SYRIA

Syrian Arab Republic

Al-Jumhuriyah al-'Arabiyah as-Suriyah

CAPITAL: Damascus (Dimashq)

FLAG: The national flag is a horizontal tricolor of red, white, and black stripes; in the white center stripe are two green five-pointed stars.

ANTHEM: An-Nashid as-Suri (The Syrian National Anthem) begins "Protectors of the nation, peace be upon you."

MONETARY UNIT: The Syrian pound (s£) is a paper currency of 100 piasters. There are coins of 25 and 50 piasters and 1 Syrian pound and notes of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 500 Syrian pounds. s£1 = $0.02062 (or $1 = s£48.5) as of 2004.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, but local units are widely used.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Revolution Day, 8 March; Egypt's Revolution Day, 23 July; Union of Arab Republics Day, 1 September; National Day, 16 November. Muslim religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', Milad an-Nabi, and Laylat al-Miraj. Christian religious holidays include Easter (Catholic); Easter (Orthodox); and Christmas, 25 December.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in southwest Asia at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, Syria has an area of 185,180 sq km (71,498 sq mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Syria is slightly larger than the state of North Dakota. Included in this total is the Golan Heights region (1,176 sq km/454 sq mi), which Israel captured in 1967 and annexed on 14 December 1981; the annexation was denounced by Syria and unanimously condemned by the United Nations Security Council. Syria extends 793 km (493 mi) ene–wsw and 431 km (268 mi) sse–nnw. It is bounded on the n by Turkey, on the e and se by Iraq, on the s by Jordan, on the sw by Israel, and on the w by Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea, with a land boundary length of 2,253 km (1,400 mi) and a coastline of 193 km (120 mi).

TOPOGRAPHY

There are five main geographic zones: (1) the narrow coastal plain along the Mediterranean shore; (2) the hill and mountain regions, including the Ansariyah ('Alawite) Mountains in the north-west paralleling the coast, the eastern slopes of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and the Jabal Ad-Duruz in the southeast; (3) the cultivated area east of the Ansariyah and Anti-Lebanon ranges, which is widest in the north, discontinuous between Himş and Damascus; (4) the steppe and desert region, traversed by the Euphrates (Al-Furat) River; and (5) the Jazirah in the northeast, steppe country with low rolling hills.

The Anti-Lebanon Mountains, extending southward along the Lebanese border, serve as a catchment for the rainfall of central Syria. To the north of this range, the Ansariyah Mountains, which reach heights of over 1,500 m (5,000 ft), slope westward to the Mediterranean. The Orontes (Asi) River irrigates areas on the eastern side of the Ansariyah Mountains.

CLIMATE

The climate varies from the Mediterranean type in the west to extremely arid desert conditions in the east. The coastal regions have hot summers and mild winters; in the mountains, summer heat is moderated according to elevation and the winters are much more severe.

The steppe and desert areas have extremely hot, arid summers and greatly varying winter temperatures ranging from 21°c (70°f) to below freezing. Average temperatures for Damascus range from about 21° to 43°c (70–109°f) in August and from about -4° to 16°c (25–61°f) in January. Rainfall averages about 75 cm (30 in) on the coast, around 125 cm (50 in) in some mountain areas, and less than 25 cm (10 in) in the eastern three-fifths of the country. In dry years, rainfall may be reduced by half.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The coastal plain is highly cultivated and the little wild growth found is mainly of the brushwood type, such as tamarisk. On the northern slopes of the Ansariyah range are remnants of pine forests, while oak and scrub oak grow in the less well-watered central portion. Terebinth is indigenous to the low hill country of the steppes and wormwood grows on the plains. Some sections of the Jabal Ad-Duruz are covered with a dense maquis.

The wildlife of Syria includes types common to the eastern Mediterranean region, together with typical desert species. There is a diminishing number of bears in the mountains. Antelope are found wherever grazing is available and human competition not too severe. There are also deer in some sections. Smaller animals include squirrel, wildcat, otter, and hare. In the desert, the viper, lizard, and chameleon are found in relatively large numbers. Native birds include flamingo and pelican, as well as various ducks, snipe, and other game birds.

As of 2002, there were at least 63 species of mammals, 145 species of birds, and over 3,000 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Much of Syria's natural vegetation has been depleted by farming, livestock grazing, and cutting of trees for firewood and construction. The thick forests that once covered western Syria have been drastically reduced; as a result, soil erosion and desertification are extensive. The salinity of the soil is also a problem, causing a loss of more than $300 million worth of agricultural products per year. Other environmental problems include pollution of coastal waters from oil spills and human waste and contamination of inland waterways by industrial waste and sewage.

Environmental awareness has been a growing concern in the Arab world. The United Nations (UN) and Middle Eastern environmental organizations have sponsored Arab Environment Day to bring the focus of the nation's attention on environmental problems. The quantity of native wildlife had been so seriously depleted that in 1979 the government banned hunting for five years.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species includes 3 types of mammals, 11 species of birds, 3 types of reptiles, 9 species of fish, and 3 species of invertebrates. The Mediterranean monk seal, bald ibis, and African softshell turtle are endangered. The Anatolian leopard, cheetah, Syrian wild ass, Israel painted frog, and Persian fallow deer are extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Syria in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 18,389,000, which placed it at number 55 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 37% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 101 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 2.7%. The government has sharpened its focus on population issues, creating a state minister for population affairs in 2003. The projected population for the year 2025 was 27,410,000. The overall population density was 99 per sq km (257 per sq mi), but most of the population is concentrated in in Damascus and the six western provinces. Desert areas in the east are largely uninhabited.

The UN estimated that 50% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005 and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 2.53%. The capital city, Damascus (Dimashq), had a population of 2,228,000 in that year. The population of Aleppo (Halab), a northern trading and agricultural center, was an estimated 2,505,000. Other main cities are Himş (Homs), 915,000; Hamāh (Hama); and Latakia (Al Lādhiqiyah).

MIGRATION

In the past there was sizable emigration of Syrians to Europe, Africa, and the Western Hemisphere, but emigration had virtually ceased by the late 1940s. Since World War I, there has been substantial internal migration from the coastal mountains to the central plains and, in general, from rural areas to the towns. There is considerable migration across the borders with Lebanon and Jordan. About 150,000 Syrians working in Kuwait returned during 1990–91. As of October 1995, there were 300,000 Palestinian refugees in Syria. In 1997, the Syrian government accepted the protection mandate of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for all recognized refugees in the country. The total number of migrants in 2000 was 903,000, including approximately 391,000 refugees. As of 2004, there were 15,604 registered refugees in Syria, primarily from Iraq. In that same year, there were 785 asylum seekers (countries of origin were Iraq, Somalia and Sudan) and 185 returned refugees. However, in 2004, there was also a stateless population of 300,000. In 2004, over 3,000 Syrians sought asylum in eight countries in Western Europe and the United Kingdom. In that same year, there were 16,184 Syrians refugees in Germany. In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated at zero migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the emigration level as too high, but the immigration level as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Ethnic Syrians are primarily of a Semitic stock; however, racial types have generally become intermixed. It is estimated that Arabs make up about 90.3% of the population. Other ethnic groups make up the remaining 9.7%, including Kurds, Armenians, and others.

LANGUAGES

The official language and the language of the majority is Arabic, but dialect variations are distinct from region to region and even from town to town. The written language, classical Arabic, based on the Koran (Quran), is the basis of the standard spoken form. Kurdish and Armenian are the principal minority languages. Aramaic, the language of Jesus, and Circassian are also widely understood. French and English are somewhat understood.

RELIGIONS

Islam is the religion of the vast majority. About 74% of the population are Sunni Muslims. Alawite, Druze, Ismailis, Shia, and Yazidis account for another 16% of the population. The Alawite constitute an important minority in Syria and hold a disproportionate share of political power; although they consider themselves Muslims, they combine their avowed creed with Christian rituals and esoteric cults. Also important are the Druzes (most of whom live in the Jabal Ad-Duruz), whose religion is an offshoot of Shia Islam.

About 10% of the population is Christian, with Greek Orthodox being the largest denomination. Other Christian churches include Armenian Catholic, Armenian Orthodox (Gregorian), Syrian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Maronite Christian, Baptist, Mennonite, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, and Nestorian (Chaldean). The small Jewish population is urban, living primarily in Damascus, Al Qamishli, and Aleppo.

Under the 1973 constitution, Islam is no longer declared to be the religion of the state, but the president of Syria must still be a Muslim, and Islamic law is a major source of legislation. Freedom of worship is guaranteed by the constitution but public proselytizing is strongly discouraged by the government. All religious groups must register with the government. Certain Orthodox Christian and Muslim holidays are officially observed.

TRANSPORTATION

The Syrian national railroad system consists of 2,711 km (1,686 mi) of standard and narrow gauge railways, of which 2,460 km (1,530 mi) is standard gauge line. Three sections are: the Syrian section of the old Baghdād Railway; the main line from Damascus to Aleppo, with connections to Tartus, points in Lebanon, and the phosphate mines; and the railway linking Al Lādhiqiyah, Halab, and Al-Qamishli, built with Soviet help and completed in 1981. There are also 251 km (156 mi) of narrow-gauge line, part of which is the pre–World War I Hejaz Railway, linking Damascus to Jordan and Lebanon. Syria is also connected by rail with Turkey (thus with Europe) and Iraq.

The road system, though growing, remains inadequate in view of the demands imposed by increased economic activity. In 2002, Syria had 45,697 km (28,424 mi) of roads, of which only 6,489 km (4,036 mi) were paved, including 1,001 km (623 mi) of expressways. There are road connections between the major towns and with Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Turkey. As of 2003, there were 181,017 passenger cars and 290,300 commercial vehicles.

Tartus and Al Lādhiqiyah are the main ports. Jablah and Baniyas are minor ports. In 2005, the merchant fleet comprised 120 vessels of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 446,981 GRT. Although Syria had 900 km (560 mi) of navigable inland waterways as of 2002, these have had little economic impact. In 2004, Syria had an estimated 92 airports. As of 2005, it had a total of 26 had paved runways, and there were also seven heliports. Damascus is a connecting point for a number of major airlines; the main passenger terminal of its international airport was completed in 1982. Another principal airport is Aleppo International at Aleppo (Halab). Syrian Arab Airlines provides service to Halab, Al-Qamishli, Al Lādhiqiyah, and other airports; it also flies to other Arab countries and to Europe and Africa. In 2003, about 908,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

Archaeological excavations at Ebla, in northern Syria, have revealed that Syria was the center of a great Semitic empire extending from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia around 2500 bc. At that time, Damascus, traditionally the world's oldest continuously occupied city and certainly one of the world's oldest cities, was settled. Later, an advanced civilization was developed along the Syrian and Lebanese coastlands under the Phoenicians (c.1600–c.800 bc), among whom trade, industry, and seafaring flourished. The wealth of the land attracted many conquerors, and Syria was invaded successively by the Hittites, Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, and others. In the 4th century bc, Syria fell to Alexander the Great, first in a long line of European conquerors. After the breakup of his empire, dominion over Syria was disputed by the Seleucid and Ptolemaic successor states, and Persians invaded when the opportunity arose; eventually the Seleucids gained control. In the 1st century bc, all of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Transjordan was conquered by the Romans and organized as the province of Syria; these areas are termed "geographic" Syria. Christianity, particularly after its official recognition in the early 4th century ad by Constantine the Great, spread throughout the region.

In 637, Damascus fell to the Arabs. Most Syrians were converted to Islam, and Arabic gradually became the language of the area. Under the Umayyad caliphs, Damascus became the capital of the Islamic world and a base for Arab conquests. Under the 'Abbasids, the caliphate was centered at Baghdād, and Syria was reduced to provincial status. Thereafter, geographic Syria fell prey to a succession of invaders, including Byzantines and Crusaders from Western Europe. Some parts of Syria came under the sway of Seljuks and Ayyubids, a Kurdish dynasty. The latter was most prominent under its leader Saladin (Salah ad-Din). During the 13th century, Mongols frequently invaded Syria, and for 200 years parts of Syria were controlled by the Mamluks, who ruled it from Egypt through local governors. In 1516, the Ottoman forces of Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluks, and for the next four centuries, Syria was a province of the Ottoman Empire.

During World War I, Sharif Hussein (Husayn Ibn-'Ali) of Mecca threw in his lot with the Allies and revolted against Ottoman rule. After the war, with British forces in control, the formal entry of Allied troops into Damascus was made by Arab forces under Faisal (Faysal), Hussein's son, on 30 October 1918. Faisal and the Arab nationalists, whose number had been growing since 1912, opposed French aspirations to Syria and claimed independence under the terms of agreements between the British government and Hussein. In March 1920, Faisal was proclaimed king by a congress representing Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine. However, geographic Syria was divided into British and French mandates. In June, the French, who had been allotted a mandate for Syria and Lebanon by the Agreement of San Remo (April 1920), ejected Faisal and installed local administrations of their own choosing. Arab nationalists resented French rule; there was a major revolt from 1925 to 1927, and unrest persisted until the outbreak of World War II. In 1941, Free French and British forces wrested control of Syria from Vichy France. Two years later, under pressure from the United Kingdom and the United States, the French permitted elections and the formation of a nationalist government. The United Kingdom and the United States recognized Syria's independence in 1944, and the last French troops departed on 17 April 1946.

Two parties that had led the struggle for independence, the Nationalist Party and the People's Party, dominated Syrian political life in the immediate postwar period. However, the Palestine War of 1948–49, which resulted in the defeat of the Arab armies and the establishment of Israeli statehood, discredited the Syrian leadership. In December 1948, riots against the government were put down by the army, and several army factions struggled for more than a year to gain control of the Syrian state. Col. Adib Shishakli ruled Syria for most of the period from December 1949 to March 1954, when he was ousted by another army coup.

The years from 1954 to 1958 were marked by the growth of pan-Arab and left-of-center political forces at the expense of the traditional merchant landowner class, which dominated the Nationalist and People's parties. Foremost among these forces was the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, which saw in Gamal Abdel Nasser (Nasir), the president of Egypt, a kindred pan-Arabist. Military officers remained active in political affairs but were split into competing factions. Some elements of the Nationalist and People's parties sought to counter the left by seeking help from Iraq and other countries. In late 1957, influential military officers decided to seek unity with Egypt as a means of suppressing factionalism. Enthusiastically supported by the Ba'ath and other pan-Arabists, they appealed to Cairo. Nasser agreed, and on 1 February 1958, Egypt and Syria proclaimed the union of Syria and Egypt as the United Arab Republic (UAR).

A monolithic single-party structure replaced the lively Syrian political tradition; decisions were made in Cairo; land reforms were introduced. Syrians chafed under Egyptian rule, and in September 1961, after a military coup, Syria seceded from the UAR. A period of political instability followed until, on 8 March 1963, power was seized by a group of leftist army officers calling themselves the National Council of the Revolutionary Command, and a radical socialist government dominated by the Ba'ath Party was formed.

The period that followed was marked by internal struggles between the founders of the Ba'ath Party and a younger generation of party militants, many in the military. That generation came to power in 1966 but split in succeeding years. In the June 1967 war between Israel on one side, and Syria, Egypt, and Jordan on the other, Israel gained control of the Golan Heights. Gen. Hafez al-Assad (Hafiz al-Asad), a former chief of the Air Force and defense minister, became chief of state on 16 November 1970; he assumed the presidency, a reinstituted office, for the first of four seven-year terms beginning in March 1971, and a permanent constitution was ratified by popular referendum on 12 March 1973. On 6 October of that year, Syrian troops launched a full-scale attack against Israeli forces in the Golan Heights, as the Egyptians attacked in the Suez Canal area. After the UN cease-fire of 24 October, Israel remained in control of the Golan Heights, and Syria boycotted peace negotiations in Geneva. However, on 31 May 1974, Syria signed a US-mediated disengagement accord with Israel, restoring part of the Golan Heights to Syria and creating a buffer zone, manned by a UN peacekeeping force. The occupied sector of the Golan Heights was annexed by Israel in 1981; outside powers criticized and did not recognize the annexation.

In recent years, Syria has intervened militarily in neighboring Arab states to secure political ends. In September 1970, Syrian armored forces crossed the border into Jordan to support the Palestinians during the Jordanian civil war, but the Syrians were driven back by troops loyal to Jordan's King Hussein (Husayn) and by the threat of Israeli intervention. In 1976, Syrian troops entered Lebanon, nominally to enforce a cease-fire between Christian and Muslim forces but actually to help the Christian forces prevent a victory by leftist Muslims and Palestinians. Syria strongly opposed the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty of 1979 and was one of the few Arab states to support Iran in its war against Iraq, with which Syria had hoped to merge. Another merger plan, this one with Libya, was announced in September 1980, but the effort was stillborn. In October, Syria signed a 20-year friendship treaty with the USSR; subsequently, Syria received large quantities of Soviet arms, including antiaircraft missiles, which it deployed in the Bekaa (Biqa') Valley in Lebanon. After Israel invaded southern Lebanon in June 1982, the Israelis knocked out the missile batteries, crippled Syria's Soviet-equipped air force, and trapped Syrian as well as Palestinian fighters in Beirut before allowing their evacuation. Having reequipped its army with Soviet weapons, Syria maintained 25,000-35,000 troops in Lebanon until 2005. In the Lebanese civil war, Syria supported the Druze and Muslim militias against the Maronite Lebanese Forces.

