NIGER

Republic of Niger

République du Niger

CAPITAL: Niamey

FLAG: The flag is a tricolor of orange, white, and green horizontal stripes, with an orange circle at the center of the white stripe.

ANTHEM: La Nigérienne.

MONETARY UNIT: The Communauté Financière Africaine franc (CFA Fr), which was originally pegged to the French franc, has been pegged to the euro since January 1999 with a rate of 655.957 CFA francs to 1 euro. The CFA france comes in coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 500 CFA francs, and notes of 50, 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 CFA francs. CFA Fr1 = $0.00189 (or $1 = CFA Fr528.28) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Anniversary of 1974 military takeover, 15 April; Labor Day, 1 May; Independence Day, 3 August; Proclamation of the Republic, 18 December; Christmas, 25 December. Movable religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', and Milad an-Nabi.

TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

A landlocked country, the Republic of the Niger is the largest state in West Africa, with an area of 1,267,000 sq km (489,191 sq mi), extending 1,845 km (1,146 mi) ene-wsw and 1,025 km (637 mi) nnw-sse. Comparatively, the area occupied by Niger is slightly less than twice the size of the state of Texas. Bordered on the n by Libya, on the e by Chad, on the s by Nigeria, on the sw by Benin and Burkina Faso, on the w by Mali, and on the nw by Algeria, Niger has a total boundary length of 5,697 km (3,540 mi). Niger's capital city, Niamey, is located in the southwestern part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Niger is four-fifths desert, and most of the northeast is uninhabitable. The southern fifth of the country is savanna, suitable mainly for livestock raising and limited agriculture. In the north-central region is the volcanic Aïr Massif, reaching a height of 1,944 m (6,376 ft) on Mt. Gréboun, the nation's highest point. Massifs along the Libyan border average about 800 m (2,600 ft). The southern plateau is at an elevation of 300–500 m (1,000–1,650 ft). The Niger River flows for about 563 km (350 mi) through southwestern Niger. To the north of the Niger are many ancient stream channels that flow periodically during wet weather. A portion of Lake Chad is situated in the southeastern corner of the country.

CLIMATE

Niger, one of the hottest countries in the world, has three basic climatic zones: the Saharan desert in the north, the Sahel to the south of the desert, and the Sudan in the southwest corner. The intense heat of the Saharan zone often causes the scant rainfall to evaporate before it hits the ground; at Bilma, in the east, annual rainfall is only 2 cm (0.79 in). On the average, rainfall in the Aïr Massif is limited to a maximum of 25 cm (10 in) annually, and most of it comes during a single two-month period. At Agadez, in the northern Sahel, annual rainfall averages 16.5 cm (6.5 in), but yearly totals often vary greatly. In the south, rainfall is higher. It averages 56 cm (22 in) at Niamey, in the southern Sahel, and 87 cm (34 in) at Gaya, in the Sudanese zone. The rainy season is from May through October, with most rain in July and August. At Niamey, the average maximum daily temperature fluctuates from 31°c (88°f) in August to 41°c (106°f) in April. Nights are cool (below 20°c/68°f) from November to February.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The northern desert has vegetation only after rare rainfalls. The savanna includes a vast variety of herbaceous vegetation, with such trees as bastard mahogany, kapok, baobab, and the shea tree (karité). There are antelope, lion, waterbuck, leopard, hyena, monkey, wart hog, and countless varieties of bird and insect life. In the Niger River are crocodiles, hippopotamuses, and sometimes manatee. Turtles, lizards, pythons, horned vipers, and other varieties of snakes abound. As of 2002, there were at least 131 species of mammals, 125 species of birds, and over 1,450 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

In Niger, serious depletion of vegetation has been caused by the burning of brush and grass to prepare for the planting of crops, often on marginal land; by overgrazing of range lands; and by tree cutting for fuel and construction. Soil erosion and increasing desertification have also occurred. The nation has 4 cu km of renewable water resources. About 82% of the annual withdrawal is used in farming activity and 2% for industrial activity. Improved water sources are available to 80% of urban dwellers and 36% of the rural population.

With Benin and Burkina Faso, Niger administers "W" National Park, of which 334,375 hectares (826,254 acres) are in Niger. There are also several game reserves, but resources for safeguarding protected fauna are insufficient. The nation's wildlife is endangered by unlawful hunting and poaching. In 2003, about 7.7% of the total land area was protected, including 2 natural UNESCO World Heritage sites, and 12 Ramsar wetland sites. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 10 types of mammals, 2 species of birds, 1 species of invertebrate, and 2 species of plants. Threatened species include the addax, cheetah, and dama gazelle. The Sahara oryx has become extinct in the wild.

POPULATION

The population of Niger in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 13,957,000, which placed it at number 63 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 2% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 48% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 105 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 3.4%, a rate the government viewed as too high. Adolescent fertility rates are especially high. The projected population for the year 2025 was 26,376,000. The overall population density was 11 per sq km (29 per sq mi); however, most of the population is concentrated in the fertile southern regions. Much of the land is uninhabited except for some nomadic herders.

The UN estimated that 21% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 6.01%. The capital city, Niamey, had a population of 890,000 in that year. Other major cities and their estimated populations are Zinder, 170,574; Maradi, 148,017; Tahoua, 99,900; and Agadez, 78,289.

MIGRATION

Most of the northern area of Niger is inhabited by migratory peoples who follow their flocks and herds through the mountainous countryside. During the 1968–75 Sahelian drought, however, these people were forced to leave the north. Many nomads migrated to urban areas in order to keep from starving, but some have since returned. As many as 500,000 people may have moved to Nigeria since the drought. About 100,000 returned in early 1983, when many foreigners were expelled from Nigeria. Thousands more Nigeriens were expelled from Nigeria in 1985, and in 1986; Algeria expelled about 2,000 of the 50,000 Nigerien nomads in southern Algeria. The migration from rural to urban areas has continued.

A five-year civil war (1990–95) between rival factions of Tuareg rebels drove many Tuaregs into big towns or neighboring countries such as Burkina Faso and Algeria. With the signing of a peace agreement in April 1995 came the implementation of a repatriation program. Repatriation of Nigerien refugees from Algeria and Mali was completed by 1998.

In 1999, some 3,589 Malian refugees were repatriated; however, some Malians remained on refugee sites, refusing to return to their homeland. By 2004 there were 344 refugees and 41 asylum seekers. In 2005 the net migration rate was an estimated 0.65 migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The Hausa are the largest ethnic group, forming 56% of the total population. The Djerma-Songhai, the second-largest group, constitute 22% of the population. They, like the Hausa, are sedentary farmers living on the arable southern tier. The Djerma-Songhai are concentrated in the southwest; the Hausa, in south-central and southeast Niger. Many of Niger's inhabitants are nomadic or seminomadic livestock-raising peoples, including the Fulani, or Peul (8.5%), the Tuareg (8%), and the Beri Beri or Kanouri (4.3%). Arab, Toubou, and Gourmantche peoples make up the remaining 1.2% of the populace, along with some 1,200 French expatriates.

LANGUAGES

French is the national and official language, but it is spoken by only a small minority of the people. The various ethnic groups use their own local languages. Hausa is spoken all over the country as the language of trade. Djerma is also used extensively.

RELIGIONS

More than 90% of the population is Muslim, with the Tijaniyya, Senussi, and Hamalist sects being the most influential. The cities of Say, Kiota, Agadez, and Madarounfa are considered holy by local Islamic communities, and so the practice of other religions in those cities is not as well tolerated as in other areas. Christians, including both Catholics and Protestants, constitute less than 5% of the population; they tend to be concentrated in Maradi, Niamey, and other urban centers with expatriate populations. The Baha'is are very active and do account for a small percentage of the overall populace; they too are located primarily in Niamey and in communities on the west side of the Niger River, bordering Burkina Faso. Traditional indigenous religions are also practiced by a small percentage of the population.

Though relations between religious communities is generally amicable, there have been reports of tension between certain fundamental Muslims and various Christian organizations. The constitution provides for freedom of religion and no particular religion is designated as a state religion. However, the Islamic Association serves in an official advisory capacity on religious matters for the government. The constitution prohibits the formation of political parties based on religious doctrines. Religious organizations are registered with the Interior Ministry. Certain Christian and Muslim holidays are officially observed.

TRANSPORTATION

Landlocked Niger relies heavily on road and air transportation. As of 2002 there were 10,100 km (6,276 mi) of roads, of which 798 km (496 mi) were paved. The principal road runs from west to east, beginning at Ayorou, going through Niamey, Dosso, Maradi, and Zinder, and ending at Nguigmi. A 902-km (560-mi) all-weather stretch between Niamey and Zinder was opened in 1980. Extending from the main route are roads from Niamey to Burkina Faso (not paved), from Zinder to Algeria through Agadez (with tough desert driving on dirt tracks), from Dosso to Benin, and from Birni Nkonni and Maradi to Nigeria. A 602-km (385-mi) highway between Tahoua and the uranium mines at Arlit was completed in 1981. SNTN, a government joint venture with a private French company, is the most important road hauler and has a monopoly over certain routes. In 2003, there were 21,000 passenger cars and 18,650 commercial vehicles.

Niger's most important international transport route is by road to the rail terminus at Parakou, Benin. From there, OCBN, a joint Benin-Niger railway, operates service to the Benin port of Cotonou. As of 2004, the Niger River is navigable for 300 km (186 mi) from Niamey to Gaya on the Benin frontier from September through March.

There were an estimated 27 airports and airfields in 2004, 9 of which (as of 2005) had permanent-surface runways. The international airport is at Niamey. There are domestic airports at Agadez, Maradi, Zinder, Arlit, and Tahoua. Niger is a participant in the transnational Air Afrique, which provides international service, along with several other airlines. In 2003, about 46,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

HISTORY

Through extensive archaeological research, much evidence has been uncovered indicating that man has been present in northern Niger for over 600,000 years. By at least 4000 bc, a mixed population of Libyan, Berber, and Negroid peoples had evolved an agricultural and cattle-herding economy in the Sahara. Written history begins only with Arab chronicles of the 10th century ad. By the 14th century, the Hausa had founded several city-states along the southern border of what is today the Republic of the Niger. About 1515, an army of the Songhai Empire of Gao (now in Mali), led by Askia Muhammad I, subjugated the Hausa states and captured the Berber city of Agadez, whose sultanate had existed for many generations. The city had been important largely because of its position on the caravan trade routes from Tripoli and Egypt into the Lake Chad area. The fall of the Songhai Empire to Moroccan invaders in 1591 led to expansion of the Bornu Empire, which was centered in northeast Nigeria, into the eastern and central sections of the region. The Hausa states and the Tuareg also remained important. It was probably during the 17th century that the Djerma settled in the southwest. Between 1804 and 1810, a devout Fulani Muslim named 'Uthman dan Fodio waged a holy war against the Hausa states, which he subjugated along with a part of the Bornu Empire, west of Lake Chad. About that time, European explorers began to enter the area, starting with a Scot, Mungo Park, in 1805–06.

Bornu, Hausa, and Fulani entities vied for power during the 19th century, a period during which political control was fragmented. The first French military expeditions into the Niger area, at the close of the 19th century, were stiffly resisted. Despite this opposition, French forces pushed steadily eastward and by 1900 had succeeded in encircling Lake Chad with military outposts. In 1901, the military district of Niger was created as part of a larger unit known as Haut-Sénégal et Niger. Rebellions plagued the French forces on a minor scale until World War I, when a major uprising took place. Some 1,000 Tuareg warriors attacked Zinder in a move promoted by pro-German elements intent on creating unrest in French and British African holdings. British troops were dispatched from Nigeria to assist the French in putting down the disturbance. Although this combined operation broke the Tuareg resistance, not until 1922 was peace fully restored. In that year, the French made Niger a colony.

Niger's colonial history is similar to that of other former French West African territories. It had a governor but was administered from Paris through the governor-general in Dakar, Senegal. From 1932 to 1947, Niger was administered jointly with Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) for budgetary reasons. World War II barely touched Niger, since the country was too isolated and undeveloped to offer anything of use to the Free French forces.

In 1946, the French constitution conferred French citizenship on the inhabitants of all the French territories and provided for a gradual decentralization of power and limited participation in indigenous political life. On 28 September 1958, voters in Niger approved the constitution of the Fifth French Republic, and on 19 December 1958, Niger's Territorial Assembly voted to become an autonomous state, the Republic of the Niger, within the French Community. A ministerial government was formed by Hamani Diori, a deputy to the French National Assembly and secretary-general to the Niger branch of the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement Démocratique Africain—RDA). On 11 July 1960, agreements on national sovereignty were signed by Niger and France, and on 3 August 1960, the Republic of the Niger proclaimed its independence. Diori, who had been able to consolidate his political dominance with the help of the French colonial administration, became Niger's first president. His principal opponent was Djibo Bakary, whose party, known as the Sawaba, had been banned in 1959 for advocating a "no" vote in the 1958 French constitutional referendum. The Sawaba was allegedly responsible for a number of unsuccessful attempts to assassinate Diori after 1959.

Diori was able to stay in power throughout the 1960s and early 1970s. His amicable relations with the French enabled him to obtain considerable technical, military, and financial aid from the French government. In 1968, following a dispute between the ruling Niger Progressive Party (Parti Progressiste Nigérien—PPN) and the civil service over alleged corruption of civil service personnel, the PPN was given a larger role in the national administration. Over the years, Diori developed a reputation as an African statesman and was able to settle several disputes between other African nations. However, unrest developed at home as Niger, together with its Sahel neighbors, suffered widespread devastation from the drought of the early 1970s.

On 15 April 1974, the Diori government was overthrown by a military coup led by Lt. Col. Seyni Kountché, the former chief of staff who subsequently assumed the presidency. Madame Diori was killed in the rebellion, as were approximately 100 others, and the former president was detained (1974–80) under house arrest. Soon after the coup, French troops stationed in Niger left at Kountché's request.

The economy grew markedly in the late 1970s, chiefly because of a uranium boom that ended in 1980. The Kountché regime, which was generally pro-Western, broke diplomatic relations with Libya in January 1981 in alarm and anger over Libya's military intervention in Chad. Relations with Libya slowly improved, and diplomatic ties resumed in 1982. Nevertheless, Niger continued to fear Libyan efforts at subversion, particularly among the Tuareg of northern Niger. In October 1983, an attempted coup in Niamey was suppressed by forces loyal to President Kountché. Kountché died of a brain tumor in November 1987, and (then) Col. 'Ali Seybou, the army chief of staff, was appointed president.

In 1989, Seybou created what he intended to be a national single party, Le Mouvement National pour la Société de Développement/The National Movement for a Developmental Society (MNSD). However, the winds of democratic change ushered in multiparty competition. At the forefront for political reform was the labor confederation, which organized a widely observed two-day-long general strike. Following the example of Benin, a National Conference was held from July to October 1991 to prepare a new constitution. The conferees appointed an interim government, led by Amadou Cheiffou to work alongside the Seybou government to organize multiparty elections. Widespread fighting in the north and military mutinies in February 1992 and July 1993 postponed the elections, but a new constitution was adopted in a December 1992 referendum.

Niger's first multiparty elections took place on 27 February 1993. Mamadou Tandja, who succeeded Seybou as MNSD leader came in first with 34%. However, with Mohamadou Issoufou's support, Mahamane Ousmane defeated him in the March runoff with 54% of the vote. In the legislative elections, the MNSD won the largest number of the seats (29), but a coalition of nine opposition parties, the Alliance of Forces of Change (AFC) dominated the National Assembly with 50 of the 83 seats. Prime Minister Issoufou led the AFC.

The new government found itself threatened by an insurgency in the north. In March, it reached a three-month truce with the major Tuareg group, the Liberation Front of Air and Azaouak (FLAA), and was able to extend it for three more months. By September, however, the Tuaregs had split into three factions and only one, the Front for the Liberation of Tamoust (FLT), agreed to renew the truce for three more months. Some Tuaregs, chiefly under the Armée Revolutionnaire de la Libération du Nord Niger (ARLNN) continued the rebellion, prompting more government reprisals.

The Tuareg raids created tension with Libya, suspected of inciting the insurgencies, and divided Nigerians over issues of favoritism. The government appeared biased in favor of members of the Djerma-Songhai (or Zarma-Songhai), one of Niger's five major ethnolinguistic groups. In April 1995, a tentative peace was reached via the joint mediation of Algeria, Burkina Faso, and France. However, ethnic disturbances continued in the south of the country.

In late 1994, disagreements between the president and the leadership of the National Assembly resulted in a political stalemate lasting throughout 1995. In the legislative elections of 12 January 1995, the AFC succumbed to factionalism allowing the MNSD to win a slight majority (29 seats). The MNSD formed a ruling coalition with its allies in the Democratic and Social Convention (24 seats). However, the two sides fought over the appointment of a prime minister, and then-prime minister, Hama Amadou, and President Ousmane fought over IMF austerity measures. In January 1996, Colonel Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara (known as Baré) toppled Ousmane and dissolved the Assembly. The military regime suspended political parties and civil liberties, and placed the president, prime minister, and president of the Assembly under house arrest. Despite Baré's pledge to restore democracy, donors cut assistance to Niger.

In May 1996, voters approved a new constitution that strengthened the powers of the executive. However, only 40% of the electorate voted. Baré lifted the ban on political parties, and in the July elections, despite evidence of massive fraud, declared himself the winner with 52% of the vote. Ousmane received 19% Tandja Mamadou 16%, Mahamadou Issoufou 8%, and Moumouni Amadou Djermakoye 5%. Baré's UNIRD took 52 of 83 Assembly seats in the November 1996 legislative elections.

On 9 April 1999, while boarding his helicopter, President Baré died in a hail of assassin's bullets. Political gridlock gripped the country, eroded public confidence in government, and allowed the military to intervene. The day prior to the assassination, opposition leaders had called on Baré to step down. Major Daouda Mallam Wanké said the presidential guard had opened fire in self-defense, and his junta later described the murder as an unfortunate accident. Few people believed it was, and the coup was roundly condemned by the international community. Baré's widow, Clemen Aicha Baré, filed claims against Wanké, as the prime perpetrator, and against the former prime minister Ibrahim Assane Mayaki for his alleged role in the assassination.

In October 1999, Wanké made good on his promise to return the country to civilian rule. Despite allegations of vote rigging, seven candidates contested the presidential elections. In the first round, Mamadou Tandja (MNSD) took 32.3% of the vote to Mahamadou Issoufou's (PNDS) 22.8%. In the 24 November runoff, Tandja was elected with 59.9% to Issoufou's 40.1%. Observers declared the second round free and fair. In the 24 November Assembly elections, five of seven parties won seats. The MNSD took 38 of 83 seats, the CDS 17, the PNDS 16, the RDP 8, and the ANDP 4.

The new National Assembly passed an amnesty for perpetrators of the January 1996 and April 1999 coups to avoid "the spirit of revenge or any form of resentment." Eight members of Maïnassara Baré's party dissented. Tandja said his top priority would be to work for political, social, and institutional stability, essential for national recovery.

In May 2002, Niger and Benin submitted a boundary dispute between them to the International Court of Justice in the Hague. At issue were sectors of the Niger and Mékrou Rivers and islands in them, in particular Lété Island. This dispute was resolved in Niger's favor by the Court in 2005.

On 30 July 2002, soldiers from three garrisons in the southeastern Diffa region mutinied, protesting low and overdue salaries and improper working conditions. The mutiny threatened Niamey, but troops loyal to the government put down the 10-day rebellion on 9 August. In December, at least 80 of the mutineers who were arrested in August escaped from prison.

Since then, with some exceptions, political stability prevailed. In early 2004 the government established an all-party dialogue and conflict resolution forum, the Conseil national de dialogue politique (CNDP). In May 2004 rumors of a new Tuareg rebellion surfaced following the desertion of former Tuareg rebels from the army, which coincided with armed attacks and banditry in the north. However, in July and December 2004 the country held successful local, presidential and parliamentary elections. Tandja was reelected in the presidential poll, a first for a Nigerien president.

Islamic guerrilla groups continued to operate in Niger. In early 2004, the police arrested members of the Muhajirun group, which apparently inspired by the Taliban, conducted a number of attacks in Borno state. In February and March, the Algerian Groupe salafist pour la predication et le combat (GSPC) allegedly clashed with authorities. This group had been responsible for the kidnapping of 32 tourists in early 2003 in Algeria and Mali. Livestock raiding across borders continued to be a problem as well.

Despite its convincing victory in the December 2004 polls, the ruling MNSD party faced serious social and economic challenges heading into 2006. A major food crisis in the second half of 2005 was portrayed as a famine in the international media and by UN agencies, and was strongly criticized by donor governments as the result of poor governance. Following the introduction of taxes on basic foodstuffs, the government became the target of major social protests, and ultimately had to withdraw the measures. Ultimately, an estimated 3 million of Niger's 12 million people were facing hunger, and some 32,000 children were thought to be severely malnourished. While President Tandja blamed food shortages on climatic factors and locust invasions, the main opposition party, the PNDS accused the government of diverting aid, and criticized it for its slow reaction and mismanagement of the crisis.

GOVERNMENT

The constitution of 8 November 1960 established the president of the republic, elected for a five-year term by direct universal suffrage, as chief of state and head of the executive branch. Legislative power was invested in a 50-member unicameral National Assembly. This constitution was suspended following the military coup of 15 April 1974, when the National Assembly was also dissolved. All executive and legislative power was taken over by the Supreme Military Council, composed of army officers. The president of the Supreme Military Council was president of the council of ministers (cabinet) and head of state. Seyni Kountché held this office from 1974 to 1987. Most cabinet officers were civilians in 1987.

In 1987, a national development council was established to serve as a constituent assembly on a nonparty basis. It drafted the constitution of the Second Republic that came into force on 24 September 1989.

A national conference from July to October 1991 drafted a multiparty democratic constitution that was approved by national referendum on 26 December 1992. It established the Third Republic with a National Assembly of 83 deputies chosen by popular and competitive elections, a president likewise elected, and a prime minister elected by the Assembly. The new government with Mahamane Ousmane as its head was sworn in on 23 April 1993.

Political gridlock led to a (relatively) bloodless coup led by (then) Colonel Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara in January 1996. Within six months, the regime had drafted and submitted for national referendum a new constitution with a significantly strengthened executive. The document was approved on 12 May 1996 ushering in the short-lived Fourth Republic. In flawed elections, Baré Maïnassara declared himself winner over four other candidates on the first round, and his UNIRD party won a majority of seats in the Assembly.

Baré Maïnassara was assassinated on 9 April 1999 by his presidential guard. Major Daouda Wanké reappointed Ibrahim Assane Maiyaki as prime minister for the transition government. He then appointed a transitional cabinet consisting of 20 members, most of whom were civilian. Wanké also replaced 7 of Niger's regional military leaders. He announced that he would not run for the presidency and disqualified all military and security personnel, as well as all members of the transitional government from standing for election. Wanké named a 60-member independent national election commission to oversee the establishment of the election roles and the polling. The CRN renounced any form of remuneration during the transition period and moved to reduce by half the salaries of future members of government.

The constitution of the Fifth Republic, adopted 18 July 1999, provides for a semi-presidential government. The president, who may stand for two five-year terms, is head of state, and appoints the prime minister (head of government) from a list of three candidates proposed by the parliamentary majority. The president names all 23 cabinet ministers and other high-ranking civilian and military officials. Presidential actions must be countersigned by the prime minister. The National Assembly can unseat the prime minister through a no-confidence vote. The president can dissolve the 113-member (expanded from 83) National Assembly, assume emergency powers, and convene the Council of the Republic in the event of a constitutional crisis. The National Assembly has the power to to pass a motion of no confidence in the government.

This Fifth Republic constitution created four new bodies: the Constitutional Court, the Superior National Defense Council, the Council of the Republic (a conflict resolution body), and the Economic, Social, and Cultural Council. The Council of the Republic was created to end the political impasse that brought down the Third Republic through the military coup in 1996. Amnesties for those involved in both the 1996 and 1999 coups were part of the constitutional draft.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Parties emerged only after World War II. In 1946, the African Democratic Rally (Rassemblement Démocratique Africain—RDA) became dominant with the help of several labor unions. By 1948, its popularity waned, and the Niger Progressive Party (Parti Progressiste Nigérien or PPN), the local branch of the RDA, was unable to reelect its candidate to the French National Assembly. Meanwhile, other parties, based on regional interests, gained strength.

In 1957, Djibo Bakary, the leader of a dissident RDA group, helped form a socialist party that became known as the Party of the African Regrouping (Parti du regroupement africain or PRA). Branches were quickly established in most of the other French-African territories.

