons in 2003, down from 51,925 metric tons in 2000; salt (brine and sea salt), 183,000 metric tons in 2003, up from 182,000 metric tons in 2000; hydraulic lime, estimated at 100,000 metric tons in 2003, up from an estimated 96,000 metric tons, in 2000. Marble, silver, kaolin, sulfur, fuller's earth, and strontium are also mined.

ENERGY AND POWER

Algeria is an important producer and exporter of oil and gas and supplies a significant portion of Europe's energy requirements. Natural gas and petroleum dominate the economy; in 2003, estimated exports of hydrocarbons were valued at more than 90% of total exports, and around 30% of gross domestic product (GDP). In the 1950s, natural gas was found in the east, near the Libyan border, and at Hassi R'Mel in the Sahara. Algeria's proven natural gas reserves are among the world's largest, totaling an estimated 4.5 5 trillion cu m (160.4 trillion cu ft) as of end 2004. Algeria produced 82 billion cu m (2.9 trillion cu ft) of natural gas in 2004. A 500-km (310-mi) main pipeline connecting Hassi R'Mel to Arzew (between Oran and Mostaganem) was opened in 1961, and branch lines to Oran and Algiers were completed four years later. Since then, six other pipelines have been constructed, including the first trans-Mediterranean gas pipeline (Transmed) to Europe via Sicily, built at a cost of $3 billion. The Transmed consists of three segments, linking Algeria, 550 km (342 mi); Tunisia, 370 km (230 mi); and the Mediterranean to Sicily, 154 km (96 mi) underwater. In 2001, Algeria's total LNG export capacity amounted to over 6 billion cu m (212 billion cu ft) per year. The $2.3-billion Gazoduc Maghreb-Europe pipeline to Spain and Portugal via Morocco began operating in November 1996. Total dry exports of natural gas amounted to 2,066.28 billion cu ft in 2002. Algeria's total natural gas export capacity as of 2001 was 57 billion cu m (2 trillion cu ft).

Oil was discovered at Edjeleh and Hassi Messaoud in 1956 and at Al-Gassi in 1959; by 1969, the Franco-Algeria Cooperative Association (ASCOOP), a petroleum development company, had discovered eight major fields. Proven reserves of crude oil amounted to 11.8 billion barrels as of end 2004; crude oil production averaged 1,933,000 barrels per day in 2004. There are four main pipelines linking the wellheads in the eastern Sahara with Algerian ports and a fifth with the Tunisian port of Sekhira; there are also several branch pipelines. In late 2002, Algeria's total refinery capacity was 450,000 barrels per day. There were four gas liquefaction plants in 2000, three at Arzew and one at Skikda, all operating well below capacity because of disrepair and lack of funds for spare parts. In 2000 Algeria was the world's second-largest exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG); its exports, which went mainly to Western Europe, accounted for 19% of the world's total.

The Société Nationale pour la Recherche, la Production, le Transport, la Transformation et la Commercialisation des Hydrocarbons (Sonatrach), founded in 1964 as the state-owned petroleum company, handles the distribution and transport of oil. On 24 February 1971, President Boumedienne announced the Algerian takeover of controlling interest in all French oil company subsidiaries and the nationalization of all pipelines and natural gas deposits. Holdings of all other foreign petroleum interests in Algeria were nationalized by the end of 1971. Subsequent agreements have generally treated foreign companies as minority partners in Algerian state enterprises. Contracts for sales of natural gas to Western Europe and the United States increased spectacularly in the 1970s but decreased in the 1980s as world energy prices fell, pushing Algeria into severe debt. By 1991, Sonatrach was reversing its monopolistic policy, and forming joint ventures for new exploration contracts. The company planned to invest $20 billion through 2004 to develop Algeria's oil and gas fields, focusing on wet gas field development, enhanced oil recovery techniques, pipeline expansion, exploration, and dry gas field development. In April 2000 Sonatrach announced a $500 million joint venture with Amerada Hess to develop the el-Gassi, el-Agreb, and Zotti oilfields, with the goal of increasing production to 45,000 barrels per day by the end of 2003.

In 2002, net electricity generation was 25.992 billion kWh, of which 95.6% came from fossil fuels, and the rest from hydropower. In the same year, consumption of electricity totaled 24.151 billion kWh. Total capacity in 2002 was 6.4 million kW.

In 1996, Algeria signed a nuclear cooperative agreement with China, which built the two nuclear reactors in Algeria. Algeria claims that these reactors are for research and the peaceful exploitation of nuclear power. Algeria has signed a cooperative agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency and has opened its reactor facilities to agency inspectors.

INDUSTRY

The industries of Algeria, which traditionally have been concentrated around Algiers and Oran, have included carpet mills, cement factories, chemical plants, automobile assembly plants, food-processing installations, oil refineries, soap factories, and textile plants. Other major industries have produced bricks and tiles, rolled steel, farm machinery, electrical supplies, machine tools, phosphates, sulfuric acid, paper and cartons, matches, and tobacco products.

Before independence, industry made significant gains. New enterprises were developed in food processing and packaging, textiles, leather, chemicals, metalworking, building materials, and farm machinery. A new large steel plant was built at Annaba, a petroleum refinery at Algiers, a petrochemical complex at Arzew, and a phosphate production center at Djebel Onk, near the Tunisian border. Other industries were set up to produce automobiles, tractors, cement, rubber tires, and ammonia.

French firms were nationalized after independence, between 1962 and 1974. The government put great emphasis on the development of the hydrocarbons sector, including the building of refineries and natural gas liquefaction plants. Algeria contains an estimated 11.8 billion barrels of proven oil reserves, but analysts consider Algeria to be underexplored. As of 2005, Algeria had four oil refineries with a capacity of 450,000 barrels per day. Algeria's crude oil production in 2004 was 1.23 million barrels per day. Algeria is a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and its crude oil production quota was set at 862,000 barrels per day as of November 2004. Algeria has been pressing to have its OPEC quota raised, as its production capacity is increasing rapidly.

The government has encouraged diversification away from Algeria's heavy reliance on hydrocarbons, although those efforts have not been entirely successful, especially given the increase in oil and natural gas export revenues since 1999. Algeria is considered to be underexplored, and significant oil and natural gas discoveries have been made in recent years, which have increased Algeria's proven oil reserves to 11.8 billion barrels, placing it 14th in the world in total oil reserves. Algeria's proven natural gas reserves were 160 trillion cu ft in 2005, the eighth-largest in the world. The state-owned hydrocarbons company, Sonatrach, invested nearly $20 billion between 1996 and 2000 on new pipelines and extensions. The company's Trans-Maghreb pipeline opened in 1996, supplying Spain and Portugal with natural gas, and Sonatrach substantially increased the capacity of its Trans-Med gas pipeline to Italy. In 2001, Sonatrach undertook a feasibility study on another natural gas pipeline under the Mediterranean to Sicily, the Italian mainland, and southern France; the project could come on-stream by 2008. The Medgaz natural gas pipeline, to be completed in 2008, will link Beni Saf, Algeria, to Almeria, Spain. As of 2005, there was also the possibility of a Trans-Saharan natural gas pipeline, running from Nigeria, across the Sahara, and on to Algeria and the Mediterranean coast. In 1998, Sonatrach issued bonds for the first time, showing the regime's loosening hold on the state-run enterprise. Algeria's oil and natural gas industries increasingly are becoming more open to foreign investors.

The textile and leather industry declined 14.7% in 2001, and 27 state-owned textile companies had gone out of business since 1996, resulting in a loss of 22,000 jobs. Textile manufacturer Group Texmaco, however, was successful as of 2002. It accounted for 30% of the market and had 18,000 employees, although it was operating at 20% capacity in 2002. The textile industry by 2005 was faced with competition from Asia, particularly China.

As of 2004, industry accounted for about 57.4% of the nation's GDP. The hydrocarbons sector (mostly petroleum and natural gas) alone accounted for 30% of GDP in 2005 and over 96% of export revenues. Algerian industry has been in the process of a structural transformation as it moves from a socialist, government-controlled economy to a free-market economy. Consequently, industrial production has fallen as inefficient plants are closed and large oversized industries are scaled back. As of 2002, of the 1,270 state-owned companies, 53% were considered sound after substantial restructuring, 30% were functioning but in poor financial shape, and the remaining 18% were bankrupt or nearly so (approximately 230 companies). The government has spent $15 billion to restructure industry in the early 2000s. By 2004, the estimated industrial production growth rate stood at 6%.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Since independence, Algeria has made major technological advances, especially in the steel and petrochemical industries. However, Algeria still has a severe shortage of skilled workers and is heavily dependent on foreign technologies. Scientific training is principally conducted at the Hovari Boumedienne University of Sciences and Technology, founded at Algiers in 1974; the Oran University of Sciences and Technology, founded in 1975; the universities of Annaba (founded in 1975), Blida (founded in 1981), Boumerdes (founded in 1981), Constantine (founded in 1969), Oran Es-senia (founded in 1965), and Tlemcen (founded in 1974); and the Ferhat Abbas-Setif University of Setif (founded in 1978). In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 58% of college and university enrollments. The government's National Bureau of Scientific Research operates 18 research centers in biology; anthropology; oceanography and fisheries; astronomy, astrophysics, and geophysics; renewable energy; arid zones; technology transfer; and other fields.

In 2002, Algeria's high technology exports totaled $21 million, 4% of the nation's manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

European trading firms formerly played a major role in the economy; however, many Europeans, fearful of eventual Muslim control, sold their holdings or gave them up in 1961–62. After independence, about one-half of the country's shops closed down, and in 1963, state agencies began taking over nearly all wholesaling and marketing operations. Since 1996, the Algerian government has prioritized the privatization of state-owned enterprises.

The principal cities of the north are the largest trade centers. While most trade is done on a cash or credit basis, some bartering still goes on among the rural dwellers and in the Muslim quarters of cities. In the mountain regions there are local market days or special local fairs for the exchange of products during different seasons.

Normal business hours are 8 am to noon and 2 or 2:30 to 5:30 or 6 pm, Saturday–Wednesday, and 8 am to noon on Thursday. Banks are generally open from 9 am to 3 pm, Monday to Thursday, but some banks close for lunch. Shopping is normally carried out from 8am to 12 pm and 2 to 6 pm, Saturday to Thursday. Ramadan hours are shorter.

FOREIGN TRADE

Crude oil and natural gas account for nearly all of Algeria's export value; industrial equipment and semifinished goods and food-stuffs, especially wheat, dominate the country's imports. Surpluses accrued with the oil and gas price increases beginning in the mid-1970s and continuing through 1985, with the exception of 1978. In 1986, however, because of a severe drop in oil prices, Algeria experienced the first trade deficit since 1978 and the largest ever. The 1986 collapse of oil prices drove the government to implement decentralizing IMF programs in order to stabilize the economy. Algeria was able to register a trade surplus during most of the nineties, except during 1994, after a season of political turmoil. On 30 April 1998, the Algerian government chose not to re-subscribe

to IMF structural programs. Coupled with low oil prices, this move brought about diminished export revenues, threatening a trade deficit. Rising oil prices during 1999 brought back a trade surplus. Higher oil prices during 2005–06 also increased export earnings and the trade surplus. Average crude oil prices increased by one-third in 2004. Coupled with higher crude production, total export earnings rose to $34.2 billion in 2004, while the trade surplus increased to $16.3 billion.

The majority of Algeria's foreign trade continues to be with the European Union (EU) and the United States. The major exports in 2003 included hydrocarbons (98.1% of all exports), semifinished goods (1.3%), and raw materials (0.2%). The major imports were capital goods (28.8% of all imports), food (17.9%), and semifinished goods (15.2%). Algeria's leading markets in 2004 were the United States (21.1% of all exports), Italy (16.1%), and France (10.6%). Algeria's leading suppliers in 2004 were France (32.3% of all imports), Italy (8.8%), and Germany (6.4%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Algeria long had a current-accounts deficit, which before independence was covered by the French government. While the departure of Europeans after independence contributed to a more equitable balance of trade (Europeans had been the chief consumers of foreign goods), it also caused a heavy withdrawal of capital and a decrease in French aid, resulting in a continued deterioration of Algeria's payments position. However, with the continued growth of the petroleum sector, Algeria recorded substantial payments surpluses during the 1970s. In 1986, the fall of oil prices brought about a large deficit and an economic restructuring through the IMF that was intended to help service the country's debt and begin government privatization. In 1991, many import restrictions were abolished, although foreign exchange and external credit access were still restricted. By 1996, Algeria promulgated a liberalized trade regime in which nearly all export restrictions were removed and foreign investment was encouraged.

Debt rescheduling by the Paris Club and other lenders allowed the Bank of Algeria in the late 1990s to increase its reserves of hard currency. Algeria must increase its nonhydrocarbon exports, however, in order to generate enough foreign exchange so that when oil prices are low, it will be able to pay for necessary imports and to service its external debt, which stood at $24.7 billion in 2001. The external debt was estimated at $21.9 billion in 2004.

Average crude oil prices increased by one-third in 2004; combined with higher crude production in Algeria, export earnings rose to $34.2 billion, while the trade surplus increased to $16.3 billion. In 2005–06, the outlook for the current account remained strong. Algeria's current-account surplus was forecast to be 18.8% of GDP by the end of 2007. From 2000–04, the current account balance averaged 13% of GDP.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of Algeria, created in December 1962, was the sole bank of issue at that time. Following the separation of the French and Algerian treasuries in late 1962, the Directorate of Treasury and Credit was established as the government's fiscal agent. The state also established cooperative banks. It wasn't until 1996 that private companies were permitted to set up money-changing shops following a directive issued by the Central Bank initiating open market operations. This opened a field previously restricted to state-owned banks. Bank base interest rates officially fell from 18.5 to 15% during 1996, according to the prime minister, Ahmed Ouyahia. In 1998, local commercial banks cut interest rates on loans to between 10% and 12.5%, down from a range of 18.5–23.5% in 1996. The Bank of Algeria's primary method of financial control was to limit lending, and interest rate cuts were aimed at encouraging growth.

Foreign banks ceased operations after the nationalization of banks in 1963 and were absorbed by three government-owned banks including the Foreign Bank of Algeria, the National Bank of Algeria, and the People's Credit of Algeria. There were also four government banks for financing economic development and a savings institution that offered housing loans. These included the Algerian Development Bank, the Agricultural Bank for Rural Development, and the Maghreb Bank for Investment and Commerce.

In 1997, the banking industry of Algeria included one Central Bank (Banque d'Algerie), six state-owned banks, one public development bank and one private bank (Union Bank, concentrating on merchant banking since 1995). In 1998, five new private banks opened, including one US-based bank.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $16.0 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $26.9 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 3.35%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 6%.

The Algiers stock exchange was opened in July 1999. With only three companies listed (a food processing company, a pharmaceutical company, and a hotel) the exchange was in its early stages. Bonds issued in 1998 by Sonatrach, the national oil company, were rated in the Algiers stock exchange on 18 October 1999.

INSURANCE

In 1966, a state monopoly based on the Algerian Company of Insurance (ACI), and the Algerian Insurance of Reinsurance Fund (AIRF), replaced foreign insurance companies. Ten Algerian insurance companies were operating in 2003: the Compagnie Algérienne d'Assurances, the Compagnie Algérienne des Assurances Transports, the Compagnie Centrale de Réassurance, the Agricultural Mutual Fund, the Algerian Fund Insurance for Workers in Education and Culture, the CAGEX Insurance Company, and Guarantee for Exports and the Société Nationale d'Assurances. In 1998, Trust-Algeria, the International Company of Insurance and Reinsurance, and Algerian Insurance were approved as Algerian Insurance Companies. In 2001 (the latest year for which data was available), the state insurer, Société Algérienne d'Assurance (SAA) was the top nonlife and life insurer, with gross written premiums of $81.3 million and $6.4 million, respectively. In 2003, total direct premiums written came to $399 million, of which nonlife premiums totaled $384 million.

The government sponsors an export credit insurance agency, managed by the Algerian Export Management Company, that is financed by 10% of a tax on imported luxury goods. This has been set up to aid the growth of nonhydrocarbon exports.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Algeria's fiscal year coincides with the calendar year. Government expenditures increased rapidly from independence until 1986, when IMF adjustment plans attempted to curb spending. Government expenditures have continued to rise, despite austerity measures and the spread of liberalization to the economy. Instead of gaining funds from the sale of state-run industry, the government has had to foreclose companies for a lack of investors. About 60% of total government revenue came from the petroleum and natural gas industries, which are still state-operated.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Algeria's central government took in revenues of approximately $42 billion and had expenditures of $30.7 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately $11.3 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 14.8% of GDP. Total external debt was $21.54 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2002, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues in billions of dinars were 1,603.2 and expenditures were 1,550.6. The value of revenues in millions of US dollars was $20, based on a official exchange rate for 2002 of 79.682 as reported by the IMF.

TAXATION

The most important sources of government revenue have been oil and gas royalties. Algeria's tax system has been streamlined through the replacement of a number of different taxes by a value-added tax, a personal income tax, and a corporate profits tax. The corporation tax was 45% on distributed profits and 20% on reinvested earnings. Many fiscal advantages have been granted to developing and expanding industries, especially to private investment. For established domestic industry and commerce there is a tax on production (a single tax that was passed on to the consumer) and a tax on industrial and commercial activities.

Algeria's 1993 investment code offered foreign investment companies a three-year exemption from VAT, a property tax abatement, lower customs duties, and a two to five year exemption from corporate income taxes. The tax break was meant to stimulate investment in Algeria's export market. After 1993, foreign workers whose monthly salaries exceeded $1,333 per month paid a 20% income tax, instead of one up to 70%.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

A customs union between Algeria and France allows regulations applicable in the metropole to apply also in Algeria, making Algeria a de facto adherent of GATT. By a special agreement with the European Union (EU), Algerian industrial products are granted duty-free entry into the EU market and agricultural products get seasonal tariff reductions, while Algeria gives reciprocal treatment to EU imports. Algeria has also concluded preferential customs agreements with Tunisia and Morocco and is a founding member of the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), a trade union composed of Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The UMA intended to create a free trade zone, but this had not yet come to fruition.

Goods from France are admitted at a preferential rate; secondly, goods from other European Union countries; and thirdly, goods from countries that grant Algeria most-favored-nation treatment which are subject to a basic standard tariff. Tariffs on imports ranged from 3–40% in 1998, in addition to a value-added tax (VAT) of 17% on most products, although for some products the VAT is 7%. Some imports are also eligible for the Taxe Spécifique Additionnelle, ranging from 20–110% and generally applied to luxury goods. As part of its application to join the World Trade Organization, Algeria lowered its rates to bring them within acceptable WTO levels. The government has further abolished the required import licenses. The only imports subject to restriction are firearms, explosives, narcotics, and pork products. Pharmaceuticals marketed in their country of origin may be freely imported.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Under investment codes issued in 1983 and 1986, Algeria's foreign investment regime was quite restrictive. Foreign investment was permitted only in joint ventures with state-owned companies, although repatriation of profits was guaranteed. The economy's main hydrocarbon sector and many others were off limits.

The money and credit law of March 1990 allowed majority foreign-owned joint ventures in almost all sectors except the hydrocarbon sector, electricity production, railroad transport, and telecommunications. The law provided for the safe transfer of capital and terms for international arbitration. The hydrocarbon law of November 1991 allowed foreign firms to exploit existing oil fields in partnership with the state oil firm. The Investment Code of October 1993 did not distinguish between investments made by foreigners or Algerians and granted new investors limited tax exemptions and reductions in duty on imported goods.

In 1995, the Algerian government set up the National Agency of Investment Development (Agence de Promotion, de Soutien, et de Suivi des Investissements—APSI) and regional investment promotion agencies to serve as a network of regional one-stop shops to eliminate layers of bureaucracy for investors. In 1996, APSI approved 50 foreign investment projects, including American (2), French (16), Italian (11), Spanish (8), and German (4) investors. As of 2002, 20 foreign-owned businesses had been established and the government set a goal to double this number.