Syria made repeated attempts to establish a cease-fire among Lebanon's factions. In 1989, it endorsed the Taif Accord for ending the conflict and, later, when Christian militia General Michel Aoun declared himself president of Lebanon and sought to expel the Syrian forces, assaulted his enclave with artillery and drove him out of the country. In 1991, Syria backed moves to disarm and disband the militias and signed a treaty with Beirut to put relations on a stable and peaceful basis. Under the Taif Accord, Syria was to have withdrawn its forces from Beirut and coastal areas by September 1992. Syria's withdrawal from Beirut took place in June 2001.

The authoritarian Assad regime was condemned by outsiders for assisting terrorist and drug smuggling groups. Both charges were played down after Syria joined the coalition of forces against Iraq in 1990 and agreed to participate in direct peace talks with Israel in 1991. The collapse of the Soviet Union removed Syria's most important source of external support, nullifying Assad's proclaimed strategy of refusing to negotiate with Israel until Syria gained military parity.

Internally, the regime was resented for its denial of democracy and the concentration of power with members of the Assad family's minority religious sect, the Alawis. The most serious internal threat came from Islamic militants in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In 1982, Assad sent the army against their stronghold in Hama, devastating a section of the city and causing tens of thousands of casualties. There has been no serious threat to the regime since then, and the Ba'ath Party has continued to control the country. In the 1990s, Assad took steps to liberalize economic controls and to permit some political freedoms. About 300 political prisoners were released in 1992 and Syrian Jews were again allowed to travel. Still, the country remains on the US State Department's list of countries that support terrorism and US trade is severely restricted. In 1994, Syrian officials met with representatives of Israel's Yitzhak Rabin–led government on the return of the Golan Heights—something Assad had wanted for decades. After Rabin's assassination, however, the talks were discontinued, and the stalemate between Syria and Israel continued. In 1997, US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright announced that she would visit Syria in an effort to get the stalled peace process back on track. Syria was officially guarded about the prospects for success, as it remained deeply suspicious of Israel's right-wing government led by Benjamin Netanyahu. In the same year, the Assad regime entered into negotiations with Iraq to open up its ports to the latter. Syria broke off diplomatic relations with Iraq after backing Iran in the 1980–88 war.

With the election of Labor leader Ehud Barak as prime minister of Israel in May 1999, new hope arose for improved relations with Israel, and a new round of peace talks between Syria and Israel was held in the United States, near Washington, D.C., in January 2000. In May 2000, Israel withdrew from southern Lebanon. By the late 1990s, serious concerns had been raised about the health and mental status of Syria's president, who was reportedly having "mental lapses" and suspected to be suffering from some form of dementia, as well as other infirmities. Nevertheless, Assad was elected to a fifth seven-year term in 1999 in a nearly unanimous vote. After the 1994 death in an automobile accident of Basel, the son whom the Syrian leader had been grooming to succeed him, another of Assad's sons, Bashar, was given increased responsibilities. Assad died on 10 June 2000 of a heart attack; 34-year-old Bashar Assad was unanimously elected secretary-general by the Ba'ath Party one week later. Parliament amended the constitution to lower the minimum age for a president from 40 to 34. In a July referendum, Bashar won overwhelming support to succeed his father, and he officially began a seven-year term as president on 17 July 2000.

In November 2000, President Assad ordered the release of more than 600 political prisoners. However, in September 2001, members of parliament and proreform activists were detained, which dulled hopes that Bashar would usher in a new climate of reform in the aftermath of his father's death. Although more than 100 dissidents were released from prison in November, human rights organizations maintain that hundreds of political prisoners remain in jail in Syria. In April 2001, the outlawed Muslim Brotherhood, whose members were targeted during the 1982 Hama massacre, announced its intention to resume political activity.

Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001, Bashar Assad publicly emphasized Syria's stance on terrorism, although it did not support the US-led war on terrorism, stating military action was not the appropriate response to terrorism. The United States still lists Syria on its State Department's list of countries supporting terrorism, and in 2004 imposed economic sanctions on Syria over what it called its support for terrorism and failure to stop militants from entering Iraq from Syria.

Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut in June 2001 to redeploy in other parts of Lebanon, in response to greater Lebanese criticism of Syria's presence there. In April 2005, as a result of massive Lebanese street protests following the 14 February 2005 assassination of former Lebanese prime minister Rafik al-Hariri—called the "Cedar Revolution," for bringing down the pro-Syrian Lebanese cabinet—Syria withdrew all of its military forces from Lebanon.

One of the main reasons Israel has not pulled out of the Golan Heights has to do with water. The Golan Heights provides approximately 30% of Israel's water needs. The Dan, the Banyas, and the Hatzbani, tributaries of the upper Jordan River, originate in the Golan Heights. Israel's water needs are also tied to Lebanon. Lebanon has begun to divert 50 million cubic meters a year from the Wazzani and Hatzbani Rivers to supply villages in southern Lebanon with water. The Wazzani feeds into the Hatzbani, which in turn flows into the Jordan River watershed and Lake Kinneret (Lake Tiberias or the Sea of Galilee), a major source of Israel's water supply. In 2002, Sharon identified measures to divert water from Israel as a cause for war. In 1964 Syria tried to dam the waters that fed Lake Kinneret, but Israel destroyed the dams as one of the events leading to the 1967 Six-Day War. Since then, Syria has built 23 dams on the Yarmouk River, a tributary flowing into the Jordan River south of Lake Kinneret, affecting the water supplies of Israel and Jordan.

GOVERNMENT

After independence, Syria made several attempts at establishing a constitution. The constitution of 1950 was revived in amended form in 1962 and then abrogated. A provisional constitution adopted in April 1964 was suspended in 1966 and replaced to some extent by a series of edicts. The fundamental law that emerged considered Syria a socialist republic forming part of the Arab homeland, required that the head of state be a Muslim, recognized Islamic law as a main source of legislation, ordained collective ownership of the means of production, but permitted some private ownership.

The constitution of 12 March 1973, embodying these principles and ratified by popular referendum, vests strong executive power in the president, who is nominated by the Ba'ath Party and elected by popular vote to a seven-year term. The president, who appoints the cabinet (headed by a prime minister), also serves as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and as secretary-general of the Ba'ath Party; three vice presidents were named in March 1984, including President Assad's younger brother Rifaat, who was dismissed from this post in 1998. The two other vice presidents named in 1984 were still in office in 2005. The unicameral People's Assembly (Majlis al-shaab) has 250 members who are elected every four years, but who have no real power. Suffrage is universal, beginning at age 18. Syria has been under a state of emergency since 1963 (except for 1973–74). Although Bashar Assad announced in January 2001 that the emergency law was "frozen" and "not applied," the state of emergency still remained in force.

Bashar Assad began a seven-year term as president in July 2000 following his father's death that June. The next presidential election is scheduled to take place in 2007.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party is Syria's dominant political institution. It has a countrywide organization and controls mass organizations for youth, students, women, and the like. Only the Ba'ath may carry on political activity in the armed forces. It is far larger and more influential than the combined strength of its five partners in the National Progressive Front (NPF). This official political alignment, formed by President Hafez Assad in 1972, groups the Communist Party of Syria (SCP) and small leftist parties—the Syrian Arab Socialist Union (ASU), the Socialist Unionist Movement (ASUM), the Democratic Socialist Union Party (DSUP), and the Arab Socialist Party (ASP)—with the Ba'ath. The Ba'ath Party was founded in 1947 with the goals of Arab liberation, Arab unity, and socialism. Ba'athists attained control of the government in 1963, but the party became divided into two factions, a wing of doctrinaire socialists and a more pragmatic wing. Assad, then minister of defense and a strong nationalist, seized power in a bloodless coup in November 1970 and purged the doctrinaire Ba'athists from the government. The Ba'athists have relied on the minority Alawi sect, of which Assad was a member, and on the rural sector of the population generally. During his years as president, Assad appointed Ba'athist Alawis to influential positions in the government and in the military and security services. When Assad died on 10 June 2000, the Ba'ath Party held a party congress—its first since 1985—and elected Bashar Assad secretary-general. Bashar Assad succeeded his father as president the next month.

Hafez Assad, the sole presidential candidate for over 20 years, won national plebiscites by 99% majorities on 12 March 1971, 8 February 1978, 13 March 1985, 2 December 1991, and 10 February 1999. His son, Bashar, won in July 2000 by a vote of 8.6 million to 22,000. In elections on 1 December 1998, the Ba'ath won 135 seats; the ASU, 8; SCP, 8; ASUM, 7; ASP, 5; DSUP, 4; and independents, 83. In the March 2003 elections, the NPF won 167 seats (with the Ba'ath winning 135 seats once again), and independents held 83 seats. The next elections are scheduled to take place in 2007.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Syria is divided into 14 provinces (muhafazat) ; every province has a governor (muhafiz) and council. Each province is in turn divided into districts (mantiqat), each headed by a qaimmaqam. Each district is further subdivided into subdistricts, each in the charge of a mudir. Governors are appointed by and are directly responsible to the authorities in Damascus.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The Syrian legal system is based partly on French law and partly on Syrian statutes. Investigating magistrates determine whether a case should be sent to trial. Minor infringements are handled by peace courts, and more serious cases go to courts of first instance. There are civil and criminal appeals courts, the highest being the Court of Cassation. Separate state security courts have jurisdiction over activities affecting the security of the government. In addition, Shariah courts apply Islamic law in cases involving personal status. The Druze and non-Muslim communities have their own religious courts.

A Supreme Constitutional Court investigates and rules on petitions submitted by the president or one-fourth of the members of the People's Assembly challenging the constitutionality of laws or legislative decrees. This court has no jurisdiction to hear appeals for cases from the civil or criminal courts.

The constitution provides for an independent judiciary. The regular court system is independent; however, the state security courts are not completely independent from the executive.

There are no jury trials. The regular courts respect constitutional provisions safeguarding due process. The Supreme State Security Court tries political and national security cases. The Economic Security Court tries cases involving financial crimes. Both courts operate under the state-of-emergency rules overriding constitutional defendants' rights.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, Syria's armed forces had 307,600 active personnel, supported by 354,000 reservists. The Army had 200,000 personnel, and included seven armored divisions, three mechanized infantry divisions, a Republican Guard division, four independent infantry brigades, three surface-to-surface missile brigades, two artillery brigades, one special forces division, and one border guard brigade. The Army had 4,600 main battle tanks, 800 reconnaissance vehicles, 2,200 armored infantry fighting vehicles, over 1,600 armored personnel carriers, and 3,150 artillery pieces, in addition to sophisticated antitank and antiaircraft weapons. The Syrian Navy had 7,600 active personnel, with major naval units that included two frigates, 20 patrol/coastal vessels, and five mine warfare ships. The naval aviation arm operated 25 attack and 25 antisubmarine warfare helicopters. The nation's Air Force had 40,000 personnel, with 632 combat-capable aircraft, including 390 fighters and 126 fighter ground attack aircraft. The service also had 71 attack helicopters. The Air Defense Command had an estimated 60,000 personnel with 25 air defense brigades and two Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) regiments, which included 4,707 surface-to-air missiles. Paramilitary forces included a gendarmerie of 8,000 and a workers' militia with an estimated 100,000 members. In 2005, the military budget totaled $1.72 billion. Syria, in that same year, removed its 18,000 troops in Lebanon. A total of 150 Russian troops were stationed in Syria.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Syria is a founding member of the United Nations (UN), having joined on 24 October 1945, and belongs to ESCWA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, the World Bank, UNSECO, UNIDO, the ILO, and the WHO. Syria served on the UN Security Council from 2002 to 2003. It is a charter member of the Arab League, set up in 1945 to foster cooperation in foreign and domestic affairs. Syria also belongs to the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Council of Arab Economic Unity, G-24, G-77, the Islamic Development Bank, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and OAPEC.

Syria is a member of the Nonaligned Movement. Despite a long history of tense relations, Syria established full diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1989. Lebanon and Syria signed a treaty of brotherhood, cooperation, and coordination in 1991. Syria and Israel have a strained relationship based on Syria's support of the Palestinian cause. Syria cooperated with the US-led multinational coalition of forces in the Gulf War (1990–91) and has offered limited cooperation in the war on terrorism.

In environmental cooperation, Syria is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Despite repeated announcements of economic reforms, Syria's economy continues to be dominated by the state, with the government budget acting as the principle tool for managing the economy. In 2002, the government announced that its program for privatization had been replaced by a priority on making state enterprises more efficient.

Statistics on the Syrian economy are subject to government manipulation and revision, and may be inaccurate and inconsistent. Traditionally, Syria is an agricultural economy, and by 2001 estimates, this sector accounted for 40% of the labor force and 27% of gross domestic product (GDP). Subsistence agriculture has given way to modern production and marketing methods, although 80% is still rain-fed and vulnerable to drought. Droughts in 1997 and 1999 were significant factors lowering GDP growth. Wheat and barley constitute two-thirds of the cultivated area but cotton is the main cash crop.

Development of the state-owned oil industry and exploitation of other mineral resources, notably phosphates, have helped to diversify Syrian industry, which was formerly concentrated in light manufacturing and textiles. Although Syria's oil production is small by Middle Eastern standards, in 2001 oil accounted for 70% of Syria's exports and 20% of its GDP. Syria became an oil exporter in 1987, but at present levels of proven reserves it will become an importer again within 10 years.

Economic growth in Syria has depended on oil prices, foreign aid, and good weather. Low oil prices and drought dampened growth in the late 1980s, but in the first half of the 1990s, due to increased oil production, recovery from drought and nearly $5 billion in foreign aid as a "reward" for its participation in the Gulf War combined to help the economy to register average annual growth rates of 5.3% in the late 1990s. Oil production peaked in 1996 at about 600,000 bbl/d, after which it declined due to technical problems and depletion. Modest growth was restored in 2000 and 2001 (about 2.1% and 2.0%, respectively) with the increase in oil prices. For 2002, real GDP growth was an estimated 3.2%.

On 14 July 1998 Iraq and Syria signed a memorandum of understanding reopening the Iraqi Petroleum Co. (IPC) pipeline built in 1934 connecting the Kirkuk oil fields with the Syrian port of Banias on the Mediterranean. Syria had closed the pipeline in 1982 when it broke off diplomatic relations with Iraq and shifted to Iran as an oil supplier. The IPC pipeline had been severely damaged during the Gulf War, and it was not until March 2000 that it was reported serviceable. In mid-November 2000, numerous press reports began circulating claiming that the IPC pipeline was being used to ship Iraqi oil to Syrian refineries on favorable terms, allowing Iraq to obtain oil revenues above the limits set by the United Nation's Oil-for-Food program. Iraq and Syria denied the allegations, but according to the US Department of Energy (DOE), independent analysts determined that Syria's export levels of crude oil in 2001 could not have been attained without importing from Iraq in the range of 150,000 and 200,000 bbl/d. In November 2001, Iraq and Syrian reportedly signed an agreement on building a new $200 million pipeline to replace the aging IPC line. In April 2003, as part of the invasion of Iraq, American troops shut down the IPC pipeline. The cost to Syria of the shutdown was estimated at $500 million to $1 billion a year.

The GDP growth rate was estimated at 1.5% in 2005, down from 1.8% in 2004, and 2.6% in 2003. The inflation rate has been fairly stable, and at 2.6% in 2005, it did not pose any major problems to the economy. The unemployment rate has been fairly stable, hovering around 2.5%. The government has implemented modest economic reforms, but most of the economy continues to be under its control. Declining oil production and population growth pressure on water supplies are long term problems that the country needs to deal with.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Syria's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $63.9 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $3,500. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 1.4%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 2.6%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 25% of GDP, industry 31%, and services 44%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $618 million (about $4 per capita) and accounted for approximately 2.9% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $160 million (about $9 per capita) and accounted for approximately 0.8% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Syria totaled $13.88 billion (about $80 per capita) based on a GDP of $21.5 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2.3%. It was estimated that in 2004, about 20% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The Syrian labor force is well educated and well trained in comparison with that of other Arab countries, but its size is small because about half the population is under 15 years of age and because many skilled workers are employed abroad in Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) member nations. Syria's labor force in 2004 was estimated at 5.12 million. As of 2002, it was estimated that agriculture accounted for 30% of the workforce, with 27% in industry and 43% in the services sector. There is a high level of underemployment, with unemployment in 2002 estimated at 20%. Many unskilled persons in agriculture and industry work only seasonally. The government is attempting to meet the demand for trained workers by establishing vocational schools.