Shortly before the voting on the French constitution in September 1958, the PPN joined with chiefs and dissident PRA members to form a coalition, the Union for the Franco-African Community (Union pour la Communauté Franco-Africaine), led by Hamani Diori, leader of the PPN. On 14 December 1958, the PRA group (known as the Sawaba), led by Djibo Bakary, was defeated by the new coalition, which won 54 of the 60 seats in the Assembly. Following full independence, Diori became president of the republic. Diori consolidated the position of the PPN by allying himself with Niger's powerful Muslim traditional chiefs, exiling Bakary, and banning the Sawaba in 1959. In 1964 and 1965, Bakary organized attacks from abroad on Diori's life.

The PPN became the only legal party under the Diori regime. In the October 1970 elections, Diori won 99.98% of the votes cast, and the PPN won 97.09% of the votes cast for the National Assembly. After the coup of 15 April 1974, the military government suppressed all political organizations in the country. Both Diori and Bakary (who returned from exile) were imprisoned until 1980.

In 1989, Seybou created the National Movement for a Developmental Society (MNSD). The MNSD was intended to be the sole legal party, but the constitutional referendum of December 1992 authorized a multiple party system. In the legislative elections on 12 January 1995 some 774 candidates ran for 83 Assembly seats. The MNSD won a slight majority (29 seats) and formed a coalition with the Democratic and Social Convention or CDS (24 seats). The coalition was factious, and in January 1996, leaders of a military coup dissolved the Assembly, overthrew the president, and banned political parties. Following the approval of a new constitution in May, political parties once again were allowed to exist.

In flawed presidential elections in July 1996, Baré Maïnassara took 52.22%, Mahamane Ousmane 19.75%, Mamadou Tandja 15.65%, and two other candidates took the remaining 12% of the vote. Legislative elections were held again in November 1996 for the reinstated 83-seat National Assembly. The pro-Maïnassara National Independents Union for Democratic Renewal (Union Nationale des Independents pour la renoveau democratique or UNIRD) won 52 seats, the Nigerian Alliance for Democracy and Progress-Zaman (ANDPS-Zaman Lahiya) 8, Union of Patriots, Democrats, and Progressives (Union des Patriotes Démocratiques et progressistes or UPDP-Shamuwa) 4, Union for Democracy and Social Progress (Union pour la démocratie et le progrès social or UDPS-Amana) 3, coalition of independents 3, with the remaining 6 seats divided among three other parties.

In the October–November 1999 presidential elections, Mamadou Tandja won convincingly with 32.3% on the first round and 59.9% on the second. Mahamadou Issoufou (Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism—PNDS) came in second with 22.8% and 40.1%. The others were Mahamane Ousmane (CDS) with 22.5%, Hamid Algabid (Rally for Democracy and Progress or Rassemblement pour la Démocratie et le Progrès—RDP) with 10.9%, Mumouni Djermakoye Amadou (ANDP) with 7.7%, Andre Salifou (UDPD) with 2.1% and Amadou Ali Djibo (Union des Nigériens Indépendants or Union of Independent Nigerians—UNI) with 1.7% of the vote.

A new political landscape emerged after the elections. The CDS of former president, Ousmane, rallied behind the MNSD to catapult Tandja and the MNSD to victory in the 24 November second round. Formerly, the CDS was pitted against the MNSD as part of the Alliance du Changement (AC) in the multiparty elections of 1991. Ousmane and Tandja were sworn enemies until General Baré's coup ousted Ousmane in 1996. The coup threw the CDS and the MNSD into the opposition, and made them both members of the umbrella alliance, the Front pour la Restauration et Défense de la Démocratie (FRDD) to compete in the elections in November 1996. The FRDD had comprised eight parties including the MNSD the CDS, and Issoufou's party, the PNDS.

In the National Assembly elected on 24 November 1999, 5 of 19 contending parties won seats. The MNSD took 38 of 83 seats, the CDS 17, the PNDS 16, the RDP 8, and the ANDP 4. Thus, the MNSD-CDS coalition had 55 of 83 seats. With its 16 seats, Issoufou's PNDS took leadership of the opposition coalition. The main allies of the opposition were the RDP and the ANDP bringing the coalition to 30 seats.

The November–December 2004 general elections saw the reelection of Mamadou Tandja and reinforced the dominance of the ruling coalition, the Alliance des forces démocratiques (AFD), comprising five parties led by the MNSD. Tandja won with 65.5% of the vote to 34.5% for Mahamadou Issoufou. In the legislative contest, the MNSD took 47 seats followed by the CDS, 22; the PNDS (the main opposition party) 17; the Social and Democratic Rally, 7; the RDP, 6; the ANDP, 5; and the Party for Socialism and Democracy in Niger, 1; other, 8. In all, the ruling coalition secured 88 of 113 seats. The next elections were scheduled for December 2009.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Niger consists of 8 regions (departments), subdivided into 36 districts (arrondissements) and a capital district. Democratization and demands for better governance has led to decentralization and popular participation in local government. However, devolving authority from the national level required adequate electoral safeguards. In 1999, the Supreme Court ordered a rerun elections in five regions. Opponents objected on the grounds that their candidates had held a clear lead over those of the president's party. The ensuing deadlock contributed to the crisis of government and to the 9 April coup.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The legal system, which is seriously under-resourced and subject to executive pressures and corruption, mirrors French civil law with important customary-law modifications. The High Court of Justice, which is appointed by the National Assembly from among its own membership, is empowered to try the president and members of the government for crimes or offenses committed in performance of their official duties. Defendants and prosecutors may appeal verdicts from lower courts, first to the Court of Appeals and then to the Supreme Court, which sits as the highest court of appeal. The seven-member Constitutional Court has jurisdiction over electoral and constitutional matters, including ruling on the constitutionality of laws and ordinances, as well as compliance with international treaties and agreements. A Court of State Security tries crimes against the state.

Notably, the Constitutional Court has overruled several presidential decrees, rejected more than one-third of the candidates in the local elections in April 2004, and forced the government to change the electoral code and reschedule the local elections.

Traditional and customary courts hear cases involving divorce or inheritance. There are no religious courts. Customary courts, located in larger towns and cities, are presided over by a legal practitioner with basic legal training who is advised about local tradition by a local assessor. The actions of chiefs in traditional courts and of the presiding practitioner in customary courts are not regulated by the code provisions. Appeals can be taken from both customary and traditional courts to the formal court system.

ARMED FORCES

Niger's armed forced totaled 5,300 active personnel in 2005, with 5,200 serving in the Army and the remaining 100 personnel in the Air Force. Paramilitary forces numbered 5,400 including the gendarmerie (1,400), the Republican Guard (2,500), and the National Police (1,500). Niger participated in four UN peacekeeping missions in Africa. In 2005, the defense budget totaled $30.6 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Niger was admitted to the United Nations on 20 September 1960, and is a member of ECA and several other nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, ILO, the World Bank, IAEA, UNESCO, UNIDO, and the WHO. Niger is also a member of the WTO, the African Development Bank, the West African Development Bank, the ACP Group, ECOWAS, G-77, the Community of Sahel and Saharan States (CENSAD), the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), the West African Economic and Monetary Union, the Niger River and Lake Chad Basin Commissions, and the African Union. It has joined with Benin, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Togo in the Council of the Entente, a customs union with a common solidarity fund. The nation is part of the Franc Zone.

Niger is a member of the Nonaligned Movement. The government has offered support to UN missions and operations in Liberia (est. 2003), Burundi (est. 2004), Côte d'Ivoire (est. 2004), and the DROC (est.1999). In environmental cooperation, Niger is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Niger is an arid, landlocked country with much of its territory forming a portion of the Sahara. Most of its people live in a marginally productive and highly drought-prone band of arable land along Niger's southern border with Nigeria. Although at one time uranium mining was a mainstay of the Niger economy, revenues from uranium dropped by almost 50% in the late 1980s due to a decline in world demand for uranium. Export earnings declined from 22% of GDP in 1987 to 16% of GDP in 1998. In 2001 GDP grew by 7% but declined to 3.8% growth in 2005. Subsistence agriculture prevails in the less than 3% of the country that is under cultivation. Agriculture and livestock production employed an estimated 95% of the labor force in 2005.

In January 1994 France devalued the CFA franc, causing its value to drop in half overnight. The devaluation of the CFA franc improved Niger's trade relationship with Nigeria, and boosted revenue from the export of such products as livestock, peas, onions, and the cotton industry. As of 2003, Niger had yet to recover from the devaluation, in 1993 the current account to GDP ratio was close to zero, afterwards reaching an average negative 10%. Exports could not keep pace with the rising price of imports.

The Niger economy relies on bilateral and multilateral aid, and the government has been encouraged to restructure the economy by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. With a history of military rule, and a bad debt repayment record, foreign aid has been slow coming. However, Niger became eligible for debt relief under the IMF/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative in 2000, in the amount of $115 million. The fact that population growth has outpaced GDP has been a cause of Niger's increasing poverty.

The restoration of democratic rule in 2000 saw an increase in foreign aid. The government's privatization of state-owned enterprises, particularly in the telecommunications and electricity sectors, was to promote investment in 2003, as was exploration for gold deposits and oil. An increase in tourism to Niger's scenic northern desert has been diversifying the economy.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Niger's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $10.2 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $900. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 3.8%. The average inflation rate in 2004 was 0.2%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 39% of GDP, industry 17%, and services 44%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $8 million or about $1 per capita and accounted for approximately 0.3% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $453 million or about $39 per capita and accounted for approximately 16.7% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Niger totaled $2.29 billion or about $194 per capita based on a GDP of $2.7 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 1.8%. It was estimated that in 1993 about 63% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2002 (the latest year for which data was available), an estimated 70,000 individuals out of a workforce estimated in 1998 (the latest year for which data was available) at 5 million, received a regular wage or salary. About 90% of the country's workforce was engaged in agriculture, with industry and commerce accounting for 6% and government 4%. There is no data avialable as to the country's unemployment rate.

The Union of Workers' Syndicates of Niger (Union des Syndicats des Travailleurs du Niger—USTN) is the only trade union federation. It was founded in Niamey in 1960 and is affiliated with the African Trade Union Confederation. USTN has 38 member unions. Its head is appointed by the government. Unions represent a very small segment of the population, most members are government workers. Except for police and security forces, employees are permitted to engage in strikes.

The minimum wage varies for each class and category of salaried employees. The lowest minimum wage was approximately $33 per month in 2001, which does not provide a family with a decent standard of living. The legal workweek is 40 hours for most occupations, with some legal workweeks extending to 72 hours. The minimum age for employment is 14 years old. This is observed in the formal sector of the economy, but child labor persists in the informal economy and in agriculture.

AGRICULTURE

Although only 2.8% of Niger's area is cultivated, farmers increased their production following the 1968–75 drought, and in 1980, the country became self-sufficient in food crops. The most plentiful rains in 30 years fell during the 1992–1993 season, pushing agricultural production up by 64%. Irrigation and off-season farming projects are of keen interest to the government and foreign donors. During 1990–2000, agricultural production grew by an annual average of 3.2%. Almost 90% of the active population is engaged in crop cultivation or animal husbandry. Agricultural techniques are still rudimentary; there are a few tractors in use (only 128 in 2003), and most farmers do not keep draft animals. Very little fertilizer is used. Irrigated land in 2003 totaled about 73,000 hectares (180,000 acres). Only 12% of Niger's total land area, located along the southern border, is potentially useful for rainfed cultivation. Over 95% of agriculture is on farms of less than five hectares (12 acres), with the average about three hectares (7.5 acres). Production of millet, the staple food of most of the people, depends heavily on rainfall. In 2004, millet production was 2,500,000 tons, sorghum was 580,000 tons, and rice was 76,500 tons. Other crops (with their estimated output) include cassava (100,000 tons), sugarcane (220,000 tons), lettuce (140,000 tons), and sweet potatoes (30,000 tons). Cowpeas are an important crop, but are only competitive as an export in neighboring Nigeria's market due to transportation costs. The government of Niger is encouraging crop diversification and the raising of export crops like onions, garlic, peppers, and potatoes, in addition to cowpeas.

Peanuts, formerly the main source of agricultural export revenue, are planted mainly in the Zinder area. Production increased from 8,980 tons in 1945 to a high of 298,000 tons in 1967. Because of a lack of producer incentives, production declined to only 87,000 tons in 1982, and only a fraction of that total was delivered to the government marketing agency, SOMARA, which had a monopoly on pricing and marketing peanut products until 1986. Production was reported at 110,000 tons for 2004.

Cotton, introduced in 1956 to reduce Niger's dependence on peanuts, has also suffered from lack of grower incentives. Production of seed cotton rose from 218 tons in 1956 to 6,682 tons in 1967 but was only around 10,000 tons in 2004.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Almost half the land area of Niger is classified as pasture, but, like agriculture, animal husbandry has suffered greatly from insufficient rainfall. In 2005 there were an estimated 2.2 million head of cattle, 6.9 million goats, 4.5 million sheep, and 420,000 camels. About 12% of Niger's GDP comes from livestock production, which engages 29% of the population. Official statistics of Niger seriously under represent total exports—most animals are herded across borders without documentation.

Meat production, which had dropped to 38,000 tons in 1973, was an estimated 133,000 tons in 2005. Production of milk from goats and cows came to 105,000 and 184,000 tons, respectively. Cattle hides came to about 5,600 tons; sheepskins, 1,900 tons; and goatskins, 4,200 tons. There is a tannery at Maradi. Sandals, briefcases, and fine ladies handbags of high quality are produced in small numbers but seldom exported.

Meat exports are inspected and controlled by the customs service before leaving the country. Only inspected, tuberculin-tested cattle are used in export meat production. The Niger River valley south of Say is infested by the tsetse fly, and trypanosomiasis is, therefore, a major cattle disease.

FISHING

There is no commercial fishing on a wide scale, but fishing is an appreciable source of revenue for the Sorko on the Niger River and the Boudouma on Lake Chad. The fishermen on Lake Chad consume most of their catch. Most of the total annual catch of 55,900 tons in 2003 was from the Niger River and its tributaries; a small amount is from the Lake Chad region.

FORESTRY

The forest domain is only about 1% of Niger's surface. Roundwood production was estimated at 9,006,000 cu m (318 million cu ft) in 2004, 95% for fuel. Small amounts of gum arabic are extracted from acacia trees. Some tree planting has been undertaken, mainly with acacia species, but deforestation remains a serious problem. About 1,328 hectares (3,281 acres) were reforested annually during 1990–2000 and hundreds of thousands of trees have been planted, but these are highly vulnerable to drought.

MINING

Uranium dominated Niger's mining sector, ranking it fifth in the world in terms of production. Uranium mining was the country's leading industry in 2003, as well as its leading export commodity, accounting for around 32% of exports in 2003. In 2003, Niger produced 3,143 metric tons of uranium. A uranium boom occurred in the late 1970s, but with the reduction in world demand in the 1980s, prices fell, although the government was partly protected by contracts negotiated earlier. Cement, brick, and chemical production were other leading industries, and Niger also produced clays, bituminous coal, gold, gypsum, limestone, molybdenum (in connection with uranium ore), phosphate rock, salt, sand and gravel, stone, cassiterite tin, and tungsten (and, at times, columbite, in connection with cassiterite).

Although uranium was the only mineral to be significantly developed, Niger was rich in a number of other minerals. The country's first gold mine, the Samira Hill open pit, was opened in 2000 by Niger's prime minister, and intended to produce 10,000 tons per day of ore. The combined reserves of Samira Hill and the nearby Libiri deposit were 10.1 million tons (2.2 grams per ton of gold). Gold output in 2003 was officially estimated at 28 kilograms. However, it is estimated that actual gold production is around 1,000 kg annually, if unreported output is included. In addition, there were some natron and sodium sulfate deposits, an estimated 650 million tons of iron ore deposits at Say, near Niamey, and 400 million tons of phosphate deposits in "W" National Park, in the Niger River Valley. There were also unexploited deposits of manganese, lithium, copper, zinc, lead, silver, cobalt, kaolin, feldspar, gypsum, limestone, marble, and clay.

ENERGY AND POWER

Even though it has proven crude oil reserves, the country has no refining capacity and imports all the refined oil it consumes.

As of 1 January 2003, Niger had proven crude oil reserves of 300 million barrels. However, the lack of any refining capacity and the untapped reserves means that the country is totally reliant upon imports of refined petroleum. In 2002, imports and demand for refined petroleum products each averaged 5,300 barrels per day.

Niger produced only a small amount of coal in 2002. Output and demand for coal in that year each came to 194,000 short tons. There were no recorded imports, production, or consumption of natural gas in 2002 by Niger.

Niger's electric power generating sector is completely reliant upon fossil fuels. Of the nation's 0.105 million kW of generating capacity all was fossil fuel dedicated. In 2002, electric power output totaled 0.228 billion kWh, of which consumption that year totaled 0.292 billion kWh. Imports of electric power in that year totaled 0.080 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

Niger's manufacturing sector is small and consists mainly of the processing of domestic agricultural commodities. Agricultural products are processed at a groundnut oil plant, rice mills, flour mills, cotton gins, and tanneries. A textile mill and a cement plant operate, and light industries produce beer and soft drinks, processed meats, noodle products, baked goods, soaps and detergents, perfume, plastic and metal goods, farm equipment, canned vegetables, pasta, and construction materials. The 1994 devaluation of the CFA franc made light manufacturing more competitive by decreasing the cost of local inputs by 50%, but also raised the price of imports dramatically. There is potential for development of fertilizer, seed, and equipment production in the agribusiness sector. There is a small cotton industry. Oil exploration has taken place, but as of 2005, no proven reserves had been discovered.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Niger relies heavily on foreign sources for technical expertise, and French agencies are especially active; the Bureau of Geological and Mineral Research, the French Company for the Development of Textile Fibers, the Institute of Fruit and Citrus Fruit Research, and the French Institute of Scientific Research for Development and Cooperation all have offices in Niamey.

The National Institute of Agronomical Research of Niger, in Niamey, maintains two soil-science stations, at Tarka and Kolo. There is also a national office of solar energy and a veterinary laboratory in Niamey. The Livestock Service of Niger has a Sahelian experimental station at Filingué for breeding zebu cattle and a center for goat breeding and poultry raising at Maradi. The University of Niamey, founded in 1971, includes faculties of science, agronomy, and health services, and institutes of radioisotopes and of research on the teaching of mathematics. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 32% of college and university enrollments. The National Museum of Niger, founded in 1959 in Niamey, has a zoo, a geological and mineral exhibition, and paleontology and prehistory museums.

DOMESTIC TRADE

The main domestic commercial center in Niger is in the capital city of Niamay. Merchants and peddlers in the small villages sell such items as beverages, cigarettes, soap, cloth, perfume, and batteries. About 90% of the work force is employed in subsistence farming and only 6% are involved in industry and commerce. Large foreign concerns (usually French-owned) import products to be sold in stores in Niamey and in the secondary cities. In 1997 and 2000, the government made revisions to its investment code in an effort to encourage much needed foreign investment.

The work day is typically from 7:30 am to 12:30 pm, and 3:30 pm to 6:30 pm in government offices, Monday through Friday. Private businesses generally are open during those hours as well.

FOREIGN TRADE

Trade figures show that uranium accounts for about 54% of exports by value. The demand for uranium has steadily decreased since the 1980s. Exports of live animals and hides (primarily to Nigeria) represent 23% of exports. Vegetables (cowpeas, onions) are also exported, accounting for 23% of exports in 2005. In 2003, Niger's exports went primarily to France (42.3%), Nigeria (28.7%), Japan (17.2%), and Spain (4.6%). Imports are led by consumer goods, primary materials, machinery, vehicles and parts, petroleum, and cereals. Imports in 2003 came mostly from France (16.4%), Côte d'Ivoire (13.9%), China (10.6%), and Nigeria (7.7%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Niger's balance of payments deficit is usually offset by large amounts of bilateral and multilateral aid. A reduction of imports, combined with small increases in the value of uranium and other

exports, is expected to improve the trade imbalance in the early 2000s.

The Economist Intelligence Unit reported that in 2005 the purchasing power parity of Niger's exports was $438 million while imports totaled $625 million resulting in a trade deficit of $187 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of the West African States (Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest-BCEAO) is the bank of issue for Niger and other West African states. Niger has a monetary committee that reports to the BCEAO and works under BCEAO general rules but possesses autonomy in internal credit matters.

Two development banks remained following the collapse of the Banque de développement de la républica du Niger (BDRN) in 1990: Crédit du Niger (CN), and the Caisse nationale du crédit agricole (CNCA). Three commercial banks collapsed in Niger between 1988 and early 1992: the Banque internationale pour le commerce et l'industrie-Niger (BICI-N); the Banque de crédit et de commerce (BCC), which the African Development Bank's Nigeria Trust Fund agreed to take over following the collapse of the parent bank; and the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI). Banque Meridien-BIAO du Niger was taken over in September 1995 in a combined purchased by Banque Belgolaise of Belgium, which took 35%, and Cofipa, a European investment group (15%), the remaining 50% of the equity being sold to private Nigerian interests. The bank changed its name to BIA-Niger. The Banque arabe libyenne et nigérienne pour le commerce extérieur (Balinex) was rescued in March 1992 by Libya.

Smaller commercial banks operating in 2001 included the Bank of Africa; Ecobank; Banque Islamique du Niger; Sonibank (Societe Nigerienne de Banque); BCN (Banque Commerciale du Niger); and Credit du Niger.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $141.9 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $186.5 million. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 4.95%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 6.5%.

INSURANCE

As of 1986, third-party automobile liability was compulsory, and no life insurance was being written. In 1987, automobile insurance accounted for 45% of all premium revenues. In 1997, there were at least five major insurance companies operating in Niger, among them LEYMA-La Société Nigérienne d'Assurances et de Réassurances. Transport, accident, fire, retirement, and all-risk insurance products were being offered.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Budgets are nominally balanced but only through the infusion of foreign loan funds and grants. Expenditures have been severely constrained because of the fall in receipts from the sale of uranium ore due to decline in world demand. The end of the uranium boom in the late 1980s left the public sector poorly equipped to adapt, as public expenditures had focused on infrastructure and construction projects at the expense of agricultural development. Uranium exports earnings more than halved from 1987 to 1998. Niger never completely recovered from the CFA franc devaluation. Consequently, heavy foreign debts were incurred. However, the country is eligible under the IMF's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative for enhanced debt relief, and reached decision point in January 2001 and is expected to reach completion point by September 2003. Privatization is underway in Niger, but more for budgetary and financial rather than structural purposes. As of April 2003, the Nigerien government had sold five formerly state-owned companies, including water and telephone utilities, and expected to privatize another seven companies in that year.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2002 Niger's central government took in revenues of approximately $320 million and had expenditures of $320 million. Total external debt was $2.1 billion.

TAXATION

Although both a proportional and a general income tax of 60% are levied, few citizens of Niger are more than marginally taxed, since their incomes are too low. The most important sources of revenue are the taxes on industrial and commercial profits and the turnover tax on domestic goods and imports. Niger has value-added tax (VAT) with a standard rate set at 17% in 2003. Other significant sources of revenue from taxes are social security contributions, the registration tax, and excises on petroleum products, alcohol, and cigarettes. The corporate tax rate is 45%.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

In general, two main taxes make up the tariff system. A fiscal import duty of 5–66% is applied to almost all incoming goods, regardless of origin, and serves as a source of revenue. A common external tariff (CET) of maximum 22% is levied on all goods from non-WAEMU (West African Economic and Monetary Union) countries. There are also a value-added tax (VAT) of 15–20%, a statistical tax of 1%, and a community solidarity tax of 1%. Goods imported from countries that have trade agreements with Niger pay a minimum customs duty, while those from other countries are subject to a higher general tariff. Goods from EU countries other than France are dutiable at less than the minimum.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Except for uranium mining, foreign private capital has not been easy to attract to Niger. Prospective investors are discouraged by Niger's periods of military rule, small markets, inadequate infrastructure, bureaucratic delays, shortage of local capital, lack of skilled labor, and exorbitant transportation costs.

Niger's investment codes are liberal, with tax relief and tariff protection depending on the level of investment. Further advantages accrue to those investing in small-scale enterprise. The government seeks foreign investment in most sectors, and privatesector investment in parastatal enterprise is welcome.

In the period 1998 to 2000, Niger's share of world foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows was only one-tenth of its share of world production of goods and services. In 1997, FDI inflow peaked at $25.5 million, and then fell to $9 million in 1998. In 1999, the year President Baré was assassinated, FDI inflow dwindled to $300,000. In 2000, FDI inflow recovered to $19.3 million, but fell to $2 million in 2002 and then recovered to 11 million in 2003. It was estimated at $20 million in 2004.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Government development programs have had three basic aims: first, to diversify production of foodstuffs; second, to develop underground water resources; and third, to develop and improve the country's infrastructure. France is the leading bilateral aid donor.

