Buttonquails

(Turnicidae)

Class Aves

Order Gruiformes

Suborder Turnices

Family Turnicidae

Thumbnail description
Small, plump, quail-like terrestrial birds colored in browns and grays, with short legs and a tiny tail

Size
4–9 in (10–23 cm); 0.7–5.3 oz (20–150 g)

Number of genera, species
3 genera; 17 species

Habitat
Forest, woodlands, heath, scrub, savanna, grassland

Conservation status
Endangered: 3 species; Vulnerable: 3 species; Near Threatened: 1 species

Distribution
Spain, northwest African coast, sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, south and Southeast Asia, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Australia

Evolution and systematics

Among the many crane-like birds there is no group more problematic to the taxonomist than the buttonquails or hemipodes (family Turnicidae). It challenges the ornithologist to classify it with other orders or to promote it to an order of its own. As noted by Paul Johnsgard in his definitive work Bustards, Hemipodes, and Sandgrouse (1991), "The taxonomic history and evolutionary relationships of the buttonquail assemblage are perhaps as confusing and unsettled as those of any group of birds." Historically, the scanty fossil record was of little help, and by the dawn of the twenty-first century the situation had not changed. DNA comparisons in the 1980s established only that buttonquails are an old group without close relatives, or whose rapid genetic evolution has obscured its origins, although a connection with the Gruiformes cannot be discounted. The distribution of the species and their interrelationships suggest that the family originated on the ancient southern supercontinent Gondwana.

In size, shape, and gait, buttonquails only superficially resemble the true quails, which belong with gallinaceous birds (Galliformes, family Phasianidae). Some quail-like features distinguish buttonquails from the crane-like birds: covered nostrils, brief developmental period before flight (from 10 to 19 days), and early attainment of reproductive capacity (at four or five months of age in captivity). The nature of the downy plumage is also similar to that of gallinaceous birds; furthermore, the innermost primaries of the plumage of the young molt early (although, in contrast to gallinaceous birds, these feathers remain small). Buttonquails also have a very early complete molt of the juvenal plumage and precocious development of the scraping behavior used when feeding. On the other hand, crane-like features of the buttonquails are the absence of a crop, the single but deep notch on each side of the rear margin of the breastbone, doubly speckled eggs, and the manner in which parents hold food in front of the young.

The buttonquails (subfamily Turnicinae) differ from both groups, the gallinaceous and the crane-like birds, in the following ways: the short incubation period of only 12 or 13 days, brooding done by males only, rearing of the young by the males, larger size and brighter coloration of the females, and the females' booming call. Summarizing these characteristics, buttonquails are either a sibling group of all the rest of the crane-like birds and of the wader-gull group and thus a separate order, or they belong among crane-like birds, but at a distance from all other rail, crane, and bustard relatives. By consensus, buttonquails are, as of 2001, retained in their traditional classification with the rails and cranes.

The Australian plains-wanderer (Pedionomus torquatus) has traditionally been placed with the buttonquails in its own sub-family (Pedionominae). However, DNA, anatomical, and behavioral evidence suggest that it is instead a shorebird (Charadriiformes) deserving of its own family (Pedionomidae) and related to the seedsnipes (Thinocoridae) of South America.

As of 2001, there were 15 recognized species in the genus Turnix and only one species in each of the genera Ortyxelos and Pedionomus. Among the Turnix buttonquails there are

59 subspecies, mostly of those few widespread species whose distributions include many islands in Southeast Asia and Melanesia.

Physical characteristics

Buttonquails are small, dumpy birds (short and thick in build) with small, unadorned heads, short necks, short legs, three toes on each foot (lacking the hind toe), and rudimentary tails. The bill is short, unspecialized, and laterally compressed, being slender in insectivorous species to stout in granivorous species. These birds range in size from 4 in (10 cm) and 0.7 oz (20 g) to 9 in (23 cm) and 5.3 oz (150 g).

Buttonquails are colored in browns, grays, and dull reds. The dorsal surface is colored like the birds' habitat and finely patterned with black mottling, vermiculations (irregular lines), and pale streaks for camouflage. The breast is often more brightly colored, either red or boldly patterned in black and white. Females are larger and more colorful than males. Especially when breeding, females have either dull red on the neck, shoulders, or breast, or black-and-white foreparts. The tiny, gracile lark buttonquail (Ortyxelos meiffrenii) has relatively long wings, black in the center, and almost surrounded with white. Its flight resembles that of a lark; there are only slight sexual differences in plumage. This species is a little-known bird that looks at first like a relative of the coursers (Glareolidae) when on the ground. Buttonquails of the genus Turnix have wings that are not black and white, although some have boldly spotted wings. The plains-wanderer is longerlegged and more shorebird-like, showing a faint wing bar in lark-like flight. Females have a black-and-white mottled collar and a rusty red breast.