The statutory workweek is 36 hours. In 2002, the minimum wage was $57 per month in the public sector and between $49 and $53 per month in the private sector. The law mandates one day of rest per week. These regulations are enforced through the minister of labor and social affairs. Generally, the legal minimum age for employment is 16 years, with some exceptions. The Labor Law of 1959 established the right of workers to form unions and empowered the government to regulate hours of work, vacations, sick leave, health and safety measures, and workers' compensation. However, unions must belong to the government's bureaucratic labor confederation. The confederation acts merely as a conduit to transfer directives from government decision makers to unions and workers. Thus, there is no meaningful right to strike or bargain collectively. The government also is authorized to arbitrate labor disputes.

AGRICULTURE

About 6.1 million hectares (15.1 million acres) are arable, but the area actually cultivated is about 5.4 million hectares (13.6 million acres), or 30% of the total area. Because only 25% of cultivated land is irrigated, agriculture depends on rainfall, which is uncertain, and in lean years Syria becomes a net importer of wheat and barley; this strains the whole economy and hampers development. The government has two approaches to this problem: to increase the use of fertilizers in low rainfall areas and to add substantially to irrigated cultivation. The irrigated area was expected to double through the Euphrates Dam project, which was completed in 1978. Lake Assad, formed by the dam, was planned to eventually provide irrigation for some 640,000 hectares (1,581,000 acres). Costs of land reclamation, technical difficulties due to gypsum in the soil, and low water, in part caused by Turkish damming upstream, have slowed progress. Total irrigated area reached an estimated 1,333,000 hectares (3,294,000 acres) in 2003. The government has allocated an increasing share of its investments to irrigation, but full development of irrigation schemes is expected to take at least another 20 years. However, given the current water management policies, Syria could face a serious water shortage much sooner.

Traditionally, much of Syria's agricultural land was held by landowners in tracts of more than 100 hectares (250 acres); sharecropping was customary. This picture was greatly altered by the government's agrarian reform program, begun in 1958. The law, as modified in 1963, fixed the maximum holding of irrigated land at 15–50 hectares (37–124 acres) per person and nonirrigated land at 80 hectares (198 acres) per person. All expropriated land available for cultivation has been allotted to farmers.

The principal cash crop is cotton, but cotton's share of total export value declined from 33% in 1974 to 2.3% by 2004. Other cash crops are cereals, vegetables, fruit, and tobacco. Since the government suspended convertibility of the Syrian pound, grain and other agricultural products have been smuggled to Lebanon in exchange for goods not available through the state importing agencies. Production (in thousands of tons) for major agricultural commodities in 2004 was as follows: wheat, 4,537; barley, 527; corn, yellow, 180; tomatoes, 920; potatoes, 500; olives, 950; grapes, 300; apples, 215; oranges, 427; cotton lint, 331; seed cotton, 1,023; sugar beets, 1,250; and tobacco, 26.5.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Grazing land occupies 8.3 million hectares (20.5 million acres), or about 45% of Syria's total area. Stock raising contributes significantly to the Syrian economy. Between 1963 and 1981, livestock herds more than doubled in number, and since 1975, the number of model farms, veterinary units, and livestock artificial insemination centers has increased considerably.

Sheep are the most important livestock animals in Syria, grazing on poorly developed wheat and barley fields and on the remains of crops such as wheat and corn. In 2005, there were an estimated 15.3 million sheep. Mutton production was an estimated 207,000 tons in 2005; sheep milk production, 604,000 tons. The price of mutton of the Awassi breed, which is in high demand in Syria, was about 35% higher than beef in the mid-1990s.

There were also 1,018,000 goats, 940,000 head of cattle, 15,000 camels, 2,800 buffaloes, and 30,000,000 chickens in 2005. Animals and animal products account for 40% of total agricultural output by value. Production of cow's milk in 2005 totaled 1,250,000 tons; cheese, 95,400 tons; butter and ghee, 16,300 tons; and eggs, 167,000 tons.

FISHING

There is some fishing off the Mediterranean coast and from rivers and fish farms. The commercial catch was 16,128 tons in 2003, with common carp and tilapia from inland waters accounting for 40%.

FORESTRY

Syria is almost entirely denuded of native forests. Approximately 461,000 hectares (1,139,000 acres) were forestland in 2000, but only about 50,000 cu m (1.77 million cu ft) of roundwood were produced in 2004. Most of the designated forestland consists either of wholly barren land or of rangeland with arboreous shrubs. The substantial forests are mainly on the northern slopes of the Ansariyah range, on the windward side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, and in the Al Lādhiqiyah region.

MINING

Syria's mineral resources are not extensive, but deposits of iron, petroleum, and phosphate have been exploited. Syria is a leading exporter of phosphate rock, while petroleum has become a leading source of foreign currency earnings. In 2003, the production of phosphate rock (gross weight) totaled 2,414,000 tons, down from 2,483,000 million tons in 2002. Other mineral deposits include asphalt, salt, chromite, and marble. Marble and salt were mined in commercial quantities. In 2004, an estimated 340 metric tons of marble blocks were quarried, with salt output in that same year estimated at 146,000 metric tons. Syria also produces hydraulic cement, refractory-grade dolomite, natural gas, natural gas liquids, gravel and crushed rock, gypsum, nitrogen, phosphatic fertilizers, phosphoric acid, construction and industrial sand, steel, dimension stone, sulfur, and volcanic tuff. No metal was mined in 2003. Deposits of silica sand in al-Qaristyn had resources of 150 million tons. The mineral industry is owned and controlled by the government. In 2001, the government announced its intention to open the mineral industry to local and foreign private investors. The rapid expansion of the construction sector in the near future is expected to increase Syria's demand for cement, gypsum, limestone, gravel, sand, and steel.

ENERGY AND POWER

Syria's proven reserves of oil have made it the largest oil producer in the eastern Mediterranean region (includes Israel, Jordan and Lebanon). It also has reserves of natural gas, but no known reserves of coal.

As of 1 January 2005, Syria had proven oil reserves estimated at 2.5 billion barrels. In 2004, oil production and domestic consumption averaged an estimated 460,000 barrels per day and 265,000 barrels per day, respectively. In that same year, Syria's oil exports averaged 195,000 barrels per day. In 1996, Syria's oil output peaked at 590,000 barrels per day, and has been declining as reserves have become depleted, and as older fields reach maturity. Production of oil is expected to steadily decline in upcoming years, and if the trend continues, the country could become a net importer of oil within 10 years, as consumption increases as the population grows. As of 2000, however, it was estimated that only 36% of Syria's potential oil and gas deposits had been drilled.

Syria has two refineries, one at Himş, and the other at Banias. Reported as of August 2005, each refinery has an average production of 107,140 barrels per day and 132,725 barrels per day, respectively.

As of 1 January 2005, Syria's proven reserves of natural gas were estimated at 8.5 trillion cu ft. In 2003, natural gas production and domestic demand were each estimated at 245 billion cu ft. About 50% of the country's natural gas production is nonassociated with the production of oil. Also, Syria's production of natural gas is expected to increase as part of a strategy to replace the use of oil with natural gas to generate electric power, thus freeing up more oil for export.

As of 2003, Syria's installed electric power generating capacity totaled about 7.6 GW, of which 1.5 GW was came from hydroelectric capacity and the rest from natural gas and fuel oil. In 2003, Electric power output was estimated at 27.2 billion kWh, with demand estimated at 25.3 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

Syria has been renowned since ancient times for such handicrafts as Damascus brocade and Syrian soap. Some of these traditions endured even after 1933, when the first mechanized plant for spinning and weaving was set up in Aleppo. In 1965, the textile industry was nationalized and reorganized into 13 large state corporations. A series of nationalization measures after 1963 resulted in public control of most industry, but efforts have been made to stimulate the expansion of the private sector, as state-owned industries suffer from low productivity. In the 1970s, government policy began emphasizing domestic industrial production (coupled with high tariffs on imported consumer goods) of iron and steel, fertilizers, chemicals, and household appliances. In 1995, manufacturing and mining accounted for 14% of GDP. By 2000, this proportion had reached 23%. In 2002, the government announced that priority would be shifted from efforts to privatize the state-owned enterprises (SOEs) to continued efforts to increase their efficiency.

Important industries include the chemical and engineering industries, the food industry, and oil refining. The largest component of the General Establishment of Chemical Industries (GECI) is the cement industry, which is considered strategic and wholly state owned. The General Organization for Cement and Building Materials consists of seven state-owned but independently operated cement companies. The total capacity in 2001 was about 5 million tons per year, with government plans to increase this to 8 million tons per year. Another subsidiary of GECI is the General Fertilizer Co. (GFC). It has two nitrogenous fertilizer plants and one phosphate-based unit, all located at Himş. Under construction in 2002 was a 500,000 ton/year triple-superphosphate plant near Palmyra being built by Bechtel and Makad International. Also planned is a 450,000 nitrogenous complex near Hasaka to use natural gas from the Omar field in northeast Syria. Syria's fertilizer industry rests on its ample deposits of natural gas and phosphates, and produces ammonia, urea and nitrogenous fertilizers. Syria also has an iron-rolling mill at Himş and factories producing furniture, refrigerators, paper, glass and plastic products, and television sets. Some 70,000 tons of crude steel were produced in 1995. Syria has a total refinery capacity of 239,860 barrels per day from two refineries: a 132,725 barrels per day capacity refinery at Banias and a 107,140 barrels per day capacity refinery at Himş. Plans to upgrade both have been announced.

The industrial production growth rate was 7% in 2002 (higher than the GDP growth rate), establishing the industrial sector as a growth engine. In 2003, industry accounted for 31% of the GDP, and was bested by services with 44%. Out of the 5.1 million working people, 27% were engaged in industrial activities, 43% in services, and 27% in agriculture.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Courses in basic and applied science are offered at Al-Baath University (founded in 1979 at Himş), the University of Aleppo (Halab) (founded in 1960), the University of Damascus (founded in 1903), and Tishreen University (founded in 1971 at Lattakia). In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 23% of college and university enrollments. Major scientific research institutions in Syria include the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), founded in 1977 at Aleppo and the Arab Center for the Study of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD), founded in 1971 at Damascus. The country's advanced petrochemical technologies have been installed by foreign oil companies. In early 1987, an estimated 2,500 Soviet military technicians were stationed in Syria; civilian personnel also provided assistance in various fields. For the period 1990–2001, there were 29 researchers and 24 technicians engaged in research and development per million people. In 2002, high technology exports were valued at $2 million, or 1% of the country's manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Damascus and Aleppo are the principal commercial centers. Virtually all importers, exporters, and wholesalers have offices in one or both cities. The chief retail centers have general and specialized stores as well as large bazaars. Smaller bazaars and open markets are found in many Syrian towns and villages. Advertising agencies use newspapers, magazines, moving picture theaters, signs on buses, and other media.

The Syrian government cracked down on smuggling in May 1993. Most of the previously smuggled commodities can now be imported through official channels. Commodity smuggling from Lebanon, however, is still present and provides an "unofficial market" for imported products at the free market exchange rate reflective of world price levels.

Usual business hours are from 9 am to 1 pm and from 3:30 pm to 7 pm. Friday is the weekly day of rest. Banking hours are Saturday–Thursday, 8 am to 2 pm.

The Damascus International Fair and the Syrian Industrial Marketing Fair are annual events.

FOREIGN TRADE

During the 1980s, Syria focused on increasing its trade with socialist nations. However, when the Soviet Union broke apart in 1991, Syria increased trade with European nations. In 2000, the European Union (EU) countries took 66% of exports and supplied 31% of imports, while countries of the Middle East took 28% of exports and supplied 14% of imports. Syria's main export commodities are crude petroleum (69%) and refined petroleum products (7.0%). Other exports include cotton (4.3%), vegetables (2.9%), garments (2.8%), and fruits and nuts (2.0%).

In 2005, exports reached $6.3 billion (FOB—Free on Board),

while imports grew to $6.0 billion (FOB). In 2004, the bulk of exports went to Italy (22.7%), France (18%), Turkey (12.9%), Iraq (9%), and Saudi Arabia (6.2%). Imports included machinery and transport equipment, food and livestock, metal and metal products, and chemicals, and mainly came from Turkey (9.4%), the Ukraine (8.7%), China (7.8%), Russia (5.4%), Saudi Arabia (5.2%), the United States (4.7%), South Korea (4.6%), and Italy (4.3%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Syria has had serious deficits in its trade balance since 1976, but import restrictions, foreign aid (especially from other Arab governments), and the drawdown of foreign exchange holdings enabled the government to cover the losses. Since the late 1980s, the

government has been encouraging private-sector trade. Privatesector exports consequently skyrocketed from $79 million in 1987 to $517 million in 1990, thus reducing the trade deficit. An upturn in world oil prices at the end of the 1990s and into the early 2000s and an improvement in the country's agricultural exports greatly improved the balance of payments situation.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2001, the purchasing power parity of Syria's exports was $5 billion, while imports totaled $4 billion, resulting in a trade surplus of $1 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2000, Syria had exports of goods totaling $5.15 billion and imports totaling $3.7 billion. The services credit totaled $1.7 billion and debit $1.67 billion.

Exports of goods and services totaled $6.4 billion in 2004, down from $6.6 billion in 2003. Imports grew from $7.0 billion in 2003, to $7.2 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative, and on a downward path—from -$354 million in 2003, to -$495 million in 2004. An opposite trend was registered for the current account balance, which improved from -$477 million in 2003, to $514 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (including gold) increased to $4.3 billion in 2004, covering more than seven months of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Syria's financial services sector is underdeveloped. Besides the Central Bank, there are five banks in the country, all of which are state run. The Central Bank, founded in 1956, is the bank of issue for currency, the financial agent of the government, and the cashier for the treasury. The Agricultural Bank makes loans to farmers at low interest; the Industrial Bank (nationalized in 1961), the People's Credit Bank and the Real Estate Bank (both founded in 1966), and the Commercial Bank of Syria (formed in 1967 by a merger of five nationalized commercial banks) make loans in their defined sectors. Unused Syrian pounds cannot be sold back to the Commercial Bank, and the private exchange of foreign currencies and Syrian pounds is a criminal act. These strict currency controls are the largest disincentives to investment and foreign trade. So decrepit is the country's financial services sector that most Syrian businessmen and foreigners use banks in either Lebanon or Cyprus. Foreign diplomats in Damascus, for instance, use accounts in the Chtaura, in Lebanon's Beqaa valley, around one hour by car from Damascus.

Private-sector groups have called for reforms such as private participation in banking, the creation of a stock exchange, and separation of the Central Bank of Syria from the government. Privatization of banks, which had been prohibited for 30 years, arrived in 2001 with new banking reform laws. The country's four banks are all owned by the government and interest rates are fixed by law. In March 2001, President Bashir issued Law 28, authorizing the establishment of private and joint-venture banks, with foreigners permitted up to 49% ownership. To date, none has been established, but in January 2003 the government identified five banks to be licensed in the third quarter.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $37.4 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $62.0 billion. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 5%.

INSURANCE

All insurance in Syria was nationalized in 1963 and is controlled by the government-owned General Insurance Organization of Syria (formerly the Syrian Insurance Co.). Motor vehicle insurance is compulsory. In 1999, $337.2 million in premiums were written in Syria. Twenty-two million was spent on these premiums, making the insurance sector's share of the gross domestic product 0.40%.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Although Syria was able to balance its budget in 1992, large military expenditures and continued subsidization of basic commodities and social services have produced deficits in subsequent years. State intervention in business and price controls put a damper on growth.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Syria's central government took in revenues of approximately $5.6 billion and had expenditures of $6.5 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$836 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 45% of GDP. Total external debt was $8.59 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 1999, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues in millions of Syrian pounds were 196,096 and expenditures were 190,300. The value of revenues in millions of US dollars was $17,470 and expenditures $16,953, based on a principal exchange rate for 1999 of 11.225 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 12.9%; defense, 23.6%; economic affairs, 44.0%; housing and community amenities, 1.0%; health, 2.3%; recreation, culture, and religion, 1.5%; education, 9.2%; and social protection, 5.3%.

TAXATION

Relatively low salaries have kept the tax base narrow, and price controls have restricted the taxable profits from industry. By decree in 2001, the president raised the minimum exemption for income taxes to s£1,000 (about $22). There are taxes on individual income (at progressive rates of 5–12.5%).

Business profits are taxed at progressive rates of 10% to 35%. Shareholding companies and industrial limited liability companies are taxed at a flat rate of 25%, if an investment in machinery and plant in excess of s£5 million is made. Capital gains are included in taxable income are taxed at the applicable corporate rate. However, capital gains resulting from the sale of shares by the shareholder are not taxed. Dividends distributed by Syrian companies are not subject to a withholding tax if paid out of profits that have already been taxed. For Syrian and non-Syrian companies and individuals, income from movable capital (interest, royalties, and foreign sources of dividends) are taxed at a flat rate of 7.5%. There is no general sales tax, but consumption taxes are assessed on specific items such as petrol, rice and sugar. Other taxes include excise taxes, property taxes, stamp duties, and social security contributions.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Goods imported into Syria are subject to a customs duty and "unified" tax. Rates are progressive and, as of 2005, ranged from 1–200% depending on the government's view of the necessity for the products. Food and industrial raw materials carry low rates while luxury goods, such as automobiles, have rates of 150–200%. The unified tax is a surcharge on all imported goods and ranges from 6–35%. The tax helps to support the military, schools, and municipalities.