In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved a three-year $76 million Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) Arrangement for Niger, to support the government's economic reform and poverty reduction program. The World Bank, Paris Club creditors, and the African Development Bank have provided assistance to the country under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Niger has enacted revisions to the investment, petroleum, and mining codes, with attractive terms for investors. The country depends upon foreign direct investment for economic development. As of 2002, five of twelve state-owned enterprises scheduled for privatization had been sold to private hands.

In August of 2005 an IMF mission visited Niamey the capital of Niger to evaluate Niger's performance under its poverty reduction and growth facility (PRGF). It was determined that as a result of the food crisis, budget implementation was weaker than targeted, but more importantly the first review of the PRGF has not yet been concluded. Niger is ranked bottom of the UN's Human Development Index for 2005. According to the World Investment Report published by the UN Conference on Trade and Development, Niger was among the weakest countries in sub-Saharan Africa at attracting foreign direct investment in 2004.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The National Social Security Fund provides pensions, family allowances, maternity benefits, and workers' compensation for employed persons, technical students and apprentices. These programs are financed by a 1.6% contribution from employees, and 2.4% contribution of payroll from employers. There is a special system for civil servants. Retirement is set at ages 58–60. These programs apply only to the minority of citizens who are formally employed, and subsistence farmers are excluded.

In 2004, a separate Ministry of Women's Promotion and Child Protection was established to promote and protect women and children. Women face both legal and social discrimination, particularly in rural areas. Men are recognized as the legal head of household, and in cases of divorce, the husband receives custody of all children under eight years of age. According to Islamic family code, men have preferential inheritance and property rights. Domestic abuse is common and women do not seek redress due to ignorance of the legal system and social stigmatization. Marriages at an early age are common, and young girls may be sent to live with her husband's family from the age of ten. Female genital mutilation, a practice that is both painful and potentially life threatening, is practiced by some ethnic groups.

Prison conditions are poor and facilities are overcrowded. International human rights organizations are permitted to visit facilities. Human rights in Niger are improving.

HEALTH

In 2004, there were approximately three physicians per 100,000 people. In addition, there were only 23 nurses, four midwives and fewer than one dentist or pharmacist per 100,000 population. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 2.6% of GDP. Approximately 59% of the population had access to safe drinking water and only 20% had adequate sanitation.

Immunization rates for children up to one year old included: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 28%, and measles, 42%. About 40% of children under five years old are considered malnourished. The goiter rate was 35.8 per 100 school-age children.

As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 50 and 4.8 per 1,000 people. Only 8% of married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception and the fertility rate was 7.2 children per woman during her childbearing years. In 2005 the average life expectancy was 43.50 years and the infant mortality rate was 119.69 per 1,000 live births. Maternal mortality was 590 per 100,000 live births. Common diseases reported in Niger were measles, guinea worm, leprosy, and deaths from diarrheal diseases. As of 2004, there were approximately 70,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 1.20 per 100 adults in 2003. There were an estimated 4,800 deaths from AIDS in 2003. In Niger, 20% of women suffer from female genital mutilation. No government laws prohibit this procedure.

HOUSING

According to the latest available information, for 1980–88 Niger's housing stock totaled 1,400,000 with 4.6 people per dwelling. The government has been working on projects to increase housing, particularly for low-income families, through the Federal Housing Authority, created in 1976. The Crédit du Niger offers housing loans.

Most government buildings and many houses in the metropolitan centers are essentially French in style. The Tuareg nomads live in covered tents, while the Fulani live in small collapsible huts made of straw mats. The villagers in the east live in round straw huts. In the center of the country, villagers construct houses of "banco," a mixture of mud and straw that has, when dried, a hard, cement-like consistency.

EDUCATION

The educational system is patterned on that of France, but changes are gradually being introduced to adapt the curriculum to local needs and traditions. Schooling is compulsory for six years for children ages 6 to 12. While primary schooling lasts for six years, secondary lasts for seven years (in two cycles of four and three years). The academic year runs from October to June. In 2001, less than 2% of children between the ages of four and six were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 38% of age-eligible students; 45% for boys and 31% for girls. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 6% of age-eligible students; 7% for boys and 5% for girls. It is estimated that about 25.6% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 42:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 30:1.

In 1963, the National School of Administration was founded in Niamey. The Université Abdou Moumouni, Niamey is the primary institution of higher learning. The Islamic University of West Africa at Say, mostly financed by the Organization of the Islamic Conference, was inaugurated in 1987. In 2001, about 1% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 14.4%, with 19.6% for men and 9.4% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 2.3% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

There are state-run libraries in the large municipalities, as well as libraries maintained by religious orders, the military, and professional and other groups. The Regional Center of Research and Documentation for the Oral Tradition, in Niamey, was founded in cooperation with UNESCO in 1968; it preserves the oral historyof West Africa and has a library of 5,000 volumes. Abdou Moumouni University in Niamey holds 25,000 volumes. The French Cultural Center in Niamey also holds 25,000 volumes.

The National Museum of Niger, which has ethnographic and paleontological exhibits, is also in Niamey, as are a zoo, botanical gardens, craft workshops, and youth training centers. There are regional museums throughout the country, including the National Museum of Colonial History in Aba, the Archeology Museum in Nsukka, and the National War Museum of Umauhia, and a regional museum in Zinder.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were an estimated two mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately two mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The Voice of the Sahel and Télé-Sahel, the government's radio and television broadcasting units, respectively, broadcast in French, Djerma, Hausa, Tamachek, Kanuri, Fulfuldé, Toubou, Gourmantché, and Arabic. There are several private stations. As of 2001, there were 5 AM and 6 FM radio stations. In 2002 there were three television stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 122 radios and 10 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there was less than one personal computer for every 1,000 people and one of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet.

Major publications include the daily, Le Sahel, with a 2002 circulation of about 5,000, and the weekly Le Sahel Dimanche (3,000); a monthly, the Journal Officiel de la République du Niger, is also published. All are government publications. There are about 12 private publications, usually published weekly or monthly. These include Le Republicain (3,000) and La Tribune du Peuple (3,000).

The 1996 constitution provides for freedom of speech and the press, though the current government is said to limit press freedom and stifle political discussion through intimidation, harassment, and detention.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Chamber of Commerce, Agriculture, Industry, and Handicrafts of Niger has headquarters at Niamey. There are also chambers of commerce in Agadez, Maradi, Tahoua, and Zinder. National youth organizations include the National Samariya Youth Movement, the Nigerien Student Union of the University on Niamey, Junior Chamber, and the Scout Association of Niger. There are several active sports associations within the country. There are several women's organizations promoting equal rights and government participation for women. The World Conservation Union has an office in Niamey. There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society and Caritas.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

The government has promoted both domestic and international tourism since 1984. The "W" National Park along the Niger River offers views of a variety of fauna, including lions, baboons, elephants, 300 species of birds, and 450 plant species. Other tourist attractions include Agadez's 16th-century mosque, one of the oldest in West Africa; villages built on piles in Lake Chad; the annual six-week gathering of nomads near Ingal; the Great Market and Great Mosque in Niamey, and the Sahara desert. Nigeriens engage in game hunting, fishing, swimming, and a variety of team sports. Visas are required for most travelers, as is a vaccination certificate for yellow fever and possibly cholera.

There were 39,000 foreign visitors who arrived in Niger in 2002. Hotel rooms numbered 1,472 with 2,843 beds and a 44% occupancy rate in 2003. That same year the average stay was seven nights. Tourist expenditure receipts totaled $34 million.

In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in Niamey at $177 per day.

FAMOUS NIGERIENS

Hamani Diori (1916–89), a former schoolteacher, became leader of the local section of the PPN in 1946, became president of the General Council of the Republic of Niger in 1958, and was president of the Republic of the Niger until April 1974, when he was deposed by a military coup. Seyni Kountché (1931–87) became head of state after the coup of 1974 and ruled the country until his death. Col. Ibrahim Bare Maïnassara (1950–99), who led a coup in January 1996 that ousted the democratically elected government, was assassinated in May 1999. He was succeeded by Daouda Malam Wanké, head of the presidential guard, who held the post until December 1999.

DEPENDENCIES

Niger has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alidou, Ousseina. Engaging Modernity: Muslim Women and the Politics of Agency in Postcolonial Niger. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2005.

Connah, Graham. Forgotten Africa: An Introduction to Its Archaeology. New York: Routledge, 2004.

Decalo, Samuel. Historical Dictionary of Niger. 3rd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1996.

——. Historical Dictionary of Niger [computer file]. Boulder, Colo.: netLibrary, Inc., 2000.

Miles, William F. S. Hausaland Divided: Colonialism and Independence in Nigeria and Niger. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994.

Niger, Background Paper. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1996.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Niger

PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
DEFENSE
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-NIGERIEN RELATIONS
TRAVEL

Compiled from the November 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Republic of Niger

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,267,000 sq. km (490,000 sq. mi.); about three times the size of California.

Cities: Capital—Niamey (pop. approx. 1 million). Other cities—Tah-oua, Konni, Maradi, Zinder, Diffa, Dosso, Arlit, and Agadez.

Terrain: About two-thirds desert and mountains, one-third savanna.

Climate: Hot, dry, and dusty. Rainy season June—September.

People

Nationality: Noun and Adjective—Nigerien(s).

Population: (2007 est.) 14,853,000.

Annual growth rate: (2005) 3.3%.

Ethnic groups: Hausa 53%, Djerma (Zarma) 21%, Fulani 7%, Tuareg 11%, Beri Beri (Kanuri) 6%; Arab, Toubou, and Gourmantche 2%.

Religions: Islam (99%); remainder traditional and Christian.

Languages: French (official), Hausa, Djerma, Fulfulde, Kanuri, Tamachek, Toubou, Gourmantche, Arabic.

Education: Years compulsory—6. Attendance—45% (men), 31% (women). Literacy (2005)—28.7% (15% for women).

Health: Infant mortality rate (2006)—81/1,000. Life expectancy—45 yrs.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: August 3, 1960.

Constitution: The constitution of December 26, 1992 was revised by national referendum on May 12, 1996 and again by referendum on July 18, 1999.

Government branches: Executive—president and prime minister. Legislative—unicameral National Assembly (113 MPs). Judicial—Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, High Court of Justice.

Political parties: Seven are represented in the National Assembly.

Suffrage: The constitution provides for universal suffrage for Nigeriens age 18 or older.

Political subdivisions: Eight regions subdivided into 36 districts (departments) and 265 communes (local councils).

Economy

GDP: (2006) $3.54 billion.

Annual growth rate: (2006) 4.8%.

Per capita GDP: (2006) $273.

Avg. inflation rate: (2006) 0.1%.

Natural resources: Uranium, gold, oil, coal, iron, tin, and phosphates.

Agriculture: (27.9% of GDP) Products—millet, sorghum, cowpeas, peanuts, cotton, and rice.

Industry: (10.5% of GDP) Types—textiles, cement, soap, and beverages.

Trade: (2006) Exports (freight on board—f.o.b.)—$275 million. Types—uranium, livestock, gold, cowpeas, and onions. Major markets—France 34.8%, Nigeria 16.7%, Japan 13.3%, Spain 9.5%, U.S. 0.3%. Imports (f.o.b.)—$792 million. Types—consumer goods, petroleum, foodstuffs, and industrial products. Major suppliers—France 16.3%, China 13.1%, U.S. 7.1%, Nigeria 6.6%, Cote d'Ivoire 6.3%, India 4.7%, Japan 3.9%.

PEOPLE

The largest ethnic groups in Niger are the Hausa, who also constitute the major ethnic group in northern Nigeria, and the Djerma-Songhai, who also are found in parts of Mali. Both groups, along with the Gourmantche, are sedentary farmers who live in the arable, southern tier of the country. The remainder of Nigeriens are nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock-raising peoples—Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri, Arabs, and Toubou. With rapidly growing populations and the consequent competition for meager natural resources, lifestyles of agriculturalists and livestock herders are increasingly threatened.

Niger's high infant mortality rate is comparable to levels recorded in neighboring countries. However, the child mortality rate (deaths among children under age of 5) is particularly high (198 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. Nonetheless, Niger's fertility rate (7.8 births/ woman), is among the highest in the world, and is far higher than the sub-Saharan African average of 5.4. Two-thirds (66.7%) of the Nigerien population is under age 25. Primary school net enrollment rate is 49% for boys and 31% for girls. Additional education occurs through thousands of Koranic schools.

HISTORY

Considerable evidence indicates that about 600,000 years ago, humans inhabited what has since become the desolate Sahara of northern Niger. Long before the arrival of French influence and control in the area, Niger was an important economic crossroads, and the empires of Song-hai, Mali, Gao, Kanem, and Bornu, as well as a number of Hausa states, claimed control over portions of the area.

During recent centuries, the nomadic Tuareg formed large confederations, pushed southward, and, siding with various Hausa states, clashed with the Fulani Empire of Sokoto, which had gained control of much of the Hausa territory in the late 18th century.

In the 19th century, contact with the West began when the first European explorers—notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German)—explored the area searching for the mouth of the Niger River. Although French efforts at pacification began before 1900, dissident ethnic groups, especially the desert Tuareg, were not subdued until 1922, when Niger became a French colony.

Niger's colonial history and development parallel that of other French West African territories. France administered its West African colonies through a governor general at Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. In addition to conferring French citizenship on the inhabitants of the territories, the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies.

A further revision in the organization of overseas territories occurred with the passage of the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956, followed by reorganization measures enacted by the French Parliament early in 1957. In addition to removing voting inequalities, these laws provided for creation of governmental organs, assuring individual territories a large measure of self-government. After the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on December 4, 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community. Following full independence on August 3, 1960, however, membership was allowed to lapse.

For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. In 1974, a combination of devastating drought and accusations of rampant corruption resulted in a military coup that overthrew the Diori regime. Lieutenant Colonel Seyni Kountche and a small group of military ruled the country until Kountche's death in 1987. He was succeeded by his Chief of Staff, Brigadier General Ali Sai-bou, who released political prisoners, liberalized some of Niger's laws and policies, and promulgated a new constitution. However, President Sai-bou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a multiparty democratic system. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. New political parties and civic associations sprang up, and a national conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. The debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Prof. Andre Salifou, the conference developed consensus on the modalities of a transition government. A transition government was installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. While the economy deteriorated over the course of the transition, certain accomplishments stand out, including the successful conduct of a constitutional referendum; the adoption of key legislation such as the electoral and rural codes; and the holding of several free, fair, and nonviolent nationwide elections. Freedom of the press flourished with the appearance of several new independent newspapers.

Rivalries within a ruling coalition elected in 1993 led to governmental paralysis, which provided Col. Ibra-him Baré Mainassara a rationale to overthrow the Third Republic and its President, Mahamane Ousmane, in January 1996. While leading a military authority that ran the government (Conseil de Salut National) during a 6-month transition period, Bare enlisted specialists to draft a new constitution for a Fourth Republic announced in May 1996. After dissolving the national electoral committee, Bare organized and won a flawed presidential election in July 1996 and his party won 90% of parliament seats in a flawed legislative election in November 1996. When his efforts to justify his coup and subsequent questionable elections failed to convince donors to restore multilateral and bilateral economic assistance, a desperate Bare ignored an international embargo against Libya and sought Libyan funds to aid Niger's economy. In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime, opposition leaders were imprisoned; journalists often arrested, beaten, and deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military; and independent media offices were looted and burned with impunity.

In the culmination of an initiative started under the 1991 national conference, however, the government signed peace accords in April 1995

with all Tuareg and Toubou groups that had been in rebellion since 1990, claiming they lacked attention and resources from the central government. The government agreed to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.

In April 1999, Bare was overthrown and assassinated in a coup led by Maj. Daouda Mallam Wanke, who established a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution for a Fifth Republic with a French style semi-presidential system. In votes that international observers found to be generally free and fair, the Nigerien electorate approved the new constitution in July 1999 and held legislative and presidential elections in October and November 1999. Heading a coalition of the National Movement for a Developing Society (MNSD) and the Democratic and Social Convention (CDS), Mamadou Tandja won the presidency.

In July 2004, Niger held municipal elections nationwide as part of its decentralization process. Some 3,700 people were elected to new local governments in 265 newly established communes. The ruling MNSD party won more positions than any other political party; however, opposition parties made significant gains.

In November and December 2004, Niger held presidential and legislative elections. Mamadou Tandja was elected to his second 5-year presidential term with 65% of the vote in an election that international observers called generally free and fair. This was the first presidential election with a democratically elected incumbent and a test to Niger's young democracy.

In the 2004 legislative elections, the National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD), the Democratic and Socialist Convention (CDS), the Rally for Social Democracy (RSD), the Rally for Democracy and Progress (RDP), the Nigerien Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ANDP), and the Social Party for Nigerien Democracy (PSDN) coalition, which backed Tandja, won 88 of the 113 seats in the National Assembly.

A previously unknown group, the Mouvement des Nigeriens pour la Justice (MNJ), emerged in February 2007. The predominantly Tuareg group has issued a number of demands, mainly related to development in the north. It has attacked military and other facilities and laid landmines in the north. The resulting insecurity has devastated Niger's tourist industry and deterred investment in mining and oil. The government has labeled the MNJ criminals and traffickers, and refuses to negotiate with the group until it disarms.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Niger's new constitution was approved in July 1999. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the December 1992 constitution (Third Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power. As a reflection of Niger's increasing population, the unicameral legislature was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a 5-year term under a proportional system of representation. Political parties must attain at least 5% of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature.

Niger's independent judicial system is composed of four higher courts—the Court of Appeals, the Supreme Court, the High Court of Justice, and the Constitutional Court. In January 2007, the National Assembly voted to divide the Supreme Court into three high courts—an Administrative Court, a Supreme Court of Justice, and an Audit Court. The constitution also provides for the popular election of municipal and local officials, and the first-ever successful municipal elections took place July 24, 2004. The National Assembly passed in June 2002 a series of decentralization bills. As a first step, administrative powers have been distributed among 265 communes (local councils); in later stages, regions and departmements will be established as decentralized entities. A new electoral code was adopted to reflect the decentralization context. The country is currently divided into 8 regions, which are subdivided into 36 districts (departments). The chief administrators in each region (Governor) and department (Prefect) are appointed by the government and function primarily as the local agents of the central authorities.

The current legislature elected in December 2004 contains seven political parties. President Mamadou Tandja was re-elected in December 2004 and reappointed Hama Amadou as Prime Minister. Mahamane Ous-mane, the head of the CDS, was reelected President of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers. The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on December 30, 2004. In May 2007, Hama Amadou stepped down as Prime Minister following a vote of no confidence by the National Assembly related to allegations of his involvement in a corruption scandal, and President Tandja appointed Seini Oumarou Prime Minister as head of a new cabinet.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Pres.: Mamadou TANDJA

Prime Min.: Seine OUMAROU

Min. of Agricultural Development: Moussa LABO

Min. of African Integration & Nigeriens Abroad: Saidou HACHIMOU

Min. of Animal Resources: Issiat KATO

Min. of Basic Education & Literacy: Ousame SAMBA

Min. of Civil Service & Labor: Kanda SIPTEY

Min. of Commerce & Aviation: Kindo HAMNI

Min. of Commerce, Industry, & Standardization: Halidou BADJ

Min. of Community Development: Saad SOULEY

Min. of Culture, Arts, & Communication: Oumarou HADARI

Min. of Defense: Djida HAMADOU

Min. of Economy & Finance: Ali Zeine LAMINE

Min. of the Environment & the Fight Against Desertification: Mohamed AKOTEY

Min. of Equipment: Omar SEYNI

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Aichatou MINDAOUDOU

Min. of Health & Disease Control: Issa LAMINE

Min. of Interior & Decentralization: Albade ABOUBA

Min. of Justice: Dagra MAMADOU

Min. of Mining & Energy: Abdoulahi MOHAMED

Min. of Population & Social Work: Mamadou Zilla BOUKARI

Min. of Privatization & Enterprise Restructuring: Lawali Rahamatou GAZOBI

Min. of Professional & Technical Training: Maizama HADIZA

Min. of Relations With Govt. Institutions: Salifou Madou KELZOU

Min. of Religious Affairs & Humanitarian Action: Labo ISSAKA

Min. of Secondary & Higher Education, Research, & Technology: Sidikou OUMAROU

Min. of Territorial Management & Community Development: Moussa MAMANE

Min. of Tourism & Handicrafts: Amadou Aissa SIDDO

Min. of Transport: Souleymane KANE

Min. of Urban Development, Housing, &Land Registry: Aissa Abdoulaye DIALLO

Min. of Water Resources, Environment, & Desertification Control: Tassiou AMINOU

Min. of Women's Promotion & Child Protection: Barry BIBATA

Min. of Young Business People'sPromotion & Public Companies: Salou GOBI

Min. of Youth, Sports, & Francophonie Games: Seydou ABDOURAHAMANIE

Ambassador to the US: Aminata Djibrilla Maiga TOURE

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Aboubacar Ibrahim ABANI

Next Elections Scheduled

Presidential elections— December 2009, two rounds; no date selected.

Legislative elections—December 2009; no date selected.

Local elections—Not scheduled, but expected in late 2008 or in 2009. Last local election was in July 2004.

ECONOMY

One of the poorest countries in the world, ranking last on the United Nations Human Development Index, Niger's economy is based largely on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small trading, seasonal migration, and informal markets dominate an economy that generates few formal sector jobs.

Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 20% of the population. Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production—camels, goats, sheep, and cattle—said to support 29% of the population. The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria. Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements. In 2004 localized drought and locust infestations contributed to a drop in global harvests of 11% and led the Embassy to make a disaster declaration. This decrease, combined with chronic structural food insecurity, high malnutrition, and other market factors, triggered a food crisis which began in May-June of 2005. Although food security continues to be a concern, the food crisis has ended as a result of good cereal harvests in 2005, 2006, and 2007.

Millet and sorghum are Niger's principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are limited quantities of garlic, peppers, gum arabic, and sesame seeds.

In 2006, foreign exchange earnings from livestock (14.7%) were second only to those from uranium (55.4%), followed by gold (13.6%) and agricultural products (9.9%). Actual livestock exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported, and some are transformed into handicrafts.

Recent global price increases have led to higher revenues for Niger's uranium sector, which provides approximately 55.4% of national export proceeds. The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s; however, when the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s the economy stagnated. The French nuclear power concern AREVA owns controlling shares in Niger's two national mining companies. As a result of higher world prices in 2007, AREVA agreed to pay the Government of Niger double what it had been paying for uranium. In 2007 the U.S. public utility holding company Exelon Corporation signed a contract with the Government of Niger to buy 300 tons of uranium each year for the next 10 years. Although AREVA controls the only two existing uranium mines in Niger (COMINAK's underground mine and SOMAIR's open pit mine), in 2007 the Government of Niger awarded 122 new mineral exploration licenses to companies from France, China, Canada, Australia, India, South Africa, and the United States.

Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. On October 5, 2004 President Tandja announced the official opening of the Samira Hill Gold Mine in the region of Tera and the first Nigerien gold ingot was presented to him. This marked a historical moment for Niger as the Samira

Hill Gold Mine represents the first commercial gold production in the country. Samira Hill is owned by a company called SML (Societe des Mines du Liptako), which is a joint venture between a Moroccan company—Societe SEMAFO Inc.—and a Canadian company—ETRUSCAN. Both companies own 80% (40%-40%) of SML and the GON 20%. In 2006, gold was Niger's third most important export, accounting for 13.6% of the country's total exports. In 2007 the Anglo-American company Caracal Gold Burkina was awarded two permits to explore for gold in the Tillaberi region.

Niger has oil potential. In 2006 an ExxonMobil-Petronas joint venture ceased exploration activities at what may be Niger's largest oil deposit, the Agadem block, located north of Lake Chad. In 2007 nineteen companies vied for exploration and production rights to the Agadem block, but none of these bids were accepted. The Government of Niger is trying to attract new bids on the Agadem block for 2008. The parastatal SONICHAR (Societe Nigerienne de Charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. There are additional coal deposits southwest of the current mines. Substantial deposits of phosphates, iron, limestone, and gypsum also have been found in Niger.

Niger enjoyed increased economic competitiveness following the January 1994 devaluation of the Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA) franc. Annual economic growth rates vary widely, due largely to the effect of rainfall on agricultural output. In 2005 the economy showed strong growth (7.1% real GDP growth) as a result of the agricultural sector's recovery from the poor harvests of 2004, and the continued growth of non-agricultural sectors. In 2006, the real GDP growth rate was at 5.1%.