In 1997, foreign direct investment (FDI) was $260 million and from 1998 to 2000 averaged $482 million. In 2000, the German firm Henkel acquired 60% of the state detergent and cleaning products firm, ENAD, and an Egyptian company bought a second GSM mobile phone license. In 2001, FDI more than doubled to $1.196 billion thanks mainly to the privatization and sale of one major state enterprise, the El Hadjar steel complex, SIDER, to the Indian steel firm ISPAT, which acquired 70% ownership. In August 2001, the government reorganized the public sector companies to facilitate investment. The 11 sectoral holding companies into which state economic enterprises (EPEs) had been organized in 1996 were replaced with 28 shareholding management companies and the National Privatization Council was renamed the State Shareholding Council. All sectors were opened to foreign investment in 2001, including the hydrocarbon sector, in which the government put exploratory contracts for particular blocks up for auction.

By 2003, 30 foreign oil and gas companies were working in exploration in Algeria. In 2005, the Algerian parliament adopted a new law to further liberalize the hydrocarbons sector. The law separates the commercial role of Sonatrach, the state-owned hydrocarbons company, from its previous regulatory and procurement/contracting functions. Sonatrach is now compelled to bid on domestic projects alongside foreign firms: it will no longer be an automatic partner in all projects.

Algeria's stock exchange, established in 1999, remains rudimentary, with only four companies listed as of 2005. As part of the government's ambitious privatization program, 11 other state-owned companies are expected to trade on the stock exchange in the near future.

The total value of investment declarations in 2004 was $3.5 billion, of which $2 billion was in nonhydrocarbons areas. There were 105 foreign investment projects in 2004, of which 40 were partnership projects and the rest 100% foreign-owned. Hydrocarbons FDI registered $1.8 billion in 2003, up from $671 million in 1999. This amount represented 10% of all FDI inflows in Africa (excluding South Africa).

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Following independence, Algeria adopted an economic policy favoring a socialist organization of society. Under the Charter of Algiers, the basis of Algerian policy was that the workers themselves were responsible for management, while ownership of the property was maintained by the state. The first stage of development, covering 1967–69, set up a basis for expansion of industry, improvement of agriculture, and training of personnel.

The second four-year plan (1974–77) established a heavy industrial base for the economy and largely completed agricultural reforms. The period 1978–79 was used to consolidate economic gains. In 1979, the government decided to limit oil and gas exports and to decentralize industry away from Algiers in order to build up the country's less developed regions. The new five-year plan for 1980–84 switched the emphasis from heavy to light industry and to neglected social areas, especially housing. The second five-year plan (1985–89) emphasized agriculture and water supply in order to reduce the chronic food deficit, but industry (32%) and social infrastructure (27%) were allotted the largest shares of the proposed total investment. By 1999, the government defined broader national economic policy objectives for diversification and development.

In the early 1980s, Algeria said it would allocate 1% of its gross domestic product (GDP) to aid Third World countries, with about 80% going to other African countries, but Algeria has been chiefly a recipient of aid.

In 1995, Algeria signed a three-year program for debt rescheduling with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and rescheduled $13 billion of debt with the Paris Club. These programs resulted in an improved balance of trade, lowered government expenditures, and a government surplus. The government did not renew its programs with the IMF in 1998, saddling the economy with a total debt in 1998 that amounted to $31 million, and capital expenditures reaching almost 10% of the GDP.

Trade surpluses in the early 2000s led to improvements in Algeria's level of foreign debt. The stock of debt was reduced to $22.5 billion, or 43% of GDP, by the end of 2001, and to $21.9 billion in 2004. In fact, in the early 1990s, Algeria's foreign debt was equivalent to 72% of GDP and servicing it absorbed a similar proportion of export revenue. By 2004, foreign debt had dropped to about one-third that level. Foreign exchange reserves amounted to $36 billion, triple the stock from 2000. The government adopted a fiscal stimulus plan covering the period 2001–04. By 2005, Algeria's fiscal account was healthy, and was expected to record an average surplus of 11.7% of GDP over 2006–07. Inflation was projected to remain modest (the inflation rate averaged 2.6% over the period 2000–04).

In 2002, Algeria entered into an Association Agreement with the European Union (EU). Continuing privatization and economic and trade liberalization have been key structural reforms. Another long-term priority is addressing the high rate of unemployment. The government in 2005 had increased spending on labor-intensive housing, road, and water projects. In September 2004 the government announced a $50 billion capital spending package covering the period 2005–09. The country is not free of the violence of the mid-1990s, however, with struggle continuing between Islamists and the army, which controls the government. In October 2005, President Bouteflika's Charter on Peace and National Reconciliation was approved in a referendum, giving Islamist rebels an amnesty and releasing imprisoned opposition party leaders. But it is unclear how effective it will be at healing Algeria's wounds.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A social insurance system for old age, disability, sickness and death cover all employees and self-employed persons. The program is financed with contributions from employees and employers. Retirement is set at age 60 for men and age 55 for women and veterans, with early retirement available for those in arduous work, mothers, and the disabled. Work injury benefits are available to all employed individuals including technical students, voluntary social security administrators, those undergoing rehabilitation, students, and certain prisoners. Only salaried workers are entitled to unemployment benefits. The law also provides for an employment related family allowance funded by the government and the employer.

The Family Code, based on Islamic principles, effectively treats women as legal minors for life, under the authority of the father, husband, or other male head of the family. The code permits polygamy and proscribes marriage between a Muslim woman and a non-Muslim man while allowing a Muslim man to marry outside the faith. In a court of law, a woman's testimony is not considered as equal to a man's, and women do not have full legal guardianship of their children, requiring the father to sign all official documents.

Women are allowed to work but constitute only 19% of the work force. Traditional Islamic views of the role of women still dominate keeping most women from seeking jobs outside the home. The labor laws prohibit sexual discrimination in the workplace, but this is not enforced. Spousal abuse is a common problem especially in rural areas. Spousal rape is not prohibited by law, and it accounts for an estimated 27% of domestic abuse. Many of the abused women are uneducated and illiterate.

The human rights record remains poor and includes extrajudicial killings, torture, and failure to control abuses by security personnel, including massacres of suspected Islamic militants. In 2004, terrorists also committed numerous abuses in the continuing insurgency. Ethnic tensions between the Arabs and the Berbers, who were the original inhabitants of Algeria, continued. The government created the High Commission for Berber Affairs, which protects and promotes Berber language and culture.

HEALTH

The Ministry of Health has overall responsibility for the health sector, although the Ministry of Defense runs some military hospitals. In 1990, Algeria had 284 hospitals with 60,124 beds (2.4 per 1,000 people; as of 1999 this ratio had declined to an estimated 2.1). There were also 1,309 health centers, 510 polyclinics, and 475 maternity hospitals (64 privately owned) in 1990. In 2004 medical personnel numbered 84.6 doctors and 297.8 nurses per 100,000 people. Health care expenditure was estimated at 3.6% of GDP.

Free medical care was introduced in 1974 under a Social Security system that reimburses 80% of private consultations and prescription drugs.

The principal health problems have been tuberculosis, malaria, trachoma, and malnutrition. By 1999, the incidence of tuberculosis was 45 in 100,000. In 2005, the average life expectancy was 73 years, which represented a steady increase. Infant mortality in 2005 was 31 per 1,000 live births. The government is interested in creating public awareness of birth control. As of 2003 an estimated 51% of women ages 15 to 49 were using some form of contraceptive. The total fertility rate decreased to 3.2 in 2000 from 5.0 in 1987. Malnutrition was present in an estimated 18% of all children under the age of five according to the most recent figures available as of 2000. The HIV prevalence among adults in 2004 was only 0.7 per 100 adults. As of 2004, there were approximately 9,100 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country.

Algeria's immunization rates as of 1999 for one-year-old children were: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 83%; and measles, 83%. In 2000, 94% of the population had access to adequate sanitation.

Algeria's government has developed plans to boost domestic production of pharmaceuticals as well as to remedy a serious shortage of dentists and pharmacists.

HOUSING

The need for adequate housing has been a pressing problem for Algeria for several decades. In 1964, the Ministry for Housing and Construction was created to aid in reconstruction and upgrading of damaged and substandard dwellings. The government's 1965 financial reform provided for regularization of ownership and collection of rents from some 500,000 nationalized or sequestered apartments and houses in the major cities. Migration to the coastal cities during the 1960s and 1970s aggravated the housing problem, and in the 1974–77 development plan the government took steps to curb the flow. The 1980–84 plan called for the construction of 450,000 new housing units; the building effort failed to meet the target because of shortages of construction materials. In 1982, the government committed more than $1.5 billion to prefabricated housing, some of it as part of a program to build "model villages" for workers on state farms or in state-owned enterprises. In 1998, the World Bank offered the nation a loan of us$150 million for a 10-year program to improve and create low-income urban housing, thus eliminating urban slums.

Despite all these efforts, 2003 reports indicated that the country still needed 1.5 million to 2 million housing units. The average occupancy rate was at about 7.5 persons per household; with one report indicating that 52% of all households included 15 to 20 members. About half of all housing units are individual houses, with the remaining housing falling into three categories: traditional houses called haouches, flats or apartments, and shacks or other marginal arrangements. In 2000, about 94% of the population had access to improved water sources; 73% had access to improved sanitation systems. The government announced plans to built one million new homes by the end of 2009, but observers were skeptical that this plan could be achieved.

EDUCATION

Education in Algeria largely continues to follow the pattern laid down during the French administration, but its scope has been greatly extended. Public primary and secondary schools were unified in 1976 and private schools were abolished. Expenditure on education was estimated at 6% of GDP in 1999. The government has given priority to teacher training, technical and scientific programs, as well as adult literary classes.

About 4.2% of all children were involved in preprimary education programs in 2001. The compulsory education program last for 12 years, with most students beginning at age six. Basic education consists of a nine-year program. Students may then choose to continue in general secondary or technical school programs, with each involving three years of study. Education is compulsory through secondary school. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 95%; 96% for boys and 94% for girls. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 67%; 65% for boys and 69% for girls. It is estimated that about 95% of all students complete their primary education. About 79% progress to secondary levels. The pupil to teacher ratio for primary school was at about 28:1 in 2003. The academic year goes from September to June. The public schools are regulated jointly by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Religious Affairs and the study of Islam is a required part of the curriculum. Arabic is the official language although French and Berber are also in widespread usage.

The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 69.8%, with 79.5% for males and 60.1% for females. In January 2006, there were over 50 universities and other institutes of higher learning. The University of Algiers (founded in 1909), its affiliated institutes, and other regional universities enrolled 267,142 students in 1996. The universities provide a varied program of instruction that stresses development-related subjects. Many technical colleges also are in operation. Approximately 21% of the adult population were enrolled in tertiary programs in 2003. The National Conference of Universities was created in 2000 to serve as a coordinating body for higher education.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The largest libraries in Algeria are those of the University of Algiers (over 800,000 volumes) and the National Library (founded in 1835, over 950,000 volumes). In 2005, the National Library (Bibliothèque nationale d'Algérie) had seven annex locations to supplement its main location in Algiers. There also exist several sizeable university collections, including the University of Constantine (208,000 volumes), the University de Mentouri (240,000 volumes), and the University d'Oran Es-Senia (200,000 volumes). Other collections of size are the Municipal Library in Constantine (25,000 volumes) and the Aubert Library in Oran (26,000 volumes). The Pasteur Institute in Algiers has a special library of over 47,000 volumes, and the Institute of National Studies in Tiaret has a library of 25,000 volumes.

Museums of importance in Algiers include the Bardo National Museum of Prehistory and Ethnography (1928), the National Museum of Fine Arts of Algiers (1930), the National Museum of Antiquities and Islamic Art (1897), and the Museum of the Revolution (1968) with a collection of memorabilia celebrating Algeria's long-fought war of independence against France. Various regional museums are located at Constantine, El Biar (west of Algiers), Oran, Sétif, and Skikda. There is a fine antiquities museum in Cherchell, a decorative arts museum in Ghardaia Oasis, and a botanical garden in Beni-Abbes. The situation of many of Algeria's cultural treasures has been in doubt because of ongoing anti-Western civil terrorism.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were an estimated 69 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 727,000 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 46 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people. Satellite, cable, and radiotelephone services link Algeria with most other parts of the world.

As of 1999, President Bouteflika has maintained that the media should ultimately be at the service of the state. As such, radio and television remain primarily under government control. Censorship is not considered a rule of law, but jail terms and fines are enforced against those issuing any statements defaming the president, the army, or other government officials.

The country's independent media includes about 43 publications. The seven largest papers had substantial circulations in 2004: El-Khabar (circulation 530,000), Quotidien d'Oran (195,000), Liberte (120,000), El-Watan (70,000), L'Expression (29,000), Djazair News (20,000) and Chorouk El-Youmi (9,000). There are two state-owned French-speaking papers, El-Moudjahid and Horizons, and two state-owned Arab speaking papers, El-Chaab and El-Massa.

Algeria has approximately 25 radio stations and 46 television stations. Satellite dish antennas are widespread and millions of citizens have access to European and Middle Eastern broadcast stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 244 radios and 114 television sets for every 1,000 people. The Algerian Press Service (APS) and the Algerian News Agency (ANA) are the primary news services.

In 2004 the country had about 897 Internet hosts. In 2003, there were 7.7 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 16 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet.

ORGANIZATIONS

There are foreign and domestic chambers of commerce, industry, and agriculture in the major cities and the country has a national committee of the International Chamber of Commerce. The African Federation of Mines, Energy, Chemical and Allied Trade Unions is an organization of labor unions, seeking to advance the trade union movement by facilitating communication and cooperation among members and representing the interests of members before business organizations and government agencies. The leading trade union, Union Générale des Travailleurs Algériens (UGTA), sponsors many organizations in Algeria. The "professional trade sectors" affiliated with the UGTA include food, agriculture, construction, teachers, energy, finance, information sciences, light and heavy industry, health social security, and telecommunications. There are some national associations for medical professionals, such as the Algerian Association of Medical Physicists.

The National Union of Algerian Youth (UNJA) was originally established by the National Liberation Front (FLN) in 1969 as the youth wing of the FLN. Since then UNJA has broadened its youth representation and the Algerian National Youth Forum (FNJA) was established to represent other political tendencies. The National Union of Algerian Students (UNEA) and the National League of Algerian Students (LNEA) are active groups of university students. The Government's Ministry of Youth and Sports was established in 1998 and there are other national sports associations, some of which are linked to international associations as well. Other youth NGOs in Algeria include the Federation of Algerian Youth Hostels and the Union of Youth of Seguia El Hamra Río Oro. A scouting movement (Scouts Muslmans Algériens/Algerian Muslim Scouts) is also present.

Red Cross and Red Crescent societies, including one for youth, are active. There is an organization of Amnesty International represented within the country. There are chapters of the Lions Club and Kiwanis International. The Society of St. Vincent De Paul also has members in Algeria.

Learned societies are active in such fields as anthropology, archaeology, geography, history, and various branches of medicine.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Visitors need a valid passport and a visa. There are no required vaccinations, although inoculations against typhoid, tetanus, and rabies are recommended. Vaccination against yellow fever is required of those coming from an infected area.

Among popular tourist attractions are the Casbah and Court of the Great Mosque in Algiers, as well as the excellent Mediterranean beaches, Atlas Mountains resorts, and tours of the Sahara Desert. The government has encouraged tourism as an increasingly important source of foreign exchange. In 2003, there were 1,166,287 visitor arrivals. The majority of foreign tourists were from France and Tunisia, with over 192,000 visitor arrivals from those countries. Receipts from tourism came to $161 million.

The most popular Algerian sport is football (soccer), which is played throughout the country by professionals and amateurs alike. Tennis is widely played as well.

FAMOUS ALGERIANS

The most famous Algerian of antiquity was St. Augustine (Aurelius Augustinus, 354–430), a Church father and theologian who was born in eastern Numidia. An important 19th-century figure was Abd-el-Kader ('Abd al-Kadir bin-Muhyi ad-Din al-Hasani, 1808–73), emir of Mascara, who led the resistance against the French invaders from 1830 to 1847. Two early figures in the drive for Algerian independence were Messali Hadj (1898?–1974), who organized several political movements, and Ferhat Abbas (1900–86), who led the first provisional government and was elected first speaker of the National Assembly in 1962. Other important nationalist leaders include Ahmed Ben Bella (b.1916), a founder of the FLN and the first premier of independent Algeria, who, after becoming president in 1963, was overthrown and imprisoned for 15 years (until 1980); Belkacem Krim (1922–70), political leader in Kabilia; Benyoussef Ben Khedda (1922–67), head of the provisional government in 1961–62; and Houari Boumedienne (Muhammad Boukharrouba, 1927–78), who overthrew Ben Bella in 1965 and became president in 1976. Boumedienne's successor as president and FLN leader was Col. Chadli Bendjedid (b.1929).

Two renowned French Algerian writers were playwright Jules Roy (1907–2000) and novelist, playwright, and essayist Albert Camus (1913–60), winner of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1957. Frantz Fanon (b.Martinique, 1925–61), a psychiatrist, writer, and revolutionary, was a leading analyst of colonialism.

DEPENDENCIES

Algeria has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Benjamin, Roger. Renoir and Algeria. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003.

Heggory, Alf Andrew, and Philip Naylor Chiviges. The Historical Dictionary of Algeria. 2nd ed. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994.

Hourani, Albert Habib. A History of the Arab Peoples. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002.

McDougall, James (ed.). Nation, Society and Culture in North Africa. London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2003.

MacMaster, Neil. Colonial Migrants and Racism: Algerians in France, 1900–62. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.

Malley, Robert. The Call from Algeria: Third Worldism, Revolution, and the Turn to Islam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.

Roberts, Hugh. Battlefield Algeria 1988–2002: Studies in a Broken Polity. London: Verso, 2002.

Ruedy, John. Modern Algeria: the Origins and Development of a Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.

Stora, Benjamin. Algeria, 1830–2000: A Short History. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

ALGERIA

Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Major Cities:
Algiers, Oran, Annaba, Constantine

Other Cities:
Batna, Béchar, Bejaia, Biskra, Blida, Djelfa, I-n-Salah, Médéa, Ouargla, Saïda, Sétif, Sidi-Bel-Abbes, Skikda, Tamanrasset, Tiaret, Tindouf, Tlemcen, Touggourt

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report 1999 for Algeria. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

ALGERIA , whose acknowledged history reaches back beyond 200 B.C., is the largest of the countries in northwest Africa which embody the Mahgreb, the area between the sea and the Sahara. Known to the ancient Romans as Numidia, it has been host to successive Mediterranean and African cultures, for which visible remains abound, from a Roman aqueduct in the capital city of Algiers, to the Phoenician ruins and Maurentian tomb just one hour's drive to the west. In recent times, it nurtured the first independence movement on the African continent, negotiated the release of American hostages from Iran, and has been a leader in regional diplomatic initiatives.

Algeria has produced cultural path-finders, from St. Augustine to Albert Camus. It is a country of the traditional and the modern—one sister will wear the concealing haik, while another ventures out in jeans; a family returns to its digital television set after having sacrificed a lamb for tomorrow's feast.

This is a country of contrasts and contradictions. Arabic and French intermingle in language and traditions. The Tauregs of the desert, although Muslim, use the Maltese cross as their sign. Spectacular coastlines are in geographic counterpoint with the great desert expanses, and the inviting Kabylia foothills give way to the foreboding Atlas highlands.

MAJOR CITIES

Algiers

Algiers, capital of Algeria, is one of Africa's largest urban areas. Originally constructed for 750,000 people, its metropolitan area now teems with over four million inhabitants. It is situated on the Mediterranean coast of Africa, about midway between Tangier and Tunis and opposite the island of Majorca, at latitude 36°36'N and longitude 3°04'E.