Syria has free-trade agreements with Bahrain, Kuwait, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Qatar, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Trade agreements with Libya, Morocco, Oman, and Tunisia are in negotiations. There is a single-column tariff modified by trade and transit agreements with other Arab League states, under which member countries are granted preferential duties on some products and duty-free entry for others. Syria accepts the Arab League boycott of Israel.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Although a government decree prohibits confiscation of foreign investments, there are no safeguards against nationalization of property. In principle, the judicial system upholds the obligations of contracts but in practice decisions are subject to outside pressures. In addition, poor infrastructure, power outages, lack of financial services, and complex foreign exchange regulations have all contributed to Syria's failure to attract significant amounts of foreign investment. Four major pieces of legislation have been passed to encourage foreign investment. Decision 186, issued in 1985, was aimed at encouraging investment in tourism. Decree 10 in 1986 was designed to encourage joint-venture agricultural companies. In June 1991, in the wake of the Gulf War, the government issued Investment Law 10, aimed at promoting investment in all sectors of the economy by providing the same incentives to local and foreign investors. Qualifying investors are granted tax holidays and duty-free privileges for the import of capital goods. The law succeeded in attracting investments particularly in textiles, pharmaceuticals, food processing, and other light industries. The primary investors have been from the Gulf states. In 1999, it was estimated that nearly 1,500 projects valued at $6.5 billion had been approved since the reforms of 1991. In May 2000, Decree 7 amended Law 10 of 1991 to make investment more attractive by extending tax holiday periods, increasing hard currency flexibility, reducing income taxes on shareholding companies, and offering sector and regional incentives. A tax holiday of five years is extended to seven years for enterprises that export over 51% of their output.

The most significant foreign investment in Syria had been in gas and oil. In 1990, 12 foreign oil firms had operations in Syria, but as of mid-2002, only five remained—Shell, Total-Fina-Elf, Mol (Hungary), INA-Naftaplin (Croatia) and Conoco. Other foreign investors include Mitsubishi, Samsung, Mobil, Nestlé, and Prince Walid Bin Talal of Saudi Arabia. Foreign investment is complicated by Syrian requirements of import and export licenses on every item imported and then reexported, no matter the value, and by US sanctions on supplying Syria any "dual" use items such as computers and oil exploration equipment. Despite a recent 20% increase, the average wage in the public sector remains below minimum subsistence levels, and provides a strong motivation for widespread corruption. In 2002, an increasingly strict enforcement of the Arab League's boycott of Israeli goods added more complications to obtaining supplies and more layers of red tape. US government insurance programs for foreign investors, such as OPIC, are not available for investors in Syria, and the country is on the State Department's list of sponsors of terrorism. USAID ended assistance to Syria in 1983, and financing cannot be obtained through government agencies like the Export-Import Bank. There are six duty-free zones in Syria: near the border town of Dar'a (a joint venture with Jordan), north of Damascus at Adra, in Damascus, at the Damascus Airport, and at the ports of Al Lādhiqiyah and Tartus. According to official estimates, there were 350 foreign and joint-venture investment projects in the country as of 2002, with a total value of about $3 billion.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The transformation of Syria's economy began with the Agrarian Reform Law in 1958, which called for the expropriation of large tracts of land. During the union with Egypt, laws were passed for the nationalization of banks, insurance companies, and large industrial firms. After the Ba'ath Party came to power in 1963, the socialist trend reasserted itself with greater force. A series of laws created a new banking system and instituted public ownership of all large industries. By the early 1970s, however, the government had relaxed many restrictions on trade, foreign investment, and private-sector activity in an effort to attract private and foreign, especially Arab, contributions to Syria's economic growth.

Since 1961, a series of five-year plans has concentrated on developing the nation's infrastructure and increasing agricultural and industrial production. Investments reached 60% of the target under the first plan (1961–65); the second plan (1966–70) aimed to expand real GDP by 7.2% annually but achieved a yearly growth rate of only 4.7%. The third plan (1971–75) was disrupted by the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, but thanks to aid from other Arab states and large oil price increases, Syria experienced an economic boom with a high annual growth rate of 13%. The fourth plan (1976–80) was hampered by the high cost of Syria's military intervention in Lebanon and a cutoff of aid from Gulf states; economic growth varied widely, from 2.8% in 1977 to 9.2% in 1980.

Under the fifth plan (1981–85), development projects begun during the previous plan were to be continued or completed. Total investment was estimated at s£101 billion, of which 23% was to be provided by the private sector. Real GDP was to grow by 7.7% annually; actual growth rates ranged from 10.2% in 1981 to 3.6% in 1984, averaging 2.3% for the period.

Syria's sixth development plan (1986–90) emphasized increased productivity rather than new projects, with special emphasis on agriculture and agro-industries. Actual investment in agriculture accounted for 18.7% of total spending. The share of the industry and energy sector was at 19.7%, far below the planned 30.9%. Services received the highest share, with 53% of the total.

The seventh five-year plan (1991–95) proposed total investments of s£259 billion, more than double the amount spent under the previous plan. It aims at spending 81.7% of the total on the public sector and 18.3% on the mixed-sector/private-sector cooperatives. Officials at the Supreme Planning Commission have stated that agriculture and irrigation continue to receive top priority, with self-sufficiency in cereal production a policy objective. Output in agriculture and manufacturing is planned to expand by 5.6% per annum.

During 1949–86, multilateral assistance to Syria totaled $822.7 million, of which 77% came through the IBRD. US loans and grants during the same period amounted to $581.9 million. Financial aid to Syria from Arab oil-producing states has not been made public. Since 1982, Syria has received a million tons of oil annually from Iran, free of charge. Because Syria is in arrears on payments to the World Bank, disbursements were halted in 1988 and projects canceled. Syria has been in violation of the Brooke Amendment since 1985. The improvement in Syria's external payment position in 1989 as well as the resumption of aid flows to Syria in 1990 due to its participation in the coalition against Iraq helped to restore its ability to repay its debt.

The outlook for the economy in the coming years is not very encouraging. GDP is expected to expand by meager rates of under 1.5% per year. This trend is caused by declining oil production, a hostile political environment, and an incapacity of the government to attract much needed foreign investment.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A system of social insurance provides old-age pensions and disability and death benefits. The pension system is funded by 14% contributions from employers and 7% from employees. Retirement is set at age 60 with 180 months of contributions, or age 55 with 240 months. Survivors' pensions are paid to widows only; widowers are covered only if disabled. Employers also contribute 3% of payroll to fund workers' compensation providing temporary and permanent disability benefits, as well as medical and survivor benefits. Funeral grants amount to one month's earnings.

Although the government supports equal pay for equal work and encourages education for women, Islamic precepts govern many areas of women's lives, including marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance. Some secular laws also discriminate against women. Victims of domestic violence do not seek redress due to social stigma, and there are no reliable statistics regarding abuse and rape. Children's rights are generally protected.

The human rights situation is poor and fundamental rights are denied. Arbitrary arrest and incommunicado detention are common. Detainees' relatives are also arrested to force confessions. Torture is common. Public criticism of the Ba'ath Party or of government officials is not permitted. Local human rights organizations are banned, although one international organization was allowed to conduct a limited fact-finding mission.

HEALTH

In 1947, Syria had only 37 hospitals, with a total of 1,834 beds, but by 1985, the number of hospitals had increased to 195, with 11,891 beds. The government also maintains mobile hospital units, modern laboratories, x-ray centers, sanatoriums, and dispensaries. In 2004, there were an estimated 140 physicians, 72 dentists, 52 pharmacists, and 140 nurses per 100,000 people. In 1993, about 99% of the population had access to health care services. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 2.5% of GDP.

Since World War II, malaria has been virtually eliminated with the aid of the World Health Organization, but intestinal and respiratory diseases associated with poor living conditions are still common, particularly in rural areas. Cases of malaria, tuberculosis and leprosy persist. Approximately 80% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 90% had adequate sanitation.

As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at 30.1 and 5.1 per 1,000 people, respectively. About 45% of married women (ages 15 to 49) used contraception. In 2005, the infant mortality rate was 29.53 per 1,000 live births. Maternal mortality was 110 per 100,000 live births. Average life expectancy was 70.03 years in 2005. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were tuberculosis, 100%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 100%; polio, 100%; and measles, 98%. Rates for DPT and measles were 94% and 97%, respectively.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 500 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

The 1981–85 development plan allocated s£2.6 billion to construction projects, including housing. According to the latest available information for 1980–88, total housing units numbered 1,670,000 with 6.4 people per dwelling. In 2000, there were about 2,824,845 dwellings.

EDUCATION

Elementary schooling is free and compulsory for nine years, which are covered in two stages (five years plus four years) of basic school. Secondary schools offer three-year programs in general (scientific or literary), technical, and vocational studies. The academic year runs from September to June.

In 2001, about 9% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 98% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 43% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 87.5% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 24:1 in 2000; the ratio for secondary school was about 18:1.

Syria has four universities: the University of Damascus (founded in 1923); the University of Aleppo (Halab, 1960); Tishrin University (Al Lādhiqiyah, 1971); and Al-Ba'ath University in Himş (Homs, 1979). In 1995, all higher-level institutions had a total of 4,733 teachers and 215,734 students. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 82.9%, with 91% for men and 74.2% for women.

As of 1999, public expenditures on education were estimated at 2.8% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The Assad National Library, founded in 1984 in Damascus and an adjunct of the Arab Academy, has 262,000 volumes and is well known for rare books and manuscripts. The library of the University of Damascus has 169,000 volumes. The Al Zahiriah public library in Damascus has 100,000 volumes. There are also public libraries in Halab, Damascus, Himş, and Al Ladhiqìyah.

The most important museum is the National Museum in Damascus, founded in 1919. It contains ancient Oriental, Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and Islamic collections and houses the Directorate-General of Antiquities, established in 1947, which supervises excavations and conserves antiquities under the Antiquities Law. Also in Damascus, there is the Museum of Art and Popular Traditions and the Museum of Arabic Medicine and Science. There are small museums in Halab, Hama, Himş, Palmyra, Tartos, and other cities.

MEDIA

Nearly all communications facilities are owned and operated by the government, including the postal service, telegraph, telephone, radio, and television. In 2003, there were an estimated 123 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; over two million people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 65 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The government-controlled Syrian Broadcasting Service transmits on medium wave and shortwave, and broadcasts in Arabic and 10 foreign languages. Syrian television has two stations. While there are a few private radio stations, they are not permitted to transmit any news or political information. Altogether, there were nine AM and one FM radio station in 1999, and 44 television stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 276 radios and 182 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 19.4 personal computers for every 1,000 people. In 2002, there were 220,000 Internet users.

Most Syrian newspapers are published by government ministries and popular organizations. Principal dailies in Arabic (with 2002 circulations) include Al-Ba'ath (40,000), published by the Ba'ath Arab Socialist Party, Tishrin (50,000), and Al-Thawrah (40,000), all in Damascus. In 2000, the government authorized publication of the first private paper since 1963. That paper, The People's Voice, is published by the National Progressive Front (Communist Party). The Union Socialist Party has since published its own paper, The Unionist.

Though the constitution provides for free expression of opinion in speech and writing, in practice the government is reported to restrict these rights significantly. Written criticism of the president, the president's family, the Ba'ath Party, the military, and the regime are not permitted.

ORGANIZATIONS

Syria has chambers of commerce, industry, and agriculture, most of which are members of the Federation of Syrian Chambers of Commerce. The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas is based in Aleppo. Other multination groups based in Syria include the Arab Institute for Occupational Health and Safety and the Arab Inter-Parliamentary Union. The cooperative movement is well developed. There are some professional associations.

The most prominent cultural and educational organizations are the Arab Academy and the Arab Club for Information (Arabcin), both in Damascus. There are a number of sports associations promoting amateur competition for athletes of all ages in a variety of pastimes.

The General Women's Federation was established in 1967 as one of several organizations through which the Ba'ath Party has tried to mobilize popular energies and consolidate its control. Analogous groups include the General Union of Peasants, the General Federation of Trade Unions, the General Union of Students, and the Revolutionary Youth Organization.

There is a national chapter of the Red Crescent Society.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Syria has many famous tourist attractions, such as the Krak des Chevaliers, a Crusaders' castle; Ra's Shamrah, site of the ancient city of Ugarit; Ar-Rusafah, with its early Christian monuments and Muslim palace; and the ancient town of Dura Europus (now As-Salihiyah). Palmyra, the capital of Queen Zenobia, is a fairly well-preserved ruin of an Arabo-Hellenic city. The Umayyad Mosque, which incorporates parts of the Byzantine Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, in Damascus, is popular. Syria's mountains and Mediterranean beaches also attract visitors.

A vaccination for meningitis is required for pilgrims traveling to Mecca for the annual Hajj. All travelers are strongly recommended to take precautions against malaria, typhoid, and meningitis. There were 4,388,119 foreign visitors to Syria in 2003, mainly from neighboring Middle Eastern countries. Hotel rooms numbered 16,966, with 38,928 beds that same year.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Damascus at $206.

FAMOUS SYRIANS

Among the famous Syrians of earlier periods are Queen Zenobia of Palmyra (3d century ad), who led a series of military campaigns against the Romans in order to reopen trade routes; the philosopher Al-Farabi (Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Tarkhan abu Nasr al-Farabi, 872–950), considered by the Arab world as second only to Aristotle; the poet Al-Mutanabbi (Abu at-Tayyib Ahmad bin al-Husayn al-Mutanabbi, 915–65); the mystic philosopher Shihab ad-Din as-Suhrawardi (d.1191); and the theologian philosopher Taqi ad-Din Ahmad bin Taymiyah (1263–1328).

Of the Umayyad caliphs, Umar bin 'Abd-al-'Aziz (r.717–720) is still revered as a restorer of true Islam. In a later era, Nureddin (Nur ad-Din, 1118–74), ruler of Aleppo, annexed Damascus and brought Egypt under his control. By unifying Muslim forces against the Crusaders, he made possible the victories of the renowned Saladin (Salah ad-Din, 1138–93), sultan of both Syria and Egypt, whose tomb is in Damascus. Hafez al-Assad (Hafiz al-Asad, 1928–2000) ruled Syria from 1970–2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad (b.1965), was elected president unopposed after his father's death.

DEPENDENCIES

Syria has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ball, Warwick. Syria: A Historical and Architectural Guide. Essex, U.K.: Scorpion Publishers, 1994.

Batatu, Hanna. Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Choueiri, Youssef M. (ed.). State and Society in Syria and Lebanon. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1993.

Commins, David. Historical Dictionary of Syria. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2004.

Gelvin, James L. Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.

Hourani, Albert Habib. A History of the Arab Peoples. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002.

Kienle, Eberhard (ed.) Contemporary Syria: Liberalization Between Cold War and Cold Peace. London: British Academic Press, 1994.

Klengel, Horst. Syria, 3000 to 300 B.C.: A Handbook of Political History. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1992.

The Middle East. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2005.

Perthes, Volker. The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad. London: I.B. Tauris, 1995.

Quilliam, Neil. Syria. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press, 1999.

Seddon, David (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.

State and Society in Syria and Lebanon. Edited by Youssef M. Choueiri. New York: St. Martin's, 1994.

Tauber, Eliezer. The Formation of Modern Syria and Iraq. Ilford, U.K.: Frank Cass, 1994.

Waldner, David. State Building and Late Development. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999.

Syria

PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
NATIONAL SECURITY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-SYRIAN RELATIONS
TRAVEL

Compiled from the May 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Syrian Arab Republic

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 185,170 sq. km. (71,504 sq. mi.), including 1,295 sq. km. of Israeli-occupied territory; about the size of North Dakota.

Cities: Capital—Damascus (pop. 4 million). Other cities—Aleppo (4.2 million), Homs (1.6 million), Hama (1.4 million), Idleb (1.3 million), al-Hasakeh (1.2 million), Dayr al-Zur (1.1), Latakia (0.9 million), Dar'a (0.9), al-Raqqa (0.8), and Tartous (0.7).

Terrain: Narrow coastal plain with a double mountain belt in the west; large, semiarid and desert plateau to the east.

Climate: Mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Syrian(s).

Population: (2005 est.)*: 18.6 million.

Growth rate: (2005 est.) 2.45%.

Ethnic groups: Arabs (90%), Kurds (9%), Armenians, Circassians, Turko-mans.

Religions: Sunni Muslims (74%), Alawis (12%), Christians (10%), Druze (3%), and small numbers of other Muslim sects, Jews, and Yazi-dis.

Languages: Arabic (official), English (widely understood in major cities only), Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic Circassian.

Education: (2005 est.) Years compulsory—primary, 6 yrs. Attendance—997.9%. Literacy (2004)—79.6%; 86% male, 73.6% female.

Health: (2004) Infant mortality rate—17.1/1,000. Life expectancy—68.47 yrs. male, 71.02 yrs. female.