The government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector. It revised the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992 and 2007), and mining code (1993) aimed at attracting investors.

Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union. The Treasury of the Government of France supplements the BCEAO's international reserves in order to maintain a fixed rate of 656 CFA to the euro.

Economic Reform

In January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems, including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries (11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund (IMF) program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). In January 2001, Niger reached its decision point and subsequently reached its completion point in 2004. The debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing about $40 million per year over the coming years for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction. Debt service as a percent of government revenue was slashed from nearly 44% in 1999 to 10.9% in 2003 and will average 4.3% during 2010-2019. The debt relief cut debt service as a percentage of export revenue from more than 23% to 8.4% in 2003, and decreases it to about 5% in later years. In 2005, the IMF canceled all of Niger's debts to it (approximately $111 million) incurred before January 2005. In 2006, the African Development Fund canceled $193 million in debt for Niger. Furthermore, the World Bank announced that approximately $745 million in debt relief for Niger would be phased in over the next 37 years.

In its effort to consolidate macroeconomic stability under the PRGF, the government is also taking action to reduce corruption, and as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, agricultural production, environmental protection, and judicial reform. In late 2006, Niger qualified for the Millennium Challenge Corporation's (MCC) Threshold Program. Niger will focus its MCC efforts on promoting girls' education, fighting corruption, and improving the business environment. Under the auspices of the World Bank, the government launched a major privatization effort in 1998 to divest itself of monopolies in water, power, and telecommunications and to transfer other public enterprises to private sector management. In 2001 Niger successfully privatized its telecommunications monopoly; however, the privatization of other industries has stalled. The privatization of the state-owned electric utility (NIGELEC) and the national oil distribution company (SONIDEP) are on hold indefinitely.

Foreign Aid

The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the IMF, and UN agencies—UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA. Other donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Japan, China, Italy, Libya, Egypt, Morocco, Iran, Denmark, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) does not have a Mission in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing on average $30 million each year to Niger's development. In late 2006 Niger qualified for Millennium Challenge Account threshold status. Niger is a key participant in the Trans-Saharan Counter-Terrorism program. Niger also benefits from the largest non-emergency PL 480 food assistance program in West Africa. Foreign aid represents 8.3% of Niger's GDP and over 40% of government revenues.

DEFENSE

The Niger Armed Forces total 12,000 personnel with approximately 3,700 gendarmes, 300 air force, and 8,000 army personnel. The air force has four transport aircraft. The armed forces include general staff and battalion task force organizations consisting of two paratroop units, four light armored units, and nine motorized infantry units located in Tahoua, Agadez, Dirkou, Zinder, Nguigmi, N'Gourti, and Madewela. In 1991, Niger sent a 400-man military contingent to join the American-led allied forces against Iraq during the Gulf War. Niger provides a battalion of peace-keeping forces to the UN Mission in Cote d'Ivoire.

Niger's defense budget is modest, accounting for about 1.6% of government expenditures. France provides the largest share of military assistance to Niger. Approximately 18 French military advisers are in Niger. Many Nigerien military personnel receive training in France, and the Nigerien Armed Forces are equipped mainly with materiel either given by or purchased in France. Morocco, Algeria, China, and Libya are also providing military assistance. A small U.S. foreign military assistance program was initiated in 1983. A U.S. Defense Attache office opened in June 1985 and assumed Security Assistance Office responsibilities in 1987. The office closed in 1996 following a coup d'etat. The U.S. Defense Attache office reopened in July 2000. The United States provided transportation and logistical assistance to Nigerien troops deployed to Cote d'Ivoire in 2003.

Additionally, the U.S. provided initial equipment training on vehicles and communications gear to a company of Nigerien soldiers as part of the Department of State Pan-Sahel Initiative. Military to military cooperation continues via the Trans Saharan Counter-Terrorism Partnership and other initiatives. EUCOM contributes funds for humanitarian assistance construction throughout the country. In 2007, a congressional waiver was granted which allows the Niger military to participate in the International Military Education and Training (IMET) program, managed by the Defense Attache Office. This program funded $170,000 in training in 2007.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as nonaligned countries. It belongs to the United Nations and its main specialized agencies and in 1980-81 served on the UN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with France and enjoys close relations with its West African neighbors. It is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger River and Lake Chad Basin Commissions, the Economic Community of West African States, the Nonaligned Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

U.S.-NIGERIEN RELATIONS

U.S. relations with Niger have generally been close and friendly since Niger attained independence. Although USAID does not have a Mission in Niger, $30 million in annual official aid is administered through American and local non-governmental organizations with programs addressing food security, health, local governance, youth training, girls' education, corruption control, and improving the business environment. The U.S. Peace Corps program in Niger started in 1962. It currently has about 130 volunteers in country and celebrated its 45th anniversary in Niger in September 2007.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

NIAMEY (E) B.P. 11201 Rue Des Ambassades, APO/FPO 2420 Niamey Place, Dulles, VA 20189-2420, +227 20-72-26-61/62/63/64, Fax +227 20-73-31-67, INMARSAT Tel 874 154 1474, Workweek: MTh 0800-1730; F-0800-1300, Website: http://niamey.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

September 6, 2007

Country Description: Niger is a developing, landlocked African nation whose northern area includes the Sahara Desert. Tourism facilities are minimal, particularly outside the capital city, Niamey, and the ancient caravan city of Agadez. Ecotourism and adventure tourism opportunities are plentiful.

Entry Requirements: A passport, visa, and proof of yellow fever inoculation are required. Travelers from countries without a Nigerien Embassy may be able to obtain a visa at the airport. Travelers from the United States should obtain a visa before arriving in Niger. Failure to do so could result in being denied entry to Niger. Travelers should obtain the latest information on entry/exit requirements from the Embassy of the Republic of Niger, 2204 R Street NW, Washington D.C. 20008, telephone: (202) 483-4224. Visit the Embassy of Niger web site at http://www.nigerembassyusa.org/for the most current visa information. Outside the U.S., inquiries should be made at the nearest Nigerien embassy or consulate.

Safety and Security: U.S. citizens are advised to avoid street demonstrations and maintain security awareness at all times. Historically, large numbers of students gather for demonstrations in January and February. These and any other demonstration should be avoided since even those intended to be peaceful can turn confrontational without much advanced warning. In early 2007, demonstrators smashed the windshield of a vehicle belonging to an American citizen who inadvertently drove into a demonstration.

As of May 17, 2007, the U.S. Embassy in Niamey prohibits official personnel from traveling into areas of Niger to the north of Abalack. All American citizens are strongly urged to follow the same guidelines due to a recent escalation of violence by the local rebel group, Movement for Justice in Niger (MNJ). Northern Niger, particularly in and around the cities of Ifer-ouane, Arlit, and Agadez, is affected by MNJ activities. In July 2007, MNJ ambushed a convoy in the Agadez region, kidnapping a Chinese citizen and holding him for ten days. Futher-more, landmines have been placed in the region and several have exploded killing military and civilian personnel. Several international organizations, including private and nongovernmental groups, have temporarily relocated personnel from these areas.

Foreigners who elect to travel in northern Niger despite the current security situation must submit an approved travel plan through the office of the Governor of Agadez. Travelers should first contact the Syndicat de Tourisme in Agadez (telephone: 96 98 78 81) to enlist the services of a registered tour operator, who will formally coordinate with Nigerien government and security officials on tourist safety and security in the North and who can facilitate the submission of the required itinerary and intended route.

For travel in any remote area of the country, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens to use registered guides, to travel with a minimum of two vehicles equipped with global positioning systems (GPS) and satellite phones. Travelers are advised to avoid restricted military areas and to consult local police authorities regarding their itinerary and security arrangements.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affair's Internet site at http://travel.state.gov, where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Note To Non Governmental Organization (NGO) Workers: Following the murder of a French tourist in the region of Agadez in December 2005, the Government of Niger (GON) began requiring that NGOs not only be registered and officially recognized but that they inform the GON of each mission they plan to undertake in Niger. To avoid detainment and/or expulsion by Nigerien authorities, Embassy Niamey strongly recommends that NGO workers:

Make sure that their NGO has registered and received official recognition from the Government of Niger. For details on how to do this please visit the Managing Office of Decentralised Cooperation and Non Governmental Organizations (Direction De La Cooperation Decentralisee Et Des Organisations Non Gouvernementales) in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministre des Affaires Etrangéres).

Carry with them a copy of the official recognition (Arrété) of the right of their NGO to operate in Niger.

If their international NGO sponsor is without a permanent presence in Niger, American citizens should verify that their NGO group has informed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at least two weeks prior to the start of a mission in Niger. This notice should be in written form and should include the purpose of the mission, names of the individuals who will be working for the NGO on the mission, the dates of the mission, where the mission will take place and the types & license plate numbers of the vehicles involved in the mission. The Ministry of the Interior should be copied on this notice of mission.

If their NGO is a national NGO, i.e., has a headquarters operation in Niger, the American citizens should verify that their group has informed the Ministry of Territorial and Community Development (Minstre de l'Aménagement du Territoire et du Développement Communautaire) at least two weeks prior to the start of a mission in Niger. This notice should be in written form and should include the purpose of the mission, the names of the individuals who will be working for the NGO on the mission, the dates of the mission, where the mission will take place and the types & license plate numbers of the vehicles involved in the mission. The Ministry of the Interior should be copied on this notice of mission.

NGOs should ask for receipt of their notification provided to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of the Interior and Ministry of Territorial and Community Development. Embassy Niamey strongly recommends that in addition to the above, NGO workers present themselves at the Regional Governor's office prior to beginning their mission in a particular portion of Niger. Again, NGO workers should ask for receipt of their presentation to the Regional Governor. It would also be wise to provide the Regional Governor with the same written notification that was provided to the Ministries listed above.

Crime: Crime is at a critical level due primarily to thefts, robberies, and residential break-ins. Foreigners are particularly vulnerable to attempts of bribery and extortion by law enforcement authorities. Thefts and petty crimes are common day or night. However, armed attacks are normally committed at night by groups of two to four persons, with one assailant confronting the victim with a knife while the others provide surveillance or a show of force. Tourists should not walk alone around the Gaweye Hotel, National Museum, and on or near the Kennedy Bridge at any time, or the Petit Marche after dark. These areas are especially prone to muggings and should be avoided. Walking at night is not recommended as streetlights are scarce and criminals have the protection of darkness to commit their crimes. Recent criminal incidents in Niger have included carjackings, sexual assaults, home invasions, and muggings. In December 2000, an American was killed in a carjacking incident in Niamey, and another American was gravely wounded in a carjacking incident outside of Niamey in 2004. In 2007, two American citizens were raped and two others attacked with a machete. Travelers should always keep their doors locked and windows rolled up when stopped at stoplights.

In August 2004, an attack against 2 buses on the Agadez-Arlit road left 3 dead and numerous persons wounded. A French tourist was murdered by bandits in the Agadez region in December 2005 during a robbery attempt. In August 2006, several Italian tourists were abducted near the Niger-Chad border. They were robbed of some of there possessions and later released. Due to continued sporadic incidents of violence and banditry and other security concerns, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens visiting or residing in Niger to exercise caution when traveling within the northern and eastern parts of the country, especially along the borders of Mali, Libya, Algeria and Chad. Given the insecurity along these border regions, the Department of State recommends that American citizens in Niger avoid traveling overland to Algeria and Libya. In previous attacks, groups of foreign travelers, including Americans, have been robbed of vehicles, cash and belongings. The government of Niger is taking steps to address crime/banditry but operates under severe resource constraints.

Use caution and common sense at all times to avoid thieves and pickpockets. An information sheet on safety and security practices is available from the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Niamey.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Health facilities are extremely limited in Niamey and urban centers, and completely inadequate outside the capital. Although physicians are generally well trained, even the best hospitals in Niamey suffer from inadequate facilities, antiquated equipment and shortages of supplies (particularly medicine). Emergency assistance is limited. Travelers must carry their own properly labeled supply of prescription drugs and preventative medicines.

Malaria is prevalent in Niger. Plasmodium falciparum malaria, the serious and sometimes fatal strain in Niger, is resistant to the anti-malarial drug chloroquine. Because travelers to Niger are at high risk for contracting malaria, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advises that travelers should take one of the following antimalarial drugs: mefloquine (Lariam), doxycy-cline, or atovaquone/proguanil (Malarone). The CDC has determined that a traveler who is on an appropriate antimalarial drug has a greatly reduced chance of contracting the disease. Other personal protective measures, such as the use of insect repellents, also help to reduce malaria risk. Travelers who become ill with a fever or flu-like illness while traveling in a malaria-risk area and up to one year after returning home should seek prompt medical attention and tell the physician their travel history and what antimalarials they have been taking. For additional information on malaria, protection from insect bites, and antimalarial drugs, please visit the CDC travelers' health web site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel

Tap water is unsafe to drink through-out Niger and should be avoided. Bottled water and beverages are safe, although visitors should be aware that many restaurants and hotels serve tap water. Ice made from tap water is also unsafe to consume.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel.

For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en/. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith/en.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Niger is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Road safety throughout Niger is a concern, and visitors are strongly urged to avoid driving at night outside of major cities. The public transportation system, urban and rural road conditions, and the availability of roadside assistance are all poor. U.S. travelers should exercise caution on Niger's roads, as traffic accidents are frequent. The main causes of accidents are driver carelessness, excessive speed, poorly maintained vehicles, and poor to non-existent road surfaces. Other factors include the hazardous mix of bicycles, mopeds, unwary pedestrians, donkey carts, farm animals, and buses on roads that are generally unpaved and poorly lighted. Overloaded tractor-trailers, “bush taxis,” and disabled vehicles are additional dangers on rural roads, where speeds are generally higher. Travel outside Niamey and other cities often requires four-wheel-drive vehicles, which creates an additional security risk since these vehicles—especially Toyota Land Cruisers—are high-theft items. Driving at night is always hazardous and should be avoided. Banditry is a continuing problem in northern and eastern Niger. There have been occasional carjackings and highway robberies throughout the country. While taxis are available at a fixed fare in Niamey, most are in poor condition, and do not meet basic U.S. road safety standards. Inter-city “bush-taxis” are available at negotiable fares, but these vehicles (minibuses, station wagons, and sedans) are generally older, unsafe models that are overloaded, poorly maintained, and driven by reckless operators seeking to save time and money. A national bus company (SNTV) operates coaches on inter-city routes and, since being reorganized in 2001, has provided reliable service and experienced no major accidents. Air Transport, Rimbo and Garba Messagé are private bus companies operating in Niger. There is some concern regarding the youth of drivers and the speed with which the private bus companies travel the Nigerien roads.

Visit the National Tourism Office on Rue de Grand Hotel in Niamey.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Niger, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Niger's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Dress Restrictions: Local culture and Islamic tradition encourage conservative dress for both men and women. There have been incidents of groups of men assaulting women who are, or appear to be, African and who are wearing other than traditional garments.

Photography Restrictions: Tourists are free to take pictures anywhere in Niger, except near military installations, radio and television stations, the Presidency Building, airport, or the Kennedy Bridge. Tourists should not photograph political and student demonstrations.

Currency Regulations: The West African Franc (FCFA) is the currency Niger shares with several other West African francophone countries, and is fully convertible into Euros. Foreign currency exchange over 1 million CFA (about $2,000 at 500 CFA/$1) requires authorization from the Ministry of Finance (available from all major banks).

Telephone Service: Due to poor line quality, callers often experience delays in getting a telephone line, and faxes are often garbled. Cellular phone service is available in Niamey and in many major cities.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Nigerien laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Niger are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Niger are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security within Niger. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located on Rue des Ambassades, mailing address B.P. 11201, telephone numbers (227) 20-72-26-61 through 64, and fax numbers (227) 20-73-31-67 or 20-72-31-46. The Embassy's after hours emergency number is (227) 20-72-31-41. Embassy's Internet address is http://niamey.usembassy.gov.

International Adoption

April 2006

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: Nigerien law does not technically permit adoptions by couples with biological children. A longstanding policy of granting exceptions is under review by the Direction de la Protection de l′Enfant (DPE).

Patterns Of Immigration: In the last seven years, no Nigerien children have received U.S. immigrant visas on the basis of being orphans adopted by U.S. citizens.

Adoption Authority: The government office responsible for adoptions in Niger is:

Centre d'Accueil des enfants en difficulté familiale
Direction de la protection de l'enfant,
Ministére du Developpement Social,
de la Population, de la Promotion de la Femme et de la Protection de
l'Enfant
BP 11386
Niamey, Niger
Telephone: 011-(227)-73-30-68

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: According to Nigerien law, the prospective adoptive parents must be married and one parent must be at least 35 years of age and they should have been married for a minimum of 10 years

Residency Requirements: There are no residency requirements for adoptions in Niger.

Time Frame: According to Nigerien authorities, the procedures as outlined above take one to three months. However, experience has been that they (the Nigerien government) generally take six months to a year.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: The sole agency authorized to handle adoptions in Niger is the “Centre d'Acceuil des Enfants en Difficulté Familiale,” the Nigerien govrnment entity cited above. However, this agency prefers that prospective adoptive parents work with an attorney who under

Although not required by Nigerien law, it is recommended that prospective adoptive parent(s) hire a local lawyer to handle their case. The U.S. Embassy maintains a list of attorney's known to work with U.S. citizen, found at http://niamey.usembassy.gov/niger/attorney.html. This list does not imply an endorsement of specific attorneys by the Embassy.

Adoption Fees: Adoption fees vary from attorney to attorney and may include service fee for application filing, passport and birth certificate application, court fees etc.

Adoption Procedures: The prospective adoptive parent(s) must submit the documents listed below under “Documentary Requirements” to the Direction de la Protection de l'Enfant (DPE) at the Ministry of Social Development (MSD) For adoptions pursued from abroad, the adoptive parents are expected to hire a local attorney to represent prospective them.

Once the DPE has issued a favorable recommendation for the placement of a child with the prospective adoptive parents overseas, the latter can request the child to be provisionally placed with a foster family in Niger recommended by the adoptive parents until the final decision by the judge. If the prospective adoptive parents have not identified a Nigerien family to temporarily care for the child, then the child stays at the orphanage where he or she reides until the adoptive family arrives in Niger. Prospective adoptive parents resident in Niger can request provisional custody themselves at this same stage of the process.

Upon receipt of a request from pro-spspective adoptive parents, the DPE reviews the file. After ensuring it is complete and fulfills the DPE's requirements, they forwards the case to the office of the Minister of Social Development for approval and transmission to the President of the Tribunal de la Justice for a hearing. The President of the Tribunal may direct a social worker to review the home study (“social survey”) contained in the file. If the parents are adopting from overseas, a home study performed to meet the requirements of their country of residence will be sufficient (in the case of U.S. families, the I-600A home study), but must be accompanied by a French translation. Once the review of the file is compplete, the greffier (court clerk) at the Tribunal schedules a hearing before the President of the Tribunal for the prospective adoptive parents. The President of the Tribunal sends a copy of the case file to the Procurer Géneral (District Attorney) and requests that office to direct a huissier (process server) to notify the prospective parents or their representative of the hearing date. This is the point at which the prospective adoptive parents must travel from the U.S. to Niger.

Unless the hearing reveals a documentary omission or other problems (depending on the individual case) the President of the Tribunal issues the formal custody decree at that time. After a two-month waiting period, during which the child may not leave Niger, the adoption becomes final and the adoptive parents can then proceed with obtaining a birth certificate for the child at the Etat Civil office at the Hotel de Ville (City Hall).

Documentary Requirements:

• A handwritten request/cover letter for the documents listed below delivered by the lawyer to the Direction de la Protection de l'Enfant at the Ministry of Social Development, signed by prospective adoptive parents;
• Marriage certificate of the prospective adoptive parents;
• Birth certificates of the prospective adoptive parents;
• Medical examination certificates for the prospective adoptive parents;
• ;Two photographs (b/w or color, any size) of the each of prospective adoptive parents;
• Sterility certificate for at least one prospective adoptive parent, if applicable. If neither is sterile, the prospective parents must state in the cover letter why they want to adopt a child;
• Nigerien police record for prospective adoptive parents is required for any time spent in Niger;
• Monthly or annual earnings statement;
• If the prospective adoptive parents (regardless of nationality) are resident in Niger, a certification of social survey (“home study”) performed by a Nigerien social worker;
• A copy of the home study submitted to USCIS professionally translated into French will suffice. However, it must include a psychological evaluation of the parents;
• Nationality certificates or passports of prospective parents.

Nigerien Government Follow-Up: Nigerien officials may claim that the prospective adoptive parents must sign an agreement to pay for Nigerien social workers to travel and visit the family every two years until the adopted child reaches majority. This is not an actual Nigerien legal requirement. In practice, Nigerien authorities have accepted a letter from the social service agency with jurisdiction over the prospective parents' place of residence in the U.S. that it will monitor the child's post-adoption development.

Travel Document For Child: Some Nigerien authorities have taken the view that, once a Nigerien child has been adopted by a foreign couple, s/he no longer has Nigerien nationality under Nigerien law and thus is entitled only to a single-sheet temporary passport as a one-time travel document. The Nigerien passport office at the Direction Surveillance du Territoire at the Ministry of Interior, however, routinely issues Nigerien passports to children adopted by parents of various nationalities, and would do the same for those adopted by Americans. Using the Nigerien birth certificate listing them as the parents, the adoptive parents must submit the passport application through their attorney, but pay only the normal passport issuance fee. Depending on your attorney a service fee may be included in the attorney fees.

Embassy of Niger
2204 R. Street, NW
Washington, DC 20008
Tel. (202) 483-4224
Fax. (202) 483-3169
Niger also has a mission to the United Nations in New York, but it does not handle consular issues, including those related to adoptions.

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

U.S. Embassy
Rue des Ambassades, BP 11201
Niamey, Niger,
Tel. (227) 72-26-61
Fax. (227) 73-31-67
Email: consulateniamey@state.gov
http://niamey.usembassy.gov

Additional Information: Specific questions about intercountry adoption in Niger may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Niamey. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

Niger

Compiled from the April 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Republic of Niger

PROFILE

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

DEFENSE

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-NIGERIEN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,267,000 sq. km (490,000 sq. mi.); about three times the size of California.

Cities: Capital—Niamey (pop. approx. 700,000). Other cities—Tahoua, Maradi, Zinder, Diffa, Dosso, Arlit, and Agadez.

Terrain: About two-thirds desert and mountains, one-third savanna.

Climate: Hot, dry, and dusty. Rainy season June–September.

People

Nationality: Noun and Adjective—Nigerien(s).

Population: (2002 est.) 11,342,000 million.

Annual growth rate: (2001) 3.3%.

Ethnic groups: Hausa 56%, Djerma 22%, Fulani 8.5%, Tuareg 8%, Beri Beri (Kanuri) 4.3%; Arab, Toubou, and Gourmantche 1.2%.

Religions: Islam (95%); remainder traditional and Christian.

Languages: French (official), Hausa, Djerma, Fulfulde, Kanuri, Tamachek, Toubou, Gourmantche, Arabic.

Education: Years compulsory—6. Attendance—34%. Literacy—15%.

Health: Infant mortality rate (2000)—248/1,000. Life expectancy—46 yrs.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: August 3, 1960.

Constitution: The constitution of December 26, 1992 was revised by national referendum on May 12, 1996 and again by referendum on July 18, 1999.

Government branches: Executive—president and prime minister. Legislative—unicameral National Assembly (113 MPs). Judicial—Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, High Court of Justice.

Political parties: Seven are represented in the National Assembly.

Suffrage: The constitution provides for universal suffrage for Nigeriens age 18 or older.

Political subdivisions: Eight regions subdivided into 36 districts (departments) and 265 communes (local councils).

Budget: $320 million.

Economy

GDP: (2003) $2.8 billion.

Annual growth rate: (2003) 3%.

Per capita GDP: (2003) $232.

Avg. inflation rate: (2003 est.) 2.69%

Natural resources: Uranium, gold, oil, coal, iron, tin, and phosphates.

Agriculture: (40% of GDP) Prod-ucts—millet, sorghum, cowpeas, peanuts, cotton, and rice.

Industry: (18% of GDP) Types—textiles, cement, soap, and beverages. Trade: (2002 est.) Exports (freight on board—f.o.b.)—$387 million. Types—uranium, livestock, cowpeas, and onions. Major markets—France 39%, Nigeria 31%, Japan 16%, Côte d’Ivoire 9%. Imports (f.o.b.)—$502 million. Types—consumer goods, petroleum, foodstuffs, and industrial products. Major suppliers—France 17%, Côte d’Ivoire 15%, China 10%, Nigeria 7%.