Algiers was founded by the Phoenicians as one of their numerous North African colonies. The town was also visited by the Carthaginians and Romans and later destroyed by the Vandals in the 5th century A.D. It was revived under a Berber dynasty in the 10th century as a commerce center. Algiers became a haven in the 16th century for Moors escaping persecution in Spain. Many of these settlers resorted to piracy against Spanish cargo vessels. These pirate attacks continued until roughly 1830, when the French captured the city. Algiers became a military and administrative headquarters for France's colonial empire in North and West Africa. During World War II, Algiers became the headquarters of Allied forces in North Africa. The city played a major role in Algeria's uprising against French rule. In 1962, after the country gained its independence, Algiers became the nation's capital.

From the sea, Algiers is a spectacular sight. The city rises sharply from the port area and business district to the residential areas along tree-covered hills. In sunlight, the white buildings of "Algér la Blanche" gleam against the blue Mediterranean below, and the green of pines and parks above.

Architecturally, the city is European with a strong Mediterranean flavor. The famous Casbah, an interesting Arab quarter in the heart of the city, contains most of what remains of the Turkish city of the 16th to 18th centuries, but falls short of the romantic image created by the movies. More characteristic of modern Algiers are the many apartment buildings and grand villas with their views of the city and the sea. Among the multitude of mosques are a few dating from the 17th century, and others that once were constructed as churches by the French. Traffic, especially during morning, midday, and evening rush hours, is very heavy and often frustrating.

The Mediterranean climate reminds Americans of southern California. Compared to Washington, DC, the summer (May to October) is longer and more moderate, except when the hot sirocco (desert wind) blows in from the Sahara. Heat and humidity can combine to make a summer day uncomfortable, but there are many more days of excellent weather. Throughout this warm season, the sandy beaches and the waters of the Mediterranean provide relief and recreation. The cooler heights of the nearby mountains at Chrea and Tala Guilef are also pleasant at this time. Despite its warm summers, Algiers has what is often described as a "cold climate with a hot sun." Winter temperatures rarely fall below freezing. Cool to cold weather generally begins in November and lasts into April, but the "rainy season" lasts about five months.

Fewer than 500 Americans reside throughout Algeria, and are principally employed in the hydrocarbon sector, working in central and southern Algeria.

Food

Staples can be purchased locally, but prices are higher than in the U.S. Frequent shortages occur and the quality is often inferior to American varieties. Fresh fruit and vegetables of good quality are plentiful in season. Markets carry beef, chicken, lamb, fish and shrimp, but all are expensive. Eggs are always available, but butter is occasionally hard to find. Pork products are not available.

Clothing

Apparel for all seasons is required in Algeria—from bathing suits to warm coats. Rainwear and umbrellas are advisable for all members of the family. A Washington, D.C. wardrobe is suitable for an extended stay. Although winters are not as cold in Algiers, strong winds and less effective heating/insulation in buildings can make the climate seem quite uncomfortable.

Some clothing suitable to Western tastes is available, but is much more expensive than in the U.S. Shoes are not usually of good quality, nor do they conform to American preference.

Because dry cleaning is unpredictable in quality and availability, men find that wash-and-wear clothes of medium weight are useful for office wear, with some lightweight suits for really hot days. Winter clothes can be worn from November to April, and an additional sweater or vest is welcome in winter. A topcoat is sometimes useful.

Women dress for professional or office jobs as they would in Washington, DC; others tend to dress informally, wearing skirts and sweaters in winter and cotton dresses in summer. Conservative dress minimizes embarrassment; shorts should not be worn in public. Street-length dinner and cocktail dresses are appropriate in the evening although, occasionally, a long dress is needed for a formal event. Shawls and sweaters are advisable at night, even in summer.

Neither men or women should wear sports clothes that reveal shoulders, arms, or legs, especially when touring religious sites.

Children have the same clothing needs in Algiers as they would in Washington, DC. Good quality clothing for children is not always available.

Supplies and Services

Services available in Algiers, but not up to U.S. standards, include tailoring; dressmaking; shoe repair; and radio, TV, and other electrical appliance repair. Dry cleaning is fair. Barber and beauty service is available, but many women prefer to have haircuts, permanents, etc., done on trips abroad.

Items difficult to locate in Algiers include linens, plastic ware, shower curtains, coat hangers, Scotch tape, adhesive tape, glue, paper napkins, toys, books, records, and special occasion gifts and cards. Few toiletries are available locally.

Religious Activities

The predominant religion in Algeria is Islam, but other faiths are respected. In Algiers, there are several Catholic churches that offer masses in French and Italian, and sometimes in English. English-speaking priests will hear confessions for Americans. One Jewish synagogue continues to hold services. The British Protestant Church is nondenominational and has services each Friday, plus Sunday school for children. In Oran, places of worship include one Protestant and two Catholic churches, both with French-language rituals. A weekly, informal, nondenominational service is conducted in various private homes.

Domestic Help

Competent and adequately trained domestic help is difficult to find, but it is possible to employ people for cleaning, laundering, shopping, and child care. Part-time gardeners are available. A good cook is rare, and wages quite high. Social-security payments are required, but the rate varies depending on the work schedule. Algerian law requires all household staff to have 1.5 paid vacation days each month, plus a free day each week. Employers usually recognize Islamic holidays with a cash gift. Many expatriates have hired foreign household help, from such countries as the Philippines, to work in their homes

Education

The American School of Algiers, the only English-language school, offers coeducational instruction from pre-kindergarten through grade nine. It is located in El Biar, one mile from downtown Algiers. In 1991, the staff included an American principal, 14 full-time and three part-time teachers, a secretary, and classroom aides. Classes are held from September to June. The standard U.S. curriculum is followed and adapted to accommodate children of many countries, with emphasis on local educational opportunities such as field trips and excursions. Science, music, art, and physical education are also offered. Extracurricular activities include computers, year-book, school newspaper, and a literary magazine. The school's library has 8,000 volumes and a variety of multimedia materials. The three-acre campus consists of eight buildings with 14 classrooms, a science lab, computer lab, and two playing fields. French is taught in grades four through eight. The school has a capacity for 215 students. Many nationalities are represented among the student body. Students are required to speak and understand English well enough to follow courses. Parents of children with special needs should contact the school directly before moving to Algiers; the address is: 5 Chemin Cheikh Bechir Brahimi, El Biar, Algiers, Algeria.

An English-language secondary school is not available, but there is a French lycée, equivalent to U.S. high school. American students are admitted if space is available and if the student has adequate French-language ability. The French system is also available below the lycée level. In addition, German, Japanese, Egyptian, and Italian schools are in operation in Algiers.

Some parents have found local private nursery schools satisfactory for pre-kindergarten children. One English-language play school is available for children three to five years old. The French kindergarten will accept children at age four.

Most families send children of high school age to international schools abroad.

Recreation

The Algerian national passion is soccer; it is played in the streets, in stadiums, and in schoolyards. Algerian women rarely attend sports events and European women never go unescorted; even with an escort, they usually feel conspicuous.

Tennis is one of the most popular sports in Algiers, and can be played year round. Golf also is available at an 18-hole golf course, Route de Chéraga, on the heights of Algiers. Algiers' outdoor swimming and water sports season is from May through September. Several public beaches are a 30 to 60 minute drive, although those closest to Algiers are very crowded on weekends and may be polluted. Better beaches are located an hour from Algiers. Because no facilities are available, beach umbrellas, mats, barbecue grills, and ice chests are a must. Unescorted women should not visit beaches.

Algiers Bay and nearby coastal waters provide possibilities for boating, wind surfing, and spearfishing. Caution and experience are necessary on the water, as currents and winds can be treacherous.

Several riding clubs in the vicinity of Algiers offer adequate facilities (including jumps) at reasonable rates. In winter, limited skiing on difficult slopes is available in the Algerian mountains.

Wild boar and waterfowl hunting is difficult, but possible. A government hunting license is required. The importation of firearms is restricted to sporting weapons, and special permission must be obtained beforehand. Hunting can be organized through ONAT, the national tourist agency, which provides, as part of its hunting service, facilities for acquiring authorization to carry arms. These tours are extremely expensive.

Algeria offers many opportunities for pleasant day, weekend, and longer outings to points of scenic beauty and historic interest. However, because roads can be rough and acceptable tourist facilities (including restrooms) are rarely available, every trip can be an adventure.

In and around Algiers itself, one finds the Casbah, museums, the Forest of Bainem (a good hiking and picnicking area), the beautiful flowers and greenery of the Jardin d'Essai, and many beaches.

Easily arranged one-day trips include: the mountain resort of Chrea; Tizi-Ouzou, "capital of the Kabyle"; and the ancient Roman seaport of Cherchell (Caesarea). The extensive Roman ruins of Tipasa, about 50 miles from Algiers, overlook the azure waters of the Mediterranean, forming a scene of unmatched beauty.

Farther away, for weekend trips, are Annaba (the ancient Hippo Regius); Bou Saada, gateway to the Sahara; and many beach and mountain resorts east and west of the capital. The government travel organization has established an extensive network of lodgings and spas at regional capitals, mineral springs, skiing sites, and other appropriate points. Modestly appointed, and usually with restaurants, they vary in quality from barely acceptable to good. The staffs occasionally speak English. Some adequate private hotels and inns also can be found. Because reservations are often difficult to confirm, and accommodations may not be properly cleaned, lighted, or heated, many travelers provide their own camping equipment and sleeping bags. Water can be a problem, and it is always advisable to take along enough for drinking and washing. Finally, because acceptable restaurants may not exist en route, most people carry food for breakfasts and lunches.

On a long weekend driving tour, the visitor can see such attractions as Timgad—possibly the most extensive Roman ruins anywhere, and certainly unmatched outside Pompeii; El-Oued, an oasis town of considerable charm; Oran and Western Algeria, a region very different from the Algerois; Hass R'mel and Hassi Messaoud, hydrocarbon production centers; and Tunis, Tunisia, or Fez, Morocco.

The actual Sahara is a longer trip, but well worth it. For travel in the Hoggar-Tassili and Saharan areas, one can fly to Tamanrasset or Djanet and hire a Land Rover or join a tour there. The trip is long—it is about as far from Algiers to Tamanrasset as from Algiers to Edinburgh, Scotland.

Entertainment

Movies, some in French, most in Arabic, are the principal commercial entertainment in Algiers. Cinemas are crowded and rarely attended by women. Live theater has a limited season, with emphasis on Arabic productions.

Algiers has a number of museums devoted to art, history, and anthropology. A major amusement park complex and a zoo in the suburb of Ben Aknoun offer entertainment opportunities.

Algiers has many restaurants which serve French and/or Algerian dishes, and a few serving Chinese/Vietnamese food. Some restaurants feature folkloric entertainment. However, because most restaurants (even the smaller ones) are state-owned, quality and availability of food and service at even the best can vary dramatically. That, combined with endemic parking problems, makes dining out in Algiers something of an adventure.

For those interested in photography, Algiers' unusual architecture and magnificent views offer many subjects for pictures. Photographic supplies should be brought from home as local supplies are limited and expensive. Discretion must be used in photographing individuals and mosques; military and strategic installations should never be photographed.

A good shortwave radio, phonograph, or cassette player are desirable. Records and music cassettes can be purchased locally, but prices are very high.

Algiers has no American-sponsored fraternal organizations, and most mixing of the American official and private communities is through entertaining in the home. An informal English-speaking women's coffee group meets each month in a member's home.

Social activities for American children consist of privately sponsored gatherings, such as birthday parties for young children, camping trips, and beach parties. The American School and the British Church arrange a number of activities, including occasional weekend trips.

Algeria's political and cultural orientation limits opportunities for meeting host-country nationals, although relationships are possible; it is generally easier to become acquainted with nationals of other countries.

The French, Italian, and German Cultural Centers have film showings, exhibits, concerts, and language classes for those interested.

Oran

Oran, Algeria's second largest city and most modern port, is the economic and cultural capital of a region rich in history and natural beauty. Situated on a high plateau that overlooks the Mediterranean, it is flanked on the west by the Djebel Murdjadjo which rises 1,500 feet; on the crest of this mountain are an historic fort, an abandoned cathedral, and the hermitage-like home of the marabout (dervish) Sidi Abdelkader El Djilali. Another picturesque site is Lion Mountain which stretches east, 10 miles along the coast. Situated between the Mediterranean coast and miles of vineyards, it is impressive in its graceful plunge to the sea.

Archaeological remains show that Oran has been inhabited since prehistoric times. The first known residents of the area were Berber herdsmen and the Berber culture dominated despite successive visits by the Phoenicians, Carthagenians, Romans, and the Germanic Vandals. In the Middle Ages the Berber kingdom of Tahert, near the modern-day city of Tiaret, made the area well-known for scholars and commerce.

Berber dynasties like the Almoravids fought off the encroaching Arabs for almost three centuries, but slowly the Arab culture took hold and gave the region its present Arab-Berber mix. Europeans reappeared in the region when, in the 16th century, the Spanish occupied the city-state of Oran and neighboring Mers El Kebir. The Ottoman Turks drove out the Spanish from most of their Algerian enclaves, but the Spaniards clung to Oran for 300 years and built forts that still dominate the port and the town.

After the French invasion of Algiers in 1830, the Oran region was a center of resistance to French rule. Emir Abdel Kader waged a 15-year struggle against the French before being defeated and deported.

French and Spanish settlers arrived and Oran, surrounded by fertile countryside, became the main port for the Algerian wine industry.

Oran was occupied briefly by the U.S. Army during World War II as Algeria was used as a staging area for the invasion of Sicily. During the late 1950s, Oran was the scene of civil strife between French underground terrorists and Algerian nationalists. The violence prompted the mass exodus of the French. The city's fortunes declined for a time, but began to revive some years after Algerian independence was gained in 1962. The hydrocarbon and construction industries have breathed new life into the region's economy. In the Arzew Industrial Zone, built along a bay 25 miles east of Oran, two immense natural gas liquefaction plants are among the most important petrochemical installations in Algeria. Their enormous gas flares dominate the landscape and, on a clear night, are visible all the way to Oran.

South of Oran lies a region of rich agricultural land planted in vineyards, wheat fields, olive trees, and orange groves. Farther south are rugged mountains with wheat and olives, a high plateau of grazing land, and rocky wastelands extending more than 100 miles from the coast.

The industrial part of Oran, in the outlying south-southeastern districts, contains hundreds of small food-processing and diversified manufacturing plants and a small iron and steel mill. Principal exports are wine, cereals, vegetables, and fruits.

Oran is an international port that is connected by rail to Algiers, Béchar, and Morocco. Oran-Es Senia International Airport is located approximately six miles (ten kilometers) from the city.

Oran's Mediterranean climate and physical beauty are striking and resembles parts of California and northern Florida. Winters bring rainy winds and cool weather, with daytime temperatures in the 50s. Summer lasts from May to October, with fine, sunny weather and a constant breeze off the sea. This is the time to enjoy the beaches.

Close to one million people live in urban Oran, including an English-speaking community concentrated around Arzew. The French community in Oran numbers several thousand and includes teachers and technical assistance personnel. The city is mostly Muslim, and nearly all of the French-built churches have been converted into mosques. The culture is a distinct mix of Arabic and Western. There are mosques in every neighborhood and the five-times daily prayer call rises from minarets all over the city. In the streets, veiled women walk alongside those dressed in the latest fashions from France. Although Algeria has many women doctors, lawyers, and other professionals, segregation of the sexes remains the custom. Women rarely go out alone and are seldom seen in the city's cafes.

Consulates in Oran, other than that of the U.S., represent France, Spain, Italy, and Morocco.

Education

Education at public schools in Oran is conducted in Arabic and French. The Lycée Pasteur, operated by the French Government, offers kindergarten through high school for dependents of French functionaries and other non-Algerian students. All instruction is in French, and the curriculum is more rigorous than that of the typical American high school.

French -or classical Arabic-language instruction from private tutors is available. Group classes in either language or in computer basics are sponsored by the French Cultural Center. The Catholic church offers lessons in modern, standard Arabic.

Instruction in the arts is offered by the Oran Municipal Conservatory, which conducts classes in a variety of musical instruments, harmony, dance, and dramatic arts. Courses in tennis, judo, skin diving, and karate may be arranged at clubs.

Recreation and Entertainment

In Oran, soccer is the most popular spectator sport, and weekly matches are held in the city's stadium. Women rarely attend. The Oran area has fine beaches and windsurfing is growing in popularity. The American community has a full program of recreational sports, including softball and a tennis club. Several aerobic exercise groups have formed. Other activities in and around the city include excellent saltwater fishing, sailing, and scuba diving, although it is difficult to charter a boat. Wild boar and small game hunting is also available.

Within the district are many points of scenic interest, beach resorts, towns, and wooded mountainsides. Although not so rich in Roman ruins as the eastern and central parts of the country, opportunities do exist for archaeological and historical study. Principal historic sites in Oran include the 16th century Santa Cruz Fortress and the Mosque of the Pasha of Sidi El Houari dates from the 18th century.

Algeria is a beautiful country with a surprising variety of environments. Deep forests of cork and pine, mountains, windy steppes, and desert sands are all only a few hours drive from Oran. Opportunities for hiking and picnicking are excellent.

Organized tours outside of Oran are available. The Moroccan border, with good sight-seeing and shopping opportunities, is only two hours away by car. The Spanish enclave of Melilla, with its fascinating history and well-stocked duty-free shops, is less than a six-hour-drive away. Ferries go regularly from Oran to Marseille and to Alicante.

Entertainment opportunities in Oran are not particularly good. A number of movie theaters show films in French and Arabic. Occasional French-language or Arabic plays are performed in the Opéra Municipal (Municipal Opera House), and concerts by visiting artists are presented at the Oran Municipal Conservatory about twice a year.

The French Cultural Center sponsors a busy program of films, lectures, and concerts. It also maintains a library and a "filmotheque."

Oran is a quiet, easy-going provincial city. Patience and initiative reap ample rewards. The American community in Oran is extremely small. However, expatriates and their families often join in sports, barbecues, films, and other social activities with the American community in Arzew. Most Algerian social life revolves around the family and most Algerians do not entertain. However, younger Algerians are often attracted to American films or music, or seek opportunities to practice their English.

Annaba

Annaba, a Mediterranean port in northeastern Algeria, was called Bône until the country achieved its independence from France. In the early centuries A.D., under the Romans, it had been known as the port city of Hippo Regius. Later it became the see of St. Augustine, and a center of Christianity. Augustine, recognized as the founder of Christian theology, was born in the year 354 at Tagaste, about 40 miles south of Hippo, and served the district as bishop. He died in 430, during the time that the Vandals were besieging Hippo.

Annaba was founded by the Carthaginians, and once was a residence of ancient Numidian kings. After its many centuries of Roman and Vandal occupation, it came under Arab rule in the seventh century, and was held during the Middle Ages by Algerines, Italians, and Spaniards. In the 17th and 18th centuries, it was a center for European trade. The French captured Annaba in 1832.

Now a modern city of close to one million people, Annaba is surrounded by wheat farms, forests, and mines. It is a main trading and fishing port and Algeria's chief exporter of iron ore and phosphates. Annaba is connected by railway and roads to Algiers and other major cities in northeastern Algeria. The city is known for its chemical plants, iron and steel factories, automobile and railroad workshops, and fertilizer plant.

There are few English-speaking people in the area, but some Europeans and Americans with a knowledge of French visit or conduct business here.

Constantine

Constantine (Qacentina), the ancient city of Cirta, lies on rocky heights above a river valley in the northeastern part of Algeria. Its port is Skikda, which was known as Philippeville under the French. Constantine has a population of roughly one million. Suburbs have developed to the southwest and east of the city.

In the second century B.C., Constantine (then Cirta) was the capital and commercial center of Numidia. After being destroyed by wars, it was rebuilt in the year 311 by the Roman emperor, Constantine the Great, and he gave it his name. The city was a provincial capital under the Turks in the 16th century, and was taken by French forces in 1837. It was occupied in 1942 during World War II by U.S. troops.