Work force: (6.1 million, 2004 est.)

Services: (including government); agriculture; industry and commerce.

Government

Type: Republic, under Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party regimes since March 1963.

Independence: April 17, 1946.

Constitution: March 13, 1973.

Government branches: Executive—president, two vice presidents, prime minister, Council of Ministers (cabinet). Legislative—unicameral People's Council. Judicial—Supreme Constitutional Court, High Judicial Council, Court of Cassation, State Security Courts.

Political subdivisions: 13 provinces and city of Damascus (administered as a separate unit).

Political parties: Arab Socialist Resurrection (Ba'ath) Party, Syrian Arab Socialist Party, Arab Socialist Union, Syrian Communist Party, Arab Socialist Unionist Movement, Democratic Socialist Union Party, and some 15 very small quasi-tolerated political parties, generally considered opposition-oriented but enfeebled and reluctant to challenge the government.

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Economy (2005 est.)

GDP: (2005 nominal)*: $27.3 billion.

Real growth rate: 2.9%.

Per capita GDP: $1464.

Natural resources: Crude oil and natural gas, phosphates, asphalt, rock salt, marble, gypsum, iron ore, chrome, and manganese ores.

Agriculture: Products—cotton, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruits and vegetables. Arable land—32%.

Industry: Types—mining, manufacturing (textiles, food processing), construction, petroleum.

Trade: Exports—$10.2 billion: petroleum, textiles, phosphates, antiquities, fruits and vegetables, cotton. Major markets—EU, Arab countries, United States, New Independent States, Eastern Europe. Imports—$10.8 billion: foodstuffs, metal and metal products, machinery, textiles, petroleum. Major suppliers—Russia, Turkey, Ukraine, China, U.S., Japan.

According to IMF statistics

PEOPLE

Ethnic Syrians are of Semitic stock. Syria's population is 90% Muslim—74% Sunni, and 16% other Muslim groups, including the Alawi, Shi′a, and Druze—and 10% Christian. There also is a tiny Syrian Jewish community.

Arabic is the official, and most widely spoken, language. Arabs, including some 500,000 Palestinian and up to 1.3 million Iraqi refugees, make up 90% of the population. Many educated Syrians also speak English or French, but English is the more widely understood. The Kurds, many of whom speak the banned Kurdish language, make up 9% of the population and live mostly in the northeast corner of Syria, though sizable Kurdish communities live in most major Syrian cities as well. Armenian and Turkic are spoken among the small Armenian and Turkoman populations.

Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density is about 140 per sq. mi. Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 11. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrollment at postsecondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 88% for males and 74% for females.

Ancient Syria's cultural and artistic achievements and contributions are many. Archaeologists have discovered extensive writings and evidence of a brilliant culture rivaling those of Mesopotamia and Egypt in and around the ancient city of Ebla. Later Syrian scholars and artists contributed to Hellenistic and Roman thought and culture. Zeno of Sidon founded the Epicurean school; Cicero was a pupil of Antiochus of Ascalon at Athens; and the writings of Posidonius of Apamea influenced Livy and Plutarch. Syrians have contributed to Arabic literature and music and have a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Although declining, the world-famous handicraft industry still employs thousands.

HISTORY

Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the center of one of the most ancient civilizations on earth. Around the excavated city of Ebla in northern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500 to 2400 B.C. The city of Ebla alone during that time had a population estimated at 260,000. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be the oldest Semitic language.

Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Nabatae-ans, Byzantines, and, in part, Crusaders before finally coming under the control of the Ottoman Turks. Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Paul was converted on the road to Damascus and established the first organized Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.

Damascus, settled about 2500 B.C., is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It came under Muslim rule in A.D. 636. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak, and it became the capital of the Omayyad Empire, which extended from Spain to India from A.D. 661 to A.D. 750, when the Abbasid caliphate was established at Baghdad, Iraq.

Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around 1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt, it continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840.

French Occupation

In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under King Faysal of the Hashemite family, who later became King of Iraq. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the clash between his Syrian Arab forces and regular French forces at the battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the League of Nations put Syria under French mandate. With the fall of France in 1940, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free French occupied the country in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.

Independence to 1970

Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence of April 17, 1946, Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval. A series of military coups, begun in 1949, undermined civilian rule and led to army colonel Adib Shishakli's seizure of power in 1951. After the overthrow of President Shishakli in a 1954 coup, continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military eventually brought Arab nationalist and socialist elements to power.

Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser's leadership in the wake of the 1956 Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt. On February 1, 1958, the two countries merged to create the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties ceased overt activities.

The union was not a success, however. Following a military coup on September 28, 1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as the Syrian Arab Republic. Instability characterized the next 18 months, with various coups culminating on March 8, 1963, in the installation by leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party (Ba'ath Party), which had been active in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.

The Ba'ath takeover in Syria followed a Ba'ath coup in Iraq the previous month. The new Syrian Government explored the possibility of federation with Egypt and Ba'ath—controlled Iraq. An agreement was concluded in Cairo on April 17, 1963, for a referendum on unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialize. Thereafter, the Ba'ath regimes in Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity. These plans foundered in November 1963, when the Ba'ath regime in Iraq was overthrown. In May 1964, President Amin Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of mass organizations—labor, peasant, and professional unions—a presidential council, in which executive power was vested, and a cabinet. On February 23, 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, intra-party coup, imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government. The coup leaders described it as a "rectification” of Ba′ath Party principles. The defeat of the Syrians and Egyptians in the June 1967 war with Israel weakened the radical socialist regime established by the 1966 coup. Conflict developed between a moderate military wing and a more extremist civilian wing of the Ba'ath Party. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the "Black September” hostilities with Jordan reflected this political disagreement within the ruling Ba'ath leadership. On November 13, 1970, Minister of Defense Hafiz al-Asad affected a bloodless military coup, ousting the civilian party leadership and assuming the role of prime minister.

1970 to 2000

Upon assuming power, Hafiz al-Asad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Asad's Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Ba'ath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Asad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Asad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Asad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Ba'ath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962.

The authoritarian regime was not without its critics, though most were quickly dealt with. A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s, however, from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who reject the basic values of the secular Ba'ath program and object to rule by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the archconservative Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the regime. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government crushed the fundamentalist opposition centered in the city of Hama, leveling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing many thousands of dead and wounded. Since then, public manifestations of anti-regime activity have been very limited.

Syria's 1990 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other Arab states and with the West. Syria participated in the multilateral Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz Al-Asad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.

Hafiz Al-Asad died on June 10, 2000, after 30 years in power. Immediately following Al-Asad's death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34 years old, which allowed his son, Bashar Al-Asad legally to be eligible for nomination by the ruling Ba'ath party. On July 10, 2000, Bashar Al-Asad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote, according to Syrian Government statistics. He was inaugurated into office on July 17, 2000 for a 7-year term.

2000 to 2007

In the aftermath of September 11,2001 the Syrian Government began limited cooperation with United States in the global war against terrorism. However, Syria opposed the Iraq war in March 2003, and bilateral relations with the United States swiftly deteriorated. In December 2003, President Bush signed into law the Syria Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty Restoration Act of 2003, which provided for the imposition of a series of sanctions against Syria if Syria did not end its support for Palestinian terrorist groups, end its military and security interference in Lebanon, cease its pursuit of weapons of mass destruction, and meet its obligations under United Nations Security Council resolutions regarding the stabilization and reconstruction of Iraq. In May 2004, the President determined that Syria had not met these conditions and implemented sanctions that prohibit the export to Syria of U.S. products except for food and medicine, and the taking off from or landing in the United States of Syrian Government-owned aircraft. At the same time, the U.S. Department of the Treasury announced its intention to order U.S. financial institutions to sever correspondent accounts with the Commercial Bank of Syria based on money-laundering concerns, pursuant to Section 311 of the USA PATRIOT Act. Acting under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), the President also authorized the Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with the Secretary of State, to freeze assets belonging to certain Syrian individuals and entities.

Tensions between Syria and the United States intensified from late 2004 to 2007, primarily over issues relating to Iraq and Lebanon. The U.S. Government recalled its Ambassador to Syria in February 2005, after the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Hariri. Sensing its international isolation, the Syrians shored up their relations with Iran and radical Palestinians groups based in Damascus, and cracked down on any signs of internal dissent. There has been little movement on political reform, with more public focus on limited economic liberalizations. The Syrian Government has provided some cooperation to the UN Independent International Investigation Commission, headed by Serge Brammertz, which is investigating the killing of Hariri. Since the 34-day conflict in Lebanon in July and August 2006, evidence of Syrian compliance with its obligations under UN Security Council Resolution 1701 not to rearm the Lebanese group Hezbollah is unpersuasive. On April 17, 2007, the United Nations Security Council welcomed the Secretary General's intention to evaluate the situation along the entire Syria-Lebanon border and invited the Secretary General to dispatch an independent mission to fully assess the monitoring of the border, and to report back on its findings and recommendations.

GOVERNMENT

The Syrian constitution vests the Arab Ba′ath Socialist Party with leadership functions in the state and society and provides broad powers to the president. The president, approved by referendum for a 7-year term, is also Secretary General of the Ba′ath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front, which is a coalition of 10 political parties authorized by the regime. The president has the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and states of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel. The Emergency Law, which effectively suspends most constitutional protections for Syrians, has been in effect since 1963.

The National Progressive Front also acts as a forum in which economic policies are debated and the country's political orientation is determined. However, because of Ba’ath Party dominance, the National Progressive Front has traditionally exercised little independent power.

The Syrian constitution of 1973 requires that the president be Muslim but does not make Islam the state religion. Islamic jurisprudence, however, is required to be a main source of legislation. The judicial system in Syria is an amalgam of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws, with three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. In addition, religious courts handle questions of personal and family law.

The Ba'ath Party emphasizes socialism and secular Arabism. Although Ba'ath Party doctrine seeks to build pan-Arab rather than ethnic identity, ethnic, religious, and regional allegiances remain important in Syria.

Members of President Asad's own minority sect, the Alawis, hold most of the important military and security positions, while Sunnis (in 2006) controlled ten of 14 positions on the powerful Ba'ath Party Regional Command. In recent years there has been a gradual decline in the party's preeminence. The party also is heavily influenced by the security services and the military, the latter of which consumes a large share of Syria's economic resources.

Syria is divided administratively into 14 provinces, one of which is Damascus. A governor for each province is appointed by the President. The governor is assisted by an elected provincial council.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

President: Bashar al-ASAD

Vice President: Farouk al-SHARA

Vice President: Najah al-ATTAR

Prime Minister: Muhammad Naji al-UTRI

Dep. Prime Min. for Economic Affairs: Abdallah al-DARDAR

Min. of Agriculture: Adil SAFIR

Min. of Construction & Housing: Hamual-HUSAYN

Min. of Culture: Riyad Nasan AGHA

Min. of Defense: Hassan Ali TURKMANI, Lt. Gen.

Min. of Economy & Trade: Amir Husni LUTFI

Min. of Education: Ali SAD

Min. of Electricity: Ahmad Khalid al-ALI

Min. of Environment & Local Government: Hilal al-ATRASH

Min. of Expatriates: Buthaynah SHABAAN

Min. of Finance: Muhammad al-HUSAYN

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Walid MUALEM

Min. of Health: Mahir HUSAMI, Dr.

Min. of Higher Education: Ghiath BARAKAT

Min. of Industry: Fuad Isa JUNI

Min. of Information: Muhsin BILAL, Dr.

Min. of Interior: Basam ABD AL-MAJID, Gen.

Min. of Irrigation: Nadir al-BUNI

Min. of Justice: Muhammad al-GHAFRI

Min. of Labor & Social Affairs: Dayala al-Haj ARIF

Min. of Oil: Sufiyan al-AW

Min. of Presidency Affairs: Ghasan LAHAM

Min. of Religious Endowments: Muhammad Ziyad al-AYUBI

Min. of Telecommunications &Technology: Amir Nasir SALIM

Min. of Tourism: Sadallah Agha al-QALA

Min. of Transport: Yarub Sulayman BADR

Min. of State: Yusuf Sulayman AHMAD

Min. of State: Husayn Mahmud FARZAT

Min. of State: Ghayth JARATLI

Min. of State: Muhammad Yahya KHARAT

Min. of State: Hasan al-SARI

Min. of State: Bashar SHAR

Min. of State: Yusuf SUWAYD

Governor, Central Bank: Adib MAYALA

Ambassador to the US: Imad MUSTAFA

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Bashar al-JAFARI

Syria maintains an embassy in the United States at 2215 Wyoming Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-232-6313; fax: 202-234-9548). Consular section hours are 10:00 a.m.-2:00 p.m., Monday-Friday. Syria also has an honorary consul at 5433 Westheimer Rd., Suite 1020, Houston, TX 77056 (tel. 713-622-8860; fax. 713-965-9632).

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Officially, Syria is a republic. In reality, however, it is an authoritarian regime that exhibits only the forms of a democratic system. Although citizens ostensibly vote for the President and members of Parliament, they do not have the right to change their government. The late President Hafiz Al-Asad was confirmed by unopposed referenda five times. His son, Bashar Al-Asad, also was confirmed by an unopposed referendum in July 2000. The President and his senior aides, particularly those in the military and security services, ultimately make most basic decisions in political and economic life, with a very limited degree of public accountability. Political opposition to the President is not tolerated. Syria has been under a state of emergency since 1963. Syrian governments have justified martial law by the state of war, which continues to exist with Israel and by continuing threats posed by terrorist groups.

The Asad regime (little has changed since Bashar Al-Asad succeeded his father) has held power longer than any other Syrian government since independence; its survival is due partly to a strong desire for stability and the regime's success in giving groups such as religious minorities and peasant farmers a stake in society. The expansion of the government bureaucracy has also created a large class loyal to the regime. The President's continuing strength is due also to the army's continued loyalty and the effectiveness of Syria's large internal security apparatus. The leadership of both is comprised largely of members of Asad's own Alawi sect. The several main branches of the security services operate independently of each other and outside of the legal system. Each continues to be responsible for human rights violations.

All three branches of government are guided by the views of the Ba'ath Party, whose primacy in state institutions is assured by the constitution.

The Ba'ath platform is proclaimed succinctly in the party's slogan: “Unity, freedom, and socialism.” The party has traditionally been considered both socialist, advocating state ownership of the means of industrial production and the redistribution of agricultural land, and revolutionary, dedicated to carrying a socialist revolution to every part of the Arab world. Founded by Michel 'Aflaq, a Syrian Christian and Salah al-Din Al-Bitar, a Syrian Sunni, the Ba'ath Party embraces secularism and has attracted supporters of all faiths in many Arab countries, especially Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon. Since August 1990, however, the party has tended to de-emphasize socialism and to stress both pan-Arab unity and the need for gradual reform of the Syrian economy.

Nine smaller political parties are permitted to exist and, along with the Ba'ath Party, make up the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of parties that represents the sole framework of legal political party participation for citizens. While created ostensibly to give the appearance of a multi-party system, the NPF is dominated by the Ba'ath Party and does not change the essentially one-party character of the political system. Non-Ba'ath parties included in the NPF represent small political groupings of a few hundred members each and conform strictly to Ba'ath Party and government policies. There were reports in 2005, in the wake of the June Ba'ath Party Congress, that the government was considering legislation to permit the formation of new political parties and the legalization of parties previously banned. These changes have not taken place. In addition, some 15 small independent parties outside the NPF operate without government sanction.

The Ba'ath Party dominates the parliament, which is known as the People's Council. With members elected every 4 years, the Council has no independent authority. The executive branch retains ultimate control over the legislative process, although parliamentarians may criticize policies and modify draft laws; according to the constitution and its bylaws, a group of 10 parliamentarians can propose legislation. During 2001, two independent members of parliament, Ma’mun al-Humsy and Riad Seif, who had advocated political reforms, were stripped of their parliamentary immunity and tried and convicted of charges of “attempting to illegally change the constitution.” Seif was released from prison in early 2006, but remains under strict surveillance by the security services. The government has allowed independent non-NPF candidates to run for a limited allotment of seats in the 250-member People's Council. Following the April 22-23, 2007 parliamentary elections, the NPF strengthened its hold on parliament, with the number of non-NPF deputies shrinking from 83 to 80, ensuring a permanent absolute majority for the Ba'ath Party-dominated NPF.

There was a surge of interest in political reform after Bashar al-Asad assumed power in 2000. Human rights activists and other civil society advocates, as well as some parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as “Damascus Spring” (July 2000-February 2001). Asad also made a series of appointments of reform-minded advisors to formal and less formal positions, and included a number of similarly oriented individuals in his cabinet. The 2001 arrest and long-term detention of the two reformist parliamentarians and the apparent marginalizing of some of the reformist advisors in the past five years, indicate that the pace of any political reform in Syria is likely to be much slower than the short-lived Damascus Spring promised. A crackdown on civil society in 2005, in the wake of Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon, and again in the late winter and spring of 2006, reinforced the perception that any steps toward political form were likely to be halting and piecemeal at best.