PEOPLE

The largest ethnic groups in Niger are the Hausa, who also constitute the major ethnic group in northern Nigeria, and the Djerma-Songhai, who also are found in parts of Mali. Both groups, along with the Gourmantche, are sedentary farmers who live in the arable, southern tier of the country. The remainder of Nigeriens are nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock-raising peoples—Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri, Arabs, and Toubou. With rapidly growing populations and the consequent competition for meager natural resources, lifestyles of agriculturalists and livestock herders have come increasingly into conflict in Niger in recent years.

Niger’s high infant mortality rate is comparable to levels recorded in neighboring countries. However, the child mortality rate (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is exceptionally high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country’s children. Nonetheless, Niger’s very high fertility rate (7.2%), means that nearly half (49%) of the Nigerien population is under age 15. School attendance is 50%, including 38% of males and only 27% of females. Additional education occurs through Koranic schools.

HISTORY

Considerable evidence indicates that about 600,000 years ago, humans inhabited what has since become the desolate Sahara of northern Niger. Long before the arrival of French influence and control in the area, Niger was an important economic crossroads, and the empires of Song-hai, Mali, Gao, Kanem, and Bornu, as well as a number of Hausa states, claimed control over portions of the area.

During recent centuries, the nomadic Tuareg formed large confederations, pushed southward, and, siding with various Hausa states, clashed with the Fulani Empire of Sokoto, which had gained control of much of the Hausa territory in the late 18th century.

In the 19th century, contact with the West began when the first European explorers—notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German)—explored the area searching for the mouth of the Niger River. Although French efforts at pacification began before 1900, dissident ethnic groups, especially the desert Tuareg, were not subdued until 1922, when Niger became a French colony.

Niger’s colonial history and development parallel that of other French West African territories. France administered its West African colonies through a governor general at Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. In addition to conferring French citizenship on the inhabitants of the territories, the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies.

A further revision in the organization of overseas territories occurred with the passage of the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956, followed by reorganizational measures enacted by the French Parliament early in 1957. In addition to removing voting inequalities, these laws provided for creation of governmental organs, assuring individual territories a large measure of self-government. After the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on December 4, 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community. Following full independence on August 3, 1960, however, membership was allowed to lapse.

For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. In 1974, a combination of devastating drought and accusations of rampant corruption resulted in a military coup that overthrew the Diori regime. Col. Seyni Kountche and a small group of military ruled the country until Kountche’s death in 1987. He was succeeded by his Chief of Staff, Col. Ali Saibou, who released political prisoners, liberalized some of Niger’s laws and policies, and promulgated a new constitution. However, President Saibou’s efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system.

The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. New political parties and civic associations sprang up, and a national conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. The debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Prof. Andre Salifou, the conference developed consensus on the modalities of a transition government. A transition government was installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. While the economy deteriorated over the course of the transition, certain accomplishments stand out, including the successful conduct of a constitutional referendum; the adoption of key legislation such as the electoral and rural codes; and the holding of several free, fair, and non-violent nationwide elections. Freedom of the press flourished with the appearance of several new independent newspapers.

Rivalries within a ruling coalition elected in 1993 led to governmental paralysis, which provided Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara a rationale to overthrow the Third Republic in January 1996. While leading a military authority that ran the government (Conseil de Salut National) during a 6-month transition period, Bare enlisted specialists to draft a new constitution for a Fourth Republic announced in May 1996.

After dissolving the national electoral committee, Bare organized and won a flawed presidential election in July 1996 and his party won 90% of parliament seats in a flawed legislative election in November 1996. When his efforts to justify his coup and subsequent questionable elections failed to convince donors to restore multilateral and bilateral economic assistance, a desperate Bare ignored an international embargo against Libya and sought Libyan funds to aid Niger’s economy. In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime, opposition leaders were imprisoned; journalists often arrested, beaten, and deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military; and independent media offices were looted and burned with impunity.

In the culmination of an initiative started under the 1991 national conference, however, the government signed peace accords in April 1995 with all Tuareg and Toubou groups that had been in rebellion since 1990, claiming they lacked attention and resources from the central government. The government agreed to

absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life. In April 1999, Bare was overthrown in a coup led by Maj. Daouda Mallam Wanke, who established a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution for a Fifth Republic with a French style semi-presidential system.

In votes that international observers found to be generally free and fair, the Nigerien electorate approved the new constitution in July 1999 and held legislative and presidential elections in October and November 1999. Heading a coalition of the National Movement for a Developing Society (MNSD) and the Democratic and Social Convention (CDS), Mamadou Tandja won the presidency.

In July 2004, Niger held municipal elections nationwide as part of its decentralization process. Some 3,700 people were elected to new local governments in 265 newly established communes. The ruling MNSD party won more positions than any other political party; however, opposition parties made significant gains. In November and December 2004, Niger held presidential and legislative elections. Tandja Mamadou was elected to his second 5-year presidential term with 65% of the vote in an election that international observers called generally free and fair. This was the first presidential election with a democratically elected incumbent and a test to Niger’s young democracy.

In the 2004 legislative elections, the National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD), the Democratic and Socialist Convention (CDS), the Rally for Social Democracy (RSD), the Rally for Democracy and Progress (RDP), the Nigerien Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ANDP), and the Social Party for Nigerien Democracy (PSDN) coalition, which backed Tandja, won 88 of the 113 seats in the National Assembly.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Niger’s new constitution was approved in July 1999. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the December 1992 constitution (Third Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power. As a reflection of Niger’s increasing population, the unicameral legislature was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a 5-year term under a majority system of representation. Political parties must attain at least 5% of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature.

Niger’s independent judicial system is composed of four higher courts—the Court of Appeals, the Supreme Court, the High Court of Justice, and the Constitutional Court.

The constitution also provides for the popular election of municipal and local officials, and the first-ever successful municipal elections took place July 24, 2004. The National Assembly passed in June 2002 a series of decentralization bills. As a first step, administrative powers will be distributed among 265 communes (local councils); in later stages, regions and departments will be established as decentralized entities. A new electoral code was adopted to reflect the decentralization context. The country is currently divided into 8 regions, which are subdivided into 36 districts (departments). The chief administrator (Governor) in each department is appointed by the government and functions primarily as the local agent of the central authorities.

The current legislature elected in December 2004 contains seven political parties. President Mamadou Tandja was re-elected in December 2004 and reappointed Hama Amadou as Prime Minister. Mahamane Ous-mane, the head of the CDS, was reelected President of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers.

The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on December 30, 2004. In August 2002, serious unrest within the military occurred in Niamey, Diffa, and Nguigmi, but the government was able to restore order within several days.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 8/15/2006

President: Mamadou TANDJA

Prime Minister: Hama AMADOU

Min. of Agricultural Development: Moussa LABO

Min. of Animal Resources: Abdoulaye JINA

Min. of Basic Education & Literacy: Ousame SAMBA

Min. of Civil Service & Labor: Kanda SIPTEY

Min. of Commerce, Industry, & Promotion of the Private Sector: Habi Mahamadou SALISSOU

Min. of Culture, Arts, & Communication: Oumarou HADARI

Min. of Defense: Hassane SOULEY

Min. of Economy & Finance: Ali Zeine LAMINE

Min. of Equipment: Omar SEYNI

Min. of Foreign Affairs, Cooperation, & African Integration: Aichatou MINDAOUDOU

Min. of Health & Disease Control: Mahamane KABAOU

Min. of Interior & Decentralization: Mody MUNKAILA

Min. of Justice: Elhadji Moussa MATTI

Min. of Mining & Energy: Abdoulahi MOHAMED

Min. of Population & Social Work: Mamadou Zilla BOUKARI

Min. of Privatization & Enterprise Restructuring: Lawali Rahamatou GAZOBI

Min. of Professional & Technical Training & Youth Employment: Daouda ABDOU

Min. of Secondary & Higher Education, Research, & Technology: Ousmane Dan GALADIMA

Min. of Territorial Management & Community Development: Moussa MAMANE

Min. of Tourism & Handicrafts: Amadou NOUHOU

Min. of Transport: Souleymane KANE

Min. of Urban Development, Housing, & Land Registry: Aissa Abdoulaye DIALLO

Min. of Water Resources, Environment, & Desertification Control: Abdou LABO

Min. of Women’s Promotion & Child Protection: Ousmane Zeinabou MOULAYE

Min. of Youth, Sports, & Francophonie Games: Seydou ABDOURAHAMANIE

Ambassador to the US: Aminata Maiga Djibrilla TOURE

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Aboubacar Ibrahim ABANI

Niger maintains an embassy in the United States at 2204 R Street, NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-483-4224/25/26/27) and a permanent mission to the United Nations at 417 East 50th Street, New York, NY 10022 (tel. 212-421-3260).

ECONOMY

One of the poorest countries in the world, Niger’s economy is based largely on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world’s largest uranium deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 3.3% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut an already marginal economy. Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small trading, seasonal migration, and informal markets dominate an economy that generates few formal sector jobs.

Niger’s agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population. Fourteen percent of Niger’s GDP is generated by livestock production—camels, goats, sheep, and cattle—said to support 29% of the population. The 15% of Niger’s land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria. Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements. Although from 2001-2003, rains were relatively plentiful and resulted in good cereal harvests, in 2004 localized drought and locust infestations contributed to a drop in global harvests of 11% and led the Embassy to make a disaster declaration. This decrease, combined with chronic structural food insecurity, high malnutrition, and other market factors, triggered a food crisis which began in May-June of 2005. Millet, sorghum, and cassava are Niger’s principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are limited quantities of garlic, peppers, gum arabic, and sesame seeds.

Of Niger’s exports, foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although difficult to quantify, are second only to those from uranium. Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported, and some are transformed into handicrafts.

The persistent uranium price slump has brought lower revenues for Niger’s uranium sector, although uranium still provides 72% of national export proceeds. The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s after the opening of two large uranium mines near the northern town of Arlit. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s, however, the economy stagnated, and new investment since then has been limited. Niger’s two uranium mines—SOMAIR’s open pit mine and COMINAK’s underground mine—are owned by a French-led consortium and operated by French interests.

Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. On October 5, 2004 President Tandja announced the official opening of the Samira Hill Gold Mine in the region of Tera and the first Nigerien gold ingot was presented to him. This marked a historical moment for Niger as the Samira Hill Gold Mine represents the first commercial gold production in the country. Samira Hill is owned by a company called SML (Societe des Mines du Liptako), which is a joint venture between a Moroccan company—Societe SEMAFO Inc.—and a Canadian company—ETRUSCAN. Both companies own 80% (40%–40%) of SML and the GON 20%. The first year’s production is predicted to be 135,000 ounces of gold at a cash value of USD 177 per ounce. The mine reserves for the Samira Hill mine total 10,073,626 tons at an average grade of 2.21 grams per ton from which 618,000 ounces will be recovered over a 6 year mine life. SML believes to have a number of significant gold deposits within what is now recognized as the gold belt known as the “Samira Horizon.”

Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum also have been found in Niger. Niger has oil potential. In 1992, the Djado permit was awarded to Hunt Oil, and in 2003 the Tenere permit was awarded to the China National Petroleum Company. An ExxonMobil-Petronas joint venture now holds the sole rights to the Agadem block, north of Lake Chad, and oil exploration is ongoing. The parastatal SONICHAR (Societe Nigerienne de Charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. There are additional coal deposits to the south and west that are of a higher quality and may be exploitable.

The economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 devaluation of the Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA) franc contributed to an annual average economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s. But the economy stagnated due to the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1999 (which gradually resumed in 2000) and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying economic growth of 5.1% in 2000, 3.1% in 2001, 6.0% in 2002, and 3.0% in 2003.

In recent years, the Government of Niger drafted revisions to the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992), and mining code (1993), all with attractive terms for investors. The present government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector.

Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union. The Treasury of the Government of France supplements the BCEAO’s international reserves in order to maintain a fixed rate of 656 CFA to the euro.

Economic Reform

In January 2000, Niger’s newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems, including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries (11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund (IMF) program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). In January 2001, Niger reached its decision point and subsequently reached its completion point in 2004. Total relief from all of Niger’s creditors is worth about $890 million, corresponding to about $520 million in net present value (NPV) terms, which is equivalent to 53.5% of Niger’s total debt outstanding as of 2000. The debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger’s annual debt service obligations, freeing about $40 million per year over the coming years for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction. The overall impact on Niger’s budget is substantial. Debt service as a percentage of government revenue was slashed from nearly 44% in 1999 to 10.9% in 2003 and will average 4.3% during 2010-19. The debt relief cut debt service as a percentage of export revenue from more than 23% to 8.4% in 2003, and decreases it to about 5% in later years.

In addition to strengthening the budgetary process and public finances, the Government of Niger has embarked on an ambitious program to privatize 12 state-owned companies. As of January 2005, seven had been fully privatized, including the water and telephone utilities, with the remainder to be privatized in 2005. A newly installed multisectoral regulatory agency will help ensure free and fair competition among the newly privatized companies and their private sector competitors. In its effort to consolidate macroeconomic stability under the PRGF, the government is also taking actions to reduce corruption, and as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, agricultural production, environmental protection, and judicial reform.

Foreign Aid

The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the IMF, and UN agencies—UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA. Other donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Japan, China, Italy, Libya, Egypt, Morocco, Iran, Denmark, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing on average $8 million each year to Niger’s development increasing to $12 million in FY 2004. The United States also is a major partner in policy coordination in food security, education, water management and HIV/AIDS sectors. The importance of external support for Niger’s development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government’s FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derived from donor resources.

DEFENSE

The Niger Armed Forces total 10,000 personnel with approximately 3,700 gendarmes, 300 air force, and 6,000 army personnel. The air force has four operational transport aircraft. The armed forces include general staff and battalion task force organizations consisting of two paratroop units, four light armored units, and nine motorized infantry units located in Tahoua, Agadez, Dirkou, Zinder, Nguigmi, N’Gourti, and Madewela. Since January 2003, Niger has deployed a company of troops to Cote d’Ivoire as part of the ECOWAS stabilization force. In 1991, Niger sent a 400-man military contingent to join the American-led allied forces against Iraq during the Gulf War.

Niger’s defense budget is modest, accounting for about 1.6% of government expenditures. France provides the largest share of military assistance to Niger. Morocco, Algeria, China, and Libya have also provided military assistance. Approximately 15 French military advisers are in Niger. Many Nigerien military personnel receive training in France, and the Nigerien Armed Forces are equipped mainly with materiel either given by or purchased in France. In the past, U.S. assistance focused on training pilots and aviation support personnel, professional military education for staff officers, and initial specialty training for junior officers. A small foreign military assistance program was initiated in 1983. A U.S. Defense Attaché office opened in June 1985 and assumed Security Assistance Office responsibilities in 1987. The office closed in 1996 following a coup d’état. A U.S. Defense Attaché office reopened in July 2000. The United States provided transportation and logistical assistance to Nigerien troops deployed to Cote d’Ivoire in 2003. Additionally, the U.S. provided initial equipment training on vehicles and communications gear to a select contingent of Nigerien soldiers as part of the Department of State Pan-Sahel Initiative.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as nonaligned countries. It belongs to the United Nations and its main specialized agencies and in 1980-81 served on the UN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with France and enjoys close relations with its West African neighbors. It is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger River and Lake Chad Basin Commissions, the Economic Community of West African States, the Nonaligned Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

U.S.-NIGERIEN RELATIONS

U.S. relations with Niger have generally been close and friendly since Niger attained independence. Although USAID does not have an office in Niger, $8 million in official aid is administered through American and local non-governmental organizations with programs addressing food security, HIV/AIDS, and democracy and governance. The U.S. Peace Corps program, started in Niger in 1962, averages about 100 volunteers in country.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

NIAMEY (E) Address: B.P. 11201 Rue Des Ambassades; APO/FPO: 2420 Niamey Place, Dulles, VA 20189-2420; Phone: +227 20-72-26-61/62/63/64; Fax: +227 20-73-31-67; INMARSAT Tel: 874 154 1474; Work week: M-Th 0800-1730; F-0800-1300; Website: http://niamey.usembassy.gov/.

Last Updated: 1/30/2007

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : February 15, 2007

Country Description: Niger is a developing, landlocked African nation whose northern area includes the Sahara Desert. Tourism facilities are minimal, particularly outside the capital city, Niamey, and the ancient caravan city of Agadez. Ecotourism and adventure tourism opportunities are plentiful.

Exit/Entry Requirements: A passport, visa, and proof of yellow fever inoculation are required. Visas can be obtained at the airport. Travelers should obtain the latest information on entry/exit requirements from the Embassy of the Republic of Niger, 2204 R Street NW, Washington D.C. 20008, telephone: (202) 483-4224.

Safety and Security: U.S. citizens are advised to avoid street demonstrations and maintain security awareness at all times. Large student demonstrations in January and February have been annual occurrences historically, and should be avoided since even demonstrations intended to be peaceful can turn confrontational at times without much advanced warning. For travel in remote areas of the country, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens to use registered guides and to travel with a minimum of two vehicles. All foreigners traveling in northern Niger must present an approved travel route through the office of the Governor of Agadez. For tourists, this can most easily be done by using registered tour operators, who coordinate formally and regularly with Nigerien government and security officials on tourist safety and security in the North. Names of such tour operators can be obtained from the tourism association in Agadez (Syndicat de Tourisme, telephone: 96 98 78 81). Global positioning systems and satellite phones are also recommended. Travelers are advised to avoid restricted military areas and to consult local police authorities regarding their itinerary and security arrangements. U.S. citizens visiting Niger are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Niamey. For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site, where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Note to Non Governmental Organization (NGO) Workers: Following the murder of a French tourist in the region of Agadez in December 2005, the Government of Niger (GON) began requiring that NGOs not only be registered and officially recognized but that they inform the GON of each mission they plan to undertake in Niger. To avoid detainment and/or expulsion by Nigerien authorities, Embassy Niamey strongly recommends that NGO workers:

• Make sure that their NGO has registered and received official recognition from the Government of Niger. For details on how to do this please visit the Managing Office of Decentralized Cooperation and Non Governmental Organizations (Direction De La Cooperation Decentralizes Et Des Organisations Non Gouvernementales) in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ministre des Affaires Etrangères).
• Carry with them a copy of the official recognition (Arrêté) of the right of their NGO to operate in Niger.
• If their international NGO sponsor is without a permanent presence in Niger, the American citizen should verify that their NGO group has informed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs at least two weeks prior to the start of a mission in Niger. This notice should be in written form and should include the purpose of the mission, names of the individuals who will be working for the NGO on the mission, the dates of the mission, where the mission will take place and the types & license plate numbers of the vehicles involved in the mission. The Ministry of the Interior should be copied on this notice of mission.
• If their NGO is a national NGO, i.e., has a headquarters operation in Niger, the American citizens should verify that their group has informed the Ministry of Territorial and Community Development (Minstre de l’Aménagement du Territoire et du Développement Communautaire) at least two weeks prior to the start of a mission in Niger. This notice should be in written form and should include the purpose of the mission, the names of the individuals who will be working for the NGO on the mission, the dates of the mission, where the mission will take place and the types & license plate numbers of the vehicles involved in the mission. The Ministry of the Interior should be copied on this notice of mission.
• NGOs should ask for receipt of their notification provided to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of the Interior and Ministry of Territorial and Community Development.
• Embassy Niamey strongly recommends that in addition to the above, NGO workers present themselves at the Regional Governor’s office prior to beginning their mission in a particular portion of Niger. Again, NGO workers should ask for receipt of their presentation to the Regional Governor. It would also be wise to provide the Regional Governor with the same written notification that was provided to the Ministries listed above.

Crime: Crime is at a critical level due primarily to the number of thefts, robberies, and residential break-ins. Foreigners are particularly vulnerable to attempts of bribery and extortion by law enforcement authorities. Theft and petty crimes are common day or night. However, armed attacks are normally committed at night by groups of two to four persons, with one assailant confronting the victim with a knife while the others provide surveillance or a show of force. Tourists should not walk alone around the Gaweye Hotel, National Museum, and on or near the Kennedy Bridge at any time, or the Petit Marche after dark. These areas are especially prone to mugging and should be avoided. Walking at night is not recommended as streetlights are scarce and criminals have the protection of darkness to commit their crimes. Recent criminal incidents in Niger have included carjacking, home invasion, and mugging. In December 2000, an American was killed in a carjacking incident in Niamey, and another American was gravely wounded in a carjacking incident outside of Niamey in 2004. Travelers should always keep their doors locked and windows rolled up when stopped at stoplights.

In August 2004, an attack against 2 buses on the Agadez-Arlit road left 3 dead and numerous persons wounded. A French tourist was murdered by bandits in the Agadez region in December 2005 during a robbery attempt. In August 2006, several Italian tourists were abducted near the Niger-Chad border. They were robbed of some of there possessions and later released. Due to continued sporadic incidents of violence and banditry and other security concerns, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens visiting or residing in Niger to exercise caution when traveling within the northern and eastern parts of the country, especially along the borders of Mali, Libya, Algeria and Chad. Given the insecurity along these border regions, the Department of State recommends that American citizens in Niger avoid traveling overland to Algeria and Libya.

In previous attacks, groups of foreign travelers, including Americans, have been robbed of vehicles, cash and belongings. The government of Niger is taking steps to address crime/banditry but operates under severe resource constraints. Use caution and common sense at all times to avoid thieves and pickpockets.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you in finding appropriate medical care, contacting family members or friends and explaining how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you understand the local criminal justice process and provide you with a list of attorneys, if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Health facilities are extremely limited in Niamey and urban centers, and completely inadequate outside the capital. Although physicians are generally well trained, even the best hospitals in Niamey suffer from inadequate facilities, antiquated equipment and shortages of supplies (particularly medicine). Emergency assistance is limited. Travelers must carry their own properly labeled supply of prescription drugs and preventative medicines.

Malaria is prevalent in Niger. Plasmodium falciparum malaria, the serious and sometimes fatal strain in Niger, is resistant to the anti-malarial drug chloroquine. Because travelers to Niger are at high risk for contracting malaria, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advises that travelers should take one of the following antimalarial drugs: mefloquine (Lariam -tm), doxycycline, or atovaquone/proguanil (Malarone -tm). The CDC has determined that a traveler who is on an appropriate antimalarial drug has a greatly reduced chance of contracting the disease. Other personal protective measures, such as the use of insect repellents, also help to reduce malaria risk. Travelers who become ill with a fever or flu-like illness while traveling in a malaria-risk area and up to one year after returning home should seek prompt medical attention and tell the physician their travel history and what antimalarials they have been taking. For additional information on malaria, protection from insect bites, and antimalarial drugs, please visit the CDC Travelers’ Health web site at http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/.

Tap water is unsafe to drink throughout Niger and should be avoided. Bottled water and beverages are safe, although visitors should be aware that many restaurants and hotels serve tap water. Ice made from tap water is also unsafe to consume. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect-bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (877-394-8747); or via CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. In general, hepatitis A and rabies vaccinations are strongly advised. Travelers should also make sure they have had a tetanus vaccination within the last ten years. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Niger is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Road safety throughout Niger is a concern, and visitors are strongly urged to avoid driving at night outside of major cities. The public transportation system, urban and rural road conditions, and the availability of roadside assistance are all poor. U.S. travelers should therefore exercise caution on Niger’s roads, as traffic accidents are frequent. The main causes of accidents are driver carelessness, excessive speed, poorly maintained vehicles, and poor to nonexistent road surfaces. Other factors include the hazardous mix of bicycles, mopeds, unwary pedestrians, donkey carts, farm animals, and buses on roads that are generally unpaved and poorly lighted. Overloaded tractor-trailers, “bush taxis,” and disabled vehicles are additional dangers on rural roads, where speeds are generally higher. Travels outside Niamey and other cities often require four-wheel-drive vehicles, which creates an additional security risk since these vehicles—especially Toyota Land Cruisers—are high-theft items. Driving at night is always hazardous and should be avoided. Banditry is a continuing problem in northern and eastern Niger. There have been occasional carjackings and highway robberies throughout the country.

While taxis are available at a fixed fare in Niamey, most are in poor condition, and do not meet basic U.S. road safety standards. Inter-city “bush-taxis” are available at negotiable fares, but these vehicles (minibuses, station wagons, and sedans) are generally older, unsafe models that are overloaded, poorly maintained, and driven by reckless operators seeking to save time and money. A national bus company (SNTV) operates coaches on inter-city routes and, since being reorganized in 2001, has provided reliable service and experienced no major accidents. Air Transport, Rimbo and Garba Messagé are private bus companies operating in Niger. There is some concern regarding the youth of drivers and the speed with which the private bus companies travel the Nigerien roads.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Niger, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Niger’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet web site at www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Dress Restrictions : Local culture and Islamic tradition encourage conservative dress for both men and women. There have been incidents of groups of men assaulting women who are, or appear to be, African and who are wearing other than traditional garments.