Other characteristics of the buttonquails (Turnicinae) include a single carotid artery and the presence of a fifth secondary feather in each wing (the condition of eutaxis). Their posture is horizontal, and the egg is oval in shape. It is somewhat surprising that buttonquails have no crop, since they feed on seeds. The plains-wanderer differs in having a hind toe, two carotid arteries, no fifth secondary feather (diastaxis), erect posture, and pear-shaped eggs.

Distribution

Buttonquails inhabit the Old World from southern Europe and Africa through south and Southeast Asia to Australia and the Solomon Islands. One Turnix species occurs in Europe, two in Africa, one endemic on Madagascar, three in Asia, three endemic in the Philippine and Indonesian archipelagos, and seven in Australasia. Ortyxelos occurs only in Africa, and Pedionomus occurs only in Australia. The historical distribution of most species has remained largely unchanged, although the common or small buttonquail (Turnix sylvatica) has become extinct in Sicily.

Habitat

Buttonquails inhabit the warmer, drier parts of the world, from the tropics and subtropics to the temperate zones, where they occupy low grassy or brushy habitats such as forest or forest clearings, secondary growth, woodland, savanna, and grassland. They are entirely terrestrial, living amid the ground layer of tussock grasses, dense crops, or weeds. They feed and roost on the ground, and shelter and nest in cover. They forage in leaf litter and use dry soil for dustbathing. Nests are placed in rank or tussocky grass, often near or beneath a tree, shrub, log, or fallen branch.

Behavior

The various species of buttonquail are found singly, in pairs, or in family groups consisting of a male and dependent young, but sometimes include an adult female as well. In smaller species, family groups may coalesce to form small coveys or loose aggregations.

Members of a pair of buttonquails are sociable toward each other but aggressive toward members of their own sex. Male and female forage in each other's company, and clump together to loaf or roost. In the smaller species, male and female also preen each other's head feathers, and more than one pair may roost together. Females advertise to rivals or prospective mates with a series of eight to 11 booming notes that sound like "oom-oom…," to which the receptive males respond with a trilling, chattering, or clucking call. For her booming call, the female has no more than a dilation of the trachea above the syrinx, so that the accumulated air is expelled as from a bellows. During this, her bill rests on her breast and appears closed; in addition, a ball in the upper esophagus (the "courtship crop") consequently vibrates after having been inflated by swallowed air. The Sicilian name for the common buttonquail, and indeed the Spanish name Torillo for the buttonquail group, is literally "little bull," from the birds' roaring calls. The lark buttonquail is known only to utter soft whistling notes. Female plains-wanderers utter a series of dove-like or bovine "oo-oo…" notes.

These small birds are justly called "battling quails." Not only do they behave like quails, but they are also pugnacious. The females fight among themselves, as they are the ones that occupy and defend the territories. When fighting, they peck mostly at the antagonist's forehead. They have no special weapons such as spurs. Many fights probably are averted owing to the far-carrying calls, which are hard to locate. When a male meets his female again after a long separation, he prostrates himself in an apparent appeasement display, taking a position that invites the female to nestle up to him in the plumage of his head and back.

Aptly described as "ecologically invisible birds," button-quails are rarely seen and are difficult to find even with hunting dogs. If danger threatens, they squat and freeze, creep through cover, or run away, flushing into flight if pressed. On these occasions they fly low for a short distance, in a straight line, and with a whir. The birds walk about their habitat by day, sometimes on defined trails or runways marked by their footprints in the dust, and loaf in their sheltered roosting sites during the heat of midday as well as sleeping there at night. Buttonquails sometimes forage and call at night. Several times during the day they take a dustbath. When they drink, they keep their heads down and swallow continuously in a sucking action. Plains-wanderers resemble shorebirds in the way they

stand on tiptoe and bob their head when scanning for danger; they drink only dew or raindrops.