ECONOMY

Syria is a middle-income, developing country with an economy based on agriculture, oil, industry, and tourism. However, Syria's economy faces serious challenges and impediments to growth, including: a large and poorly performing public sector; declining rates of oil production; widening non-oil deficit; wide scale corruption; weak financial and capital markets; and high rates of unemployment tied to a high population growth rate. In addition, Syria currently is the subject of U.S. economic sanctions under the Syria Accountability Act, which prohibits the export and re-export of most U.S. products to Syria.

As a result of an inefficient and corrupt centrally planned economy, Syria has low rates of investment, and low levels of industrial and agricultural productivity. Its GDP growth rate was approximately 2.9% in 2005, according to IMF statistics. The two main pillars of the Syrian economy have been agriculture and oil. Agriculture, for instance, accounts for 25% of GDP and employs 42% of the total labor force. The government hopes to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government has begun to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but reform thus far has been slow and ad hoc. For ideological reasons, privatization of government enterprises is explicitly rejected. Therefore major sectors of the economy including refining, ports operation, air transportation, power generation, and water distribution, remain firmly controlled by the government.

The Bashar al-Asad government started its reform efforts by changing the regulatory environment in the financial sector. In 2001, Syria legalized private banking and the sector, while still nascent, has been growing quickly in the last four years. Controls on foreign exchange continue to be one of the biggest impediments to the growth of the banking sector, although Syria has taken gradual steps to loosen those controls. In 2003, the government canceled a law that criminalized private sector use of foreign currencies, and in 2005 it issued legislation that allows licensed private banks to sell specific amounts of foreign currency to Syrian citizens under certain circumstances and to the private sector to finance imports. Syria's exchange rate is fixed, and the government maintains two official rates — one rate on which the budget and the value of imports, customs, and other official transactions are based, and a second set by the Central Bank on a daily basis that covers all other financial transactions. There is, however, still an active black market for foreign currency.

Given the policies adopted from the 1960s through the late 1980s, which included nationalization of companies and private assets, Syria failed to join an increasingly interconnected global economy. Syria withdrew from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1951 because of Israel's accession. It is not a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), although it submitted a request to begin the accession process in 2001. Syria is developing regional free trade agreements. As of January 1, 2005, the Greater Arab Free Trade Agreement (GAFTA) came into effect and customs duties were eliminated between Syria and all other members of GAFTA. In addition, Syria has signed a free trade agreement with Turkey, which came into force in January 2007, and initialed an Association Agreement with the EU, which has yet to be signed. Although Syria claims a recent boom in non-oil exports, its trade numbers are notoriously inaccurate and out-of-date. Syria's main exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.

Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Dayr al-Zur in eastern Syria. Syria's rate of oil production has been decreasing steadily, from a peak close to 600,000 barrels per day (bpd) in 1995 down to approximately 425,000 bpd in 2005. Experts generally agree that Syria will become a net importer of petroleum not later than 2012. Syria exported roughly 200,000 bpd in 2005, and oil still accounts for a majority of the country's export income. Syria also produces 22 million cubic meters of gas per day, with estimated reserves around 8.5 trillion cubic feet. While the government has begun to work with international energy companies in the hopes of eventually becoming a gas exporter, all gas currently produced is consumed domestically. Some basic commodities, such as diesel, continue to be heavily subsidized, and social services are provided for nominal charges. The subsidies are becoming harder to sustain as the gap between consumption and production continues to increase. Syria has a population of approximately 19 million people, and Syrian Government figures place the population growth rate at 2.45%, with 75% of the population under the age of 35 and more than 40% under the age of 15. Approximately 200,000 people enter the labor market every year. According to Syrian Government statistics, the unemployment rate is 7.5%, however, more accurate independent sources place it closer to 20%. Government and public sector employees constitute over one quarter of the total labor force and are paid very low salaries and wages. Government officials acknowledge that the economy is not growing at a pace sufficient to create enough new jobs annually to match population growth. The UNDP announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.

Syria has made progress in easing its heavy foreign debt burden through bilateral rescheduling deals with its key creditors in Europe, most importantly Russia, Germany, and France. Syria has also settled its debt with Iran and the World Bank. In December 2004, Syria and Poland reached an agreement by which Syria would pay $27 million out of the total $261.7 million debt. In January 2005, Russia forgave 80% of Syria's $13 billion long-outstanding debt, and later that year Syria reached an agreement with Slovakia, and the Czech Republic to settle debt estimated at $1.6 billion. Again Syria was forgiven the bulk of its debt, in exchange for a one time payment of $150 million.

NATIONAL SECURITY

President Bashar Al-Asad is commander in chief of the Syrian armed forces, comprised of some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve 24 months in the military upon reaching the age of 18. Some 17,000 Syrian soldiers formerly deployed in Lebanon have been withdrawn to Syria in response to UNSCR 1559, which was passed in the fall of 2004. Demands that Syria comply with 1559 intensified after the February 2005 assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri.

Syria's military remains one of the largest in the region, although the breakup of the Soviet Union—long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces—slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. Syria received significant financial aid from Gulf Arab states in the 1990s as a result of its participation in the first Gulf War, with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending. Besides sustaining its conventional forces, Syria seeks to develop its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) capability.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and achieving a comprehensive Arab-Israeli peace settlement, which includes the return of the Golan Heights, are the primary goals of President Asad's foreign policy.

Relations with Other Arab Countries

Syria reestablished full diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1989. In the 1990-91 Gulf War, Syria joined other Arab states in the U.S.-led multinational coalition against Iraq. In 1998, Syria began a slow rapprochement with Iraq, driven primarily by economic needs. Syria continues to play an active pan-Arab role, although in the wake of the Hariri assassination, Syria became more isolated diplomatically, both in the region and beyond.

Though it voted in favor of UNSCR 1441 in 2002, Syria was against coalition military action in Iraq in 2003. However, the Syrian Government accepted UNSCR 1483 (after being absent for the actual vote), which lifted sanctions on Iraq and established a framework to assist the Iraqi people in determining their political future and rebuilding their economy. Syria also voted for UNSCR 1511, which called for greater international involvement in Iraq and addressed the transfer of sovereignty from the U.S.-led coalition. Since the transfer of sovereignty in Iraq on June 28, 2004, Syria extended qualified support to the Iraqi Government and pledged to cooperate in the areas of border security, repatriation of Iraqi assets, and eventual restoration of formal diplomatic relations. While Syria has taken some steps to tighten controls along the Syria-Iraq border, Syria remains one of the primary transit points for foreign fighters entering Iraq. Consequently, relations between Syria and the Iraqi Government remained strained. However, following a series of visits between high-level officials from both governments—including Foreign Minister Mu′allim's November 2006 visit to Baghdad and Iraqi President Talabani's subsequent visit to Damascus—formal diplomatic relations were finally established in December 2006. That same month, the Ministers of Interior from both countries signed a Memorandum of Security Understanding aimed at improving border security and combating terrorism and crime. Iraq continues to call for more action on the part of Syria to control its border and to prevent Iraqi and Arab elements residing in—or transiting—Syria from contributing financially, politically, or militarily to the insurgency in Iraq.

Involvement in Lebanon

Syria has played an important role in Lebanon by virtue of its history, size, power, and economy. Lebanon was part of post-Ottoman Syria until 1926. The presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon dated to 1976, when President Hafiz al-Asad intervened in the Lebanese civil war on behalf of Maronite Christians. Following the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Syrian and Israeli forces clashed in eastern Lebanon. However, Syrian opposition blocked implementation of the May 17, 1983, Lebanese-Israeli accord on the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon.

In 1989, Syria endorsed the Charter of National Reconciliation, or “Taif Accord,” a comprehensive plan for ending the Lebanese conflict negotiated under the auspices of Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco. In May 1991, Lebanon and Syria signed the treaty of brotherhood, cooperation, and coordination called for in the Taif Accord.

According to the U.S. interpretation of the Taif Accord, Syria and Lebanon were to have decided on the redeployment of Syrian forces from Beirut and other coastal areas of Lebanon by September 1992. Israeli occupation of Lebanon until May 2000, the breakdown of peace negotiations between Syria and Israel that same year, and intensifying Arab/Israeli tensions since the start of the second Palestinian uprising in September 2000 helped delay full implementation of the Taif Accords. The United Nations declared that Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon fulfilled the requirements of UN Security Council Resolution 425. However, Syria and Lebanon claimed that UNSCR 425 had not been fully implemented because Israel did not withdraw from an area of the Golan Heights called Sheba Farms, which had been occupied by Israel in 1967, and which Syria now claimed was part of Lebanon. The United Nations does not recognize this claim. However, Lebanese resistance groups such as Hezbollah use it to justify attacks against Israeli forces in that region. The danger of Hezbollah's tactics was highlighted when Hezbollah's attacks on and hostage-taking of Israeli soldiers on July 12, 2006 sparked a 34-day conflict in Lebanon. After the conflict, the passing of UNSCR 1701 authorized the enhancement of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). Before the conflict, UNIFIL authorized a presence of 2,000 troops in southern Lebanon; post-conflict, this ceiling is to be raised to 15,000. As of September 2006, 5,000 troops had deployed to southern Lebanon. UNI-FIL is tasked with ensuring peace and security along the frontier and overseeing the eventual return of effective Lebanese government and military authority throughout the border region.

Until its withdrawal in April 2005, Syria maintained approximately 17,000 troops in Lebanon. A September 2004 vote by Lebanon's Chamber of Deputies to amend the constitution to extend Lebanese President Lahoud's term in office by three years amplified the question of Lebanese sovereignty and the continuing Syrian presence. The vote was clearly taken under Syrian pressure, exercised in part through Syria's military intelligence service, whose chief in Lebanon had acted as a virtual proconsul for many years. The UN Security Council expressed its concern over the situation by passing Resolution 1559, which called for the withdrawal of all remaining foreign forces from Lebanon, disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias, the deployment of the Lebanese Armed Forces throughout the country, and a free and fair electoral process in the presidential election.

Former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri and 19 others were assassinated in Beirut by a car bomb on February 14, 2005. The assassination spurred massive protests in Beirut and international pressure that led to the withdrawal of the remaining Syrian military troops from Lebanon on April 26, 2005. Rafiq Hariri's assassination was just one of a number of attacks that continue to target high-profile Lebanese critics of Syria. The UN International Independent Investigative Commission (UNIIIC) headed by Serge Brammertz is investigating Hariri's assassination and is expected to report its findings to the Security Council by June 2007.

The United States supports a sovereign, independent Lebanon, free of all foreign forces, and believes that the best interests of both Lebanon and Syria are served by a positive and constructive relationship based upon principles of mutual respect and nonintervention between two neighboring sovereign and independent states. The United States calls for Syrian non-interference in Lebanon, consistent with UNSCR 1559 and 1701.

Arab-Israeli Relations

Syria was an active belligerent in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, which resulted in Israel's occupation of the Golan Heights and the city of Quneitra. Following the October 1973 Arab-Israeli War, which left Israel in occupation of additional Syrian territory, Syria accepted UN Security Council Resolution 338, which signaled an implicit acceptance of Resolution 242. Resolution 242, which became the basis for the peace process negotiations begun in Madrid in 1981, calls for a just and lasting Middle East peace to include withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in 1967; termination of the state of belligerency; and acknowledgment of the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence of all regional states and of their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries.

As a result of the mediation efforts of then U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Syria and Israel concluded a disengagement agreement in May 1974, enabling Syria to recover territory lost in the October war and part of the Golan Heights occupied by Israel since 1967, including Quneitra. The two sides have effectively implemented the agreement, which is monitored by UN forces.

In December 1981, the Israeli Knesset voted to extend Israeli law to the part of the Golan Heights over which Israel retained control. The UN Security Council subsequently passed a resolution calling on Israel to rescind this measure. Syria participated in the Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991. Negotiations were conducted intermittently through the 1990s, and came very close to succeeding. However, the parties were unable to come to an agreement over Syria's nonnegotiable demand that Israel withdraw to the positions it held on June 4, 1967. The peace process collapsed following the outbreak of the second Palestinian (Intifada) uprising in September 2000, though Syria continues to call for a comprehensive settlement based on UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338, and the land-for-peace formula adopted at the 1991 Madrid conference.

Tensions between Israel and Syria increased as the second Intifada dragged on, primarily as a result of Syria's unwillingness to stop giving sanctuary to Palestinian terrorist groups conducting operations against Israel. In October 2003, following a suicide bombing carried out by a member of Palestinian Islamic Jihad in Haifa that killed 20 Israeli citizens, Israeli Defense Forces attacked a suspected Palestinian terrorist training camp 15 kilometers north of Damascus. This was the first such Israeli attack deep inside Syrian territory since the 1973 war. During the summer of 2006 tensions again heightened due to Israeli fighter jets buzzing President Asad's summer castle in response to Syria's support for the Palestinian group Hamas, Syria's support of Hezbollah during the July-August 2006 conflict in Lebanon, and the possible rearming of Hezbollah in potential violation of UN Resolution 1701. Rumors of back channel negotiations in 2006-2007 between the Israeli and Syrian Governments were discounted by both Israel and Syria, with spokespersons for both countries indicating that any such talks were not officially sanctioned.

Membership in International Organizations

Syria is a member of the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Arab League, Arab Monetary Fund, Council of Arab Economic Unity, Customs Cooperation Council, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Food and Agricultural Organization, Group of 24, Group of 77, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Chamber of Commerce, International Development Association, Islamic Development Bank, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance Corporation, International Labor Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, INTERPOL, International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries, Organization of the Islamic Conference, United Nations, UN Conference on Trade and Development, UN Industrial Development Organization, UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, Universal Postal Union, World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, World Meteorological Organization, and World Tourism Organization.

Syria's 2-year term as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council ended in December 2003.

U.S.-SYRIAN RELATIONS

U.S.-Syrian relations, severed in 1967, were resumed in June 1974, following the achievement of the Syrian-Israeli disengagement agreement. In 1990-91, Syria cooperated with the United States as a member of the multinational coalition of forces in the Gulf War. The U.S. and Syria also consulted closely on the Taif Accord, ending the civil war in Lebanon. In 1991, President Asad made a historic decision to accept then President Bush's invitation to attend a Middle East peace conference and to engage in subsequent bilateral negotiations with Israel. Syria's efforts to secure the release of Western hostages held in Lebanon and its lifting of restrictions on travel by Syrian Jews helped to further improve relations between Syria and the United States. There were several presidential summits; the last one occurred when then-President Clinton met the late President Hafiz al-Asad in Geneva in March 2000. In the aftermath of September 11th the Syrian Government began limited cooperation with U.S. in the war against terror.

Syria has been on the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism since the list's inception in 1979. Because of its continuing support and safe haven for terrorist organizations, Syria is subject to legislatively mandated penalties, including export sanctions and ineligibility to receive most forms of U.S. aid or to purchase U.S. military equipment. In 1986, the U.S. with-drew its ambassador and imposed additional administrative sanctions on Syria in response to evidence of direct Syrian involvement in an attempt to blow up an Israeli air-plane. A U.S. ambassador returned to Damascus in 1987, partially in response to positive Syrian actions against terrorism such as expelling the Abu Nidal Organization from Syria and helping free an American hostage earlier that year.

However, relations since the February 2005 assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Hariri have considerably deteriorated. Issues of U.S. concern include the Syrian Government's failure to prevent Syria from becoming a major transit point for foreign fighters entering Iraq, its refusal to deport from Syria former Saddam regime elements who are supporting the insurgency in Iraq, it ongoing interference in Lebanese affairs, its protection of the leadership of Palestinian rejectionist groups in Damascus, its deplorable human rights record, and its pursuit of weapons of mass destruction. In May 2004, the Bush administration, pursuant to the provisions of the Syrian Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty Restoration Act, imposed sanctions on Syria which banned nearly all exports to Syria except food and medicine. In February 2005, in the wake of the Hariri assassination, the U.S. recalled its Ambassador to Washington.

On September 12, 2006 the U.S. Embassy was attacked by four armed assailants with guns, grenades and a car bomb (which failed to detonate). Syrian Security Forces successfully countered the attack, killing all four attackers. Two other Syrians killed during the attack were a government security guard and a passerby. The Syrian Government publicly stated that terrorists had carried out the attack. The U.S. Government has not received an official Syrian Government assessment of the motives or organization behind the attack, but security was upgraded at U.S. facilities. Both the Syrian ambassador to the U.S., Imad Mushtapha, and President Bashar Asad, however, blamed U.S. foreign policy in the region as contributing to the incident.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

DAMASCUS (E) 2, Al-Mansour Street, PO Box 29, APO/FPO AMEMB, Unit 70200, Box (D), APO/ AE 09892-0200, (963)-11-3391- 4444, Fax (963-11) 3391-3999, Workweek: Sunday-Thursday, 8:00-5:00, Web-site: http://damascus.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

November 20, 2007

Country Description: Since March 1963, the Syrian Arab Republic has been ruled by an authoritarian regime dominated by the Socialist Ba’ath Party. While the ruling Ba’ath party espouses a largely secular ideology, Islamic traditions and beliefs provide a conservative foundation for the country's customs and practices. Syria has a developing, centrally-planned economy with large public (30%), agricultural (25%), and industrial (20%) sectors. Tourist facilities are available, but vary in quality depending on price and location.