Constantine rests on a rocky, diamond-shaped plateau and, since Roman times, has been entirely surrounded by a wall. The city is a study in contrasts. The Rue Didouche Moutad divides the city into two parts. Western sections of the city, with its wide squares and straight streets, exhibits a strong French influence. The Souk el-Ghezel mosque, which was converted into the Notre-Dame des Sept-Douleurs Cathedral by the French, and the Casbah are major attractions. Eastern and southeastern areas of Constantine, however, exhibits strong examples of Islamic architecture such as the Salah Bey and Sīdī Lakhdar mosques. Many skilled trades are represented in the eastern sector and entire streets are devoted to one craft. Throughout the city, there are ruins of Roman fortifications and many medieval walls and gates.

The city has several public institutions. These include the municipal library, the museum of Cirta, and the University of Constantine, which was founded in 1969. Also Constantine-Ain-el Bey International Airport is located roughly six miles (ten kilometers) outside of Constantine.

OTHER CITIES

BATNA is a city in northeastern Algeria. Originally established as a French military outpost in 1844, Batna is currently a trading center for forest and agricultural products. Roman ruins at Tazault-Lambese (Lambessa) seven miles (11 kilometers) to the southeast and Timgrad (Thamugadi) 17 miles (27 kilometers) to the east-southeast attract many tourists. Batna has an estimated population of 185,000.

BÉCHAR , formerly known as Colomb-Béchar, was just a village before coal was found here in 1907. It thrived on the activity of the coal mines until petroleum production seized the market. Located in the northwestern region of Algeria roughly 36 miles (58 kilometers) south of the Moroccan border, Béchar has an estimated population of 107,000. The city is noted for its leatherwork and jewelry. Dates, vegetables, figs, cereals, and almonds are produced near Béchar. Bituminous coal reserves in the region are not exploited to their greatest potential because of high transportation costs. The city was once the site of a French Foreign Legion post.

Before 1962, BEJAIA was named Bougie. Since the discovery of oil in Algeria, this Arab city has been a major port for oil and trade. Situated in the northeastern part of Algeria, 115 miles east of Algiers, the city is divided into a coastal, industrial section and a residential section 500 feet higher. Bejaia is a busy market town and exports iron ore, phosphates, olive oil, wine, and cork. The population is estimated over 125,000.

With January temperatures averaging 52°F, BISKRA is a common vacation spot in winter. Located in northeastern Algeria on the northern edge of the Sahara Desert, Biskra has a population of about 130,000. The area surrounding Biskra is very arid and most of the population live in oases. Dates, figs, pomegranates, and apricots are grown near Biskra. Biskra's major exports are dates and olives.

After devastating earthquakes in 1825 and 1867, BLIDA , which lies in northern Algeria, 25 miles southwest of the capital, was rebuilt into a commercially active center. This city is known for its beautiful orange groves and rose gardens that cover miles of landscape. Several light manufacturing industries are located in areas surrounding Blida. Crops grown near Blida include barley, citrus fruits, wheat, tobacco, olives, and vegetables. In 2000, Blida's population was estimated at 165,000.

DJELFA is located in north-central Algeria. The town, founded in 1852 as a French military post, is a meeting place for the Ouled Naïl. The Ouled Naïl are a semi-nomadic people who live in black-and-red striped tents and claim they are direct descendants of the Prophet Mohammed. The area surrounding Djelfa is notable for its abundance of Neolithic rock carvings dating from 7,000 to 5,000 B.C. Djelfa is primarily a trading center for goats, sheep, and other livestock. The population of Djelfa is over 85,000.

The oasis town of I-N-SALAH is situated in central Algeria and has a population of roughly over 21,000. Visited primarily by the nomadic Tuareg people, I-n-Salah is a transportation center for the export of dates. At one time, I-n-Salah was located on the ancient trans-Saharan caravan routes and served as a major trade link between north and central Africa. The town's importance has declined considerably due to the exodus of workers to developing gas fields 60 miles (110 kilometers) southwest of I-n-Salah and prohibitive transportation costs. I-n-Salah is composed of four walled villages or ksars. The ksars are surrounded by fruit and vegetable gardens and palm groves. Also, they are irrigated by artesian wells and surrounded by hedges that protect against the Saharan desert's corrosive sand.

MÉDÉA , located in north-central Algeria, is roughly 56 miles (90 kilometers) south of Algiers. The present-day city is situated on the site of an ancient Roman military post and has a history dating back to the 10th century. The town is French in character, with a rectangular city plan, red tile-roofed buildings, and beautiful public gardens. The hills surrounding Médéa are covered with vineyards, orchards, and farms that yield abundant grain. Médéa's chief products are wines, irrigation equipment, and various handicrafts. The city has an estimated population of over 85,000.

OUARGLA , situated in east-central Algeria, was originally settled by the Berbers and Black Africans. The town is walled with six gates and dominated by a large mosque. Irrigated date palm groves and vegetable gardens surround the town. Ouargla is a trading center, especially for woolen carpets, basketry, and livestock. Oil and natural gas wells to the southwest and east-southeast of town have increased Ouargla's population and local economy. The town is also home to the Saharan museum.

The town of SAÏDA was established as a French military outpost and once housed a regiment of the French Foreign Legion. Situated in northwestern Algeria, Saïda is noted for its fine leatherwork and mineral waters, which are bottled and sold throughout Algeria. Areas to the north of Saïda are fertile and supply abundant crops of grapes, olives, and wheat. Saïda is also a trading center for sheep and wool.

An ancient northeastern city dating back to the first century, SÉTIF is now a local medium for trade and communications. It is known for carpets and flour. Sétif, laid out in a grid pattern of wide streets, is one of Algeria's highest places at an altitude of 36,000 feet. The University of Sétif was founded in 1978. Remains of an ancient Byzantine fortress are located north of the city. In 1959, a Roman cemetery was found near the center of town. Located in a cereal-growing area, it is one of the most populated cities in Algeria, with a resident count estimated over 185,000.

Although it was completely surrounded by a wall until the 1930s, SIDI-BEL-ABBES now has a modern look with wide boulevards and squares. South of Oran, in the northwestern region of the country, this commercially vibrant city's infrastructure is comprised of factories, highways, and railroads. Industry includes a farm-machine manufacturing complex. The surrounding area, once swampy, now produces barley, wheat, and grapes. Once France's Foreign Legion headquarters, Sidi-Bel-Abbes is now a trade center with an estimated population over 150,000.

SKIKDA , situated on the Mediterranean Sea, 40 miles northeast of Constantine, is rich in history, with its Roman background still evident in a cemetery and the largest Roman theater in Algeria. A local museum houses many Roman artifacts. Skikda is an industrial city of roughly 129,000, whose major exports are fish, olive oil, and fruits. A natural-gas pipeline from Hassi R'Mel to Skikda became operational in 1970, leading to the development of petrochemical industries and oil refineries. Skikda also exports large quantities of marble, iron, lead, and iron ore. Many city residents of Italian and Portuguese origin left the city after Algerian independence in 1962. Today, the population is predominantly Muslim. Before Algeria's independence, this French city was known as Philippeville.

TAMANRASSET , also called Tamenghest (after 1981) and located in extreme southern Algeria, was originally established as a military outpost to guard the trans-Saharan trade routes. Surrounded by the barren Sahara Desert, some of the world's highest known temperatures have been recorded here. Tamanrasset is located at an oasis where, despite the difficult climate, citrus fruits, apricots, dates, almonds, cereals, corn, and figs are grown. The Tuareg people are the town's main inhabitants. Their red houses and the area's magnificent, rugged scenery make Tamanrasset a popular tourist attraction during the cooler months. Visitors are also drawn to the Museum of the Hoggar, which offers many exhibits depicting Tuareg life and culture. The town has an estimated population of 38,000.

Throughout history, the northern town of TIARET has been occupied at various times by the Berbers, Arabs, Turks, and French. Today, Tiaret is an agricultural center specializing in cereal production and livestock raising. The town is also noted for its purebred Arabian horses.

TINDOUF is situated in extreme western Algeria. The town has a large population of Regeibat nomads and, due to its location near the borders of Mauritania, Morocco, and Western Sahara, is of strategic importance. Rich deposits of iron ore are at Gara Djebilet 93 miles (150 kilometers) to the southeast.

TLEMCEN , close to Morocco in the northwestern part of Algeria, is rich in tradition and history. Its famous mosque of Sidi Bou Medine dates back to the 14th century. The city is sharply divided between the Hadars (the middle class descended from the Moors), the Koulouglis (descendants of Turks and Arab women), and the traditional Jewish community. Each group lives within its own sector of town. Tlemcen's winding, narrow, arched streets are crowded with shops, cafes, and mosques. The city has a pleasant climate. It is located sufficiently inland to avoid the stifling humidity of the Mediterranean coast, but is near enough to cool sea breezes in the summer. Known for its crafts, Tlemcen produces handmade leather goods, copperware, silk tapestries, and carpets. The town supports a bustling trade in agricultural products. It is also known for furniture and food processing. The railroad connects Tlemcen to other cities, including Beni-Saf.

TOUGGOURT , located in northeastern Algeria, is an oasis town where cereals, date palms, and vegetables are grown. Inhabited by the Rouarha, a people of Berber origin, and Jewish converts to Islam (Medjaia), Touggourt is a typical Saharan town of dried mud or clay-stone buildings and winding streets. Located at the junction of ancient trans-Saharan caravan routes, Touggourt is a trading center for livestock, woven cloth, and carpets. The estimated population is over 75,000.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

Algeria, the second largest Arab/African country, after the Sudan, is almost one-third the size of the continental United States. With an area of 918,497 square miles, Algeria is more than three times the size of Texas.

Its geography is a contrast between the mountainous, fertile terrain of the north and the great expanse of arid desert in the south. Nearly 90 percent of the population lives on the productive coastal strip. The major cities of Algiers, Oran, and Annaba are located in this area, within a quadrilateral that extends about 50 miles inland from the coast, and stretches some 950 miles from Morocco on the west to Tunisia on the east.

South of this coastal plain rise the beautifully rugged hills and mountains of the Kabylie and the Aurès. Behind the mountains lies the high plateau, a semi-arid rangeland. Beyond that, some 200 miles inland, is the vast Sahara Desert, which comprises 90 percent of the country.

The climate varies. Coastal areas, including Algiers, have a pleasant, mild climate which becomes hot in summer, and chilly and rainy for several months in winter. Alistair Horne, in Savage War of Peace, describes it thus: "The summer in Algiers is long and torrid, and by the end of it, the Europeans tend to feel like fruits that have ripened too long in the sun… Through much of the year—winters that sparkle and springs that warm—the climate, like the architecture, is that of the northern Mediterranean."

Inland mountain regions between the coast and the desert have cooler weather, with temperatures below freezing for long periods in winter. Spring and fall in the Tell (that part of northern Algeria that receives an average annual rainfall of 16 inches or more and is, therefore, usable for agriculture), are mild and enjoyable. The Tell and the Sahara both have climatic extremes, although in different ways. The Tell is very cold in winter and very hot in summer. The Sahara's extremes are between daytime (warm in winter, intensely hot in late spring, summer, and early fall) and nighttime (extremely cold year round).

Population

Algeria's population, a mixture of Arab, Berber, Turkish, and West African (in the Sahara) in origin, numbers nearly 31.8 million and is 99% Moslem. The principal languages are French and Arabic, although several Berber dialects are spoken and remain the mother tongue in many rural areas. A strong program of Arabization is underway; French is still widely used for official purposes, although this is expected to cease soon. Few people speak English.

Algeria has one of the world's highest population growth rates (2.3% in 2000). At least 70% of the population is under age 30. The traditional Moslem male-dominated culture is very much in evidence. Although women are participating more in Algerian society, the pace of change is slow. Many Algerian women still wear the traditional veil and' "haik" a white wrap-around silk or nylon cover robe. Others, however, wear jeans and Western clothes, particularly in cities. After dark, women are rarely seen in public places. Relationships between Americans and Algerians proceed more formally and slowly than those to which Americans are accustomed due to the restraints placed upon women and the reserve in most Algerians' attitudes toward strangers.

Public Institutions

The Algerian Parliament is made up of a directly elected lower house, the National Popular Assembly, and an indirectly (and partially appointed) upper house. The government's executive departments are headed by ministers.

After gaining independence in 1961, Algeria had a single-party state dominated by the country's army and supported by the bureaucracy and the National Liberation Front (FLN). The FLN's rule ended in 1988 following wide-spread rioting. Under the 1989 Constitution, there was to be a transition to a pluralist republic with a strong president. The democratization process was suspended in 1992 when the Army forced the President to resign, canceled the second round of parliamentary elections which the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) was poised to win, and installed a ruling five-man High State Committee, which banned the FIS and jailed more of its leaders. The cancellation of the elections in 1992 escalated fighting between the security forces and armed Islamist groups seeking to overthrow the government and impose an Islamic state.

President Liamine Zeroual, a former general, was elected in November 1995 to a 5-year term. Zeroual had previously served as president of a transition government established by the Army in 1994. The President controls defense and foreign policy, appoints and dismisses the Prime Minister and cabinet ministers, and may dissolve the legislature. The presidential election was competitive. Three opposition candidates had some access to state-controlled television and radio and also received heavy coverage in the independent press. Zeroual received 61% of the votes according to government figures; losing candidates claimed that there were instances of fraud, but did not contest the Zeroual's victory. In June 1997 Algeria held the first legislative elections since January 1992.

In May 1996 the President began reviewing with legal opposition parties a memorandum containing his ideas on how to develop a political system. These included amending the Constitution to define acceptable political practices and to establish a second parliamentary chamber (a senate). The President also insisted the electoral and political party laws be changed. In September, several important opposition political parties joined with the President to sign a national charter encompassing these ideas. In November the government obtained approval of proposed changes to the Constitution, including provision of a second parliamentary chamber and greater presidential authority, in a flawed popular referendum.

The government's security apparatus is composed of the Army, Air Force, Navy, the national gendarmerie, the national police, communal guards (a local police), and local self-defense forces. All of these elements are involved in counter-insurgency and counterterrorism operations. The security forces were responsible for numerous serious human rights abuses.

The economy is slowly developing from a centrally planned system to a more market-oriented system, in the wake of stabilization policies and structural reforms undertaken in 1994 and 1995. The pace of structural reform slowed in 1996.

Noncompetitive and unprofitable state enterprises constituted the bulk of the industrial sector. The state-owned petroleum sector's output represented about a quarter of national income and about 95% of export earnings in 1996. Algeria is a middle-income country whose annual per capita income is about $1,700. Unemployment continued to rise in 1996, hitting young people especially hard. About 70% of persons under the age of 30 could not find adequate employment. Some made a living from petty smuggling or street peddling.

Although the government's human rights performance improved somewhat, there were continued serious human rights abuses. The security forces carried out extrajudicial killings, were responsible for numerous cases of disappearance, routinely tortured or otherwise abused detainees, and arbitrarily arrested and held incommunicado many of those suspected of involvement with armed Islamist groups. Poor prison conditions, lengthy trial delays, illegal searches, and infringement on citizens' privacy rights also remained problems. The government heavily censored news about security incidents and the armed groups. The government also continued to restrict freedoms of speech, press, assembly, and movement. The Family Code limited women's civil rights, while domestic violence against women remained a serious problem.

Armed groups and terrorists also committed numerous serious abuses, killing thousands of civilians. Armed Islamists have conducted a widespread insurgency since elections were canceled in January 1992. Although some areas of the country saw less conflict in 1996 than heretofore, acts of terrorism were still numerous. Islamist groups targeted government officials and families of security service members. They also assassinated political and religious figures, businessmen, teachers, journalists, state enterprise workers, farmers, and children. Armed Islamists targeted women especially; there were repeated instances of kidnaping and rape. Bombs left in cars, cafes, and markets killed and maimed people indiscriminately. By the end of 1996, most commonly accepted casualty estimates were than 60,000 people had been killed during five years of turmoil.

Since diplomatic relations were restored in 1974, Algerian-U.S. relations have gradually improved. This is due to Algeria's role in the Iran hostage crisis in 1981 and to increased commercial ties. Algerian-French relations have gone through periodic ups and downs. Ties with France cover an extremely broad spectrum. France is Algeria's leading exporter. Approximately 800,000 Algerians live and work in France. About 50 countries maintain resident diplomatic missions in Algiers.

Political Environment

After the cancellation of parliamentary elections in January 1992, which the Islamist opposition party, the Islamic Salvation Front (in French, FIS) was poised to win, a building confrontation between the military-backed government and Islamist armed groups quickly expanded. The armed groups' operations included attacks on the security services, and they also targeted schools, public buildings, security service members, and a variety of noncombatants, including journalists, intellectuals, government officials, women, and even children. Unofficial estimates of the dead range from 30,000-60,000 during nearly five years of fighting. In addition, over 120 foreigners have been murdered since December 1993. The Armed Islamic Group, thought responsible for those murders, also threatened foreigners and Algerians working in the hydrocarbons sector specifically. Although many Algerians perceive the violence is receding somewhat, fighting and terrorist incidents erupt regularly; no prompt military solution to the conflict seems possible.

The flag of Algeria consists of two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and white with a red five-pointed star within a red crescent; the crescent, star, and the color green are traditional symbols of Islam.

Arts, Science, Education

Before independence, a predominantly foreign scientific and artistic community thrived in Algeria. It was well-supported by the French Government and was intended mainly for the European community. From this community developed the University of Algiers, two libraries (each with more than a half-million books), important research in solar energy and anthropology, and a small but highly regarded group of writers and painters—Nobel Prize winner Albert Camus among them.

Since the revolution, Algerians have maintained many of these French foundations and traditions. At the same time, they are developing institutions and customs more typical of their own character and needs.

Although it is small, the Algerian artistic community is active and well-supported by the government and news media. Several painters have achieved local and international reputations and often present exhibitions of their works.

The country has a long tradition of handicrafts, especially in rural areas. Although modernization is eradicating many of these, among the crafts found here are hand-woven textiles, including flat-weave rugs and strips of tenting; traditional garments; pottery; basketry; coppercraft; brasswork; and leatherwork. The most notable is the Kabylie style of engraved silver jewelry decorated with coral and enamel inlays. Also notable are the intricate and colorful tiles which have for centuries decorated the courtyards and doorways of Algeria.

Expenditure on education has grown steadily since independence. Emphasis is now being placed on secondary and higher education. The University of Algiers (founded in 1909), its affiliated institutes, and other regional universities provide a varied program of instruction that stresses development-related subjects. Many technical colleges also are in operation as well.

In the mid-1990s, less than half of Algeria's population was literate.

Commerce and Industry

Despite Algeria's ongoing security difficulties, the Algerian economy is steadily growing. The engines of this growth are the hydrocarbons and agriculture sectors. Other sectors of the economy, especially industry, are suffering. The government, in conjunction with programs backed by the IMF and World Bank, is working to develop the economy from one centrally planned to one which is market oriented. In addition, the government is seeking to modernize Algeria's financial markets by working to establish secondary credit markets and attract private investment into commercial banking. These financial reforms should help spur investment, which so far has been minimal outside the food processing sector. Sustained economic growth in northern Algeria will likely await a resolution of Algeria's political turmoil, which so far has scared off many investors.

Algeria, whose territory is one-third the size of the U.S., has devoted significant resources to expanding and modernizing the transport and telecommunications sectors since the 1970s. Today, Algeria has a relatively well-developed infrastructure as a result. Unfortunately, armed groups fighting the government have often targeted the power and telecommunications networks as well as rail and road transport lines.

The Chambre de Commerce d'Alger is located at 6, boulevard Anatole France, Algiers; the other Chambers of Commerce are in Oran, at 8, boulevard de la Soumman; and in Constantine, at Palais Consulaire, rue Seguy-Villevaleix.

Transportation

Regional

Frequent flights link Algiers' main airport, Dar-el-Bëida, to all major European cities. Flights are available to Paris, a two hour trip. Flying time to Marseille is one hour; Madrid, two hours; London, three hours; and Palma de Mallorca, a lovely vacation spot in the Baleares province of Spain, 45 minutes. Air service is available to Tunis and Casablanca. Tickets are expensive. During summer months, flights are heavily booked and obtaining reservations can be complicated. Ticket restrictions complicate arrangements for connecting flights.

Travel facilities in the Oran area are much the same, with daily heavily booked flights to Algiers, Marseille, and Paris.