In warmer temperate regions of their distribution, buttonquails appear to be resident throughout the year, with some birds being sedentary for many months, although there is also a high turnover of individuals. In cool temperate regions at high latitudes and altitudes, buttonquails appear to behave as summer breeding migrants that winter at lower latitudes and altitudes. In tropical and subtropical areas with wet and dry seasons, they follow the rains. Migratory flights take place at night. Plain-wanderers are sedentary unless forced to move by drought or changes to their habitat.

Feeding ecology and diet

Aside from seeds, buttonquails eat plant materials, insects, and snails. They also swallow sand to help grind up their food in the gizzard. Buttonquails forage by walking about, gleaning the ground, litter, and low vegetation. They scratch in the litter by pivoting on one foot and raking with the other, turning a half or complete circle, and sometimes changing feet and reversing direction. This technique leaves a characteristic circular feeding scrape in the soil and litter. Plainswanderers eat seeds and insects pecked from the ground, but do not share the pivoting and raking behavior.

Reproductive biology

In courtship, a female buttonquail puffs up her plumage, cocks her tail, and lets out booming notes explosively while also stamping her feet and scratching the ground. In some species the female also spreads her wings while booming at the male. Pairing proceeds to a mutual "rocking" chameleon-like gait backwards and forwards on the feet, increased synchronization of activities, huddling together to roost or dust-bathe, a mutual bowing display, and mutual preening. The female also performs "tidbitting" courtship feeding— giving a soft drumming call while she holds or pecks at a food item for the male to take. One or both birds then perform a "scrape ceremony," in which they go through the motions of preparing a nest site. Female plains-wanderers court males by booming with their wings drooped.

The mating system of Turnix buttonquails is sequential polyandry with male parental care, meaning that a female forms a temporary monogamous pair-bond with a male until she has presented him with a clutch of eggs, then finds a new mate while the first male tends the eggs and young alone. In this way a female can produce several clutches of eggs in quick succession in a breeding season. In some cases, monogamy, with some parental care by the female, also occurs. The little-known lark buttonquail appears to be monogamous, although incubation solely by the male suggests that it may, too, be polyandrous. The solitary plains-wanderer is sequentially polyandrous, with male parental care.

Both sexes search for a nesting site by testing several with the "scrape ceremony." The final site, selected by the female, is in grass, often next to a shrub. One of the partners throws dry blades or leaves over its shoulder, and the other builds it into a bowl shape, often with a roof. Usually the two take turns, with the female doing most of the work. Rarely does a covered path lead to the nest. The lark buttonquail's nest is a simple structure in sparse cover and often surrounded by pebbles. That of the plains-wanderer is a simple, grass-lined scrape built by the female, sometimes beneath a few standing grass stems.

The lark buttonquail's clutch consists of two eggs. Clutches of Turnix species consist of three to seven eggs, usually four. Until the next to last egg is laid, the female also incubates occasionally; after that she sometimes sleeps close to and touching the male, who incubates alone. The occasional unevenly incubated clutch suggests that the female sometimes shares the task with the male until the eggs hatch. This might take place only if there is no other male for whom she has to provide a clutch. For a precocial bird, the short incubation period of 12 or 13 days is a record. Plain-wanderers lay a clutch of about four eggs that require 23 days for incubation.

Hatching is synchronized, so that all chicks leave the nest together to follow their father about. The chicks, which have loose down, often weigh less than 0.1 oz (2 g), which makes them the smallest of all precocial birds. Buttonquail chicks pick at the gray bill of their father when he approaches and presents them with a termite or a seed. He also broods them and protects them. At one week, juvenal plumage replaces the down and there remains but a slight down on the tips of the feathers. Chicks start to perform the "rocking" gait when 12 days old. When three or four weeks old, the young are independent; they detach themselves from the father, who in turn answers the female's calls and obtains a second clutch to tend. At the age of three and one half weeks, the young peep animatedly; at age six or seven weeks, they are in the middle of their first molt, which is completed by the tenth week. Caged young females have laid fertilized eggs at as early as four or five months of age.

Buttonquails usually lay in spring and summer, although in the tropics they can breed at any time of year when conditions are suitable. In dry habitats, buttonquails wait for the rainy season before they breed.