Photography Restrictions: Tourists are free to take pictures anywhere in Niger, except near military installations, radio and television stations, the Presidency Building, airport, or the Kennedy Bridge. Tourists should not photograph political and student demonstrations.

Currency Regulations: The West African Franc (FCFA) is the currency Niger shares with several other West African francophone countries, and is fully convertible into Euros. Foreign currency exchange over 1 million CFA (about $2,000 at 500 CFA/$1) requires authorization from the Ministry of Finance (available from all major banks).

Telephone Service: Due to poor line quality, callers often experience delays in getting a telephone line, and faxes are often garbled. Cellular phone service is available in Niamey and in many major cities.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Nigerien law, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use of, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Niger are severe and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Locations: U.S. citizens living or traveling in Niger are encouraged to register at the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Niger. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy in Niger.

By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or the Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located on Rue des Ambassades, mailing address B.P. 11201, telephone numbers (227) 20-72-26-61 through 64, and fax numbers (227) 20-73-31-67 or 20-72-31-46. The Embassy’s after hours emergency number is (227) 20-72-31-41. Embassy’s Internet address is http://niamey.usembassy.gov.

International Adoption : April 2006

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: Nigerien law does not technically permit adoptions by couples with biological children. A longstanding policy of granting exceptions is under review by the Direction de la Protection de l’Enfant (DPE).

Patterns of Immigration: In the last seven years, no Nigerien children have received U.S. immigrant visas on the basis of being orphans adopted by U.S. citizens.

Adoption Authority: The government office responsible for adoptions in Niger is:

Centre d’Accueil des enfants en difficulté familiale
Direction de la protection de l’enfant
Ministère du Développement Social, de la Population, de la Promotion de la Femme et de la Protection de l’Enfant
BP 11386
Niamey, Niger
Telephone: 011-(227)-73-30-68

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: According to Nigerien law, the prospective adoptive parents must be married and one parent must be at least 35 years of age and they should have been married for a minimum of 10 years

Residency Requirements: There are no residency requirements for adoptions in Niger.

Time Frame: According to Nigerien authorities, the procedures as outlined above take one to three months. However, experience has been that they (the Nigerien government) generally take six months to a year.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: The sole agency authorized to handle adoptions in Niger is the “Centre d’Acceuil des Enfants en Difficulté Familiale,” the Nigerien government entity cited above. However, this agency prefers that prospective adoptive parents work with an attorney who understands local law.

Although not required by Nigerien law, it is recommended that prospective adoptive parent(s) hire a local lawyer to handle their case. The U.S. Embassy maintains a list of attorney’s known to work with U.S. citizen, found at http://niamey.usembassy.gov/niger/attorney.html. This list does not imply an endorsement of specific attorneys by the Embassy.

Adoption Fees: Adoption fees vary from attorney to attorney and may include service fee for application filing, passport and birth certificate application, court fees etc.

Adoption Procedures: The prospective adoptive parent(s) must submit the documents listed below under “Documentary Requirements” to the Direction de la Protection de l’Enfant (DPE) at the Ministry of Social Development (MSD) For adoptions pursued from abroad, the adoptive parents are expected to hire a local attorney to represent prospective them.

Once the DPE has issued a favorable recommendation for the placement of a child with the prospective adoptive parents overseas, the latter can request the child to be provisionally placed with a foster family in Niger recommended by the adoptive parents until the final decision by the judge. If the prospective adoptive parents have not identified a Nigerien family to temporarily care for the child, then the child stays at the orphanage where he or she reides until the adoptive family arrives in Niger. Prospective adoptive parents resident in Niger can request provisional custody themselves at this same stage of the process.

Upon receipt of a request from prospective adoptive parents, the DPE reviews the file. After ensuring it is complete and fulfills the DPE’s requirements, they forwards the case to the office of the Minister of Social Development for approval and transmission to the President of the Tribunal de la Justice for a hearing. The President of the Tribunal may direct a social worker to review the home study (“social survey”) contained in the file. If the parents are adopting from overseas, a home study performed to meet the requirements of their country of residence will be sufficient (in the case of U.S. families, the I-600A home study), but must be accompanied by a French translation.

Once the review of the file is complete, the greffier (court clerk) at the Tribunal schedules a hearing before the President of the Tribunal for the prospective adoptive parents. The President of the Tribunal sends a copy of the case file to the Procurer Général (District Attorney) and requests that office to direct a huissier (process server) to notify the prospective parents or their representative of the hearing date. This is the point at which the prospective adoptive parents must travel from the U.S. to Niger.

Unless the hearing reveals a documentary omission or other problems (depending on the individual case) the President of the Tribunal issues the formal custody decree at that time. After a two-month waiting period, during which the child may not leave Niger, the adoption becomes final and the adoptive parents can then proceed with obtaining a birth certificate for the child at the Etat Civil office at the Hotel de Ville (City Hall).

Documentary Requirements:

• A handwritten request/cover letter for the documents listed below delivered by the lawyer to the Direction de la Protection de l’Enfant at the Ministry of Social Development, signed by prospective adoptive parents;
• Marriage certificate of the prospective adoptive parents;
• Birth certificates of the prospective adoptive parents;
• Medical examination certificates for the prospective adoptive parents. Although any qualified physician can do the exam, the results/report must be in French; [translation of the medical report is accepted]
• Psychological evaluation of each of the prospective adoptive parents in French;
• Two photographs (b/w or color, any size) of the each of prospective adoptive parents;
• Sterility certificate for at least one prospective adoptive parent, if applicable. If neither is sterile, the prospective parents must state in the cover letter why they want to adopt a child;
• Nigerien police record for prospective adoptive parents is required for any time spent in Niger. According to Nigerien authorities, police records are not required from other countries where the prospective adoptive parents have lived.
• Monthly or annual earnings statement;
• If the prospective adoptive parents (regardless of nationality) are resident in Niger, a certification of social survey (“home study”) performed by a Nigerien social worker;
• A copy of the home study submitted to USCIS professionally translated into French will suffice. However, it must include a psychological evaluation of the parents;
• Nationality certificates or passports of prospective parents.

Home Study: Prospective adoptive parents resident in Niger who plan to apply for an immigrant visa for an orphan (immigrant visa category IR-3 or IR-4), must be certain that the home study performed to fulfill Nigerien requirements also meets the more rigorous requirements of U.S. immigration law.

Nigerien Government Follow-Up: Nigerien officials may claim that the prospective adoptive parents must sign an agreement to pay for Nigerien social workers to travel and visit the family every two years until the adopted child reaches majority. This is not an actual Nigerien legal requirement. In practice, Nigerien authorities have accepted a letter from the social service agency with jurisdiction over the prospective parents’ place of residence in the U.S. that it will monitor the child’s post-adoption development.

Travel Document for Child: Some Nigerien authorities have taken the view that, once a Nigerien child has been adopted by a foreign couple, s/he no longer has Nigerien nationality under Nigerien law and thus is entitled only to a single-sheet temporary passport as a one-time travel document. The Nigerien passport office at the Direction Surveillance du Territoire at the Ministry of Interior, however, routinely issues Nigerien passports to children adopted by parents of various nationalities, and would do the same for those adopted by Americans. Using the Nigerien birth certificate listing them as the parents, the adoptive parents must submit the passport application through their attorney, but pay only the normal passport issuance fee. Depending on your attorney a service fee may be included in the attorney fees.

Embassy of Niger:

2204 R. Street, NW
Washington, DC 20008
Tel. (202) 483-4224
Fax. (202) 483 – 3169

Niger also has a mission to the United Nations in New York, but it does not handle consular issues, including those related to adoptions.

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adopting Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family.

U.S. Embassy in Niger:

Rue des Ambassades, BP 11201
Niamey, Niger
Tel. (227) 72-26-61
Fax. (227) 73-31-67
Email: consulateniamey@state.gov
http://niamey.usembassy.gov/

Additional Information: Specific questions about intercountry adoption in Niger may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Niamey. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children’s Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

NIGER

Compiled from the September 2005 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Republic of Niger

PROFILE

Geography

Area:

1,267,000 sq. km (490,000 sq. mi.); about three times the size of California.

Cities:

Capital—Niamey (pop. approx. 700,000).

Other cities—Tahoua, Maradi, Zinder, Diffa, Dosso, Arlit, and Agadez.

Terrain:

About two-thirds desert and mountains, one-third savanna.

Climate:

Hot, dry, and dusty. Rainy season June - September.

People

Nationality:

Noun and Adjective—Nigerien(s).

Population:

(2002 est.) 11,342,000 million.

Annual growth rate (2001):

3.3%.

Ethnic groups:

Hausa 56%, Djerma 22%, Fulani 8.5%, Tuareg 8%, Beri Beri (Kanuri) 4.3%; Arab, Toubou, and Gourmantche 1.2%.

Religion:

Islam (95%); remainder traditional and Christian.

Language:

French (official), Hausa, Djerma, Fulfulde, Kanuri, Tamachek, Toubou, Gourmantche, Arabic.

Education:

Years compulsory—6. Attendance—34%. Literacy—15%.

Health:

Infant mortality rate (2000)—248/1,000. Life expectancy—46 yrs.

Government

Type:

Republic.

Independence:

August 3, 1960.

Constitution:

The constitution of December 26, 1992 was revised by national referendum on May 12, 1996 and again by referendum on July 18, 1999.

Branches:

Executive—president and prime minister. Legislative—unicameral National Assembly (113 MPs). Judicial—Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, High Court of Justice.

Political parties:

Seven are represented in the National Assembly.

Suffrage:

The constitution provides for universal suffrage for Nigeriens age 18 or older.

Administrative subdivisions:

Eight regions subdivided into 36 districts (departments) and 265 communes (local councils).

Central government budget:

$320 million.

Economy

GDP (2003):

$2.8 billion.

Annual growth rate (2003):

3%.

Per capita GDP (2003):

$232.

Avg. inflation rate (2003 est.):

2.69%

Natural resources:

Uranium, gold, oil, coal, iron, tin, and phosphates.

Agriculture (40% of GDP):

Products—millet, sorghum, cowpeas, peanuts, cotton, and rice.

Industry (18% of GDP):

Types—textiles, cement, soap, and beverages.

Trade (2002 est.):

Exports (freight on board—f.o.b.)—$387 million. Types—uranium, livestock, cowpeas, and onions. Major markets—France 39%, Nigeria 31%, Japan 16%, Côte d'Ivoire 9%. Imports (f.o.b.)—$502 million. Types—consumer goods, petroleum, foodstuffs, and industrial products. Major suppliers—France 17%, Côte d'Ivoire 15%, China 10%, Nigeria 7%.

PEOPLE

The largest ethnic groups in Niger are the Hausa, who also constitute the major ethnic group in northern Nigeria, and the Djerma-Songhai, who also are found in parts of Mali. Both groups, along with the Gourmantche, are sedentary farmers who live in the arable, southern tier of the country. The remainder of Nigeriens are nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock-raising peoples—Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri, Arabs, and Toubou. With rapidly growing populations and the consequent competition for meager natural resources, lifestyles of agriculturalists and livestock herders have come increasingly into conflict in Niger in recent years.

Niger's high infant mortality rate is comparable to levels recorded in neighboring countries. However, the child mortality rate (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is exceptionally high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. Nonetheless, Niger's very high fertility rate (7.2%), means that nearly half (49%) of the Nigerien population is under age 15. School attendance is 50%, including 38% of males and only 27% of females. Additional education occurs through Koranic schools.

HISTORY

Considerable evidence indicates that about 600,000 years ago, humans inhabited what has since become the desolate Sahara of northern Niger. Long before the arrival of French influence and control in the area, Niger was an important economic crossroads, and the empires of Songhai, Mali, Gao, Kanem, and Bornu, as well as a number of Hausa states, claimed control over portions of the area.

During recent centuries, the nomadic Tuareg formed large confederations, pushed southward, and, siding with various Hausa states, clashed with the Fulani Empire of Sokoto, which had gained control of much of the Hausa territory in the late 18th century.

In the 19th century, contact with the West began when the first European explorers—notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German)—explored the area searching for the mouth of the Niger River. Although French efforts at pacification began before 1900, dissident ethnic groups, especially the desert Tuareg, were not subdued until 1922, when Niger became a French colony.

Niger's colonial history and development parallel that of other French West African territories. France administered its West African colonies through a governor general at Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. In addition to conferring French citizenship on the inhabitants of the territories, the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies.

A further revision in the organization of overseas territories occurred with the passage of the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956, followed by reorganizational measures enacted by the French Parliament early in 1957. In addition to removing voting inequalities, these laws provided for creation of governmental organs, assuring individual territories a large measure of self-government. After the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on December 4, 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community. Following full independence on August 3, 1960, however, membership was allowed to lapse.

For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. In 1974, a combination of devastating drought and accusations of rampant corruption resulted in a military coup that overthrew the Diori regime. Col. Seyni Kountche and a small group of military ruled the country until Kountche's death in 1987. He was succeeded by his Chief of Staff, Col. Ali Saibou, who released political prisoners, liberalized some of Niger's laws and policies, and promulgated a new constitution. However, President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. New political parties and civic associations sprang up, and a national conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. The debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Prof. Andre Salifou, the conference developed consensus on the modalities of a transition government. A transition government was installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. While the economy deteriorated over the course of the transition, certain accomplishments stand out, including the successful conduct of a constitutional referendum; the adoption of key legislation such as the electoral and rural codes; and the holding of several free, fair, and nonviolent nationwide elections. Freedom of the press flourished with the appearance of several new independent newspapers.

Rivalries within a ruling coalition elected in 1993 led to governmental paralysis, which provided Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara a rationale to overthrow the Third Republic in January 1996. While leading a military authority that ran the government (Conseil de Salut National) during a 6-month transition period, Bare enlisted specialists to draft a new constitution for a Fourth Republic announced in May 1996. After dissolving the national electoral committee, Bare organized and won a flawed presidential election in July 1996 and his party won 90% of parliament seats in a flawed legislative election in November 1996. When his efforts to justify his coup and subsequent questionable elections failed to convince donors to restore multilateral and bilateral economic assistance, a desperate Bare ignored an international embargo against Libya and sought Libyan funds to aid Niger's economy. In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime, opposition leaders were imprisoned; journalists often arrested, beaten, and deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military; and independent media offices were looted and burned with impunity.

In the culmination of an initiative started under the 1991 national conference, however, the government signed peace accords in April 1995 with all Tuareg and Toubou groups that had been in rebellion since 1990, claiming they lacked attention and resources from the central government. The government agreed to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.

In April 1999, Bare was overthrown in a coup led by Maj. Daouda Mallam Wanke, who established a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution for a Fifth Republic with a French style semi-presidential system.

In votes that international observers found to be generally free and fair, the Nigerien electorate approved the new constitution in July 1999 and held legislative and presidential elections in October and November 1999. Heading a coalition of the National Movement for a Developing Society (MNSD) and the Democratic and Social Convention (CDS), Mamadou Tandja won the presidency.

In July 2004, Niger held municipal elections nationwide as part of its decentralization process. Some 3,700 people were elected to new local governments in 265 newly established communes. The ruling MNSD party won more positions than any other political party; however, opposition parties made significant gains. In November and December 2004, Niger held presidential and legislative elections. Tandja Mamadou was elected to his second 5-year presidential term with 65% of the vote in an election that international observers called generally free and fair. This was the first presidential election with a democratically elected incumbent and a test to Niger's young democracy.

In the 2004 legislative elections, the National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD), the Democratic and Socialist Convention (CDS), the Rally for Social Democracy (RSD), the Rally for Democracy and Progress (RDP), the Nigerien Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ANDP), and the Social Party for Nigerien Democracy (PSDN) coalition, which backed Tandja, won 88 of the 113 seats in the National Assembly.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Niger's new constitution was approved in July 1999. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the December 1992 constitution (Third Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power. As a reflection of Niger's increasing population, the unicameral legislature was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a 5-year term under a majority system of representation. Political parties must attain at least 5% of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature.

Niger's independent judicial system is composed of four higher courts—the Court of Appeals, the Supreme Court, the High Court of Justice, and the Constitutional Court.

The constitution also provides for the popular election of municipal and local officials, and the first-ever successful municipal elections took place July 24, 2004. The National Assembly passed in June 2002 a series of decentralization bills. As a first step, administrative powers will be distributed among 265 communes (local councils); in later stages, regions and departments will be established as decentralized entities. A new electoral code was adopted to reflect the decentralization context. The country is currently divided into 8 regions, which are subdivided into 36 districts (departments). The chief administrator (Governor) in each department is appointed by the government and functions primarily as the local agent of the central authorities.

The current legislature elected in December 2004 contains seven political parties. President Mamadou Tandja was re-elected in December 2004 and reappointed Hama Amadou as Prime Minister. Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS, was reelected President of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers. The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on December 30, 2004. In August 2002, serious unrest within the military occurred in Niamey, Diffa, and Nguigmi, but the government was able to restore order within several days.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 7/12/2005

President: Mamadou TANDJA
Prime Minister: Hama AMADOU
Min. of Agricultural Development: Moussa LABO
Min. of Animal Resources: Abdoulaye JINA
Min. of Basic Education & Literacy: Harouna HAMANI
Min. of Civil Service & Labor: Kanda SIPTEY
Min. of Commerce, Industry, & Promotion of the Private Sector: Habi Mahamadou SALISSOU
Min. of Culture, Arts, & Communication: Oumarou HADARI
Min. of Defense: Hassane SOULEY
Min. of Economy & Finance: Ali Zeine LAMINE
Min. of Equipment: Omar SEYNI
Min. of Foreign Affairs, Cooperation, & African Integration: Aichatou DAOUDOU
Min. of Health & Disease Control: Ibrahim ARI
Min. of Interior & Decentralization: Mody MUNKAILA
Min. of Justice: Elhadji Moussa MATTI
Min. of Mining & Energy: Abdoulahi MOHAMED
Min. of Population & Social Work: Zilla BOUKARI
Min. of Privatization & Enterprise Restructuring: Lawali Rahamatou GAZOBI
Min. of Professional & Technical Training & Youth Employment: Daouda ABDOU
Min. of Secondary & Higher Education, Research, & Technology: Ousmane Dan GALADIMA
Min. of Territorial Management & Community Development: Moussa MAMANE
Min. of Tourism & Handicrafts: Amadou NOUHOU
Min. of Transport: Souleymane KANE
Min. of Urban Development, Housing, & Land Registry: Aissa Abdoulaye DIALLO
Min. of Water Resources, Environment, & Desertification Control: Abdou LABO
Min. of Women's Promotion & Child Protection: Ousmane Zeinabou MOULAYE
Min. of Youth, Sports, & Francophonie Games: Seydou ABDOURAHAMANIE
Ambassador to the US: Joseph DIATTA
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Ousmane MOUTARI

Niger maintains an embassy in the United States at 2204 R Street, NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-483-4224/25/26/27) and a permanent mission to the United Nations at 417 East 50th Street, New York, NY 10022 (tel. 212-421-3260).

ECONOMY

One of the poorest countries in the world, Niger's economy is based largely on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 3.3% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut an already marginal economy. Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small trading, seasonal migration, and informal markets dominate an economy that generates few formal sector jobs.

Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population. Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production—camels, goats, sheep, and cattle—said to support 29% of the population. The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria. Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements. Although from 2001-2003, rains were relatively plentiful and resulted in good cereal harvests, in 2004 localized drought and locust infestations contributed to a drop in global harvests of 11% and led the Embassy to make a disaster declaration. This decrease, combined with chronic structural food insecurity, high malnutrition, and other market factors, triggered a food crisis which began in May-June of 2005. Millet, sorghum, and cassava are Niger's principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are limited quantities of garlic, peppers, gum arabic, and sesame seeds.

Of Niger's exports, foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although difficult to quantify, are second only to those from uranium. Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported, and some are transformed into handicrafts.

The persistent uranium price slump has brought lower revenues for Niger's uranium sector, although uranium still provides 72% of national export proceeds. The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s after the opening of two large uranium mines near the northern town of Arlit. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s, however, the economy stagnated, and new investment since then has been limited. Niger's two uranium mines—SOMAIR's open pit mine and COMINAK's underground mine—are owned by a French-led consortium and operated by French interests.

Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. On October 5, 2004 President Tandja announced the official opening of the Samira Hill Gold Mine in the region of Tera and the first Nigerien gold ingot was presented to him. This marked a historical moment for Niger as the Samira Hill Gold Mine represents the first commercial gold production in the country. Samira Hill is owned by a company called SML (Societe des Mines du Liptako), which is a joint venture between a Moroccan company—Societe SEMAFO Inc.—and a Canadian company—ETRUSCAN. Both companies own 80% (40% - 40%) of SML and the GON 20%. The first year's production is predicted to be 135,000 ounces of gold at a cash value of USD 177 per ounce. The mine reserves for the Samira Hill mine total 10,073,626 tons at an average grade of 2.21 grams per ton from which 618,000 ounces will be recovered over a 6 year mine life. SML believes to have a number of significant gold deposits within what is now recognized as the gold belt known as the "Samira Horizon."

Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum also have been found in Niger. Niger has oil potential. In 1992, the Djado permit was awarded to Hunt Oil, and in 2003 the Tenere permit was awarded to the China National Petroleum Company. An ExxonMobil-Petronas joint venture now holds the sole rights to the Agadem block, north of Lake Chad, and oil exploration is ongoing. The parastatal SONICHAR (Societe Nigerienne de Charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. There are additional coal deposits to the south and west that are of a higher quality and may be exploitable.

The economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 devaluation of the Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA) franc contributed to an annual average economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s. But the economy stagnated due to the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1999 (which gradually resumed in 2000) and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying economic growth of 5.1% in 2000, 3.1% in 2001, 6.0% in 2002, and 3.0% in 2003.

In recent years, the Government of Niger drafted revisions to the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992), and mining code (1993), all with attractive terms for investors. The present government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector.

Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union. The Treasury of the Government of France supplements the BCEAO's international reserves in order to maintain a fixed rate of 656 CFA to the euro.

Economic Reform

In January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems, including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries (11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund (IMF) program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). In January 2001, Niger reached its decision point and subsequently reached its completion point in 2004. Total relief from all of Niger's creditors is worth about $890 million, corresponding to about $520 million in net present value (NPV) terms, which is equivalent to 53.5% of Niger's total debt outstanding as of 2000. The debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing about $40 million per year over the coming years for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction. The overall impact on Niger's budget is substantial. Debt service as a percentage of government revenue was slashed from nearly 44% in 1999 to 10.9% in 2003 and will average 4.3% during 2010-19. The debt relief cut debt service as a percentage of export revenue from more than 23% to 8.4% in 2003, and decreases it to about 5% in later years.

In addition to strengthening the budgetary process and public finances, the Government of Niger has embarked on an ambitious program to privatize 12 state-owned companies. To date, seven have been fully privatized, including the water and telephone utilities, with the remainder to be privatized in 2005. A newly installed multisectoral regulatory agency will help ensure free and fair competition among the newly privatized companies and their private sector competitors. In its effort to consolidate macroeconomic stability under the PRGF, the government is also taking actions to reduce corruption, and as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, agricultural production, environmental protection, and judicial reform.

Foreign Aid

The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the IMF, and UN agencies—UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA. Other donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Japan, China, Italy, Libya, Egypt, Morocco, Iran, Denmark, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing on average $8 million each year to Niger's development increasing to $12 million in FY 2004. The United States also is a major partner in policy coordination in food security, education, water management and HIV/AIDS sectors. The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derived from donor resources.

DEFENSE

The Niger Armed Forces total 10,000 personnel with approximately 3,700 gendarmes, 300 air force, and 6,000 army personnel. The air force has four operational transport aircraft. The armed forces include general staff and battalion task force organizations consisting of two paratroop units, four light armored units, and nine motorized infantry units located in Tahoua, Agadez, Dirkou, Zinder, Nguigmi, N'Gourti, and Madewela. Since January 2003, Niger has deployed a company of troops to Côte d'Ivoire as part of the ECOWAS stabilization force. In 1991, Niger sent a 400-man military contingent to join the American-led allied forces against Iraq during the Gulf War.