Domestic commercial air service is provided by the national airline, Air Algérie, and serves all major interior and coastal cities. Because a policy of decentralization has increased emphasis on the development of interior cities, service to the Sahara is frequent. Fares are reasonable; but unannounced schedule changes also are frequent. Decentralization has created extreme crowding, and travelers often face a lengthy wait at airports for subsequent flights.

Algeria has international air facilities at Constantine, Annaba, and Tlemcen as well as at Algiers and Oran. Many other airports, smaller in size, and a number of airstrips are in operation throughout the country.

Shipping from Algiers is primarily cargo, but some passenger ships call at the port. A ferry service runs daily between Algiers and Marseille; twice weekly between Oran and Spanish ports.

Local

Algeria has a good network of roads which are kept passable; but local travel can be an adventure. Although most Algerian drivers are extremely courteous, defensive driving is a must; the highway fatality rate is very high. "Fender-benders" are almost unavoidable, even for especially cautious drivers. Extremely heavy traffic should be expected in the cities, and particularly on weekend outings. It is not uncommon for a 30-mile beach trip to take six hours.

Algeria has over 3,000 miles (4,700 kilometers) of railway that connect all the major cities and towns in Algeria. However, trains are often overcrowded, unclean, and frequently late.

Public bus service in Algiers is not generally used by Americans because of overcrowding and erratic schedules. Intercity bus service is more dependable; most official Americans do not use the service, however, because of the crowding and unacceptable bus stations. The national tourist agency, offers bus tours to oases and other points of interest.

Taxis are very difficult to find except at the airport and major hotels. Drivers do not cruise, but wait at widely scattered stands throughout the city. Little service is available after hours and holidays. Taxis are metered and fares are not exceptionally high. Surcharges are often collected after dark. A tip of 10 percent is customary.

Automobiles

A private car is a necessity in Algiers. Walking in Algiers is very difficult because of the narrow, hilly, winding streets, which often do not have sidewalks. These same streets make driving conditions difficult at best—worse during rush hours. Parking can be time consuming and frustrating. A small car is most practical for city driving, although cars should have sufficient space to make long trips comfortable. To see the many sights scattered in diverse areas of Algeria requires extensive travel. Reliable repair and maintenance facilities for American cars are not widespread, but there are adequate facilities for small foreign cars such as Renault, Volkswagen, Peugeot, or Fiat. Japanese-made vehicles are seen with increasing frequency. Cars with left-hand drive are standard, but right-hand drive vehicles are not prohibited. Algerian safety laws require yellow headlights and the use of seat belts outside the city limits. Additional seat belts may be needed to secure a child's car seat. Emission control devices on U.S. models should be removed and cars adapted to receive local gasoline.

Third-party liability insurance is mandatory and must be purchased from Caisse Algérienne d'Assurance et de Réassurance (CAAR), a national company. It is relatively expensive. Insurance in Algeria is valid only within the borders of Algeria. When outside the country, coverage applicable to the visited countries must be purchased at the border.

Members of the official communities representing other countries do not need Algerian drivers' licenses if they hold valid permits issued elsewhere.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

Local and international telephone service is generally adequate, but it is sometimes difficult to get calls through to the U.S. Although international calls are expensive (about $1.65 per minute to the U.S.), direct dialing is available to most countries, including the U.S.

Mail

International airmail from the U.S. takes 712 days. Surface letters take a month. Parcel post service is irregular because the U.S. does not have a parcel agreement with Algeria. Once a parcel is received, lengthy customs delays may be experienced.

Radio and TV

Medium-wave and long-wave radios can receive French language programs from Radio Television Algerienne, Radio Diffusion Francaise, Europe No. 1, Monte Carlo, the Voice of America (evenings only), the BBC, and Moroccan-based Medi 1.

Reception of foreign shortwave broadcasts varies with the season, but BBC can be received clearly, as can Armed Forces Radio and Television Service broadcasts. Algerian television broadcasts between 7 a.m. and 1 a.m. daily. Many movies and the late-night newscasts are in French. Arabic programming (some-times dubbed American films) is the general rule. Algerian television uses the PAL system, so U.S. receivers will not work in Algeria.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

Three Arabic dailies are available in Algeria, and seven daily papers are published in French.

Few foreign publications are available locally. Magazines are usually subscribed to by individuals as they cannot be found in local newsstands.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

Algiers and the other major cities have several large nationalized hospitals and clinics. These facilities, however, are considered to be below U.S. standards. For the most part, noncritical obstetrical, surgical, and emergency patients are sent to London (medevac point) or the U.S. (in the case of official Americans, to the nearest U.S. military facility). In critical emergencies, an Algerian military hospital will care for patients through special arrangement.

No American doctors currently practice in the country, but some foreign-trained local physicians and specialists are available. A number of these maintain private practices.

Community Health

Public sanitation standards are lower here than in Western Europe or the U.S., although (in Algiers) garbage is collected almost daily. Feral cats and various vermin abound. While sewage systems are adequate during the dry season, they often overflow during and after rains, and sometimes there are almost daily water interruptions.

High year-round humidity makes this area inadvisable for persons with serious respiratory ailments and sinus trouble. Children seem particularly susceptible to colds and respiratory infections.

Preventive Measures

Rabies is endemic in Algeria. The three-inoculation anti-rabies series should be considered before entering the country.

Mosquitoes are a definite nuisance in the residential areas of Algiers, and are found in some areas year round. In certain parts of the country, malaria is prevalent. Therefore, malaria prophylaxis should be taken.

During periods of drought, water supply from the city is sporadic, oftentimes no more than once every three days.

All water used for drinking and ice cubes should be boiled. Bottled water is generally available. Typhoid and gamma globulin immunizations are recommended. Local milk should be boiled before consumption. Doctors recommend "long conservation" milk (boiled under pressure) for infants and small children; it can be kept unopened without refrigeration for a reasonably lengthy period. Both evaporated and powdered milk are usually available.

Fresh fruits and vegetables should be washed and soaked in a disinfectant, and rinsed in boiled water.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs and Duties

No American passenger ships serve the Mediterranean. The best air connections for Algiers are from Paris, with direct flights available daily. It is also possible to fly from Madrid, Zurich, Rome, Frankfurt, or London. Daily flights go from Paris to Oran, and four to five flights a day are scheduled between Oran and Algiers.

Passports and visas are required for U.S. cietizens traveling to Algeria. For more information concerning entry requirements, travelers may contact the Embassy of the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria at 2137 Wyoming Avenue N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, telephone (202) 265-2800 or go to http://www.algeria-us.org/ on the Internet.

Smallpox vaccinations are required. Yellow fever and/or cholera vaccination certificates are required for travelers arriving from infected areas. Inoculations which should be kept current include the complete polio series, diphtheria and tetanus, typhoid, cholera, and gamma globulin.

Americans living in or visiting Algeria are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Algeria and obtain updated information on travel and security within Algeria. The U.S. Embassy is located at 4 Chemin Cheikh Bachir El-Ibrahimi, B.P. 549 (Alger-gare) 16000, in the capital city of Algiers. The telephone number is [213] (21) 691-425/255/186. The fax number for the U.S. Embassy is [213] (21) 69-39-79. The U.S. Embassy workweek is Sunday through Thursday. The former U.S. Consulate in Oran is closed.

Pets

There are no restrictions on importing or exporting pets. Rabies, however, is common in Algeria. Pets must have certificates of inoculation and good health, and proof that rabies vaccination has been given within the last three months. Many hotels in Algeria will not accept pets, especially the SONATOUR (or national) hotels. Some will accept small pets more readily. None have kennels.

Firearms and Ammunition

The importation of firearms and ammunition is discouraged; handguns are strictly prohibited by Algerian law.

Currency, Banking and Weights and Measures

The Algerian unit of currency is the dinar (DA). It is divided into hundredths which, in popular usage, are called francs. Algerian currency notes may not be exported or imported.

The metric system of weights and measures is used.

Officially a Muslim Arab country, Algeria still follows the Gregorian calendar for most purposes, and Friday is the day of rest.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. … New Year's Day

Mar. 8…Women's Day

May 1…Labor Day

June 19 …Revolution Recovery Day

July 5 …Independence Day

Nov. 1 …Revolution Day

…Id al-Adha^*

…Hijra New Year^*

…Ashura^*

…Mawlid an Nabi^*

…Ramadan^*

…Id al-Fitr^*

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Alf, Andrew Heggon. Insurgency and Counter-Insurgency in Algeria. Indiana University Press: Bloomington, IN, 1972.

Algeria. Les Guides Bleus: Hachett, Paris, 1974.

Algeria. Nagel: Geneva, 1971.

Area Handbook for Algeria. Foreign Area Studies, American University. U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 1979.

Horne, Alistair. Savage War of Peace. MacMillan Ltd: Great Britain, 1977. Viking Press: New York, 1978. Penguin Books, Ltd.: United Kingdom and New York, 1979. (This book is the best introduction.)

Humbaraci, Arslan. Algeria: A Revolution That Failed. Pall Mall Press, Ltd: London, 1966.

Kraft, Joseph. Struggle for Algeria. Doubleday: New York, 1961.

M'rabet, Fadila. Las Femme Algerienne. Maspero, 1964.

Ouandt, William. Revolution & Political Leadership. Algeria 1954-1968, M.I.T. Press: Cambridge, MA, 1969.

ALGERIA

Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Al-Jumhuriyah al Jaza'iriyah

ad-Dimuqratiyah ash-Sha'biyah

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

LOCATION AND SIZE.

Algeria is located in North Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea. It shares borders with Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Libya, and Tunisia. Taken together, Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia form what is known as the Arab Maghreb or West. With an area of 2,381,740 square kilometers (919,595 square miles) and a short coastline of 998 kilometers (620 miles), Algeria is the second largest country in Africa after Sudan, and is slightly less than 3.5 times the size of Texas. Algeria's capital city, Algiers, is located in the north on the Mediterranean Sea. Other major cities include Annaba and Oran, both in the north.

POPULATION.

The population of Algeria was estimated at 31,193,917 in July of 2000, an increase of 6.2 million from the 1990 population of 25,010,000. In 2000, Algeria's birth rate stood at 23.14 per 1,000, while the death rate was reported at 5.3 per 1,000. With a projected growth rate of 1.7 percent between 2000 and 2015, the population is expected to reach 39.8 million by the year 2015. Muslims, mostly of the Malekite Sunni tradition, make up 99 percent of the population, while Christians and Jews make up the remaining 1 percent. A small percentage of the population are the indigenous Berbers, who speak Tamazight. Since 1995, the Berbers have been given wider autonomy and have been allowed to speak and teach their language. Arabic is the official and dominant language.

Algeria's population growth has slowed significantly since the early 1990s, reaching 2.8 percent in 1998, down from 3.06 percent in 1987. The slowdown is mostly attributable to a falling birth rate, which is now 2.15 children per family. Population growth is expected to drop even further in the coming years. The success of the Algerian government's family planning policies has ensured wider access to contraceptives and family planning education. The Comite national de la population (CNP) was established in October 1997 to oversee and coordinate national planning policies.

The population is generally young, with some 35 percent below the age of 14 and just 4 percent older than 65. Given the population makeup and the significant drop in the population growth rate, the government is faced with the daunting challenge of creating new employment opportunities, and is bracing itself for an aging population in the coming decades. Algeria's young population has also been a source of political instability, feeding an anti-government Islamic backlash that began in the early 1990s. Unemployment and limited job opportunities are largely responsible for an Islamic insurgency that has destabilized the country since 1991.

As in many developing countries, a majority of Algerians live in urban areas. In 1997, 60 percent of the population was urban, an increase of 29 percent from 1966, but the trend toward rural-urban migration is believed to have leveled off. Most of the population is concentrated in the north, with the capital Algiers and its suburbs being home to the largest concentration of Algerians; 4 million people live in the capital.

OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY

Algeria's small-to medium-sized economy is largely dependent on the hydrocarbons sector, which accounts for about 95 percent of export earnings, 52 percent of budget revenues, and 25 percent of GDP. The second-largest natural gas exporter in the world, Algeria is home to the fifth-largest reserves of gas worldwide. Algeria also has the 14th-largest reserves of oil in the world. The European Union is the largest market for Algerian natural gas.

The industrial sector is the largest contributor to the economy, accounting for 51 percent of GDP and employing 13.6 percent of the labor force of 9.1 million workers. The sector is dominated by oil-related industries. Other light industries can also be found, but their contribution to GDP is modest. The services sector is the second-largest economic sector, accounting for 37 percent of GDP and employing 13.5 percent of the labor force. The agricultural sector contributes 11-12 percent of GDP annually and employs some 22 percent of the labor force.

Algeria entered the twentieth century as a French colony heavily dependent on agriculture. Soon after the conquest of Algeria in 1830, the French created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and exploited cheap local labor. Until Algeria's independence in 1962, the bulk of its economic activity and wealth was controlled by the French colonizers, who successfully developed a small industry and a sophisticated export trade that provided food and raw materials to France in return for capital and consumer goods . The French also controlled about 30 percent of the total arable land, and were responsible for most of agricultural production and exports.

Since 1962, Algeria's economy has been centrally-planned, despite state efforts to privatize the economy and attract foreign investment. The country's huge foreign debt , which in 1999 reached US$30 billion according to the CIA, forced the government to launch an economic reform program in 1989. The government also concluded agreements with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the late 1980s and 1990s to secure international credit for its envisioned reform program.

This program has been largely successful, with the government curbing inflation , cutting budget spending, and preserving foreign exchange reserves . The adoption of the economic reforms program has also accelerated growth and succeeded in reestablishing economic stability. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the program was coupled with austerity measures designed to reduce Algeria's external debt , which has proven difficult to control. In 1995, the government approved a framework for the privatization and restructuring of public sector enterprises. A financial sector reform program has also been initiated, although progress has been slow. As a result, Algeria has managed to achieve an average annual real growth rate of 5.5 percent since the mid-1990s, with the hydrocarbon sector being the main driving force of economic growth.

While the government has managed to achieve some progress toward economic recovery and reform, the country's troubled economy continues to be heavily dependent on volatile oil and gas revenues. Furthermore, the slow pace of the reform program, coupled with political turmoil, has failed to attract sufficient foreign investment or to create sufficient employment opportunities. Neither the hydrocarbon sector nor agriculture is capable of providing enough jobs to counteract long-standing unemployment problems. The rate of unemployment in 1999 was reported at 30 percent. By contrast, unemployment in the United States in 1999 was just 4.2 percent. The challenge to create new job opportunities for Algeria's young population is one of the biggest tasks facing the government.

Government bureaucracy is a major impediment to the conduct of business in Algeria. Red tape permeates all government ministries and the commercial court system, which resolves disputes between merchants and other businesspeople. Corruption is also widespread at all levels of the public sector, largely as a result of the low wages and difficult living conditions. In 1998, the government launched an anti-corruption drive, which resulted in as many as 2,000 public officials being prosecuted or awaiting trial on charges ranging from petty crime to grand larceny.

POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION

After a bitter guerilla war with France (guerilla wars are fought with non-conventional methods by small units against larger, more conventional armies), which held Algeria as a colony, the country finally achieved independence in 1962. But Algeria's economy was in a state of chaos. Skilled labor was in short supply, as the French had taken with them most of the skilled personnel who ran the country. Until the late 1980s, Algeria's successive governments reacted by instituting a highly centralized socialist system that ensured the government a central role in the economy. Algeria's first president, Ahmad Ben Bella, moved to nationalize land and property previously owned by the French colonialists, which by 1963 had fallen under state control. Oil companies were nationalized in 1971, while agricultural land was placed under the control of workers. During this phase, the government placed special emphasis on the development of capital-intensive heavy industry. However, these state-led development programs and socialist policies soon proved to be a failure. The agricultural sector was particularly hit by bureaucratic mismanagement, inefficiency, and graft.

It was not until 1985 that the government came to realize the high costs associated with its socialist policies. Falling world oil prices, coupled with a high food import bill and a growing foreign debt burden, forced the government to re-evaluate its policies and abandon socialist policies. High unemployment rates, a lack of consumer goods, and shortages in basic foodstuffs threatened the country's political stability, as signs of popular unrest began to manifest themselves in protests. In 1985, President Chadli Benjedid shifted the focus of the country's development plans toward building a diversified economy by placing greater emphasis on agriculture. Benjedid's economic liberalization program sought to reduce central planning and decrease government control over the economy.

Since independence, Algeria has been ruled by 1 party, the National Liberation Front (FLN), which has largely used its dominance to impose heavily centralized economic structures that were justified through socialist ideology. However, the regime's priority on heavy industry and centralized management led to the neglect of the agricultural sector and the basic needs of its growing population. The decade of the 1980s laid bare the failure of the FLN to achieve either a lasting political consensus or a sustainable basis for economic growth. The sharp decline of oil prices in the mid-1980s, coupled with an intolerable debt burden and a high food imports bill, precipitated a financial crisis that accelerated the decline of the regime's appeal. Civil unrest and widespread demonstrations in 1988 sent a clear signal that the government's command of the people's allegiance had worn thin.

In an attempt to reverse the situation, the regime experimented with democracy between 1988 and 1991. In June 1990, elections for local councils resulted in an astonishing victory for Islamic fundamentalists, with the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) winning more than half the nation's towns and cities, including the capital of Algiers. In parliamentary elections in December 1991, the FIS continued to make impressive gains and appeared poised to take control of the government in the run-off vote slated for January 1992. Before this crucial election could take place, however, the army stepped in to put an end to this democratic experiment and its unforeseen consequences, canceling the elections, banning the FIS, and imprisoning its leaders. The military's decision to abort the electoral process led to the unraveling of what little political consensus and national unity once existed. The FLN had been discredited both by its inability to defeat the Islamists at the polls and its failure to manage the country's relatively rich economic resources.

Since 1992, Islamic militants have gone underground and launched a campaign of terror against the government. More than 75,000 Algerians have been killed in the ensuing armed struggle. Islamic militants have also staged attacks against the country's infrastructure —including telephone exchanges, electrical stations, rail links, and the international airport—as well as multinational oil facilities. The military has responded to growing terrorist attacks with a ferocious crackdown on militants. Since 1992, thousands of Islamic rebels have been killed by security forces during routine raids and ambushes. Even so, these efforts do not appear to have lessened the militants' resolve, and the spiral of violence continues.

Presidential, parliamentary, and local elections were organized in November 1995 through October 1997. These elections were aimed at transforming the military junta (a group of military leaders who rule a country) into a democratically elected government, and thus putting an end to the Islamic rebels' claims that the regime was not legitimate. However, with the army running the country, the political scene remains riddled with problems. Under pressure from the military, Gen. Liamine Zeroual, who won the 1995 presidential elections, announced his untimely resignation in September 1998, paving the way for the 15 April 1999 election of Abdulaziz Bouteflika, a 62-year-old former foreign minister. Bouteflika's election raised hope that the 7-year civil war may come to an end, but the violence is far from over. Shortly after taking office, Bouteflika declared general amnesty for Islamic militants who give up their arms and return to the fold of the nation.

Structurally, the Algerian government is a republic, with a president directly elected for a 5-year term and a bicameral (2-house) Parliament. The 380 members of the National People's Assemby are popularly elected for 4-year terms, while the 144 seats in the Council of Nations are filled with either members appointed by the president or elected by indirect vote. The prime minister is appointed by the president. However, this ideal government structure has rarely been achieved in Algeria, where ongoing civil and political struggles have meant the suspension, cancellation, and rescheduling of elections, and frequent interference by the military.

Since the 1960s, Algerian politics have been dominated by the military, which has constituted the power base of the regime. The role of the military, which has traditionally also played a big role in the economy, was briefly suspended in 1989 following the restoration of democracy in the country. By 1991, the military, which forms the bulk of the security apparatus, was back into politics to counter the Islamic insurgency. Today, the military in Algeria is stronger than ever and its powers are so extensive that no president can be nominated without the consent of the generals running Algeria behind the scenes.