Conservation status

Most buttonquail species remain common, but three Australian species (black-breasted buttonquail Turnix melanogaster, buff-breasted buttonquail Turnix olivii, and plains-wanderer) are rare, and three (spotted buttonquail Turnix ocellata, Worcester's buttonquail Turnix worcesteri, and Sumba buttonquail Turnix everetti) are endemic species with restricted ranges on Philippine and Indonesian islands. The black-breasted and buff-breasted buttonquails are on the IUCN Red List as Endangered, the Worcester's buttonquail, Sumba buttonquail, Australian chestnut-backed buttonquail (Turnix castanota), and plains-wanderer are listed as Vulnerable, and the spotted buttonquail is Near Threatened. Three species were listed in the Australian Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act of 1999: the buff-breasted buttonquail as Endangered, and the black-breasted button-quail and plains-wanderer as Vulnerable. In 2000 the status of the plains-wanderer was revised to Endangered.

Most buttonquail species are declining in parts of their range, where their habitat has been cleared or converted to a Westernized style of agriculture and pastoralism with its attendant fire. As of 2000, populations of the buff-breasted and black-breasted buttonquails were estimated at 500 and 5,000 breeding individuals, respectively, and that of the plainswanderer at a minimum of 2,500 during droughts.

Significance to humans

Many species of buttonquail are hunted for food by indigenous peoples in developing countries, and they were formerly regarded as game birds elsewhere, although as of 2001 they were no longer legal game birds in most Western countries. They were probably important in the ceremonial life of the Australian Aborigines and perhaps native peoples in other countries. Several species, particularly the common button-quail and most Australian species, are now well established in aviculture. In some Asian countries the barred buttonquail (Turnix suscitator) is exploited in exhibitions similar to those of fighting cocks.

Species accounts

List of Species

Small buttonquail

Turnix sylvatica

subfamily

Turnicinae

taxonomy

Tetrao sylvaticus Desfontaines, 1787, near Algiers. Most closely related to red-backed buttonquail (Turnix maculosa) of Australasia. Nine subspecies recognized.

other common names

English: Striped, small, little, or Kurrichane buttonquail, Andalusian hemipode, bustard quail; French: Turnix d'Andalousie; German: Laufhühnchen; Spanish: Torillo Andaluz.

physical characteristics

5.9–6.3 in (15–16 cm); male 1.1–1.6 oz (32–44 g), female 1.4–1.9 oz (39–54 g). Small buttonquail, mostly chestnut with reddish breast and shoulders, scalloped back and wings, spotted flanks, pale eyes, and slender blue-gray bill. Female slightly larger, darker, and more brightly colored. Juvenile smaller and more heavily spotted, with dark eyes. Red-backed buttonquail similar but darker and has yellow bill and legs.

distribution

One subspecies in southwestern Spain and northwestern African coast; one subspecies in sub-Saharan Africa; two subspecies in southern and Southeast Asia; four subspecies in Philippine archipelago; one subspecies in Indonesia.

habitat

Scrub, thickets, grassland, and farmland.

behavior

Terrestrial, diurnal, and partly nocturnal. Migrates at night. Territorial when breeding.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds, especially of grasses, and invertebrates obtained by gleaning and scratching on the ground. Mostly insectivorous, or takes seeds and insects in similar proportions.

reproductive biology

Breeds in spring and summer in Europe, all months of the year elsewhere, though locally only during the rainy season. Females are sequentially polyandrous, but monogamous locally. Clutch usually four eggs, though up to seven. Incubation 12–15 days. Chicks can fly at 7–11 days, are independent at 18–20 days while still not fully grown, and can breed by four months of age.

conservation status

Not threatened. Widespread and uncommon to common through most of range, although rare and declining in Europe.

significance to humans

Hunted for food in non-European parts of range; formerly hunted as a game bird in Europe. Established in aviculture.

Black-rumped buttonquail

Turnix hottentotta

taxonomy

Turnix hottentottus Temminck, 1815, Cape of Good Hope. Two subspecies recognized. A member of the T. sylvatica–T. maculosa group.

other common names

English: Dwarf, small, African, Natal, Hottentott or South African buttonquail; French: Turnix hottentot; German: Hottentottenlaufhühnchen; Spanish: Torillo Hotentote.

physical characteristics

5.5–5.9 in (14–15 cm); male 1.4 oz (40 g), female 2–2.2 oz (58–62 g). Small dark buttonquail with reddish face and breast, barring on sides, spots on flanks, slender bill, and pale eyes. Female slightly larger and redder. Juvenile smaller, less red, and more heavily marked.

distribution

T.h. hottentotta: Southern South Africa; T.h. nana: Sub-Saharan Africa from Nigeria eastward to Uganda and Kenya, south to Angola, and eastern South Africa.