Niger's defense budget is modest, accounting for about 1.6% of government expenditures. France provides the largest share of military assistance to Niger. Morocco, Algeria, China, and Libya have also provided military assistance. Approximately 15 French military advisers are in Niger. Many Nigerien military personnel receive training in France, and the Nigerien Armed Forces are equipped mainly with materiel either given by or purchased in France. In the past, U.S. assistance focused on training pilots and aviation support personnel, professional military education for staff officers, and initial specialty training for junior officers. A small foreign military assistance program was initiated in 1983. A U.S. Defense Attaché office opened in June 1985 and assumed Security Assistance Office responsibilities in 1987. The office closed in 1996 following a coup d'état. A U.S. Defense Attaché office reopened in July 2000. The United States provided transportation and logistical assistance to Nigerien troops deployed to Côte d'Ivoire in 2003. Additionally, the U.S. provided initial equipment training on vehicles and communications gear to a select contingent of Nigerien soldiers as part of the Department of State Pan-Sahel Initiative.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as nonaligned countries. It belongs to the United Nations and its main specialized agencies and in 1980-81 served on the UN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with France and enjoys close relations with its West African neighbors. It is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger River and Lake Chad Basin Commissions, the Economic Community of West African States, the Nonaligned Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

U.S.-NIGERIEN RELATIONS

U.S. relations with Niger have generally been close and friendly since Niger attained independence. Although USAID does not have an office in Niger, $8 million in official aid is administered through American and local non-governmental organizations with programs addressing food security, HIV/AIDS, and democracy and governance. The U.S. Peace Corps program, started in Niger in 1962, averages about 100 volunteers in country.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

NIAMEY (E) Address: B.P. 11201 Rue Des Ambassades; APO/FPO: 2420 Niamey Place, Dulles, VA 20189-2420; Phone: +227 72-26-61/62/63/64; Fax: +227 73-31-67; INMARSAT Tel: 874 154 1474; Workweek: M-F 0800-1630; Website: http://niamey.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

May 17, 2005

Country Description:

Niger is a developing, landlocked African nation whose northern area includes the Sahara Desert. Tourism facilities are minimal, particularly outside the capital city, Niamey, and the ancient caravan city of Agadez. Ecotourism and adventure tourism opportunities are plentiful.

Entry/Exit Requirements:

A passport and visa are required. Visas can be obtained at the airport. Travelers should obtain the latest information on entry/exit requirements from the Embassy of the Republic of Niger, 2204 R Street NW, Washington D.C. 20008, telephone: (202) 483-4224. Overseas, inquiries should be made at the nearest Nigerien embassy or consulate.

Safety and Security:

Niger held generally free and fair local, legislative and presidential elections in 2004. While there was a peaceful transition from one democratically-elected government to another, the potential for anti-government demonstrations and other disturbances remains. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid street demonstrations and maintain security awareness at all times.

For off road travel in remote areas of the country, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens to make use of registered guides and to travel with a minimum of two vehicles. Tourism operators coordinate formally and regularly with Nigerien government and security officials on issues related to tourist safety and security in the North. Thus, it is strongly recommended tourists use registered tour operators when traveling to Northern Niger. Names of such tour operators for Northern Niger can be obtained from the tourism association in Agadez. Global positioning systems and satellite phones are also recommended. Travelers are advised to avoid all restricted military areas and to consult local police authorities regarding their itinerary and security arrangements. U.S. citizens visiting Niger are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Niamey.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime:

Crime is at a critical level due primarily to the amount of thefts, robberies, and residential break-ins, and because of attempts of bribery and extortion aimed at foreigners by law enforcement authorities. Thefts and petty crimes are common day or night. However, armed attacks are normally committed at night by groups of two to four persons, with one assailant confronting the victim with a knife while the others provide surveillance or a show of force. Tourists should not walk alone around the Gaweye Hotel, National Museum, and on or near the Kennedy Bridge at any time, or the Petit Marche after dark. These areas are especially prone to muggings and should be avoided. Walking at night is not recommended as streetlights are scarce and criminals have the protection of darkness to commit their crimes. Recent criminal incidents in Niger have included carjackings, home invasions, and muggings. In December 2000, an American was killed in a carjacking incident in Niamey, and another American was gravely wounded in a carjacking incident outside of Niamey in 2004.

In August 2004, an attack against 2 buses on the Agadez-Arlit road left 3 dead and numerous persons wounded. Due to continued sporadic incidents of violence and banditry and other security concerns, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens visiting or residing in Niger to exercise caution when traveling within the northern and eastern parts of the country, especially along the borders of Mali, Libya, Algeria and Chad. Given the insecurity along these border regions, the Department of State recommends that American citizens in Niger avoid traveling overland to Algeria and Libya.

In previous attacks, groups of foreign travelers, including Americans, have been robbed of vehicles, cash and belongings. The government of Niger is taking steps to address crime/banditry but operates under severe resource constraints.

Use caution and common sense at all times to avoid thieves and pickpockets. An information sheet on safety and security practices is available from the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Niamey.

Information for Victims of Crime:

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you in finding appropriate medical care, contacting family members or friends and explaining how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you understand the local criminal justice process and find an attorney, if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information:

Health facilities are extremely limited in Niamey and urban centers, and completely inadequate outside the capital. Although physicians are generally well trained, even the best hospitals in Niamey suffer from inadequate facilities, antiquated equipment and shortages of supplies (particularly medicine). Emergency assistance is limited. Travelers must carry their own properly labeled supply of prescription drugs and preventative medicines.

Malaria is prevalent in Niger. Plasmodium falciparum malaria, the serious and sometimes fatal strain in Niger, is resistant to the anti-malarial drug chloroquine. Because travelers to Niger are at high risk for contracting malaria, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advises that travelers should take one of the following antimalarial drugs: mefloquine (Lariam -tm), doxycycline, or atovaquone/proguanil (Malarone -tm). The CDC has determined that a traveler who is on an appropriate antimalarial drug has a greatly reduced chance of contracting the disease. Other personal protective measures, such as the use of insect repellents, also help to reduce malaria risk. Travelers who become ill with a fever or flu-like illness while traveling in a malaria-risk area and up to one year after returning home should seek prompt medical attention and tell the physician their travel history and what antimalarials they have been taking. For additional information on malaria, protection from insect bites, and antimalarial drugs, please visit the CDC Travelers' Health web site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/malinfo.htm.

Tap water is unsafe to drink throughout Niger and should be avoided. Bottled water and beverages are safe, although visitors should be aware that many restaurants and hotels serve tap water. Ice made from tap water is also unsafe to consume.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect-bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (877-394-8747); or via CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance:

The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions:

While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Niger is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Niger is the poorest country in the Sahel. The public transportation system, urban and rural road conditions, and the availability of roadside assistance are all poor. U.S. travelers should; therefore, exercise caution on Niger's paved and unpaved roadways, as traffic accidents are frequent. The main causes of accidents are driver carelessness, excessive speeding, poorly maintained vehicles, and poor to non-existent road surfaces. Other factors include the hazardous mix of bicycles, mopeds, unwary pedestrians, donkey carts, farm animals, and buses on roads that are generally unpaved and poorly lighted. Overloaded tractor-trailers, "bush taxis," and disabled vehicles are additional dangers on rural roads, where speeds are generally higher. Travel outside Niamey and other cities often requires four-wheel-drive vehicles, which creates an additional security risk since these vehicles—especially Toyota Land Cruisers—are high-theft items. Driving at night is always hazardous and should be avoided if at all possible outside major cities. Banditry is a continuing problem in northern and eastern Niger. There have been reported carjackings and highway robberies in remote areas of the country.

While taxis are available at a fixed fare in Niamey, most are in poor condition, and do not meet basic U.S. road safety standards. Inter-city "bush-taxis" are available at negotiable fares, but these vehicles (minibuses, station wagons, and sedans) are generally older, unsafe models that are overloaded, poorly maintained, and driven by reckless operators seeking to save time and money. A national bus company (SNTV) operates coaches on inter-city routes and, since being reorganized in 2001, has provided reliable service and experienced no major accidents. Air Transport, Rimbo and Garba Messagé are private bus companies operating in Niger. Some Nigeriens evidence concern regarding the youth of drivers and the speed with which the private bus companies travel the Nigerien roads.

Aviation Safety Oversight:

As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Sierra Leone, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Niger's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet web site at www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Dress Restrictions:

Local culture and Islamic tradition encourage conservative dress for both men and women. There have been incidents of groups of men assaulting women who are, or appear to be, African and who are wearing other than traditional garments.

Photography Restrictions:

Tourists are free to take pictures anywhere in Niger, except near military installations, radio and television stations, the Presidency Building, airport, or the Kennedy Bridge. Tourists should not photograph political and student demonstrations.

Currency Regulations:

The West African Franc (FCFA) is the currency Niger shares with several other West African francophone countries, and is fully convertible into Euros. Foreign currency exchange over 1 million CFA (about $1,785 at 560 CFA/$1) requires authorization from the Ministry of Finance (available from all major banks).

Telephone Service:

Due to poor line quality, callers often experience delays in getting a telephone line, and telefaxes are often garbled. Cellular phone service is available in Niamey and in many major cities.

Criminal Penalties:

While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Nigerien law, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use of, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Niger are severe and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in illicit sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States. See more information visit http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1467.html.

Children's Issues:

For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location:

U.S. citizens living or traveling in Niger are encouraged to register at the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Niger. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy in Niger. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or the Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located on Rue des Ambassades, mailing address B.P. 11201, telephone numbers (227) 72-26-61, 72-26-62, 72-26-63, 71-26-64, and fax numbers (227) 73-31-67 or 72-31-46. The Embassy's Internet address is http://niamey.usembassy.gov.

International Adoption

January 2006

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer:

The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and our current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Availability of Children for Adoption:

In the last five years, no Immediate Relative-3 (IR-3) visas (for children adopted abroad) or IR-4 visas (for foreign-born children to be adopted in the United States) have been issued to Nigerien children by the Department of State.

NOTE:

Nigerien law does not technically permit adoptions by couples with biological children. A longstanding policy of granting exceptions is under review by the Direction de la Protection de l'Enfant (DPE).

Niger Adoption Authority:

The government office responsible for adoptions in Niger is: Centre d'Accueil des enfants en difficulté familiale; Direction de la protection de l'enfant, Ministère du Développement Social, de la Population, de la Promotion de la; Femme et de la Protection de l'Enfant; BP 11386; Niamey, Niger; Telephone: 011-(227 73-30-68).

Niger Adoption Procedures:

The adoptive parent(s) must submit the documents listed below under "Documentary Requirements" to the Direction de la Protection de l'Enfant (DPE) at the Ministry of Social Development (MSD). For adoptions pursued from abroad, an adoption agency or attorney may represent prospective adoptive parents. Once the DPE has issued a favorable recommendation for the placement of a child with the prospective adoptive parents overseas, the latter can request the child to be provisionally placed with a family in Niger recommended by the adoptive parents until the final decision by the judge. Prospective adoptive parents resident in Niger can request provisional custody themselves at this same stage of the process. Although not required by Nigerien law, it is recommended that prospective adoptive parent(s) hire a local lawyer to handle their case.

Upon receipt of a request from prospective adoptive parents, the DPE reviews the file. After ensuring it is complete and fulfills their requirements, the DPE forwards the case to the office of the Minister of Social Development for approval and transmission to the President of the Tribunal de la Justice for a hearing. The President of the Tribunal may directs a social worker to review the home study ("social survey") contained in the file of the prospective adoptive parents. If the parents are adopting from overseas, a home study performed to meet the requirements of their country of residence will be sufficient, but must be accompanied by a French translation. Once the review of the file is complete, the Greffier (court clerk) at the Tribunal schedules a hearing before the President of the Tribunal for the prospective adoptive parents. The President of the Tribunal sends a copy of the case file to the Procurer General (District Attorney) and requests that office to direct a Huissier (process server) to notify the prospective parents or their representative of the hearing date. Unless the hearing reveals a documentary omission or other problems, the President of the Tribunal issues the formal custody decree at that time. After a two-month waiting period, during which the child may not leave Niger, the adoption becomes final and the adoptive parents can then proceed with obtaining a birth certificate for the child at the Etat Civile office at the Hotel de Ville (City Hall). According to Nigerien authorities, the procedures as outlined above take one to three months, however, experience has been that they generally take six months to a year.

Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family.

Age and Civil Status Requirements: According to Nigerien law, the prospective adoption parents must be married and one parent must be at least 35 years of age.

Residency Requirements:

There are no residency requirements for adoptions in Niger.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys:

The sole authorized agency is the Centre d'Acceuil des Enfants en Difficulté Familiale, the Niger government entity cited above.

Niger Documentary Requirements:

A handwritten request/cover letter for the documents listed below to the Direction de la Protection de l'Enfant at the Ministry of Social Development signed by prospective adoptive parents.

• Marriage certificate of the prospective adoptive parents.
• Birth certificates of the prospective adoptive parents.
• Medical examination certificates for the prospective adoptive parents. Although any qualified physician can do the exam, the results/report must be in French.
• Psychological evaluation of each of the prospective adoptive parents in French.
• Two photographs (b/w or color, any size) of the each of prospective adoptive parents.
• Sterility certificate for at least one prospective adoptive parent. If neither is sterile, the prospective parents must state in the cover letter why they want to adopt a child.
• Niger police record for prospective adoptive parents is required for any time spent in Niger. According to Nigerien authorities, police records are not required from other countries where the prospective adoptive parents have lived. Valid for three months, the Nigerien police records must be renewed for any additional time the prospective parents spend in Niger. Foreigners in Niger can obtain police records at the Cour d'Appel in either Niamey or Zinder as appropriate. There is a fee.
• Monthly or annual earnings statement
• If the prospective adoptive parents (regardless of nationality) are resident in Niger, a certification of social survey ("home study") performed by Nigerien social worker.
• If the prospective adoptive parents are foreigners resident abroad, certification that social services authorities in their country of residence agree to the adoption. An approved home study that has satisfied the requirements of the prospective adoptive parents'' home state in the U.S. will generally fulfill this requirement, however, it must include a psychological evaluation of the parents and be accompanied by a professional translation. (NOTE: The only document the Embassy is in a position to issue is a letter stating such a child will be issued an immigrant visa if the Consul is satisfied the adoption was carried out in conformity with Niger laws and that the requirements of U.S. immigration law have been met.)
• Nationality certificates or passports of prospective parents.

Authentications:

All documents above must be authenticated. For additional information about authentication procedures, please see the Judicial Assistance page of the Bureau of Consular Affairs Web site.

Niger Embassy in the United States:

2204 R. Street NW; Washington DC 20008 USA; Tel. (202) 483-4224; Fax. (202) 483-3169.

Niger also has a mission to the United Nations in New York, NY, but its functions are limited to diplomatic matters.

Home Study:

For adoptions by perspective adoptive parents resident in Niger who plan to apply for an immigrant visa for an orphan (immigrant visa category IR-3 or IR-4), be certain that the home study performed to fulfill Nigerien requirements also meets the more rigorous requirements of U.S. Immigration Law.

Niger Government Follow-Up:

Nigerien officials may claim that the prospective adoptive parents must sign an agreement to pay for Nigerien social workers to travel and visit the family every two years until the adopted child reaches majority. This is not a requirement of Niger adoption law, however, it has become a standard practice for adoptions in Niger arranged by a French adoption agency. In practice, Nigerien authorities have accepted a letter promising to follow up from the social service agency with jurisdiction over the prospective parents' place of residence in the U.S.

Travel Document For Child:

Some Nigerien authorities have taken the view that, once a Nigerien child has been adopted by a foreign couple, s/he no longer has Nigerien nationality under Nigerien law and thus entitled only to a single-sheet temporary passport as a one-time travel document.

The Niger passport office at the Direction Surveillance du Territoire at the Ministry of Interior, however, routinely issues Nigerien passports to children adopted by parents of various nationalities, including Americans. Using the Niger birth certificate listing them as the parents, the adoptive parents must submit the passport application through their attorney, but pay only the normal passport issuance fee.

Doctors:

The U.S. Embassy in Niamey maintains lists of doctors and sources of medicine should either you or your child experience health problems while in Niger.

U.S. Embassy (Consulate) in Niger:

Rue des Ambassades, BP 1120; Niamey, Niger; Tel. (227) 72-26-6; Fax. (227) 73-31-67.

U.S. Immigration Requirements:

A Nigerien child adopted by a U.S. citizen must obtain an immigrant visa before he or she can enter the U.S. as a lawful permanent resident.

Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family.

Additional Information:

Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult BCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions.

Questions:

Specific questions regarding adoption in Niger may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy or Consulate in Niger. Parents may also contact the Office of Children's Issues, SA-29, 2201 C Street, NW, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-2818,
Tel: (202)-736-9099 with specific questions.

NIGER

Compiled from the January 2005 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Republic of Niger

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,267,000 sq. km (490,000 sq. mi.); about three times the size of California.

Cities: Capital—Niamey (pop. approx. 700,000). Other cities—Tahoua, Maradi, Zinder, Diffa, Dosso, Arlit, and Agadez.

Terrain: About two-thirds desert and mountains, one-third savanna.

Climate: Hot, dry, and dusty. Rainy season June—September.

People

Nationality: Noun and Adjective—Nigerien(s).

Population: (2002 est.) 11,342,000 million.

Annual growth rate: (2001) 3.3%.

Ethnic groups: Hausa 56%, Djerma 22%, Fulani 8.5%, Tuareg 8%, Beri Beri (Kanuri) 4.3%; Arab, Toubou, and Gourmantche 1.2%.

Religions: Islam (95%); remainder traditional and Christian.

Languages: French (official), Hausa, Djerma, Fulfulde, Kanuri, Tamachek, Toubou, Gourmantche, Arabic.

Education: Years compulsory—6. Attendance—34%. Literacy—15%.

Health: Infant mortality rate (2000)—248/1,000. Life expectancy—46 yrs.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: August 3, 1960.

Constitution: The constitution of December 26, 1992 was revised by national referendum on May 12, 1996 and again by referendum on July 18, 1999.

Branches: Executive—president and prime minister. Legislative—unicameral National Assembly (113 MPs). Judicial—Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, High Court of Justice.

Political parties: Seven are represented in the National Assembly.

Suffrage: The constitution provides for universal suffrage for Nigeriens age 18 or older.

Administrative subdivisions: Eight regions subdivided into 36 districts (departments) and 265 communes (local councils).

Central government budget: $320 million.

Economy

GDP: (2003) $2.8 billion.

Annual growth rate: (2003) 3%.

Per capita GDP: (2003) $232.

Avg. inflation rate: (2003 est.) 2.69%

Natural resources: Uranium, gold, oil, coal, iron, tin, and phosphates.

Agriculture: (40% of GDP) Products—millet, sorghum, cowpeas, peanuts, cotton, and rice.

Industry: (18% of GDP) Types—textiles, cement, soap, and beverages.

Trade: (2002 est.) Exports (freight on board—f.o.b.)—$387 million. Types—uranium, livestock, cowpeas, and onions. Major markets—France 39%, Nigeria 31%, Japan 16%, Côte d'Ivoire 9%. Imports (f.o.b.)—$502 million. Types—consumer goods, petroleum, foodstuffs, and industrial products. Major suppliers—France 17%, Côte d'Ivoire 15%, China 10%, Nigeria 7%.

PEOPLE

The largest ethnic groups in Niger are the Hausa, who also constitute the major ethnic group in northern Nigeria, and the Djerma-Songhai, who also are found in parts of Mali. Both groups, along with the Gourmantche, are sedentary farmers who live in the arable, southern tier of the country. The remainder of Nigeriens are nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock-raising peoples—Fulani, Tuareg, Kanuri, Arabs, and Toubou. With rapidly growing populations and the consequent competition for meager natural resources, lifestyles of agriculturalists and livestock herders have come increasingly into conflict in Niger in recent years.

Niger's high infant mortality rate is comparable to levels recorded in neighboring countries. However, the child mortality rate (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is exceptionally high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. Nonetheless, Niger's very high fertility rate (7.2%), means that nearly half (49%) of the Nigerien population is under age 15. School attendance is 50%, including 38% of males and only 27% of females. Additional education occurs through Koranic schools.

HISTORY

Considerable evidence indicates that about 600,000 years ago, humans inhabited what has since become the desolate Sahara of northern Niger. Long before the arrival of French influence and control in the area, Niger was an important economic crossroads, and the empires of Songhai, Mali, Gao, Kanem, and Bornu, as well as a number of Hausa states, claimed control over portions of the area.

During recent centuries, the nomadic Tuareg formed large confederations, pushed southward, and, siding with various Hausa states, clashed with the Fulani Empire of Sokoto, which had gained control of much of the Hausa territory in the late 18th century.

In the 19th century, contact with the West began when the first European explorers—notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth (German)—explored the area searching for the mouth of the Niger River. Although French efforts at pacification began before 1900, dissident ethnic groups, especially the desert Tuareg, were not subdued until 1922, when Niger became a French colony.

Niger's colonial history and development parallel that of other French West African territories. France administered its West African colonies through a governor general at Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. In addition to conferring French citizenship on the inhabitants of the territories, the 1946 French constitution provided for decentralization of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies.

A further revision in the organization of overseas territories occurred with the passage of the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956, followed by reorganizational measures enacted by the French Parliament early in 1957. In addition to removing voting inequalities, these laws provided for creation of governmental organs, assuring individual territories a large measure of self-government. After the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on December 4, 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community. Following full independence on August 3, 1960, however, membership was allowed to lapse.

For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a singleparty civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. In 1974, a combination of devastating drought and accusations of rampant corruption resulted in a military coup that overthrew the Diori regime. Col. Seyni Kountche and a small group of military ruled the country until Kountche's death in 1987. He was succeeded by his Chief of Staff, Col. Ali Saibou, who released political prisoners, liberalized some of Niger's laws and policies, and promulgated a new constitution. However, President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a multiparty democratic system. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. New political parties and civic associations sprang up, and a national conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. The debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Prof. Andre Salifou, the conference developed consensus on the modalities of a transition government. A transition government was installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. While the economy deteriorated over the course of the transition, certain accomplishments stand out, including the successful conduct of a constitutional referendum; the adoption of key legislation such as the electoral and rural codes; and the holding of several free, fair, and nonviolent nationwide elections. Freedom of the press flourished with the appearance of several new independent newspapers.

Rivalries within a ruling coalition elected in 1993 led to governmental paralysis, which provided Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara a rationale to overthrow the Third Republic in January 1996. While leading a military authority that ran the government (Conseil de Salut National) during a 6-month transition period, Bare enlisted specialists to draft a new constitution for a Fourth Republic announced in May 1996. After dissolving the national electoral committee, Bare organized and won a flawed presidential election in July 1996 and his party won 90% of parliament seats in a flawed legislative election in November 1996. When his efforts to justify his coup and subsequent questionable elections failed to convince donors to restore multilateral and bilateral economic assistance, a desperate Bare ignored an international embargo against Libya and sought Libyan funds to aid Niger's economy. In repeated violations of basic civil liberties by the regime, opposition leaders were imprisoned; journalists often arrested, beaten, and deported by an unofficial militia composed of police and military; and independent media offices were looted and burned with impunity.

In the culmination of an initiative started under the 1991 national conference, however, the government signed peace accords in April 1995 with all Tuareg and Toubou groups that had been in rebellion since 1990, claiming they lacked attention and resources from the central government.

The government agreed to absorb some former rebels into the military

and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.

In April 1999, Bare was overthrown in a coup led by Maj. Daouda Mallam Wanke, who established a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution for a Fifth Republic with a French style semi-presidential system. In votes that international observers found to be generally free and fair, the Nigerien electorate approved the new constitution in July 1999 and held legislative and presidential elections in October and November 1999. Heading a coalition of the National Movement for a Developing Society (MNSD) and the Democratic and Social Convention (CDS), Mamadou Tandja won the presidency.

In July 2004, Niger held municipal elections nationwide as part of its decentralization process. Some 3,700 people were elected to new local governments in 265 newly established communes. The ruling MNSD party won more positions than any other political party; however, opposition parties made significant gains.

In November and December 2004, Niger held presidential and legislative elections. Tandja Mamadou was elected to his second 5-year presidential term with 65% of the vote in an election that international observers called generally free and fair. This was the first presidential election with a democratically elected incumbent and a test to Niger's young democracy.

In the 2004 legislative elections, the National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD), the Democratic and Socialist Convention (CDS), the Rally for Social Democracy (RSD), the Rally for Democracy and Progress (RDP), the Nigerien Alliance for Democracy and Progress (ANDP), and the Social Party for Nigerien Democracy (PSDN) coalition, which backed Tandja, won 88 of the 113 seats in the National Assembly.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Niger's new constitution was approved in July 1999. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the December 1992 constitution (Third Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power. As a reflection of Niger's increasing population, the unicameral legislature was expanded in 2004 to 113 deputies elected for a 5-year term under a majority system of representation. Political parties must attain at least 5% of the vote in order to gain a seat in the legislature.

Niger's independent judicial system is composed of four higher courts—the Court of Appeals, the Supreme Court, the High Court of Justice, and the Constitutional Court.