The major source of government revenues comes from hydrocarbon receipts and customs duties , in addition to corporate, salary, road, and property taxes. According to the IMF, in 1999, taxes accounted for 13.5 percent of the central government's non-hydrocarbon revenue. Tax revenues decreased from 16.2 percent in 1997 to 13.5 percent in 1999, the direct result of the 1998 tax reforms, which sought to lower tax rates across the board. Taxes come in different forms. Taxes on goods and services account for the largest proportion of tax revenues, making up 6.4 percent of the total. Customs duties, which in 1999 accounted for 3.5 percent of tax revenues, are the second largest contributor. Taxes on income and profits and on wage income together accounted for 4.5 percent of government revenues.

However, tax evasion is a major problem, costing the government an estimated AD30 billion a year. Tax revenues dropped slightly from AD329.8 billion in 1998 to AD314.8 billion in 1999. The government's plans to press ahead with plans to improve tax collection measures in line with the IMF's recommendations are complicated by economic and political uncertainties—mainly the ongoing civil war.

INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS

Algeria enjoys an extensive though aging infrastructure that has been largely neglected since independence. The country is serviced by a network of over 104,000 kilometers (64,626 miles) of primary and secondary roads, 71,656 kilometers (44,527 miles) of which are paved. According to the EIU Country Profile, Algeria's poor road system claims the lives of 10 people a day, while the cost of accidents to the state is estimated at AD10 billion annually. The road system is badly in need of repairs, and repair and renovation costs are estimated at AD227 billion. Roads, especially in urban areas, are highly congested. Plans are underway to privatize the road system in 2001 to cover the renovation costs, but the process is likely to be slow, despite the availability of foreign financing for the projects. Similarly, the nations' railway system, which consists of 4,820 kilometers (2,995 miles) of track, is troubled. The state's railway company, Societe national de transport ferroviare (SNTF) is also slated for privatization, but the process has been stifled by the lack of progress in the restructuring of the industry to focus on business activities. Rail lines have more than once sustained damage as a result of sabotage attacks by Islamic militants. The SNTF has been heavily indebted for years, and the railway system is mostly used to transport cargo.

Algeria has 4 major airports, located in Algiers, Oran, Annaba, and Constantine, all of which are fairly modern. Several airlines stopped service to Algeria in December 1994, following the hijacking of an Air France airplane at Houari Boumedienne airport. Many European airlines, with the exception of Air France, have resumed flights since 1999. The national carrier, Air Algerie, serves 37 destinations in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. It carries 3 million passengers per year. Plans are currently underway in 2001 to upgrade the country's airports and expand their capacities and privatize Air Algerie. Algeria has 9 major ports, at Algiers, Oran, Bejaia, Arzew, and Annaba. The government plans to expand the handling capacity at the ports of Algiers and Oran in 2001.

Electrical power is supplied to Algerians by the state-owned power company, Sonelgaz. Over 90 percent of Algeria's 21.38 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of power is generated from gas, while the remaining 7 percent is generated by hydroelectric power stations in Kabylie. Over 94 percent of homes are connected, and the government is planning in 2001 to extend the power network to rural areas at the rate of 150,000 new homes annually. Like the rest of state-owned companies, Sonelgaz is slated for restructuring.

Telecommunications services in Algeria are generally aging, but are better in the north than they are in the south. Telephone service is provided by the Ministry of Posts and Telecomunications. The country had 1.17 million telephone lines in use in 1995, and some 33,500 mobile cellular phones in 1999. The Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications in 2001 is upgrading the country's phone lines using fiber optic technology and digital systems. In 1999, the country had 1 Internet service provider.

ECONOMIC SECTORS

Algeria's low-to medium-size economy is heavily dependent on natural gas and hydrocarbons, which account for about 95 percent of export earnings, 52 percent of budget revenues, and 25 percent of GDP. The industrial sector is the largest contributor to the economy, accounting for 51 percent of GDP and employing 13.6 percent of the labor force. The sector is dominated by oil-related industries. Other light industries can also be found, but their contribution to GDP is modest. The services sector is the second largest economic sector, accounting for 37 percent of GDP and employing 13.5

percent of the labor force. The agricultural sector contributes 11-12 percent of GDP annually and employs some 22 percent of the labor force. The sector, however, has been vulnerable to adverse weather conditions, and production has fluctuated accordingly.

Two of the greatest obstacles to growth in all of Algeria's economy are inefficiency in the state-controlled public sector and the state's central role in the economy. Recognizing these obstacles, Algeria has targeted certain sectors, mainly state-owned enterprises, for privatization. Years of inefficient state control over the economy have finally given way to reform. The government has embarked on an ambitious restructuring program coordinated with the IMF and its successful implementation is one of the main challenges facing the government in 2001.

AGRICULTURE

Agricultural production is a moderate contributor to the Algerian economy, accounting for 11-12 percent of GDP and 22 percent of total employment in 1997. The sector's contribution to the economy, however, has declined sharply since independence. Years of government restructuring, lack of investment, meager water resources, and dependence on rainwater for irrigation have contributed to this decline. The production of cereals as well as orchard and industrial crops has significantly dropped. As a result, Algeria today has become dependent on food imports, accounting for close to 75 percent of food needs.

Although Algeria is the second-largest country in Africa, the arable land of about 8.2 million hectares accounts for only 3.4 percent of the total land area. The vast Sahara desert, which spans much of the south central part of the country, is not available for agriculture. Between 1961 and 1987, all arable land was controlled by the state, which divided the land into state farms, known as domaines agricoles socialistes. State farms were dismantled in 1987 and the land was divided into smaller collective and individual farms. Despite these measures, about one-third of cultivable land in Algeria is still owned by the government, which leases the land to private investors and farmers. The remaining two-thirds of arable land (about 5 million hectares) is privately owned.

Algeria's main crops are cereals (mainly wheat and barley), citrus fruit, vegetables, and grapes. Fresh dates exports have risen sharply in the past decade and have become the second-largest export after hydrocarbons. Some 72,000 hectares are cultivated with palm trees, mainly in the Saharan oases. Algerian dates are mainly exported to France, Russia, Senegal, and Belgium. Algeria was once a major exporter of wine and associated products. Despite government efforts to revive the sector, production has fallen significantly since 1962, reaching 248,000 hectoliters (6,552,160 U.S. gallons) in 1996, down from 410,000 hectoliters (10,832,200 U.S. gallons) in 1992. Algeria is also a producer of olive oil, and production has generally averaged around 150,000 hecto-liters (3,963,000 U.S. gallons) annually.

The bulk of Algeria's crops are cultivated in the fertile but narrow plains around Bejaïa and Annaba in the east, in the Mitidja Plain south of Algiers, and beyond Oran from Sidi Bel Abbes to Tlemcen. The agricultural sector's dependence on rainwater for irrigation has often affected its production levels, especially during droughts. The cereal harvest, for example, was badly affected by drought conditions that plagued North Africa in 2000, producing only half of its annual yield. Hence, despite government efforts to extend funding and technical assistance to farmers and increase the productivity of the agricultural sector, Algeria imports the bulk of the food it consumes, especially cereals (mainly wheat).

FISHERIES.

Though Algeria's location would suggest that the country would have a booming fishing industry, actual fishing production remains low, largely due to under-exploitation. Since the late 1990s, the government has embarked on a modernization program to increase the productivity of the sector, but most fishing activity continues to center around small boats and family-owned businesses. The government has also been trying to attract foreign investment in this sector, in the year 2000 granting some 20 Japanese fishing boats the right to fish in Algerian waters. This agreement was based on a provision that the catch does not exceed 750,000 metric tons of red tuna a year.

INDUSTRY

MINING.

Hydrocarbons, mainly oil and gas, are the country's main exports. Algeria's oil and gas reserves rank 14th and 5th largest in the world, respectively. During the 1970s, Algeria was a large producer of oil, but has since lost that status as oil was replaced by gas production as the country's main source of export revenue. Oil, first produced in commercial quantities in the late 1950s, accounted for 73 percent of Algeria's hydrocarbon productions in 1980, but now accounts for about 20 percent. France, Spain, Belgium, Turkey, and the United States are the main consumers of Algeria's oil, and plans are underway to expand export activities, mainly to Europe. Although most restrictions on oil exports were removed in the 1990s and the government no longer subsidizes the sector, the state-owned company Sonatrach continues to retain full control over its activities.

The oil sector opened to foreign investment in 1991. As a result, foreign companies are now allowed to invest and even buy existing oilfields, and despite the high political risk associated with these investments, several foreign companies operate in the country in 2001. A total of 18 foreign companies operate in the oil sector, bringing in around US$1.5 billion in investments. Natural gas production began in 1961, and in 2000 represented 57 percent of total proven hydrocarbon reserves. Algeria is the second-largest exporter of liquid natural gas in the world after Indonesia. The bulk of Algeria's gas is exported to Europe through 2 major pipelines that run through Tunisia and Morocco. Since the late 1990s, the government has been engaged in efforts to upgrade and expand oil and liquefied natural gas exploration by attracting foreign investments. It has also moved to increase the production of liquefied petroleum gas as a means to diversify income from this sector.

Algeria's non-hydrocarbon mining infrastructure remains underdeveloped. In addition to oil and natural gas, Algeria mines gold in the southeast Hoggar region and diamonds near the Mali borders, and exports high-grade ore, iron pyrites, phosphates, lead, zinc, mercury, barite, and antimony. Since the late 1990s, the government has made progress in removing restrictions on foreign and private investment in the non-energy mining sector in an effort to minimize the state's control over the sector. The sand, marble, and gold sectors have received special interest from small private investors.

MANUFACTURING.

The non-hydrocarbon manufacturing sector is a moderate though declining contributor to the Algerian economy. According to the EIU Country Profile for 2000, though manufacturing accounted for 12 percent of GDP in 1993, its contribution fell to 9 percent in 1999. The decline in manufacturing's contribution to GDP can be attributed mainly to the legacy of centralization and inefficiency that have characterized the state enterprises controlling the sector. Algeria's manufacturing industries are beset by an oversized bureaucracy and debt, and have, as a result, lost their ability to compete with imported finished products. The government's efforts since the 1980s to restructure the industrial sector into smaller state-run units and encourage joint ventures with the private sector have failed to produce the desired turnaround.

Before independence, food processing, textiles, cigarettes, and clothing constituted the main manufacturing activities in the country. Since the mid-1960s, a greater emphasis has been placed on heavy industry. Historically, Algerian companies have processed petro-chemicals, steel, metals, electronics, clothing, leather, paper, timber, chemicals, and construction equipment. Petrochemicals are an important contributor to GDP. Petrochemical industries include methanol, resins and plastics, and fertilizers, and are centered in the 2 cities of Skikda and Arzew. Production in the private sector recorded a 10-percent increase in 1999, in contrast to the non-hydrocarbon industrial state sector, which saw a drop in output of 1.5 percent in 1999. The pharmaceuticals, chemicals, construction equipment, and leather industries were the leading performers.

SERVICES

FINANCIAL SERVICES.

Financial services in Algeria are fairly outdated, and the lack of modern services is an obstacle to the growth of the private sector and foreign investment alike. Until 1998, the banking sector was dominated by 3 major state-owned banks. But private banks, including U.S. and French banks, have been allowed to operate in the country since 1998 as part of a government plan to reform the sector. A new money and credit law was adopted in 1990, and although the Treasury purchased most of the local banks' debt in 1994, these banks continue to suffer from bad loans , mismanagement, and political interference. The Algerian stock exchange was officially opened in 1999, also part of the government's plan to privatize the economy.

TOURISM.

Tourism is not a major contributor to GDP, despite government efforts to encourage the sector. Its promising potential is stifled by a lack of investment and the endemic political violence in the country, although the south, where some of the government's most recent projects are located, has been spared from these problems. Potential holiday destinations are the mountains and deserts of the interior and the country's beaches. Although foreign tourists have since 1998 started returning to Algeria, the sector has a long way to go to full recovery.

RETAIL.

Lacking many large commercial centers other than Algiers, Oran, and their suburbs, Algeria has a poorly developed retail sector. While Algiers is home to a variety of retail stores, the majority of towns in the interior of the country have small family-owned shops, farmer's markets, and temporary roadside stands.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Over the past several decades, Algeria has maintained a trade surplus , largely due to the export of hydrocarbons, which accounts for 90 percent of exports. In 1999 that surplus reached $4.4 billion on exports of $13.7 billion and imports of $9.3 billion. This surplus has endured even when oil prices dropped, as they did in 1998 when the trade surplus reached US$1.5 billion. Nonhydrocarbon exports, although minimal, have risen in the last 3 years, but much of that is believed to have come as a result of repayment of debt owed to the former Soviet Union in the form of goods.

The value of imports increased between 1987 and 1995. Merchandise imports fell between 1996 and 1998, thanks to a good harvest, but rose slightly in 1999 due to an increase in domestic demand. Capital equipment accounted for 34 percent of imports, while food has generally accounted for almost 25 percent of imports. Semi-finished products were in third position, accounting for 27 percent of total imports.

The European Union and the United States are Algeria's main trade partners. The EU, which is negotiating a new Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP) agreement with Algeria, is a major importer of the country's hydrocarbons. In 1999, Italy—Algeria's largest trade

partner in the last decade—accounted for 17.8 percent of exports, followed by France (12.4 percent) and Spain (10.2 percent). The United States is Algeria's second-largest trading partner, accounting for 16.4 percent of exports in 1999. France is Algeria's main source of imports, accounting for 29.8 percent, followed by Italy (9.7 percent), Germany (6.8 percent), and Spain (5.9 percent). The United States comes in the fifth place, providing 5.3 percent of Algeria's total imports.

MONEY

The value of the Algerian dinar held steady until September 1994, due to the central bank's policy of setting it at a fixed rate against other widely used currencies. This policy resulted in a wide gap between the official rate and informal exchange rates on the black market , where the dinar sold as high as 6 times the official rate at the end of 1989. The dinar has since been stable, but only after the government introduced full convertibility, allowing local importers to bid for hard currency in the local banking system. The country's strong foreign exchange reserves have allowed the banking system to meet the currency demands of the local market. Since 1998, the dinar has averaged AD66.57 to the U.S. dollar, but had slightly devaluated at the end of 2000, averaging 79.14 to the U.S. dollar.

POVERTY AND WEALTH

In the first 2 decades after independence, the government of Algeria made impressive gains in terms of raising living standards in the country by creating employment opportunities in the public sector and extending social benefits. However, the country's declining economic conditions since the 1980s, brought about by falling oil prices and years of inefficient state control, have had serious implications for the living standards of Algerians. High unemployment and inflation rates since the 1980s have led to a sharp increase in the incidence of poverty in the country. Between 1988 and 1995, the percentage of the population below the poverty line increased from 8 percent to 14 percent. According to the EIU Country Profile for 2000-01, GDP per capita in 1994 dropped by 2.5 percent over the preceding decade. While unemployment and poverty figures rose sharply in urban areas, the countryside was more seriously affected; almost 70 percent of the poor live in rural areas. Unemployment is especially serious among younger, unskilled workers.

Despite widespread poverty, however, uneven development has led to the emergence of an affluent class that controls most of the country's wealth, enjoying an elevated standard of living and visiting shopping centers featuring the best imported goods. Living in the suburbs of Algiers and Oran, the wealthy send their children to private schools and universities abroad. Yet not far from these affluent neighborhoods, a significant number of poor Algerians live in squalor, with poor and overcrowded housing, limited food supplies, and inadequate access to clean water, good quality health care, or education. The extremes are reflected in the country's distribution of income: in 1996, the wealthiest 20 percent of Algerians controlled 42.6 percent of the country's wealth, while the poorest 20 percent controlled only 7 percent of wealth. This uneven distribution of income has been exacerbated by chronic housing shortages, which have given rise to poor shantytowns in most cities. These shortages have been the result of high population growth rates and decades of rural-urban migration. This has prompted the government since the early 1980s to shift

its spending priorities to address the housing shortages by constructing subsidized housing units and prefabricated houses at moderate cost.

The decline in living standards in Algeria continued throughout the 1990s, as the government embarked on a structural reform program to reverse economic decline, and as subsidies of basic foodstuffs were lifted. Unemployment numbers also continued to rise, standing at 2.3 million in 1999, and representing about 25 percent of the labor force, according to official estimates. Another 10 percent of the labor force is believed to be underemployed .

Algeria's mounting economic difficulties fueled public discontent that culminated in the Islamic rebellion against the state that began in 1991. The military's decision to abort the electoral process led to the unraveling of what little political consensus and national unity once existed. The FLN had been discredited both by its inability to defeat the Islamists at the polls and by its failure to manage the country's relatively rich economic resources. In the absence of viable secular parties, the Islamists claimed to represent the voice of the people.

WORKING CONDITIONS

Algeria's labor force has steadily increased in the course of the past 2 decades. In 2000, Algeria's labor force was estimated at 9.1 million, up 2.7 million since 1995. The majority of the labor force is concentrated in the public and agricultural sectors. Algerian workers are relatively poorly educated, as technical and basic education have lagged in the 1990s.

Algerian labor has a tradition of unionization, headed by the Union Generale des Travailleurs Algeriens (UGTA). About two-thirds of the labor force is unionized. UGTA has been a powerful force in negotiating public sector wages with the government, but the 1990 labor law brought collective bargaining to an end. However, GTA still retains its power to organize public-sector strikes to protest the decline of wages. These strikes, however, have seldom succeeded in forcing concessions from the government.

The government has adopted labor rights regulating working conditions and other rights of workers. The minimum age for employment is 16 years. These regulations, however, are rarely enforced, and child labor, especially in the agricultural sector, remains widespread. The minimum wage is US$90 (6,000 dinars) per month. The standard workweek is 40 hours.

COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1830. France occupies Algeria and begins to lay down the economic foundation of its colony.

1933. Anti-French political protests begin and continue through 1956.

1950. Ahmad Ben Bella founds the Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action (Comité Révolutionnaire d'Unité et d'Action—CRUA), later renamed the National Liberation Front (FLN).

1962. After a guerilla war, Algeria gains independence from France. The Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria is formally proclaimed. First President Ahmad Ben Bella forms country's first cabinet since independence.

1963. President Ben Bella declares that all agricultural, industrial, and commercial properties previously operated and occupied by Europeans are vacant, legalizing their confiscation by the state.

1970. The first Four-Year Plan emphasizing capital-intensive heavy industry is adopted.

1971. President Houari Boumedienne launches an agricultural reform plan calling for the seizure of additional property and the redistribution of the newly acquired public lands to cooperative farms.

1976. Boumedienne drafts the National Charter; the constitution is promulgated.

1977. Boumedienne's death sets off a struggle within the FLN to choose a successor. Colonel Chadli Bendjedid is sworn in on 9 February 1979.

1980. The First Five-Year Plan (1980-84) and Second Five-Year Plan (1985-89) aiming at diversifying the economy are adopted.

1985. The 1985-89 Four-Year plan places greater emphasis on agriculture and decreased central planning.

1987. The Ministry of Planning is abolished.

1988. Popular protests break out; government declares state of emergency.

1989. New constitution promising pluralism is adopted. Abbassi Madani and Ali Belhadj found the Islamic Salvation Front.

1991. Government cancels national elections. FIS wages rebellion against the state.

1992. Parliament is dissolved.

1999. President Bouteflika announces national reconciliation plan to end the civil conflict.

FUTURE TRENDS

Algeria entered the 21st century under a cloud of economic uncertainty. For much of the century, state control of the economy and the government's experiment with socialism has left the economy in shambles. The economic reform program waged in the early 1990s has set the stage for partial economic recovery, however. Some progress has been achieved in terms of improving transparency, cutting budget expenditures, updating legislation, and liberalizing the telecommunications market. Wide-ranging structural reforms have also been achieved.