habitat

Grassland, savanna, farmland, low herbage, scrub, and edges of thickets.

behavior

Terrestrial, diurnal, and partly nocturnal. Migrates at night.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds of grasses and low herbage; also eats invertebrates, including insects and larvae, obtained from the ground.

reproductive biology

Lays in most months of the year but locally during or at the end of the rainy season. Females are possibly polyandrous. Clutch usually three eggs, though up to six. Incubation 12–14 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Uncommon to locally common in most of range but very rare or possibly extinct in South Africa, owing to impacts of pastoral industry.

significance to humans

Hunted for food. Rare in aviculture.

Yellow-legged buttonquail

Turnix tanki

taxonomy

Turnix tanki Blyth, 1843, Bengal. Two subspecies recognized. Possibly related to the spotted buttonquail T. ocellata, a little-known Philippine endemic.

other common names

French: Turnix indien; German: Rotnacken-Laufhühnchen; Spanish: Torillo Tanki.

physical characteristics

6.7 in (17 cm); male 1.2–2.6 oz (35–78 g), female 3.3–4 oz (93–113 g). Rather large buttonquail, grayish with dorsal barring, a pale boldly spotted underside, and yellow bill and legs. Female more brightly colored, with reddish collar. Juvenile smaller, mottled red, and densely spotted.

distribution

T. t. tanki: India, Pakistan, Andaman and Nicobar islands; T. t. blanfordii: Myanmar through Indochina and eastern China, north to Korea, south Amurland, and Ussuriland.

habitat

Grassland, farmland, secondary growth on abandoned crop-land, grass beneath bamboo thickets, and scrub.

behavior

Terrestrial, diurnal, and partly nocturnal. Migrates at night.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds, green shoots, and invertebrates obtained from the ground. Mostly granivorous.

reproductive biology

Lays from March to November and sometimes in other months, though usually in the rainy season from June to October. Females are sequentially polyandrous. Clutch is usually of four eggs, incubated for 12 days. Chicks can fly at 10 days and acquire adult plumage by seven weeks.

conservation status

Not threatened. Poorly known, but apparently widespread and common.

significance to humans

Hunted for food.

Barred buttonquail

Turnix suscitator

taxonomy

Tetrao suscitator Gmelin, 1789, Java. Eighteen subspecies recognized. Possibly related to Madagascar buttonquail (T. nigricollis).

other common names

English: Common, dusky, Indian, or Philippine buttonquail; French: Turnix combattant; German: Bindenlaufhühnchen; Spanish: Torillo Batallador.

physical characteristics

5.9–6.7 in (15–17 cm); male 1.2–1.8 oz (35–52 g), female 1.7–2.4 oz (47–68 g). Medium-sized buttonquail, rusty brown with black-and-white head pattern, barred underside, and pale legs. Female more brightly colored, with variable reddish collar, and, in some subspecies, throat barred black and white rather than solid black. Juvenile smaller and paler, with spotted underside.

distribution

Eight subspecies in mainland south and Southeast Asia from India through Indochina to south China and Malay Peninsula; one subspecies in Sri Lanka; one subspecies in Japanese archipelago; one subspecies in Taiwan; two subspecies in Greater Sunda Islands; three subspecies in Philippine archipelago; one subspecies in Sulawesi; one subspecies in Lesser Sunda Islands.

habitat

Grassland, farmland, abandoned cropland, secondary growth, scrub, bamboo thickets, and forest edges.

behavior

Terrestrial. Territorial when breeding.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds, green shoots, and invertebrates obtained by gleaning and scratching on the ground.

reproductive biology

Lays in all months of the year according to locally favorable conditions; apparently avoids the wettest and driest months. Females are sequentially polyandrous. Clutch usually four eggs, though up to six. Incubation 12–14 days. Chicks reach adult size at 40–60 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Widespread and common to very common.

significance to humans

Hunted for food. Also, females caged and used in "hen-fights." Established in aviculture.