The constitution also provides for the popular election of municipal and local officials, and the first-ever successful municipal elections took place July 24, 2004. The National Assembly passed in June 2002 a series of decentralization bills. As a first step, administrative powers will be distributed among 265 communes (local councils); in later stages, regions and departments will be established as decentralized entities. A new electoral code was adopted to reflect the decentralization context. The country is currently divided into 8 regions, which are subdivided into 36 districts (departments). The chief administrator (Governor) in each department is appointed by the government and functions primarily as the local agent of the central authorities.

The current legislature elected in December 2004 contains seven political parties. President Mamadou Tandja was re-elected in December 2004 and reappointed Hama Amadou as Prime Minister. Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS, was reelected President of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers. The new second term government of the Fifth Republic took office on December 30, 2004. In August 2002, serious unrest within the military occurred in Niamey, Diffa, and Nguigmi, but the government was able to restore order within several days.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 1/6/05

President: Mamadou TANDJA
Prime Minister: Hama AMADOU
Min. of Agricultural Development: Moussa LABO
Min. of Animal Resources: Abdoulaye JINA
Min. of Basic Education & Literacy: Harouna HAMANI
Min. of Civil Service & Labor: Kanda SIPTEY
Min. of Commerce, Industry, & Promotion of the Private Sector: Salissou HABI
Min. of Culture, Arts, & Communication: Oumarou HADARI
Min. of Defense: Hassane SOULEY
Min. of Economy & Finance: Ali Zeine LAMINE
Min. of Equipment: Omar SEYNI
Min. of Foreign Affairs, Cooperation, & African Integration: Aichatou DAOUDOU
Min. of Health & Disease Control: Ibrahim ARI
Min. of Interior & Decentralization: Mody MUNKAILA
Min. of Justice: Elhadji Moussa MATTI
Min. of Mining & Energy: Abdoulahi MOHAMED
Min. of Population & Social Work: Zilla BOUKARI
Min. of Privatization & Enterprise Restructuring: Lawali Rahamatou GAZOBI
Min. of Professional & Technical Training & Youth Employment: Daouda ABDOU
Min. of Secondary & Higher Education, Research, & Technology: Ousmane Dan GALADIMA
Min. of Territorial Management & Community Development: Moussa MAMANE
Min. of Tourism & Handicrafts: Amadou NOUHOU
Min. of Transport: Souleymane KANE
Min. of Urban Development, Housing, & Land Registry: Aissa Abdoulaye DIALLO
Min. of Water Resources, Environment, & Desertification Control: Abdou LABO
Min. of Women's Promotion & ChildProtection: Ousmane Zeinabou MOULAYE
Min. of Youth, Sports, & Francophonie Games: Seydou ABDOURAHAMANIE
Ambassador to the US: Joseph DIATTA
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Ousmane MOUTARI

Niger maintains an embassy in the United States at 2204 R Street, NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-483-4224/25/26/27) and a permanent mission to the United Nations at 417 East 50th Street, New York, NY 10022 (tel. 212-421-3260).

ECONOMY

One of the poorest countries in the world, Niger's economy is based largely on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 3.3% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut an already marginal economy. Traditional subsistence farming, herding, small trading, seasonal migration, and informal markets dominate an economy that generates few formal sector jobs.

Niger's agricultural and livestock sectors are the mainstay of all but 18% of the population. Fourteen percent of Niger's GDP is generated by livestock production—camels, goats, sheep, and cattle—said to support 29% of the population. The 15% of Niger's land that is arable is found mainly along its southern border with Nigeria. Rainfall varies and when insufficient, Niger has difficulty feeding its population and must rely on grain purchases and food aid to meet food requirements. Although the rains in 2000 were not good, for the past three years rains were relatively plentiful and well distributed, contributing to good cereal harvests. Millet, sorghum, and cassava are Niger's principal rain-fed subsistence crops. Cowpeas and onions are grown for commercial export, as are limited quantities of garlic, peppers, gum arabic, and sesame seeds.

Of Niger's exports, foreign exchange earnings from livestock, although difficult to quantify, are second only to those from uranium. Actual exports far exceed official statistics, which often fail to detect large herds of animals informally crossing into Nigeria. Some hides and skins are exported, and some are transformed into handicrafts.

The persistent uranium price slump has brought lower revenues for Niger's uranium sector, although uranium still provides 72% of national export proceeds. The nation enjoyed substantial export earnings and rapid economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s after the opening of two large uranium mines near the northern town of Arlit. When the uranium-led boom ended in the early 1980s, however, the economy stagnated, and new investment since then has been limited. Niger's two uranium mines—SOMAIR's open pit mine and COMINAK's underground mine—are owned by a French-led consortium and operated by French interests.

Exploitable deposits of gold are known to exist in Niger in the region between the Niger River and the border with Burkina Faso. On October 5, 2004 President Tandja announced the official opening of the Samira Hill Gold Mine in the region of Tera and the first Nigerien gold ingot was presented to him. This marked a historical moment for Niger as the Samira Hill Gold Mine represents the first commercial gold production in the country. Samira Hill is owned by a company called SML (Societe des Mines du Liptako) which is a joint venture between a Moroccan company, Societe SEMAFO Inc. and a Canadian company, ETRUSCAN. Both companies own 80% (40%—40%) of SML and the GON 20%. The first year's production is predicted to be 135,000 ounces of gold at a cash value of USD 177 per ounce. The mine reserves for the Samira Hill mine total 10,073,626 tons at an average grade of 2.21 grams per ton from which 618,000 ounces will be recovered over a 6 year mine life. SML believes to have a number of significant gold deposits within what is now recognized as the gold belt known as the "Samira Horizon".

Substantial deposits of phosphates, coal, iron, limestone, and gypsum also have been found in Niger. Niger has oil potential. In 1992, the Djado permit was awarded to Hunt Oil, and in 2003 the Tenere permit was awarded to the China National Petroleum Company. An ExxonMobil-Petronas joint venture now holds the sole rights to the Agadem block, north of Lake Chad, and oil exploration is ongoing. The parastatal SONICHAR (Societe Nigerienne de Charbon) in Tchirozerine (north of Agadez) extracts coal from an open pit and fuels an electricity generating plant that supplies energy to the uranium mines. There are additional coal deposits to the south and west that are of a higher quality and may be exploitable.

The economic competitiveness created by the January 1994 devaluation of the Communaute Financiere Africaine (CFA) franc contributed to an annual average economic growth of 3.5% throughout the mid-1990s. But the economy stagnated due to the sharp reduction in foreign aid in 1999 (which gradually resumed in 2000) and poor rains in 2000. Reflecting the importance of the agricultural sector, the return of good rains was the primary factor underlying economic growth of 5.1% in 2000, 3.1% in 2001, 6.0% in 2002, and 3.0% in 2003.

In recent years, the Government of Niger drafted revisions to the investment code (1997 and 2000), petroleum code (1992), and mining code (1993), all with attractive terms for investors. The present government actively seeks foreign private investment and considers it key to restoring economic growth and development. With the assistance of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), it has undertaken a concerted effort to revitalize the private sector.

Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union. The Treasury of the Government of France supplements the BCEAO's international reserves in order to maintain a fixed rate of 656 CFA to the euro.

Economic Reform

In January 2000, Niger's newly elected government inherited serious financial and economic problems, including a virtually empty treasury, past-due salaries (11 months of arrears) and scholarship payments, increased debt, reduced revenue performance, and lower public investment. In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund (IMF) program for Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund on a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). In January 2001, Niger reached its decision point and subsequently reached its completion point in 2004.

Total relief from all of Niger's creditors is worth about $890 million, corresponding to about $520 million in net present value (NPV) terms, which is equivalent to 53.5% of Niger's total debt outstanding as of 2000. The debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing about $40 million per year over the coming years for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction. The overall impact on Niger's budget is substantial. Debt service as a percentage of government revenue will be slashed from nearly 44% in 1999 to 10.9% in 2003 and average 4.3% during 2010-19. The debt relief cuts debt service as a percentage of export revenue from more than 23% to 8.4% in 2003, and decreases it to about 5% in later years.

In addition to strengthening the budgetary process and public finances, the Government of Niger has embarked on an ambitious program to privatize 12 state-owned companies. To date, seven have been fully privatized, including the water and telephone utilities, with the remainder to be privatized in 2005. A newly installed multisectoral regulatory agency will help ensure free and fair competition among the newly privatized companies and their private sector competitors. In its effort to consolidate macroeconomic stability under the PRGF, the government is also taking actions to reduce corruption, and as the result of a participatory process encompassing civil society, has devised a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan that focuses on improving health, primary education, rural infrastructure, agricultural production, environmental protection, and judicial reform.

Foreign Aid

The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the IMF, and UN agencies—UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, WFP, and UNFPA. Other donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Japan, China, Italy, Libya, Egypt, Morocco, Iran, Denmark, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing on average $8 million each year to Niger's development increasing to $12 million in FY 2004. The United States also is a major partner in policy coordination in food security, education, water management and HIV/AIDS sectors. The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derived from donor resources.

DEFENSE

The Niger Armed Forces total 10,000 personnel with approximately 3,700 gendarmes, 300 air force, and 6,000 army personnel. The air force has four operational transport aircraft. The armed forces include general staff and battalion task force organizations consisting of two paratroop units, four light armored units, and nine motorized infantry units located in Tahoua, Agadez, Dirkou, Zinder, Nguigmi, N'Gourti, and Madewela. Since January 2003, Niger has deployed a company of troops to Cote d'Ivoire as part of the ECOWAS stabilization force. In 1991, Niger sent a 400-man military contingent to join the American-led allied forces against Iraq during the Gulf War.

Niger's defense budget is modest, accounting for about 1.6% of government expenditures. France provides the largest share of military assistance to Niger. Morocco, Algeria, China, and Libya have also provided military assistance. Approximately 15 French military advisers are in Niger. Many Nigerien military personnel receive training in France, and the Nigerien Armed Forces are equipped mainly with materiel either given by or purchased in France. In the past, U.S. assistance focused on training pilots and aviation support personnel, professional military education for staff officers, and initial specialty training for junior officers. A small foreign military assistance program was initiated in 1983. A U.S. Defense Attaché office opened in June 1985 and assumed Security Assistance Office responsibilities in 1987. The office closed in 1996 following a coup d'état. A U.S. Defense Attaché office reopened in July 2000. The United States provided transportation and logistical assistance to Nigerien troops deployed to Cote d'Ivoire in 2003. Additionally, the U.S. provided initial equipment training on vehicles and communications gear to a select contingent of Nigerien soldiers as part of the Department of State Pan-Sahel Initiative.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as nonaligned countries. It belongs to the United Nations and its main specialized agencies and in 1980-81 served on the UN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with France and enjoys close relations with its West African neighbors. It is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger River and Lake Chad Basin Commissions, the Economic Community of West African States, the Nonaligned Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

U.S.-NIGERIEN RELATIONS

U.S. relations with Niger have generally been close and friendly since Niger attained independence. Although USAID does not have an office in Niger, $8 million in official aid is administered through American and local non-governmental organizations with programs addressing food security, HIV/AIDS, and democracy and governance. The U.S. Peace Corps program, started in Niger in 1962, averages about 100 volunteers in country.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

NIAMEY (E) Address: B.P. 11201 Rue Des Ambassades; APO/FPO: 2420 Niamey Place, Dulles, VA 20189-2420; Phone: +227 72-26-61/62/63/64; Fax: +227 73-31-67; INMARSAT Tel: 874 154 1474; Workweek: M–F 0800-1630; Website: http://niamey.usembassy.gov/

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

October 1, 2004

Country Description: Niger is a developing, inland African nation whose northern area includes the Sahara Desert. Tourism facilities are minimal, particularly outside the capital city, Niamey, and the ancient caravan city of Agadez. Ecotourism and adventure tourism are plentiful.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport and visa are required. Visas can be obtained at the airport. Travelers should obtain the latest information on entry/exit requirements from the Embassy of the Republic of Niger, 2204 R Street NW, Washington D.C. 20008, telephone: (202) 483-4224. Overseas, inquiries should be made at the nearest Nigerien embassy or consulate.

Safety and Security: Niger returned to a democratically elected government in December 1999 following several years of political instability and military rule. While a sense of political stability has been restored, the potential for anti-government demonstrations and other disturbances remains. U.S. citizens should avoid street demonstrations and maintain security awareness at all times.

For off road travel in remote areas of the country, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens to make use of registered guides and to travel with a minimum of two vehicles. Tourism operators coordinate formally and regularly with Nigerien government and security officials on issues related to tourist safety and security in the North. Thus, American tourists are strongly encouraged to use registered tour operators when traveling to Northern Niger, who in turn will share information on itineraries with local police authorities. Names of such tour operators for Northern Niger can be obtained from the tourism association in Agadez. Global positioning systems and satellite phones are also recommended. Travelers are advised to avoid all restricted military areas and to consult local police authorities regarding their itinerary and security arrangements.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found.

Up-to-date information of safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Crime is at a critical level due primarily to the amount of thefts, robberies, residential break-ins and attempts of bribery and extortion aimed at foreigners by law enforcement authorities. Thefts and petty crimes are common during the day and night. However, armed attacks are normally committed at night by groups of two to four persons, with one assailant confronting the victim with a knife while the others provide surveillance or a show of force. Tourists should not walk alone around the Gaweye Hotel, National Museum, and on or near the Kennedy Bridge at any time, or the Petit Marche after dark. These areas are especially prone to muggings and should be avoided. In general, walking at night is not recommended as streetlights are scarce and criminals have the protection of darkness to commit their crimes. Recent criminal incidents in Niger have included carjackings, home invasions, and muggings. In December 2000, an American Embassy employee was killed and another gravely wounded in a carjacking in central Niamey.

In August 2004, an attack against 2 buses on the Agadez-Arlit road left 3 dead and numerous persons wounded. Due to continued sporadic incidents of violence and banditry and other security concerns, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens visiting or residing in Niger to exercise caution when traveling within the northern and eastern parts of the country, especially along the borders of Mali, Libya, Algeria and Chad. Given the insecurity along these border regions, the Department of State recommends that American citizens in Niger avoid traveling over-land to Algeria and Libya.

In previous attacks, groups of foreign travelers, including Americans, have been robbed of vehicles, cash and belongings and left stranded in the remote desert. The government of Niger is taking steps to address the increased crime/banditry, but operates under severe resource constraints.

Use caution and common sense at all times to avoid thieves and pickpockets. An information sheet on safety and security practices is available from the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Niamey.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you in finding appropriate medical care, contacting family members or friends and explaining how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you under-stand the local criminal justice process and find an attorney, if needed. See our information on Victims of Crime at http://travel.state.gov/travel/brochure_victim_assistance.html.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Health facilities are extremely limited in Niamey and completely inadequate outside the capital. Although physicians are generally well trained, even the best hospitals in Niamey suffer from inadequate facilities, antiquated equipment and shortages of supplies (particularly medicine). Emergency assistance is limited. Travelers must carry their own properly labeled supply of prescription drugs and preventative medicines.

Malaria is prevalent in Niger. P. falciparum malaria, the serious and sometimes fatal strain in Niger, is resistant to the anti-malarial drug chloroquine. Because travelers to Niger are at high risk for contracting malaria, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advises that travelers should take one of the following antimalarial drugs: mefloquine (Lariam -tm), doxycycline, or atovaquone/proguanil (Malaronetm). The CDC has determined that a traveler who is on an appropriate antimalarial drug has a greatly reduced chance of contracting the disease. Other personal protective measures, such as the use of insect repellents, also help to reduce malaria risk. Travelers who become ill with a fever or flu-like illness while traveling in a malaria-risk area and up to one year after returning home should seek prompt medical attention and tell the physician their travel history and what antimalarials they have been taking. For additional information on malaria, protection from insect bites, and antimalarial drugs, please visit the CDC Travelers' Health web site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/malinfo.htm.

Tap water is unsafe to drink throughout Niger and should be avoided. Bottled water and beverages are safe, although visitors should be aware that many restaurants and hotels serve tap water. Ice made from tap water is also unsafe to consume.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Niger is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Niger is the poorest country in the region and roads are generally poorly maintained. U.S. travelers should exercise caution on Niger's paved and unpaved roadways, as traffic accidents are frequent. The main causes of accidents are driver carelessness, excessive speeding, poorly maintained vehicles, and poor to non-existent road surfaces. Other factors include the hazardous mix of bicycles, mopeds, unwary pedestrians, donkey carts, farm animals, and buses on roads which are generally unpaved and poorly lighted. Overloaded tractor-trailers, "bush taxis," and disabled vehicles are additional dangers on rural roads, where speeds are generally higher. Travel outside Niamey and other cities often requires four-wheel-drive vehicles, which creates an additional security risk since these vehicles—especially Toyota Land Cruisers—are high-theft items. Driving at night is always hazardous and should be avoided if at all possible outside major cities. Banditry is a continuing problem in northern and eastern Niger. There have been reported carjackings and highway robberies in remote areas of the country.

While taxis are available at a fixed fare in Niamey, most are in poor condition, and do not meet basic U.S. road safety standards. Inter-city "bush-taxis" are available at negotiable fares, but these vehicles (mini-buses, station wagons, and sedans) are generally older, unsafe models that are overloaded, poorly maintained, and driven by reckless opera-tors seeking to save time and money. A national bus company (SNTV) operates coaches on inter-city routes and, since being reorganized in 2001, has provided reliable service and experienced no major accidents.

Special Circumstances: As there is no direct commercial air service between the U.S. and Niger by local carriers at present, nor the economic authority to operate such service, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Niger's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with international aviation safety standards. For further information, travelers may contact the Department of Transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's Internet website at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa.

For information regarding the DOD policy on specific carriers, travelers may contact DOD at (618) 229-4801.

Dress: Local culture and Islamic tradition encourage conservative dress for both men and women. There have been incidents of groups of men assaulting women who are, or appear to be, African and who are wearing other than traditional garments.

Photography Restrictions: Tourists are free to take pictures anywhere in Niger, except near military installations, radio and television stations, the Presidency Building, airport, or the Kennedy Bridge. Tourists should not photograph political and student demonstrations.

Currency Regulations: The Central African Franc (CFA) is the currency Niger shares with several other West African francophone countries, and is fully convertible into Euros. Foreign currency exchange over 1 million CFA (about $1,785 at 560 CFA/$1) requires authorization from the Ministry of Finance (available from all major banks).

Telephone Service: Due to poor line quality, callers often experience delays in getting a line, and telefaxes are often garbled. Cellular phone service is available in Niamey and in many major cities.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Nigerien law, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Niger are strict and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in illicit sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/index.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Niger are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Niger. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of an emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located on Rue des Ambassades, mailing address B.P. 11201, telephone numbers (227) 72-26-61, 72-26-62, 72-26-63, 71-26-64, and fax numbers (227) 73-31-67 or 72-31-46. The Embassy's Internet address is http://Niamey.usembassy.gov.

International Adoption

January 2005

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family

Disclaimer: The information in this circular relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign legal counsel.

Availability of Children for Adoption: In the last five years, no Immediate Relative-3 (IR-3) visas (for children adopted abroad) or IR-4 visas (for foreign-born children to be adopted in the United States) have been issued to Nigerien children by the Department of State.

NOTE: Nigerien law does not technically permit adoptions by couples with biological children. A longstanding policy of granting exceptions is under review by the Direction de la Protection de l'Enfant (DPE).

Niger Adoption Authority: The government office responsible for adoptions in Niger is: Centre d'Accueil des enfants en difficulté familiale, Direction de la protection de l'enfant, Ministère du Développement Social, de la Population, de la Promotion de la

Femme et de la Protection de l'Enfant; BP 11386; Niamey, Niger;Telephone: 011-(227 73-30-68).

Niger Adoption Procedures: The adoptive parent(s) must submit the documents listed below under "Documentary Requirements" to the Direction de la Protection de l'Enfant (DPE) at the Ministry of Social Development (MSD). For adoptions pursued from abroad, an adoption agency or attorney may represent prospective adoptive parents. Once the DPE has issued a favorable recommendation for the placement of a child with the prospective adoptive parents overseas, the latter can request the child to be provisionally placed with a family in Niger recommended by the adoptive parents until the final decision by the judge. Prospective adoptive parents resident in Niger can request provisional custody themselves at this same stage of the process. Although not required by Nigerien law, it is recommended that prospective adoptive parent(s) hire a local lawyer to handle their case.

Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family

Age and Civil Status Requirements: According to Nigerien law, the prospective adoption parents must be married and one parent must be at least 35 years of age.

Residency Requirements: There are no residency requirements for adoptions in Niger.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: The sole authorized agency is the Centre d'Acceuil des Enfants en Difficulté Familiale, the Niger government entity cited above.

Niger Documentary Requirements:

• A handwritten request/cover letter for the documents listed below to the Direction de la Protection de l'Enfant at the Ministry of Social Development signed by prospective adoptive parents.
• Marriage certificate of the prospective adoptive parents.
• Birth certificates of the prospective adoptive parents.
• Medical examination certificates for the prospective adoptive parents. Although any qualified physician can do the exam, the results/report must be in French.
• Psychological evaluation of each of the prospective adoptive parents in French.
• Two photographs (b/w or color, any size) of the each of prospective adoptive parents.
• Sterility certificate for at least one prospective adoptive parent. If neither is sterile, the prospective parents must state in the cover letter why they want to adopt a child.
• Niger police record for prospective adoptive parents is required for any time spent in Niger. According to Nigerien authorities, police records are not required from other countries where the prospective adoptive parents have lived. Valid for three months, the Nigerien police records must be renewed for any additional time the prospective parents spend in Niger. Foreigners in Niger can obtain police records at the Cour d'Appel in either Niamey or Zinder as appropriate. There is a fee.
• Monthly or annual earnings statement
• If the prospective adoptive parents (regardless of nationality) are resident in Niger, a certification of social survey ("home study") performed by Nigerien social worker.
• If the prospective adoptive parents are foreigners resident abroad, certification that social services authorities in their country of residence agree to the adoption. An approved home study that has satisfied the requirements of the prospective adoptive parents' home state in the U.S. will generally fulfill this requirement, however, it must include a psychological evaluation of the parents and be accompanied by a professional translation. NOTE: The only document the Embassy is in a position to issue is a letter stating such a child will be issued an immigrant visa if the Consul is satisfied the adoption was carried out in conformity with Niger laws and that the requirements of U.S. immigration law have been met.
• Nationality certificates or passports of prospective parents.

Authentications: All documents above must be authenticated. For additional information about authentication procedures, please see the Judicial Assistance page of the Bureau of Consular Affairs Web site at http://travel.state.gov.

Niger Embassy in the United States: 2204 R. Street NW; Washington DC 20008 USA; Tel. (202) 483-4224; Fax. (202) 483-3169.

Home Study: For adoptions by perspective adoptive parents resident in Niger who plan to apply for an immigrant visa for an orphan (immigrant visa category IR-3 or IR-4), be certain that the home study performed to fulfill Nigerien requirements also meets the more rigorous requirements of U.S. Immigration Law

Niger Government Follow-Up: Nigerien officials may claim that the prospective adoptive parents must sign an agreement to pay for Nigerien social workers to travel and visit the family every two years until the adopted child reaches majority.

This is not a requirement of Niger adoption law, however, it has become a standard practice for adoptions in Niger arranged by a French adoption agency. In practice, Nigerien authorities have accepted a letter promising to follow up from the social service agency with jurisdiction over the prospective parents' place of residence in the U.S.

Travel Document for Child: Some Nigerien authorities have taken the view that, once a Nigerien child has been adopted by a foreign couple, s/he no longer has Nigerien nationality under Nigerien law and thus entitled only to a single-sheet temporary passport as a one-time travel document. The Niger passport office at the Direction Surveillance du Territoire at the Ministry of Interior, however, routinely issues Nigerien passports to children adopted by parents of various nationalities, including Americans. Using the Niger birth certificate listing them as the parents, the adoptive parents must submit the passport application through their attorney, but pay only the normal passport issuance fee.

Doctors: The U.S. Embassy in Niamey maintains lists of doctors and sources of medicine should either you or your child experience health problems while in Niger.

U.S. Embassy (Consulate) in Niger: Rue des Ambassades, BP 11201; Niamey, Niger, Tel. (227) 72-26-61; Fax. (227) 73-31-67.

U.S. Immigration Requirements: A Nigerien child adopted by a U.S. citizen must obtain an immigrant visa before he or she can enter the U.S. as a lawful permanent resident. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family

Questions: Specific questions regarding adoption in Niger may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy or Consulate in Niger. Parents may also contact the Office of Children's Issues, SA-29, 2201 C Street, NW, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-2818, Tel: (202)-736-9099 with specific questions.