The pace of Algeria's economic reform program, however, has been rather slow. Despite major reform efforts, the public sector continues to be a major force in the economy. Long-term challenges include servicing the country's huge external debt, further privatizing state-owned enterprises, and attracting foreign investment. More importantly, the government is faced with the daunting challenge of improving living standards, which have steadily declined over the last few decades, and creating new job prospects for Algeria's youth, who account for over 50 percent of the population. If left unresolved, the problem of unemployment in particular may potentially become a renewed source of political instability and a credible challenge to the regime. Much work is also needed on the political front. The government will have to improve the unstable security situation in the country to attract foreign investments. To that end, it has to find a way to end the cycle of violence waged by Islamic insurgents since 1991, which has become a major obstacle to foreign investments and economic recovery.

DEPENDENCIES

Algeria has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Algeria, 2000/2001. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2000.

The Embassy of Algeria in Washington, D.C. <http://www.algeria-us.org>. Accessed August 2001.

International Monetary Fund. Algeria: Recent Economic Developments. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, August 2000.

Ruedy, John. Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992.

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2000. <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed August 2001.

U.S. Department of State. Country Commercial Guide: Algeria Fiscal Year 1996. <gopher://dosfan.lib.uic.edu:70/00ftp:DOSFan:Gopher:12%20Business%20Affairs:04%20Country%20Commercial%20Guides:Algeria%20Commercial%20Guide>. Accessed June 2001.

U.S. Department of State. 1999 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Algeria. <http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1999_hrp_report/algeria.html>. Accessed February 2001.

—Reem Nuseibeh

CAPITAL:

Algiers.

MONETARY UNIT:

Algerian dinar (AD). One Algerian dinar equals one hundred centimes. There are coins of 20, 10, 5, 2, and 1 dinars, and 50, 20, 10, 5, and 1 centimes. Paper currency comes in denominations of AD1,000, 500, 200, 100, and 50.

CHIEF EXPORTS:

Petroleum, natural gas, and petroleum products.

CHIEF IMPORTS:

Capital goods, food and beverages, and consumer goods.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:

US$147.6 billion (purchasing power parity, 1999 est.).

BALANCE OF TRADE:

Exports: US$13.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.). Imports: US$9.3 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.).

Algeria

Compiled from the August 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

PROFILE

GEOGRAPHY

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

DEFENSE

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-ALGERIAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Location: Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Morocco and Tunisia.

Area: Total—2,381,740 sq. km. Land—2,381,740 sq. km.; water—0 sq. km. More than three times the size of Texas.

Cities: Capital—Algiers; Oran, Constantine, Annaba.

Terrain: Mostly high plateau and desert; some mountains; narrow, discontinuous coastal plain. Mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes, mud slides.

Climate: Arid to semiarid; mild, wet winters with hot, dry summers along coast; drier with cold winters and hot summers on high plateau; a hot, dust/sand-laden wind called sirocco is especially common in summer.

Land use: Arable land—3%; permanent crops—0%, permanent pastures—13%; forests and woodland—2%.

People

Nationality: Noun—Algerian(s); adjective—Algerian.

Population: (2006 est.) 32,854,000.

Annual growth rate: (2006 est.) 1.22%. Birth rate (2006 est.)—17.14 births/1,000 population; death rate (2006 est.)—4.61 deaths/1,000 population.

Ethnic groups: Arab-Berber 99%, European less than 1%.

Religions: Sunni Muslim (state religion) 99%, Christian and Jewish 1%.

Languages: Arabic (official), Berber (national language), French.

Education: Literacy (definition—age 15 and over can read and write)—total population (2004 est.), 70%; total; female 60% (2004 est.).

Health: (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate—29.87 deaths/1,000 live births. Life expectancy at birth—total population, 73.26 years; male 71.68 years, female 74.92 years.

Work force: (2005) 10.15 million. Agriculture 14%, industry 13.4%, construction and public works 10%, trade 14.6%, government 32%, other 16% (2003 est.).

Unemployment rate: (2005 est.) 24%; Algerian Government estimates 17.7%.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: July 5, 1962 (from France).

Constitution: September 8, 1963; revised November 19, 1976, November 3, 1988, February 23, 1989, and November 28, 1996.

Government branches: Legal system based on French and Islamic law; judicial review of legislative acts in ad hoc Constitutional Council composed of various public officials, including several Supreme Court justices; Algeria has not accepted compulsory International Court of Justice (ICJ) jurisdiction.

Political subdivisions: 48 provinces (wilayates; singular, wilaya).

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal.

National holiday: Independence Day, July 5, 1962; Revolution Day, November 1, 1954.

Political parties: National Liberation Front (FLN), National Democratic Rally (RND), Movement for National Reform (MRN), Movement of Society for Peace (MSP), Workers’ Party (PT), Algerian National Front (FNA), Islamic Renaissance Movement (MNI), Party of Algerian Renewal (PRA), Movement of National Understanding (MEN).

Economy

GDP: (2005) $233.2 billion.

GDP growth rate: (2005) 5.3%.

Per capita GDP: (PPP, 2005) $7,189.

Agriculture: Products—wheat, barley, oats, grapes, olives, citrus, fruits; sheep, cattle.

Industry: Types—petroleum, natural gas, light industries, mining, electrical, petrochemical, food processing, pharmaceuticals, cement, seawater desalination.

Sectors: (2005) Agriculture 10%, services 29%, industry 61%.

Monetary unit: 1 dinar = 100 centimes.

Inflation: GDP deflator (2004) 10.2%.

Trade: Exports (2004)—$31.7 billion: petroleum, natural gas, and petroleum products 97.52%. Partners (2005 est.)—U.S. 23.5%, Italy 16.7%, France 11.4%, Spain 11.25%. Imports (f.o.b., 2004)—$18.2 billion: capital goods, food and beverages, consumer goods. Partners (2004)—France 22.6%, Italy 8.53%, Germany 6.9%, U.S. 6.15%, China 5.02%, Spain 4.85%, Japan 3.65%, Argentina 3.2%, Turkey 3.24%.

Budget: (2005 est.) Revenues—$31.7 billion; expenditures—$24.62 billion, including capital expenditures of $7.8 billion.

Debt: (external, 2005 est.) $21.4 billion.

U.S. economic assistance: (2005 est.) $4.40 million (MEPI, IMET).

Fiscal year: Calendar year.

GEOGRAPHY

Algeria, the second-largest state in Africa, has a Mediterranean coastline of about 998 kilometers (620 mi.). The Tellian and Saharan Atlas mountain ranges cross the country from east to west, dividing it into three zones. Between the northern zone, Tellian Atlas, and the Mediterranean is a narrow, fertile coastal plain—the Tell (Arabic for hill)—with a moderate climate year round and rainfall adequate for agriculture. A high plateau region, averaging 914 meters (3,000 ft.) above sea level, with limited rainfall, great rocky plains, and desert, lies between the two mountain ranges. It is generally barren except for scattered clumps of trees and intermittent bush and pastureland. The third and largest zone, south of the Saharan Atlas mountain range, is mostly desert. About 80% of the country is desert, steppes, wasteland, and mountains. Algeria’s weather varies considerably from season to season and from one geographical location to another. In the north, the summers are usually hot with little rainfall. Winter rains begin in the north in October. Frost and snow are rare, except on the highest slopes of the Tellian Atlas Mountains. Dust and sandstorms occur most frequently between February and May.

Soil erosion—from overgrazing, other poor farming practices, and desertification—and the dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents are leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters. The Mediterranean Sea, in particular, is becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff. There are inadequate supplies of potable water.

PEOPLE

Ninety-one percent of the Algerian population lives along the Mediterranean coast on 12% of the country’s total land mass. Forty-five percent of the population is urban, and urbanization continues, despite government efforts to discourage migration to the cities. About 1.5 million nomads and semi-settled Bedouin still live in the Saharan area.

Nearly all Algerians are Muslim, of Arab, Berber, or mixed Arab-Berber stock. Official data on the number of non-Muslim residents is not available; however, practitioners report it to be less than 5,000. Most of the non-Muslim community is comprised of Methodist, Roman Catholic and Evangelical faiths; the Jewish community is virtually non-existent. As of November 2005, there were about 1,100 American citizens in the country, the majority of whom live and work in the oil/gas fields in the south.

Algeria’s educational system has grown dramatically since the country gained its independence. In the last 12 years, attendance has doubled to more than 5 million students. Education is free and compulsory to age 16. Despite government allocation of substantial educational resources, population pressures and a serious shortage of teachers have severely strained the system. Modest numbers of Algerian students study abroad, primarily in Europe and Canada. In 2000, the government launched a major review of the country’s educational system and in 2004 efforts to reform the educational system began.

Housing and medicine continue to be pressing problems in Algeria. Failing infrastructure and the continued influx of people from rural to urban areas have overtaxed both systems. According to the United Nations Development Program, Algeria has one of the world’s highest per housing unit occupancy rates, and government officials have publicly stated that the country has an immediate shortfall of 1.5 million housing units.

HISTORY

Since the 5th century B.C., the native peoples of northern Africa (first identified by the Greeks as “Berbers”) were pushed back from the coast by successive waves of Phoenician, Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, Arab, Turkish, and, finally, French invaders. The greatest cultural impact came from the Arab invasions of the 8th and 11th centuries A.D., which brought Islam and the Arabic language. The effects of the most recent (French) occupation—French language and European-inspired socialism—are still pervasive.

North African boundaries have shifted during various stages of the conquests. Algeria’s modern borders were created by the French, whose colonization began in 1830. To benefit French colonists, most of whom were farmers and businessmen, northern Algeria was eventually organized into overseas departments of France, with representatives in the French National Assembly. France controlled the entire country, but the traditional Muslim population in the rural areas remained separated from the modern economic infrastructure of the European community.

Algerians began their uprising on November 1, 1954 to gain rights denied them under French rule. The revolution, launched by a small group of nationalists who called themselves the National Liberation Front (FLN), was a guerrilla war in which both sides targeted civilians and otherwise

used brutal tactics. Eventually, protracted negotiations led to a ceasefire signed by France and the FLN on March 18, 1962, at Evian, France. The Evian Accords also provided for continuing economic, financial, technical, and cultural relations, along with interim administrative arrangements until a referendum on self-determination could be held. Over 1 million French citizens living in Algeria at the time, called the pieds-noirs (black feet), left Algeria for France. The referendum was held in Algeria on July 1, 1962, and France declared Algeria independent on July 3. In September 1962 Ahmed Ben Bella was formally elected president. On September 8, 1963, a Constitution was adopted by referendum. On June 19, 1965, President Ben Bella was replaced in a non-violent coup by the Council of the Revolution headed by Minister of Defense Col. Houari Boumediene. Ben Bella was first imprisoned and then exiled. Boumediene, as President of the Council of the Revolution, led the country as Head of State until he was formally elected on December 10, 1976. Boumediene is credited with building “modern Algeria.” He died on December 27, 1978. Following nomination by an FLN Party Congress, Col. Chadli Bendjedid was elected president in 1979 and re-elected in 1984 and 1988.

A new constitution was adopted in 1989 that allowed the formation of political parties other than the FLN. It also removed the armed forces, which had run the government since the days of Boumediene, from a designated role in the operation of the government. Among the scores of parties that sprang up under the new constitution, the militant Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) was the most successful, winning more than 50% of all votes cast in municipal elections in June 1990 as well as in the first stage of national legislative elections held in December 1991.

Faced with the real possibility of a sweeping FIS victory, the National People’s Assembly was dissolved by presidential decree on January 4, 1992. On January 11, under pressure from the military leadership, President Chadli Bendjedid resigned. On January 14, a five-member High Council of State was appointed by the High Council of Security to act as a collegiate presidency and immediately canceled the second round of elections. This action, coupled with political uncertainty and economic turmoil, led to a violent reaction by Islamists. On January 16, Mohamed Boudiaf, a hero of the Liberation War, returned after 28 years of exile to serve as Algeria’s fourth president. Facing sporadic outbreaks of violence and terrorism, the security forces took control of the FIS offices in early February, and the High Council of State declared a state of emergency. In March, following a court decision, the FIS Party was formally dissolved, and a series of arrests and trials of FIS members occurred resulting in more than 50,000 members being jailed. Algeria became caught in a cycle of violence, which became increasingly random and indiscriminate. On June 29, 1992, President Boudiaf was assassinated in Annaba in front of TV cameras by Army Lt. Lembarek Boumarafi, who allegedly confessed to carrying out the killing on behalf of the Islamists.

Despite efforts to restore the political process, violence and terrorism dominated the Algerian landscape during the 1990s. In 1994, Liamine Zeroual, former Minister of Defense, was appointed Head of State by the High Council of State for a three-year term. During this period, the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) launched terrorist campaigns against government figures and institutions to protest the banning of the Islamist parties. A breakaway GIA group—the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC)—also undertook terrorist activity in the country. Government officials estimate that more than 100,000 Algerians died during this period.

Zeroual called for presidential elections in 1995, though some parties objected to holding elections that excluded the FIS. Zeroual was elected president with 75% of the vote. By 1997, in an attempt to bring political stability to the nation, the National Democratic Rally (RND) party was formed by a progressive group of FLN members. In September 1998, President Liamine Zeroual announced that he would step down in February 1999, 21 months before the end of his term, and that presidential elections would be held.

Algerians went to the polls in April 1999, following a campaign in which seven candidates qualified for election. On the eve of the election, all candidates except Abdelaziz Bouteflika pulled out amid charges of widespread electoral fraud. Bouteflika, the candidate who appeared to enjoy the backing of the military, as well as the FLN and the RND party regulars, won with an official vote count of 70% of all votes cast. He was inaugurated on April 27, 1999 for a 5-year term.

President Bouteflika’s agenda focused initially on restoring security and stability to the country. Following his inauguration, he proposed an official amnesty for those who fought against the government during the 1990s with the exception of those who had engaged in “blood crimes,” such as rape or murder. This “Civil Concord” policy was widely approved in a nationwide referendum in September 2000. Government officials estimate that 80% of those fighting the regime during the 1990s have accepted the civil concord offer and have attempted to reintegrate into Algerian society. Bouteflika also launched national commissions to study education and judicial reform, as well as restructuring of the state bureaucracy.

In 2001, Berber activists in the Kabylie region of the country, reacting to the death of a youth in gendarme custody, unleashed a resistance campaign against what they saw as government repression. Strikes and demonstrations in the Kabylie region were commonplace as a result, and some spread to the capital. Chief among Berber demands was recognition of Tamazight (a general term for Berber languages) as an official language, official recognition and financial compensation for the deaths of Kabylies killed in demonstrations, an economic development plan for the area and greater control over their own regional affairs. In October 2001, the Tamazight language was recognized as a national language, but the issue remains contentious as Tamazight has not been elevated to an official language.

Algeria’s most recent presidential election took place on April 8, 2004. For the first time since independence, the presidential race was democratically contested through to the end. Besides incumbent President Bouteflika, five other candidates, including one woman, competed in the election. Opposition candidates complained of some discrepancies in the voting list; irregularities on polling day, particularly in the Kabylie; and of unfair media coverage during the campaign as Bouteflika, by virtue of his office, appeared on state-owned television daily. Bouteflika was re-elected in the first round of the election with 84.99% of the vote. Just over 58% of those Algerians eligible to vote participated in the election.

In the years since Bouteflika was first elected, the security situation in Algeria has improved markedly. Terrorism, however, has not been totally eliminated, and terrorist incidents still occur, particularly in the provinces of Boumerdes, Tizi-Ouzou, and in the remote southern areas of the country.

In September 2005, Algeria passed a referendum in favor of President Bouteflika’s Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation, paving the way for implementing legislation that will pardon certain individuals convicted of armed terrorist violence. The new Charter builds upon the Civil Concord, and the Rahma (clemency) Law shields from prosecution anyone who laid down arms in response to those previous amnesty offers. The Charter specifically excludes from amnesty those involved in mass murders, rapes, or the use of explosives in public places. The Charter was implemented in March 2006, and the window for combatants to receive amnesty is predicted to expire in September 2006.

GOVERNMENT

Under the 1976 Constitution (as modified 1979, and amended in 1988, 1989, and 1996) Algeria is a multi-party state. The Ministry of the Interior must approve all political parties. According to the Constitution, no political association may be formed “based on differences in religion, language, race gender or region.” Algeria has universal suffrage at the age of 18.

The head of state is the president of the republic. The president, elected to a five-year term, and constitutionally limited to two terms, is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the prime minister as well as one-third of the upper house (the Council of the Nation). The prime minister presides over the Council of Ministers and serves as head of the government.

The Algerian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber, the National People’s Assembly (APN), with 380 members and an upper chamber, the Council of the Nation, with 144 members. The APN is elected every five years. The next round of legislative elections is scheduled to take place in 2007. Two-thirds of the Council of the Nation is elected by regional and municipal authorities; the rest are appointed by the president. The Council of the Nation serves a six-year term with one-half of the seats up for election or reap-pointment every three years. The next round of elections and appointments to the Council of the Nation will occur in May 2007. Either the president or one of the parliamentary chambers may initiate legislation. Legislation must be brought before both chambers before it becomes law. Sessions of the APN are televised.

Algeria is divided into 48 wilayates (states or provinces) headed by walis (governors) who report to the Minister of Interior. Each wilaya is further divided into communes. The wilayates and communes are each governed by an elected assembly.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 1/24/2007

Pres.: Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA

Prime Min.: Abdelaziz BELKHADEM

Min. of State for Foreign Affairs: Mohammed BEDJAOUI

Min. of State for Interior & Local Govts.: Noureddine Yazid ZERHOUNI

Min. of State for Justice & Keeper of the Seals: Tayeb BELAIZ

Min. of State Without Portfolio: Boudjerra SOLTANI

Min. of Agriculture & Rural Development: Said BARKAT

Min. of Commerce: El-Hachemi DJAABOUB

Min. of Communication: El-Hachemi DJIAR

Min. of Culture: Khalida TOUMI

Min. of Employment & National Solidarity: Djamal Ould ABBAS

Min. of Energy & Mining: Chekib KHALIL

Min. of Finance: Mourad MEDELCI

Min. of Fisheries & Fishing Resources: Smail MIMOUNE

Min. of Health, Population, & Hospital Reform: Amar TOU

Min. of Higher Education & Scientific Research: Rachid HARRAOUBIA

Min. of Housing & Urban Development: Mohamed Nadir HAMIMID

Min. of Industry: Mahmoud KHOUDRI

Min. of Labor & Social Security: Tayeb LOUH

Min. of National Education: Boubekeur BENBOUZID

Min. of National Defense: Abdelaziz BOUTEFLIKA

Min. of Participation & Promotion of Investments: Abdelhamid TEMMAR

Min. of Postal Services & Information & Communication Technologies: Boudjemaa HAICHOUR

Min. of Public Works: Amar GHOUL

Min. of Relations With the Parliament: Abdelaziz ZIARI

Min. of Religious Affairs: Bouabdellah GHLAMALLAH

Min. of Small & Medium-Sized Enterprises & Handicrafts: Mustapha BENBADA

Min. of Tourism: Noureddine MOUSSA

Min. of Transport: Mohamed MAGHLAOUI

Min. of Urban Planning & the Environment: Cherif RAHMANI

Min. of Vocational & Educational Training: El-Hadi KHALDI

Min. of War Veterans (Moudjahidine): Mohamed Cherif ABBAS

Min. of Water Resources: Abdelmalek SELLAL

Min. of Youth & Sports: Yahia GUIDDOUM

Min.-Del. to the Head of Govt. in Charge of Family Affairs & Women’s Issues: Nouara Saadia DJAAFAR

Min.-Del. to the Min. of Agriculture & Rural Development in Charge of Rural Development: Rachid BENAISSA

Min.-Del. to the Min. of Finance in Charge of Financial Reform: Karim DJOUDI

Min.-Del. to the Min. of Higher Education & Scientific Research in Charge of Scientific Research: Souad BENDJABALLAH

Min.-Del. to the Min. of National Defense: Abdelmalek GUENAIZIA

Min.-Del. to the Min. of Urban Planning & the Environment in Charge of Urban Environmental Affairs: Abderrachid BOUKERZAZA

Min.-Del. to the Min. of State for Interior & Local Govts. in Charge of Local Govts.: Daho Ould KABLIA

Min.-Del. to the Min. of State for Foreign Affairs in Charge of Maghreb & African Affairs: Abdelkader MESSAHEL

Governor, Central Bank: Mohamed LEKASASSI

Ambassador to the US: Amine KHERBI

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Youcef YOUSFI

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Terrorist violence in Algeria resulted in more than 100,000 deaths during the 1990s. Although the security situation in the country has improved, addressing the underlying issues that brought about the political turmoil of the 1990s remains the government’s major task. President Bouteflika implemented the Charter on Peace and National Reconciliation on March 1, 2006, as one way to bring closure. Thus far, it has successfully gained the surrender of a number of moderate Islamists, but paradoxically, has emboldened the more hardcore elements, in particular the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC).