Black-breasted buttonquail

Turnix melanogaster

taxonomy

Hemipodius melanogaster Gould, 1837, Moreton Bay, Queens-land. Possibly related to T. suscitator–T. nigricollis group, though more likely to T. varia group.

other common names

French: Turnix à poitrine noire; German: Schwarzbrust-Laufhühnchen; Spanish: Torillo Pechinegro.

physical characteristics

6.7–7.5 in (17–19 cm); male 1.8–4.5 oz (50–127 g), female 2.8–5.6 oz (80–159 g). Large buttonquail with slender bill and pale eyes. Female mottled gray and brown, with black head and breast spotted white. Male smaller, duller, and grayer, lacking black. Juvenile smaller, duller, and more mottled on foreparts.

distribution

Small area of central eastern coast of Australia, in southeastern Queensland, and extreme northeastern New South Wales.

habitat

Rainforest, other moist forest, and vine thickets with deep leaf litter. Able to use mature (50 years old) indigenous hoop pine (Araucaria) plantations with a closed canopy and well-developed understory, but adversely affected by clearcut logging. In fragmented rainforest within agricultural landscapes, uses only

those habitat remnants greater than 42 acres (17 hectares) and favors the largest patches greater than 158 acres (64 hectares).

behavior

Terrestrial, territorial, and resident unless forced to move by habitat clearance or logging. One observational study inferred that two females maintained non-overlapping home ranges vocally rather than by overt aggression. Each female formed a covey with between one and three males. In the breeding season each male of a covey became solitary and maintained a temporary, exclusive small territory around his nest within the larger territory of the female. The female appeared to rotate among the males, presenting each in turn with a clutch of eggs. In another study, this one of radio-tracked birds, the home range of a male overlapped that of three females, and those of the females overlapped each other to some extent. The birds occupied areas of 5.4–15.1 acres (2.2–6.1 hectares) at a density of 0.4–0.5 individuals per acre (1–1.3 birds per hectare). Roosting sites were between the buttress roots of rainforest trees and changed nightly. In another radio-tracking study, females occupied home ranges of 7.4–10.9 acres (3–4.4 hectares) before logging, and 12.8–44.2 acres (5.2–17.9 hectares) after logging. The home ranges of nonbreeding males averaged 15.3 acres (6.2 hectares), but that of a male tending chicks was 4.7 acres (1.9 hectares).

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds and invertebrates obtained by gleaning and scratching in ground litter. Mostly insectivorous.

reproductive biology

Lays from October to February or March in the wild. Females sequentially polyandrous. In captivity can lay in all months, though usually September to April if conditions are sufficiently warm. Beneath the rainforest canopy, the nest is often a simple scrape lined with leaves, grass, or moss, placed between buttress roots or under a fern amid a ferny or weedy understory. The clutch is usually three or four eggs, rarely five. The incubation period for captive birds is 15–16 days but has been reported for wild birds as 18–21 days, apparently from laying of the first egg to hatching of the clutch. Chicks start to feed themselves at eight days, although the male continues to feed them until they are two weeks old. The young acquire sexually diagnostic plumage at eight to twelve weeks and can breed at four to five months old.

conservation status

Classified as Endangered by the IUCN and listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species (CITES). Rare, restricted in range and declining, owing to clearance and fragmentation of specialized habitat.

significance to humans

Well established in aviculture.

Painted buttonquail

Turnix varia

taxonomy

Perdix varia Latham, 1801, Sydney, New South Wales. Closely related to chestnut-backed and buff-breasted buttonquails (T. castanota and T. olivii, respectively). Three subspecies recognized; that on New Caledonia very distinct and may be full species.

other common names

English: Varied buttonquail; French: Turnix bariolé; German: Buntlaufhühnchen; Spanish: Torillo Pintojo.

physical characteristics

6.7–9.1 in (17–23 cm); male 1.9–3.3 oz (53–94 g), female 2.5–4.7 oz (72–134 g). Large buttonquail, reddish with mottled gray breast, slender bill, and red eyes. Female larger and redder. Juvenile smaller, grayer, and more mottled, without red, and with pale eyes.

distribution

T. v. varia: eastern, southeastern, and southwestern Australia, including Tasmania; T. v. scintillans: islands off southwestern Australia; T. v. novaecaledoniae: New Caledonia.

habitat

Scrub, grassy woodland, open forest, grassy clearings in dense forest, and heath.

behavior

Terrestrial, diurnal, and partly nocturnal. Migrates at night. Strongly territorial.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds, green shoots, and invertebrates obtained by gleaning and scratching on the ground.

reproductive biology

Lays from late winter to autumn in south and east of range, all months of the year in the tropics. Females are sequentially polyandrous but may form short-term monogamous bonds. Clutch is usually three or four eggs, though up to five. Incubation 13–14 days. Chicks are fed by the male for 7–10 days, can fly at 10 days, are fully feathered at 16 days, and reach adult size at 23 days. Breeding success in one sample was 3.7 chicks per successful nest, and 2.6 chicks per clutch started. Broods averaged 3.5 young in the first week, down to 2.3 in the second.

conservation status

Not threatened. Widespread and uncommon to locally common; declining in south Australian urbanized and agricultural regions. Subspecies on New Caledonia, possibly a full species, rare or extinct. Very similar species T. castanota and T. olivii of N. Australia classified as Vulnerable and Endangered, respectively.

significance to humans

Established in aviculture.