Entry Requirements: A passport and a visa are required. Visas must be obtained prior to arrival in Syria from a Syrian diplomatic mission located in the traveler's country of residence, although the Syrian visa policy with respect to American diplomats and citizens is currently under review. Foreigners who wish to stay 15 days or more in Syria must register with Syrian immigration authorities by their 15th day. Syrian-American men or American men of Syrian origin, even those born in the United States, may be subject to compulsory military service unless they receive a temporary or permanent exemption from a Syrian diplomatic mission abroad prior to their entry into Syria.

There are no special immunizations required for entry to Syria. AIDS tests are mandatory for foreigners ages 15 to 60 who wish to reside in Syria. The AIDS test must be conducted in Syria at a facility approved by the Syrian Ministry of Health. A residence permit will not be issued until the absence of the HIV virus has been determined. Foreigners wishing to marry Syrian nationals in Syria must also be tested for HIV. Syria usually will not give visas or residency permits to students wishing to study religion or Arabic in private religious institutions.

The Syrian government rigidly enforces restrictions on prior travel to Israel, and does not allow persons with passports bearing Israeli visa or entry/exit stamps to enter the country. Syrian immigration authorities will not admit travelers with Israeli stamps in their passports, Jordanian entry cachets or cachets from other countries that suggest prior travel to Israel. Likewise, the absence of entry stamps from a country adjacent to Israel, which the traveler has just visited, will cause Syrian immigration officials to refuse admittance. Entry into Syria via the land border with Israel is not possible. American-citizen travelers suspected of having traveled to Israel have been detained for questioning.

Syrian security officials are also sensitive about travel to Iraq. There have been instances in which Americans, especially those of Arab descent, believed to have traveled to Iraq were detained for questioning at ports of entry/exit. Americans seeking to travel to Iraq through Syria have also on occasion been turned around and/ or detained. On a number of occasions the border between Iraq and Syria has been closed without notice, stranding Americans on either side of the border.

Children under the age of eighteen whose fathers are Syrian or of Syrian descent must have their fathers’ permission to leave Syria, even if the parents are separated or divorced and the mother has been granted full custody by a Syrian court. Women in Syria are often subject to strict family controls. On occasion, families of Syrian-American women visiting Syria have attempted to prevent them from leaving the country. This can be a particular problem for young single women of marriageable age. Although a woman does not need her husband's explicit consent every time she wishes to leave Syria, a Syrian husband may take legal action to prevent his wife from leaving the country, regardless of her nationality. Once such legal orders are in place, the U.S. Embassy cannot assist American citizens to leave Syria. Visit the Embassy of the Syrian Arab Republic, 2215 Wyoming Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20008, telephone (202) 232-6313 or check the Syrian Embassy's home page at http://www.syrianembassy.us for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: Syria is included on the Department of State's List of State Sponsors of Terrorism. A number of the terrorist groups that have offices in Syria oppose U.S. policies in the Middle East. On September 12, 2006, the U.S. Embassy in Damascus was attacked by assailants using improvised explosives, gunfire, and two vehicles laden with explosives. On February 4, 2006, mobs protesting caricatures of the Prophet Mohammed destroyed the Norwegian and Chilean embassies and severely damaged the Danish and Swedish diplomatic missions. On April 27, 2004 there was a violent clash in which three people died in an area of Damascus where many foreign citizens reside. It has never been clear whether the shootout with Syrian security forces involved common criminals or terrorists. In 1998 and 2000, mobs attacked the U.S. Ambassador's Residence and the U.S. Embassy, respectively. In 1997, twenty-two people were killed when a public bus was bombed in downtown Damascus. All of these attacks serve as reminders that Syria is not immune from political or purely criminal violence. Americans traveling through the area should remain aware that U.S. interests and citizens might be targeted.

Security personnel may at times place foreign visitors under surveillance. Hotel rooms, telephones, and fax machines may be monitored, and personal possessions in hotel rooms may be searched. Taking photographs of anything that could be perceived as being of military or security interest may result in problems with authorities.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site, where the current Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, Middle East and North Africa Travel Alert, Travel Warnings and other Travel Alerts and additional resources can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: While a few cases of theft and assault have been reported to the Embassy, crime is generally not a serious problem for travelers in Syria. However, incidents of credit card and ATM fraud, and harassment of women, are on the rise.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to the local police, please contact the U.S. Embassy for assistance. The Embassy staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Basic medical care and medicines are available in Syria's principal cities, but not necessarily in outlying areas. Serious illnesses and emergencies may require evacuation to a Western medical facility. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's web site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about out-breaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith/en.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Syria is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in Syria is hazardous and requires great caution. Although drivers generally follow traffic signs and signals, they often maneuver aggressively and show little regard for vehicles traveling behind or to the sides of them. Lane markings are usually ignored. Vehicles within Syrian traffic circles must give way to entering traffic, unlike in the United States. At night, it is very hard to see pedestrians, who often walk into traffic with little warning. Outside major cities it is common to find pedestrians, animals and vehicles without lights on the roads at night. Pedestrians must also exercise caution. Parked cars, deteriorating pavement, and guard posts obstruct sidewalks, often forcing pedestrians to walk in the street. Vehicles often do not stop for pedestrians, and regularly run red lights or “jump” the green light well before it changes.

For specific information concerning Syrian driving permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Syrian Embassy in Washington, D.C. at 2215 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008, tel. 202-232-6313.

Aviation Safety Oversight: Sanctions resulting from the passage of the Syria Accountability Act prohibit aircraft of any air carrier owned or controlled by the Syrian government to take off from or land in the United States. As there is no direct commercial air service to the United States by air carriers registered in Syria, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Syria's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's web site at http://www.faa.gov.

The U.S. Embassy in Damascus has advised its employees to avoid travel on Syrian Arab Airlines (Syrian Air or SAA) whenever possible due to concerns regarding the airline's ability to maintain its airplanes. SAA has, on its own initiative, grounded individual aircraft with significant maintenance or service issues; however, concerns persist that some planes still being flown may lack certain safety equipment or may have undergone repairs that have not been reviewed by the manufacturer.

Special Circumstances: Syrian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Syria of items such as weapons, narcotics, alcohol, tobacco, cheese, fruits, pharmaceuticals, modems, cosmetics, and some electrical appliances. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Syria in Washington, DC for specific information regarding customs requirements.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, they will have proof of identity and U.S. citizenship readily available. Although Syria is a signatory to the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, Syrian officials generally do not notify the American Embassy when American citizens are arrested. When the American Embassy learns of arrests of Americans and requests consular access, individual police officials have, on their own initiative, responded promptly and allowed consular officers to visit the prisoners. However, security officials have also in the past denied Embassy requests for consular access, especially in the case of dual citizens.

Foreign currencies can be exchanged for Syrian pounds only at government-approved exchange centers and licensed private banks. Syrian pounds cannot be changed back into foreign currency. There are six private banks operating in Syria, with branches and ATMs in most major cities. These ATMs usually honor major debit/credit systems. Funds may be transferred into Syria through Western Union. Wiring of funds through private banks is possible; however, transferring funds through the Commercial Bank of Syria is not possible.

Syrian-American and Palestinian-American men who have never served in the Syrian military and who are planning to visit Syria are strongly urged to check with the Syrian Embassy in Washington, D.C. prior to traveling concerning compulsory military service. American men over the age of 18, even those who have never resided in or visited Syria, whose fathers are of Syrian descent, are required to complete military service or pay to be exempted. Possession of a U.S. passport does not absolve the bearer of this obligation.

The fee for exemption from military service ranges from $5,000 to $15,000 USD, depending upon circumstances, for Syrian-American and Palestinian-American men who live abroad. In January 2005 the Syrian government reduced mandatory military service from 30 months to 24 months. It also announced that Syrians born outside of Syria and residing abroad until the age of 18 have the option of being exempted from their service by paying $2,000 USD. Those born in Syria who left the country before reaching the age of 11, and have resided abroad for more than 15 years can be exempted by paying $5,000 USD. Contact the Syrian Embassy in Washington, DC, for more information.

President Bush signed an executive order on May 11, 2004, implementing sanctions in accordance with the Syria Accountability Act. These sanctions prohibit the export to Syria of products of the United States other than food or medicine, and prohibit any commercial aircraft owned or controlled by the Syrian government from taking off from or landing in the United States. Under the authority provided in Section 5(b) of the Act, the President has determined that it is in the national security interest of the United States to waive the application of these sanctions in certain cases and for certain products, as specified in the Department of Commerce's General Order No. 2. For additional information about implementation of the Syria Accountability Act, consult the Department of Commerce web site at (http://www.bis.doc.gov/).

Since 1979, the United States has designated Syria a State Sponsor of Terrorism due to its support for groups such as Hizbollah and Palestinian terrorist groups. The Terrorism List Government Sanctions Regulations prohibit U.S. persons from receiving unlicensed donations from the Syrian government. Additionally, U.S. persons are prohibited from engaging in financial transactions which a U.S. person knows or has reasonable cause to believe pose a risk of furthering terrorists’ acts in the United States. For additional information about the Terrorism List Government Sanctions Regulations, consult the terrorism brochure on the U.S. Department of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) home page on the Internet at http://www.treas.gov or via OFAC's info-by-fax service at (202) 622-0077.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Syrian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Syria are strict and convicted offenders can expect prison sentences and heavy fines. Penalties for possession of even small amounts of illegal drugs for personal use are severe in Syria. Persons convicted in Syria for growing, processing, or smuggling drugs face the death penalty, which may be reduced to a minimum of 20 years’ imprisonment. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Syria are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Syria. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at 2, Al-Mansour St., Abu Roumaneh. The international mailing address is PO Box 29, Damascus. Mail may also be sent via the U.S. Postal Service to: American Embassy Damascus, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-6110. Telephone numbers are (963) (11) 333-1342, fax number is (963)(11) 331-9678, e-mail: acs-damascus@state.gov. The government workweek in Syria is Sunday through Thursday; the private sector generally works Saturday through Thursday. The U.S. Embassy is open Sunday through Thursday. Additional information may be found on the Embassy web site at http://damascus.usembassy.gov.

International Adoption

December 2007

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: Islamic Shari’a law does not allow for full adoptions as generally understood in the United States. However, immigrant visas may be issued in cases IF the Islamic court grants custody of an orphan to a guardian and where that court understands that custody of the orphan to be transferred through guardianship, and that the parents intend to obtain a full and final adoption of the child once that child is in the United States and expressly signals that agreement.

In Syria, only Catholic civil law recognizes full and final adoptions as a legal convention and defines the conditions, rights and duties thereof. Catholic orphanages in Syria may have children available for adoption by Catholic or Eastern Orthodox families and so prospective adopting parents WOULD NOT have to obtain special permission from Syrian courts allowing Catholic orphans to be adopted in the United States as has to be done with Islamic orphans.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: Governmental orphanages are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Work and Social Affairs. The main office is “Zaid Bin Haretha”located at Masaken Barzeh, Damascus.

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: Only one person of a married couple may adopt, or both spouses must adopt the child jointly. The prospective adoptive parent(s) must be at least 40 years old and the age difference between the prospective adoptive parent(s) and the child must be at least 18 years. In the case of a Catholic child, at least one of the prospective adoptive parents must be Catholic, unless the church authority makes an exception for a prospective adoptive parent that is from another Eastern Christian denomination, i.e. Greek Orthodox.

Residency Requirements: Adoptions of Catholic orphans do not require residency in Syria for prospective parents.

Time Frame: Due to the fact that the adoption of Catholic orphans has only been made possible since the establishment of the Catholic Civil code in July, 2006, average time frames have not yet been established.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no adoption agencies in Syria. Churches and governmental orphanages care for abandoned children but may not always have the legal expertise to process an adoption. Attorneys who specialize in family law may assist in handling adoption cases. The U.S. Embassy in Damascus maintains a list of lawyers. This list is available by calling the Consular Section at 963-11-3391-4444.

Adoption Fees: There are no published, official governmental fees, but some offices may charge fees to process a case.

Adoption Procedures: Because the adoption of Catholic orphans is a religious procedure in Syria, it must be supervised by authorized church authorities and must also be approved by the relevant civil authorities.

A foundling child takes the religious affiliation of the orphanage that receives the baby. An adoption request for that child must be submitted to the presiding judge of the religious court of the community to which the child belongs. The religious court will investigate the case, which entails proof of the good moral reputation of the prospective adoptive parent(s) and financial support for the child. If the court does not find any grounds for objection to adoption, the court will issue a decree confirming the adoption. The court'ss final decision on the adoption must be affirmed by the bishop of the same relevant jurisdiction. To be valid, the adoption decree must be granted exequatur, or endorsed, by the Civil Courts Enforcement Bureau. The adoption decree must then be submitted to the Syrian Bureau of Vital Statistics so that the civil status of the adopted child can be amended in the registry book. The child will take the family name of the adoptive parents. Approval of the institution or organization where the child was found may be sometimes required.

The adoption decree must accompany the application for a Syrian identity card and the abstract for individual civil status record. After the identity card is issued, an application for a Syrian passport must be submitted at the Syrian Immigration & Passport Office in Damascus.

The consent of the prospective adoptive parent(s) as well as the sole surviving parent, or the guardian, if applicable, is required. In all cases, if the child is old enough, his/her consent is also required. There is no specific age of consent but practice indicates that age 10-12 or older is customary. If the child is too young to give consent, then the minor's guardian or the church authorities must consent. In the case where both parents of the minor have passed away, the consent of the head of the religious authority will be required.

Moreover, the religious authority must consent to the adoption. Consent cannot be obtained by coercion or fraud.

Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family

Requirements for Porpspective Parents: Prospective adoptive parents must meet the following conditions in order to adopt Catholic orphans:

• The adoption shall be for valid reasons and in the interest of the children.
• Good behavior of prospective adoptive parents.
• The adoptive parents must be at least 18 years older than the child.
• The adoptive parents must be Catholic or, with church approval, of an Eastern Orthodox church.
• Approval of the adoption by the two adoptive parents.
• The adoptive parents must be 40 years old at a minimum.
• Consent of the adoptive child, if the child is of an age capable of making a decision (usually from 10-12 years old and up).

Syrian Embassy in the United States
Embassy of Syria, Washington, D.C.
2215 Wyoming Ave., N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20008
Tel: (202) 232-6313
Fax: (202) 265-4585
Email: info@syrembassy.net
Website:
http://www.syrianembassy.us

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult the USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Embassy of the United States of America, Damascus
2, Al-Mansour St., Abu Roumaneh
P.O. Box 29
Damascus, Syria
Tel: (963) 11 -3391-4444
Fax (Consular Section):
(963) 11-331-9678
http://damascus.usembassy.gov/consular.html.

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Syria may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Damascus. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

Travel Warning

September 18, 2007

This Travel Warning alerts U.S. citizens to the ongoing safety and security concerns in Syria. Travelers are advised to thoroughly consider the risks before travel to Syria and to take adequate precautions to ensure their safety if traveling to Syria. This supersedes the Travel Warning issued on November 13, 2006.

On September 12, 2006, the U.S. Embassy in Damascus was attacked by assailants using improvised explosives, gunfire, and two vehicles laden with explosives. This attack underscores the danger posed by the continued presence of terrorist groups in Syria. The Embassy is working with the Syrian authorities to address these threats and the security issues raised by the attack on the Embassy. While the authorities have taken measures since then to crack down on local extremists, self-contained groups with no links to external terrorist organizations will remain inherently difficult to detect and disrupt.

U.S. citizens who remain in or travel to Syria are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Damascus, and to obtain updated information on travel and security in Syria. Americans in Syria should exercise caution and take prudent measures to maintain their security. These measures include being aware of their surroundings, avoiding crowds and demonstrations, keeping a low profile, varying times and routes for all required travel, and ensuring travel documents are current.

U.S. consular personnel remain available to provide emergency information and services to American citizens. The U.S. Embassy in Damascus, Syria, is located at 2, Al-Man-sour St., Abu Roumaneh. The Embassy telephone number is (963) (11) 333-1342, fax (963) (11) 331-9678, e-mail: acsdamascus@state.gov. American citizens may register with the Embassy online by visiting https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs. Additional information may be found on the Embassy website at http://usembassy.state.gov/damascus.

Updated information on travel and security in Syria may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747 within the United States or, from overseas, 1-202-501-4444. Additional details can be found in the Department of State's Country Specific Information for Syria, the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, and the Middle East and North Africa Travel Alert which are available on the Department's Internet website at http://travel.state.gov.

Syria

Compiled from the October 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Syrian Arab Republic

PROFILE

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

NATIONAL SECURITY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-SYRIAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 185,170 sq. km. (71,504 sq. mi.), including 1,295 sq. km. of Israeli-occupied territory; about the size of North Dakota.