In keeping with its amended Constitution, the Algerian Government espouses participatory democracy and free-market competition. The government has stated that it will continue to open the political process and encourage the creation of political institutions. Presidential elections took place in April 2004 and returned President Bouteflika to office with 84.99% of the vote. The next presidential elections are scheduled for 2009.

Algeria has more than 45 daily newspapers published in French and Arabic, with a total circulation of more than 1.5 million copies. There are 20 domestically printed weekly publications with total circulation of 622,000 and 11 monthly publications with total circulation of 600,000. In 2001, the government amended the Penal Code provisions relating to defamation and slander, a step widely viewed as an effort to rein in the press. While the Algerian press is relatively free to write as they choose, use of the defamation laws significantly increased the level of press harassment following President Bouteflika’s April 2004 re-election victory, and as a result, the press began to self-censor. In July 2006, President Bouteflika pardoned all journalists convicted of defaming or insulting state institutions. The pardon effectively dismissed the charges against 67 people. Critics point out that according to the criminal code, insulting the president is punishable by prison sentence. Nevertheless, the pardon is widely seen as a significant step toward democracy. The government holds a monopoly over broadcast media; Algerian newspapers are widely seen to be the freest in the region.

Population growth and associated problems—unemployment and underemployment, inability of social services to keep pace with rapid urban migration, inadequate industrial management and productivity, a decaying infrastructure—continue to affect Algerian society. Increases in the production and prices of oil and gas over the past decade have led to exchange reserves reaching $55 billion. The government began an economic reform program in 1994, focusing on macroeconomic stability and structural reform. These reforms aimed at liberalizing the economy, making Algeria competitive in the global market, and meeting the needs of the Algerian people. In 2004, the government announced a $55 billion spending program to improve national infrastructure and social services.

ECONOMY

The hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the Algerian economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, nearly 30% of GDP, and over 97% of export earnings. Algeria has the seventh-largest reserves of natural gas in the world (2.7% of proven world total) and is the second-largest gas exporter; it ranks 14th for oil reserves. Its key oil and gas customers are Italy, Germany, France, the Netherlands, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. U.S. companies have played a major role in developing Algeria’s oil and gas sector; of the $4.1 billion (on a historical-cost basis, according to statistics gathered by the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis) in U.S. investment in Algeria, the vast bulk is in the petroleum sector.

Faced with declining oil revenues and high-debt interest payments at the beginning of the 1990s, Algeria implemented a stringent macroeconomic stabilization program and rescheduled its $7.9 billion Paris Club debt in the mid-1990s. The macroeconomic program has been particularly successful at narrowing the budget deficit and at reducing inflation from of near-30% averages in the mid 1990s to almost single digits in 2000. Inflation was at 3.6% in 2004. Algeria’s economy has grown at about 2.4% annually since 1999 and reached growth of over 6.6% in 2003 and 5.2% in 2004. The country’s foreign debt fell from a high of $28 billion in 1999 to $21.8 billion in 2004. In July 2005, Algeria paid off approximately half of its Paris Club debt, and the parliament adopted a new hydrocarbon law, opening the hydrocarbon market to more efficient development and deregulating gasoline and natural gas pricing within Algeria. The country’s finances have also been aided in recent years by the spike in oil prices in 1999-2000 and 2004, the government’s tight fiscal policy, conservative budgeting of oil prices from 2000 to present, a large increase in the trade surplus, and the near-tripling of foreign exchange reserves.

The government pledges to continue its efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector. The Algerian Government has had little success at reducing high unemployment, officially estimated at 17.7%, though international estimates put the figure higher, and at improving living standards.

Priority areas are banking and judicial reform, improving the investment environment, partial or complete privatization of state enterprises, and reducing government bureaucracy. The government has closed or sold off numerous state enterprises and a total of 1,200 were offered for sale in 2004. The government also has begun to privatize certain sectors of the economy and embrace joint venture investment opportunities with traditionally state owned and operated entities. In 2001, Algeria concluded an Association Agreement with the European Union, which was ratified in 2005 by both Algeria and the EU and took effect in September of that same year. The government is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization.

DEFENSE

Algeria’s armed forces, known collectively as the Popular National Army (ANP), total 138,000 active members, with some 100,000 reservists. The president serves as Minister of National Defense. Military forces are supplemented by a 60,000-member national gendarmerie, a rural police force, under the control of the president and a 30,000-member Sureté Nationale or Metropolitan Police force under the Ministry of the Interior. Eighteen months of national military service is compulsory for men.

Algeria is a leading military power in the region and has demonstrated remarkable success in its struggle against terrorism. The Algerian military, having fought a decade-long insurgency, intends to increase expenditures in an effort to modernize and return to a more traditional defense role.

Due to historical difficulties in acquiring U.S. military equipment, Algeria’s primary military supplier has traditionally been Russia, and to a lesser extent China. Algeria has, however, in recent years, begun to diversify its supplies of military equipment to include U.S.-made airborne surveillance aircraft and ground radars.

Retired General Abdelmalek Guenaizia was appointed Minister Delegate to the Minister of National Defense in a May 1, 2005 cabinet reshuffle.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Algeria has traditionally practiced an activist foreign policy and in the 1960s and 1970s was noted for its support of Third World policies and independence movements. Algerian diplomacy was instrumental in obtaining the release of U.S. hostages from Iran in 1980. Since his first election in 1999, President Bouteflika worked to restore Algeria’s international reputation, traveling extensively throughout the world. In July 2001, he became the first Algerian President to visit the White House in 16 years. He has made official visits to France, South Africa, Italy, Spain, Germany, China, Japan, Portugal, Russia, the United Kingdom and Latin American countries, among others, since his inauguration.

Algeria has taken the lead in working on issues related to the African continent. Host of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) Conference in 2000, Algeria also was key in bringing Ethiopia and Eritrea to the peace table in 2000. In 2001, the 37th summit of the OAU formally adopted the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) to address the challenges facing the continent. Algeria has taken a lead in reviving the Union of the Arab Maghreb with its neighbors.

Since 1976, Algeria has supported the Polisario Front, which claims to represent the population of Western Sahara. Contending that the Sahrawis have a right to self-determination under the UN Charter, Algeria has provided the Polisario with support and sanctuary in refugee camps in the southwestern Algerian province of Tindouf. UN involvement in the Western Sahara includes MINURSO, a peacekeeping force, UNHCR, which handles refugee assistance and resettlement, and the World Food Program (WFP). Active diplomatic efforts to resolve the dispute under the auspices of the United Nations Secretary General are ongoing.

Algeria’s support of self-determination for the Polisario is in opposition to Morocco’s claim of sovereignty. The dispute remains a major obstacle to bilateral and regional cooperation. Although the land border between Morocco and Algeria was closed in the wake of a terrorist attack in 1994, the two have worked at improving relations, and in July 2004, Morocco lifted visa requirements for Algerians. Algeria reciprocated with the lifting of visa requirements for Moroccans on April 2, 2005. Algeria has friendly relations with its other neighbors in the Mahgreb, Tunisia and Libya, and with its sub-Saharan neighbors, Mali and Niger. It closely monitors developments in the Middle East and has been a strong proponent of the rights of the Palestinian people, as well as a supporter of Iraq’s democratic transition.

Algeria has diplomatic relations with more than 100 foreign countries, and over 90 countries maintain diplomatic representation in Algiers. Algeria held a nonpermanent, rotating seat on the UN Security Council from January 2004 to December 2005. Algeria hosted 13 Arab leaders at the Arab League Summit, March 22-23, 2005.

U.S.-ALGERIAN RELATIONS

In July 2001, President Bouteflika became the first Algerian President to visit the White House since 1985. This visit, followed by a second meeting in November 2001, a meeting in New York in September 2003, and President Bouteflika’s participation at the June 2004 G8 Sea Island Summit, is indicative of the growing relationship between the United States and Algeria. Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States, contacts in key areas of mutual concern, including law enforcement and counter-terrorism cooperation, have intensified. Algeria publicly condemned the terrorist attacks on the United States and has been strongly supportive of the international war against terrorism. The United States and Algeria consult closely on key international and regional issues. The pace and scope of senior-level visits has accelerated. In June 2003, then-Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs Marc Grossman traveled to Algeria, followed by the October 2003 and May 2004 visits of then-Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern Affairs William Burns. Then-Secretary of State Colin Powell visited Algiers in December 2003, and in April 2006, Algerian Foreign Minister Bedjaoui met with Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.

In 2005, U.S. direct investment in Algeria totaled $4.1 billion, mostly in the petroleum sector, which U.S. companies dominate. American companies also are active in the banking and finance, services, pharmaceuticals, medical facilities, telecommunications, aviation, seawater desalination, energy production, and information technology sectors. Algeria is the United States’ 10th-largest market in the Middle East/North African region. U.S. exports to Algeria totaled $1.2 billion in 2005, an increase of more than 50% since 2003. U.S. imports from Algeria grew from $4.7 billion in 2002 to $10.8 billion in 2005, primarily in oil and liquefied natural gas (LNG). In March 2004, President Bush designated Algeria a beneficiary country for duty-free treatment under the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP).

In July 2001, the United States and Algeria signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement, which established common principles on which the economic relationship is founded and forms a platform for negotiating a bilateral investment treaty (BIT) and a free-trade agreement (FTA). The two governments meet on an ongoing basis to discuss trade and investment policies and opportunities to enhance the economic relationship. Within the framework of the U.S.-North African Economic Partnership (USNAEP), the United States provided about $1.0 million in technical assistance to Algeria in 2003. This program supported and encouraged Algeria’s economic reform program and included support for World Trade Organization accession negotiations, debt management, and improving the investment climate. In 2003, USNAEP programs were rolled over into Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI) activities, which provide funding for political and economic development programs in Algeria.

Cooperation between the Algerian and U.S. militaries continues to grow. Exchanges between both sides are frequent, and Algeria has hosted senior U.S. military officials. In May 2005, the United States and Algeria conducted their first formal joint military dialogue in Washington, DC. The NATO Supreme Allied Commander Europe and Commander, U.S. European Command, General James L. Jones visited Algeria in June and August 2005. The United States and Algeria have also conducted bilateral naval and Special Forces exercises, and Algeria has hosted U.S. Navy and Coast Guard ship visits. In addition, the United States has a modest International Military Education and Training (IMET) Program ($922,000 in 2005) for training Algerian military personnel in the United States, and Algeria participates in the Department of Defense’s Counter-Terrorism Fellowship Program ($180,000 in 2005).

The United States has implemented modest university linkages programs and has placed two English Language Fellows, the first since 1993, with the Ministry of Education to assist in the development of English as a Second Language (ESL) courses at the Ben Aknoune Training Center. In 2004, Algeria was again the recipient of a grant under the Ambassadors’ Fund for Cultural Preservation. That fund provided a grant of $39,000 to restore the Basilica of St. Augustine in Annaba. Algeria also received an $80,000 grant to fund microscholarships to design and implement an American English-language program for Algerian high school students in four major cities. Initial funding through the Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI) has been allocated to support the work of Algeria’s developing civil society through programming that provides training to journalists, businesspersons, legislators, Internet regulators, and the heads of leading nongovernmental organizations. Additional funding through the State Department’s Human Rights and Democracy Fund will assist civil society groups focusing on the issues of the disappeared, and Islam and democracy.

In August 2005, Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Senator Richard G. Lugar led a Presidential Mission to Algeria and Morocco to oversee the release of the remaining 404 Moroccan POWs held by the Polisario Front in Algeria. Their release removed a longstanding bilateral obstacle between Algeria and Morocco.

The official U.S. presence in Algeria is expanding following over a decade of limited staffing, reflecting the general improvement in the security environment. During the past three years, the U.S. Embassy has moved toward more normal operations and now provides most embassy services to the American and Algerian communities.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

ALGIERS (E) Address: 4, Chemin Cheikh Bachir Ibrahimi; Phone: (213) (21) 69.12.55; Fax: 011 (213) 21-69.39.79; Workweek: Saturday– Wednesday 08:00-17:00; Website: http://algiers.usembassy.gov.

Last Updated: 8/7/2006

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : August 18, 2006

Country Description: Algeria is the second largest country in Africa, with over four-fifths of its territory covered by the Sahara desert. The country has a population of 33 million people mainly located on the northern coast. Algeria is a multi-party, constitutional republic. Facilities for travelers are available in populated areas, but sometimes limited in quality and quantity.

Entry/Exit Requirements: Passports and visas are required for U.S. citizens traveling to Algeria. The Algerian visa application must be typed online. The Algerian Embassy is no longer accepting handwritten visa applications. For further information on entry/exit requirements, travelers may contact the Embassy of the People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria at 2137 Wyoming Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, telephone (202) 265-2800. Visit the Embassy of the People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria web site at http://www.algeria-us.org/for the most current visa information and visa application.

Safety and Security: Although no Americans are known to have been killed by terrorists in Algeria, more than 120 foreigners were murdered at the height of the terrorism threat in Algeria in the 1990s. In response to the terrorist threat, the U.S. Government substantially reduced the number of U.S. Government personnel in Algeria during the 1990s. In January 2001, terrorists killed several Russian citizens in the mountains of eastern Algeria. In February 2003, 32 Western Europeans were taken hostage in the Sahara desert areas of southeastern Algeria. Fourteen of the hostages were taken into northern Mali by the terrorists. One of the hostages died in captivity. All the others were released by late August 2003.

Currently, given the Improving security situation, Embassy staffing is at full capacity and the Embassy is able to provide full services. U.S. government employees travel on official and personal business by commercial carriers to, from, and within Algeria. U.S. citizens should carefully consider the security implications of traveling on regularly-scheduled public ground transport and in taxis.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site, where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up-to-date information regarding safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: The crime rate in Algeria is moderately high and increasing. Serious crimes have been reported in which armed men posing as police officers have entered homes of occupants, and robbed them at gunpoint. False roadblocks/checkpoints have been employed to rob motorists. Some of these incidents resulted in the murder of the vehicles’ occupants. Armed carjacking is also a serious problem. Petty theft and home burglary occur frequently, and muggings are on the rise, especially after dark in the cities. Theft of contents and parts from parked cars, pick-pocketing, theft on trains and buses, theft of items left in hotel rooms and purse snatching are common. Alarms, grills, and/or guards help to protect most foreigners’ residences.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Hospitals and clinics in Algeria are available and improving in the large urban centers, but are still not up to Western standards. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for services. Most medical practitioners speak French; English is not widely used.

Prescription medicines are not always readily available. Some pharmacies may at times be out-of-stock. In addition, the medicine may be sold under a different brand name and may contain a different dosage than in the U.S. Please be aware that some newer medications may not yet be available in Algeria. It is usually easy to obtain over-the-counter products. Emergency services are satisfactory, but response time is often unpredictable. In all cases, response time is not as fast as in the U.S.

One of the major public health concerns in Algeria is traffic-related accidents. Cases of tuberculosis are regularly reported, but do not reach endemic levels. Every summer, public health authorities report limited occurrences of water-borne diseases, such as typhoid. In addition, HIV/AIDS is a concern in the remote southern part of the country, especially in border towns. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Algeria is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Drivers will encounter police and military checkpoints on major roads within and on the periphery of Algiers and other major cities. Security personnel at these checkpoints expect full cooperation. Motorists should be aware that terrorists have occasionally organized false roadblocks as ambushes, primarily in parts of eastern Algeria.

Travel overland, particularly in the southern regions, may require a permit issued by the Algerian government. For specific information concerning Algerian driver’s permits, vehicle inspection, road tax, and mandatory insurance, contact the Algerian Embassy.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Algeria, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Algeria’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet web site.

Special Circumstances: Algeria maintains restrictions on the import and export of local currency. Foreign currency must be exchanged only at banks or authorized currency exchange locations, such as major hotels. Photography of military and government installations is prohibited. It is also illegal to import weapons, body armor, handcuffs or binoculars.

Proselytizing: Islam is the state religion of Algeria. The Algerian government allows non-Muslim religious worship only in structures exclusively intended and approved for that purpose. Activities such as proselytizing, engaging in activities which the Algerian authorities could view as encouraging conversion to another faith, and convening religious ceremonies in private residences are prohibited under a March 2006 law expected to enter into effect from September 2006.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Algerian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Algeria are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Algeria are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Algeria. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency.

The U.S. Embassy is located at 4 Chemin Cheikh Bachir El-Ibrahimi, B.P. 408 (Alger-gare) 16030, in the capital city of Algiers. The telephone numbers are [213] (21) 691-425, [213] (21) 691-255, or [213] (21) 691-186 which can also be reached after hours. The fax number for the Consular Section is [213] (21) 691-439. The U.S. Embassy workweek is Saturday through Wednesday.

Travel Warning : December 20, 2006

This Travel Warning is being updated to alert Americans to recent terrorist attacks in Algeria. The threat from terrorism in many areas continues to pose a significant security risk. This supersedes the Travel Warning issued on November 22, 2006.

The Department of State urges U.S. citizens who travel to Algeria to evaluate carefully the risk posed to their personal safety. Sustained small-scale terrorist attacks including bombings, false roadblocks, kidnappings, ambushes, and assassinations occur, primarily in rural and remote sections of the country. Additionally, there were three terrorist attacks against police stations and military barracks in the eastern suburbs of Algiers in October 2006, and a bomb attack targeting a bus transporting foreign workers of a U.S. company in the western part of the city in December 2006.

The Department of State cautions those U.S. citizens who travel to Algeria, especially the mountainous northern regions and the southern regions near Tamanrasset, despite this Travel Warning, to use reputable local agents and tour guides who are able to make reliable security arrangements.

The Government of Algeria requires U.S. Embassy personnel traveling outside the Wilaya of Algiers or to the Casbah within Algiers to seek permission and to have a security escort. Travel to the military zone established around the Hassi Messaoud oil center requires Government of Algeria authorization. U.S. government personnel are permitted by the Embassy to move freely in many areas in the center of Algiers, but are required to maintain prudent security practices. Travel by personnel to areas of the city outside this zone requires prior coordination with the Embassy’s regional security office. American visitors are encouraged to contact the Embassy’s Consular Section for the most recent safety and security information concerning travel in the city of Algiers.

The Department of State cautions Americans who reside or travel in Algeria to take prudent security measures while in the country, including making provisions for reliable and experienced logistical support. This support should include being met upon arrival and accompanied for the duration of the visit. Visitors should ensure that tour operators and host organizations perform all notifications and coordination with Algerian police and security officials during their stay. Visitors to Algeria are advised to stay only in hotels where adequate security is provided. All visitors to Algeria should remain alert and adhere to prudent security practices such as avoiding predicable travel patterns. Overland travel between major cities should be avoided.

American citizens in or traveling to Algeria are also urged to register and to obtain updated information on travel and security in Algeria at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Algiers or on our travel registration website at https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs/. The Embassy is located at 4 Chemin Cheikh Bachir El-Ibrahimi, B.P. 408 (Alger-Gare) 16000, in the capital city of Algiers. The Embassy can be reached at telephone [213] (21) 691-425; [213] (21) 691-186; or fax [213] (21) 693-979. U.S. citizens who require emergency services may telephone the Embassy at [213](21) 691-255.

U.S. citizens should also consult the Department of State’s Consular Information Sheet for Algeria, and the current Worldwide Caution and Middle East and North Africa Public Announcements, which are available on the Department’s Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov. American citizens may also obtain updated information on travel and security conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll-free in the United States and Canada, or, from overseas, 1-202-501-4444.