Red-chested buttonquail

Turnix pyrrhothorax

taxonomy

Hemipodius pyrrhothorax Gould, 1841, Aberdeen, New South Wales. Closely related to Worcester's and Sumba buttonquails (T. worcesteri and T. everetti, respectively), which may be subspecies. Australian little buttonquail T. velox also related to this species group.

other common names

English: Chestnut-breasted, red-breasted, rufous-breasted, or yellow buttonquail; French: Turnix à poitrine rousse; German: Rotbrust-Laufhühnchen; Spanish: Torillo Pechirrufo.

physical characteristics

4.7–6.3 in (12–16 cm); male 1–1.6 oz (27–46 g), female 1.5–2.7 oz (43–76 g). Small buttonquail, gray with rusty red breast, scalloped sides, stout bill, and pale eyes. Female larger, with brighter red breast. Juvenile smaller, browner, and more mottled, with scalloped breast.

distribution

Northern and eastern Australia.

habitat

Grassland, grassy woodland, and cropland with dense ground cover.

behavior

Terrestrial, diurnal, and partly nocturnal. Migrates at night. Territorial when breeding.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds and insects obtained by gleaning and scratching on the ground. Mostly granivorous.

reproductive biology

Lays in spring and summer in the south of its range and autumn to spring in the tropics. Females sequentially polyandrous. Clutch usually four eggs, though up to five. Incubation 13–18 days. Chicks reach adult size in six to eight weeks and acquire adult-like plumage at two to three months.

conservation status

Not threatened. Widespread and uncommon to locally common; possibly declining in south Australian agricultural regions. Very similar forms T. worcesteri and T. everetti classified as Vulnerable; these are very poorly known restricted-range endemics in Philippine and Lesser Sunda islands.

significance to humans

Hunted by Australian Aborigines for food. Established in aviculture.

Lark buttonquail

Ortyxelos meiffrenii

taxonomy

Turnix meiffrenii Vieillot, 1819, Senegal.

other common names

English: Lark-quail, quail-plover; French: Turnix à ailes blanches; German: Lerchenlaufhühnchen; Spanish: Torillo Alaudino.

physical characteristics

3.9–5.1 in (10–13 cm); male 0.6–0.7 oz (16–20 g), female larger. Tiny, gracile, courser-like buttonquail, mottled red with pale belly. Wings and tail longer than in Turnix, dark with conspicuous white flashes in flight. Female has redder breast and broader white tip to tail. Juvenile duller and paler, more mottled.

distribution

Tropical Africa from Senegal east to Sudan and Kenya, including south Ghana and possibly elsewhere in west Africa.

habitat

Dry, sparse grassland, savanna, scrub, and dense shrubland.

behavior

Terrestrial. Otherwise little known.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats grass seeds and insects obtained from the ground.

reproductive biology

Little known. Lays from September to March in the cool dry season. Possibly monogamouns. Clutch is two eggs, incubated by the male.

conservation status

Not threatened. Widespread and uncommon to locally common; range increasing with expanding deserts.

significance to humans

None known.

Plains-wanderer

Pedionomus torquatus

subfamily

Pedionominae

taxonomy

Pedionomus torquatus Gould near Adelaide, South Australia. Traditionally placed with the Turnicidae, but as of 1990s increasingly recognized as belonging in the Charadriiformes, family Pedionomidae, and allied with the seedsnipes (Thinocoridae).

other common names

English: Collared plains-wanderer/hemipode, turkey quail; French: Pédionome errant; German: Steppenläufer; Spanish: Llanero.

physical characteristics

5.9–7.5 in (15–19 cm); male 1.4–2.8 oz (40–80 g), female 1.9–3.4 oz (55–95 g). Buttonquail-like bird with longer legs, small raised hind toe, shorebird-like mannerisms. Mottled and scalloped brown, with pale, scalloped underside. Female larger, with black-and-white mottled collar, reddish upper breast. Juvenile smaller, with spotted underside.

distribution

Inland eastern Australia.

habitat

Sparse native grasslands with low herbaceous layer; rarely in stubble or sparse low crops.

behavior

Terrestrial, diurnal, and solitary except when pairing or when a male is tending chicks. Sedentary except when forced to move by drought or changes to habitat. Individuals occupy home ranges of 17.3–51.9 acres (7–21 hectares). Stands on tiptoe, with head bobbing, to scan for danger. Roosts solitarily in grass using the same roost nightly.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats seeds and insects obtained by gleaning from the ground or sometimes the standing heads of grasses. Lives without surface water but gleans dew and raindrops from vegetation.

reproductive biology

Lays in spring and summer in temperate southern parts of its range, and autumn to early winter in subtropical northern parts. Possibly sequentially polyandrous. Clutch is usually four eggs, though up to five. Incubation 23 days. Young are independent after two months and can breed by one year old.

conservation status

Classified as Vulnerable, revised to Endangered in 2000 by the IUCN and listed on Appendix II of CITES. Fairly widespread, but rare and declining owing to loss of native grasslands to agriculture.

significance to humans

Rare in aviculture.

Resources

Books

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 3, Hoatzin to Auks. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 1996.

Garnett, S., and G. Crowley. The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000. Canberra, Australia: Environment Australia, 2000.

Johnsgard, P. A. Bustards, Hemipodes, and Sandgrouse. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Marchant, S., and P. J. Higgins, eds. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 2, Raptors to Lapwings. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press, 1993.

Periodicals

Baker-Gabb, D. "Native Grasslands and the Plains-wanderer." Birds Australia Conservation Statement no. 1. Supplement to Wingspan (Australia) 8, no. 1 (1998).

Crouther, M. M., and K. W. Crouther. "Quail That Go Bump in the Night." Corella 23 (1999): 43–47.

Emmerson, S. "Female Red-chested Button-quail Tending Chicks." Australian Bird Watcher 18 (1999): 45.

Hamley, T., P. Flower, and G. C. Smith. "Present and Past Distribution of the Black-breasted Button-quail Turnix melanogaster (Gould) in Queensland." Sunbird 27 (1997): 1–21.

Lees, N., and G. C. Smith. "An Assessment of Faeces as a Reliable Indicator of the Occurrence of Black-breasted Button-quail and Painted Button-quail." Sunbird 28 (1998): 41–49

Lees, N., and G. C. Smith. "Use of Mature Hoop Plantation by the Vulnerable Black-breasted Button-quail Turnix melanogaster." Australian Forestry 62 (1999): 330–335.

McConnell, P., and R. Hobson. "The Diet and Behaviour of the Black-breasted Button-quail Turnix melanogaster." Sunbird 25 (1995): 18–23.

Smith, G. C., J. Aridis, and N. Lees. "Radio-tracking Revealed Home Ranges of Black-breasted Button-quail Turnix melanogaster in Remnant Vine Scrub between Hoop Pine Plantation and Agriculture." Emu 98 (1998): 171–177.

Smyth, A. K., D. Noble, and C. Wiley. "Black-breasted Button-quail in Open Eucalypt Forest in South-eastern Queensland." Australian Bird Watcher 19 (2001): 45–47.

Smyth, A. K., and C. R. Pavey. "Foraging by the Endangered Black-breasted Button-quail (Turnix melanogaster) within Fragmented Rainforest of an Agricultural Landscape." Biological Conservation 98 (2001): 149–157.

Smyth, A. K., and J. Young. "Observations on the Endangered Black-breasted Button-quail Turnix melanogaster Breeding in the Wild." Emu 96 (1996): 202–207.

Other

"Buttonquail." Discovery Channel School (original content provided by World Book Online). 10 Dec. 2001 <http://www.discoveryschool.com/homeworkhelp/worldbook/atozscience/b/748841.html>

"Button-quails, Quail-plover." Turnicidae. Cornell University, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. 10 Dec. 2001 <http://www.es.cornell.edu/winkler/botw/turnicidae.html>

"Buttonquails." Turnicidae. Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, Statistics Department. 10 Dec. 2001 <http://www-stat.wharton.upenn.edu/siler/smchoose.p1?15>

Stephen Debus, MSc