Cities: Capital—Damascus (pop. 4 million). Other cities—Aleppo (4.2 million), Homs (1.6 million), Hama (1.4 million), Idleb (1.3 million), al-Hasakeh (1.2 million), Dayr al-Zur (1.1), Latakia (0.9 million), Dar’a (0.9), al-Raqqa (0.8), and Tartous (0.7).

Terrain: Narrow coastal plain with a double mountain belt in the west; large, semiarid and desert plateau to the east.

Climate: Mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Syrian(s).

Population: (2005 est.): 18.6 million.

Growth rate: (2005 est.) 2.45%.

Ethnic groups: Arabs (90%), Kurds (9%), Armenians, Circassians, Turko-mans.

Religions: Sunni Muslims (74%), Alawis (12%), Christians (10%), Druze (3%), and small numbers of other Muslim sects, Jews, and Yazidis.

Languages: Arabic (official), English and French (widely understood), Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian.

Education: (2005 est.) Years compulsory—primary, 6 yrs. Attendance—97.9% Literacy—92.5%; 87.9%; male, 73.9%; female.

Health: (2004) Infant mortality rate—17.1/1,000. Life expectancy—68.47 yrs. male, 71.02 yrs. female.

Work force: (6.1 million, 2004 est.)

Services: (including government)—39.7%; agriculture—26%; industry and commerce—34.3%.

Government

Type: Republic, under Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party regimes since March 1963.

Independence: April 17, 1946.

Constitution: March 13, 1973.

Government branches: Executive—president, two vice presidents, prime minister, Council of Ministers (cabinet). Legislative—unicameral People’s Council. Judicial—Supreme Constitutional Court, High Judicial Council, Court of Cassation, State Security Courts.

Political subdivisions: 13 provinces and city of Damascus (administered as a separate unit).

Political parties: Arab Socialist Resurrection (Ba’ath) Party, Syrian Arab Socialist Party, Arab Socialist Union, Syrian Communist Party, Arab Socialist Unionist Movement, Democratic Socialist Union Party.

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Economy (2005 est.)

GDP: (2005 nominal) $27.3 billion.

Real growth rate: 29.

Per capita GDP: $1464.

Natural resources: Crude oil and natural gas, phosphates, asphalt, rock salt, marble, gypsum, iron ore, chrome, and manganese ores.

Agriculture: Products—cotton, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruits and vegetables. Arable land—32%.

Industry: Types—mining, manufacturing (textiles, food processing), construction, petroleum.

Trade: Exports—$6.8 billion: petroleum, textiles, phosphates, antiquities, fruits and vegetables, cotton. Major markets—EU, Arab countries, United States, New Independent States, Eastern Europe. Imports—$6.0 billion foodstuffs, metal and metal products, machinery, textiles, petroleum. Major suppliers—Germany, Turkey, Italy, France, U.S., Japan.

PEOPLE

Ethnic Syrians are of Semitic stock. Syria’s population is 90% Muslim—74% Sunni, and 16% other Muslim groups, including the Alawi, Shi’a, and Druze—and 10% Christian. There also is a tiny Syrian Jewish community.

Arabic is the official, and most widely spoken, language. Arabs, including some 500,000 Palestinian and 100,000 Iraqi refugees, make up 90% of the population. Many educated Syrians also speak English or French, but English is the more widely understood. The Kurds, many of whom speak Kurdish, make up 9% of the population and live mostly in the northeast corner of Syria, though sizable Kurdish communities live in most major Syrian cities as well. Armenian and Turkic are spoken among the small Armenian and Turkoman populations.

Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density is about 140 per sq. mi. Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 11. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrollment at post-secondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 88% for males and 74%for females.

Ancient Syria’s cultural and artistic achievements and contributions are many. Archaeologists have discovered extensive writings and evidence of a brilliant culture rivaling those of Mesopotamia and Egypt in and around the ancient city of Ebla. Later Syrian scholars and artists contributed to Hellenistic and Roman thought and culture. Zeno of Sidon founded the Epicurean school; Cicero was a pupil of Antiochus of Ascalon at Athens; and the writings of Posidonius of Apamea influenced Livy and Plutarch. Syrians have contributed to Arabic literature and music and have a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Although declining, the world-famous handicraft industry still employs thousands.

HISTORY

Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the center of one of the most ancient civilizations on earth. Around the excavated city of Ebla in northern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500 to 2400 B.C. The city of Ebla alone during that time had a population estimated at 260,000. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be the oldest Semitic language.

Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, and, in part, Crusaders before finally coming under the control of the Ottoman Turks. Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Paul was converted on the road to Damascus and established the first organized Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.

Damascus, settled about 2500 B.C., is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It came under Muslim rule in A.D. 636. Immediately thereafter, the city’s power and prestige reached its peak, and it became the capital of the Omayyad Empire, which extended from Spain to India from A.D. 661 to A.D. 750, when the Abbasid caliphate was established at Baghdad, Iraq.

Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around 1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt, it continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840.

French Occupation

In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under King Faysal of the Hashemite family, who later became King of Iraq. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the clash between his Syrian Arab forces and regular French forces at the battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the League of Nations put Syria under French mandate. With the fall of France in 1940, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free French occupied the country in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.

Independence to 1970

Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence of April 17, 1946, Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval. A series of military coups, begun in 1949, undermined civilian rule and led to army colonel Adib Shishakli’s seizure of power in 1951. After the overthrow of President Shishakli in a 1954 coup, continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military eventually brought Arab nationalist and socialist elements to power.

Syria’s political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser’s leadership in the wake of the 1956 Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt. On February 1, 1958, the two countries merged to create the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties ceased overt activities.

The union was not a success, however. Following a military coup on September 28, 1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as the Syrian Arab Republic. Instability characterized the next 18 months, with various coups culminating on March 8, 1963, in the installation by leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party (Ba’ath Party), which had been active in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was dominated by Ba’ath members.

The Ba’ath takeover in Syria followed a Ba’ath coup in Iraq the previous month. The new Syrian Government explored the possibility of federation with Egypt and Ba’ath—controlled Iraq. An agreement was concluded in Cairo on April 17, 1963, for a referendum on unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialize. Thereafter, the Ba’ath regimes in Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity. These plans foundered in November 1963, when the Ba’ath regime in Iraq was overthrown. In May 1964, President Amin Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of mass organizations—labor, peasant, and professional unions—a presidential council, in which executive power was vested, and a cabinet. On February 23, 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, intra-party coup, imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba’ath government. The coup leaders described it as a “rectification” of Ba’ath Party principles. The defeat of the Syrians and Egyptians in the June 1967 war with Israel weakened the radical socialist regime established by the 1966 coup. Conflict developed between a moderate military wing and a more extremist civilian wing of the Ba’ath Party. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the “Black September” hostilities with Jordan reflected this political disagreement within the ruling Ba’ath leadership. On November 13, 1970, Minister of Defense Hafiz al-Asad affected a bloodless military coup, ousting the civilian party leadership and assuming the role of prime minister.

1970 to 2000

Upon assuming power, Hafiz al-Asad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Asad’s Arab Ba’ath Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People’s Council, in which the Ba’ath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among “popular organizations” and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Asad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Asad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Asad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Ba’ath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria’s 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People’s Council, the first such elections since 1962.

The authoritarian regime was not without its critics, though most were quickly dealt with. A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s, however, from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who reject the basic values of the secular Ba’ath program and object to rule by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the archconservative Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the regime. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government crushed the fundamentalist opposition centered in the city of Hama, leveling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing many thousands of dead and wounded. Since then, public manifestations of anti-regime activity have been very limited.

Syria’s 1990 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria’s relations both with other Arab states and with the West. Syria participated in the multilateral Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz Al-Asad’s meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.

Hafiz Al-Asad died on June 10, 2000, after 30 years in power. Immediately following Al-Asad’s death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34 years old, which allowed his son, Bashar Al-Asad legally to be eligible for nomination by the ruling Ba’ath party. On July 10, 2000, Bashar Al-Asad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote, according to Syrian government statistics.

2000 to 2006

In the aftermath of September 11, 2001 the Syrian Government began limited cooperation with United States in the global war against terrorism. However, Syria opposed the Iraq war in March 2003, and bilateral relations with the United States swiftly deteriorated. In December 2003, President Bush signed into law the Syria Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty Restoration Act of 2003, which provided for the imposition of a series of sanctions against Syria if Syria did not end its support for Palestinian terrorist groups, end its military and security interference in Lebanon, cease its pursuit of weapons of mass destruction, and meet its obligations under United Nations Security Council resolutions regarding the stabilization and reconstruction of Iraq. In May 2004, the President determined that Syria had not met these conditions and implemented sanctions that prohibit the export to Syria of U.S. products except for food and medicine, and the taking off from or landing in the United States of Syrian Government-owned aircraft. At the same time, the U.S. Department of the Treasury announced its intention to order U.S. financial institutions to sever correspondent accounts with the Commercial Bank of Syria based on money-laundering concerns, pursuant to Section 311 of the USA PATRIOT Act. Acting under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), the President also authorized the Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with the Secretary of State, to freeze assets belonging to certain Syrian individuals and entities.

Tensions between Syria and the United States intensified from late 2004 to 2006, primarily over issues relating to Iraq and Lebanon. The U.S. Government recalled its Ambassador in February 2005, after the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Hariri. Sensing its international isolation, the Syrians shored up their relations with Iran and radical Palestinians groups based in Damascus, and cracked down on any signs of internal dissent. There has been little movement on economic or political reform. The SARG has provided minimal cooperation to the UN Independent International Investigation Commission, headed by Serge Brammertz, which is investigating the killing of Hariri. Following the 34-day conflict in Lebanon in July and August 2006, it is unclear whether the Syrians will comply with their obligations under UN Security Council Resolution 1701 not to rearm Hezbollah.

GOVERNMENT

The Syrian constitution vests the Arab Ba’ath Socialist Party with leadership functions in the state and society and provides broad powers to the president. The president, approved by referendum for a 7-year term, is also Secretary General of the Ba’ath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front. The president has the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and states of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People’s Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel. The Emergency Law, which effectively suspends most constitutional protections for Syrians, has been in effect since 1963.

The National Progressive Front also acts as a forum in which economic policies are debated and the country’s political orientation is determined. However, because of Ba’ath Party dominance, the National Progressive Front has traditionally exercised little independent power.

The Syrian constitution of 1973 requires that the president be Muslim but does not make Islam the state religion. Islamic jurisprudence, however, is required to be a main source of legislation. The judicial system in Syria is an amalgam of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws, with three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. In addition, religious courts handle questions of personal and family law.

The Ba’ath Party emphasizes socialism and secular Arabism. Although Ba’ath Party doctrine seeks to build pan-Arab rather than ethnic identity, ethnic, religious, and regional allegiances remain important in Syria.

Members of President Asad’s own minority sect, the Alawis, hold most of the important military and security positions, while Sunnis (in 2006) control ten of 14 positions on the powerful Ba’ath Party Regional Command. In recent years there has been a gradual decline in the party’s preeminence. The party also is heavily influenced by the security services and the military, the latter of which consumes a large share of Syria’s economic resources.

Syria is divided administratively into 14 provinces, one of which is Damascus. A governor for each province is appointed by the President. The governor is assisted by an elected provincial council.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 12/27/2006

President: Bashar al-ASAD

Vice President: Farouk al-SHARA

Vice President: Najah al-ATTAR

Prime Minister: Muhammad Naji al-UTRI

Dep. Prime Min. for Economic Affairs: Abdallah al-DARDARI

Min. of Agriculture: Adil SAFIR

Min. of Construction & Housing: Hamud al-HUSAYN

Min. of Culture: Riyad Nasan AGHA

Min. of Defense: Hassan Ali TURKMANI, Lt. Gen.

Min. of Economy & Trade: Amir Husni LUTFI

Min. of Education: Ali SAD

Min. of Electricity: Ahmad Khalid al-ALI

Min. of Environment & Local Government: Hilal al-ATRASH

Min. of Expatriates: Buthaynah SHABAAN

Min. of Finance: Muhammad al-HUSAYN

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Walid MUALEM

Min. of Health: Mahir HUSAMI, Dr.

Min. of Higher Education: Ghiath BARAKAT

Min. of Industry: Fuad Isa JUNI

Min. of Information: Muhsin BILAL, Dr.

Min. of Interior: Basam ABD AL-MAJID, Gen.

Min. of Irrigation: Nadir al-BUNI

Min. of Justice: Muhammad al-GHAFRI

Min. of Labor & Social Affairs: Dayala al-Haj ARIF

Min. of Oil: Sufiyan al-AW

Min. of Presidency Affairs: Ghasan LAHAM

Min. of Religious Endowments: Muhammad Ziyad al-AYUBI

Min. of Telecommunications & Technology: Amir Nasir SALIM

Min. of Tourism: Sadallah Agha al-QALA

Min. of Transport: Yarub Sulayman BADR

Min. of State: Yusuf Sulayman AHMAD

Min. of State: Husayn Mahmud FARZAT

Min. of State: Ghayth JARATLI

Min. of State: Muhammad Yahya KHARAT

Min. of State: Hasan al-SARI

Min. of State: Bashar SHAR

Min. of State: Yusuf SUWAYD

Governor, Central Bank: Adib MAYALA

Ambassador to the US: Imad MUSTAFA

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Bashar al-JAFARI

Syria maintains an embassy in the United States at 2215 Wyoming Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-232-6313; fax: 202-234-9548). Consular section hours are 10:00 a.m.-2:00 p.m., Monday-Friday. Syria also has an honorary consul at 5433 Westheimer Rd., Suite 1020, Houston, TX 77056 (tel. 713-622-8860; fax. 713-965-9632).

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Officially, Syria is a republic. In reality, however, it is an authoritarian regime that exhibits only the forms of a democratic system. Although citizens ostensibly vote for the President and members of Parliament, they do not have the right to change their government. The late President Hafiz Al-Asad was confirmed by unopposed referenda five times. His son, Bashar Al-Asad, also was confirmed by an unopposed referendum in July 2000. The President and his senior aides, particularly those in the military and security services, ultimately make most basic decisions in political and economic life, with a very limited degree of public accountability. Political opposition to the President is not tolerated. Syria has been under a state of emergency since 1963. Syrian governments have justified martial law by the state of war, which continues to exist with Israel and by continuing threats posed by terrorist groups.

The Asad regime (little has changed since Bashar Al-Asad succeeded his father) has held power longer than any other Syrian government since independence; its survival is due partly to a strong desire for stability and the regime’s success in giving groups such as religious minorities and peasant farmers a stake in society. The expansion of the government bureaucracy has also created a large class loyal to the regime. The President’s continuing strength is due also to the army’s continued loyalty and the effectiveness of Syria’s large internal security apparatus. The leadership of both is comprised largely of members of Asad’s own Alawi sect. The several main branches of the security services operate independently of each other and outside of the legal system. Each continues to be responsible for human rights violations.

All three branches of government are guided by the views of the Ba’ath Party, whose primacy in state institutions is assured by the constitution. The Ba’ath platform is proclaimed succinctly in the party’s slogan: “Unity, freedom, and socialism.” The party has traditionally been considered both socialist, advocating state ownership of the means of industrial production and the redistribution of agricultural land, and revolutionary, dedicated to carrying a socialist revolution to every part of the Arab world. Founded by Michel ‘Aflaq, a Syrian Christian and Salah al-Din Al-Bitar, a Syrian Sunni, the Ba’ath Party embraces secularism and has attracted supporters of all faiths in many Arab countries, especially Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon.

Since August 1990, however, the party has tended to de-emphasize socialism and to stress both pan-Arab unity and the need for gradual reform of the Syrian economy.

Nine smaller political parties are permitted to exist and, along with the Ba’ath Party, make up the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of parties that represents the sole framework of legal political party participation for citizens. While created ostensibly to give the appearance of a multi-party system, the NPF is dominated by the Ba’ath Party and does not change the essentially one-party character of the political system. Non-Ba’ath parties included in the NPF represent small political groupings of a few hundred members each and conform strictly to Ba’ath Party and government policies. There were reports in 2005, in the wake of the June Ba’ath Party Congress, that the government was considering legislation to permit the formation of new political parties and the legalization of parties previously banned. These changes have not taken place. In addition, some 15 small independent parties outside the NPF operate without government sanction.

The Ba’ath Party dominates the parliament, which is known as the People’s Council. With members elected every 4 years, the Council has no independent authority. Although parliamentarians may criticize policies and modify draft laws, they cannot initiate laws, and the executive branch retains ultimate control over the legislative process. During 2001, two independent members of parliament, Ma’mun al-Humsy and Riad Seif, who had advocated political reforms, were stripped of their parliamentary immunity and tried and convicted of charges of “attempting to illegally change the constitution.” Seif was released from prison in early 2006, but remains under strict surveillance by the security services. The government has allowed independent non-NPF candidates to run for a limited allotment of seats in the 250-member People’s Council. The current allotment of non-NPF deputies is 83, ensuring a permanent absolute majority for the Ba’ath Party-dominated NPF. Elections for the 250 seats in the People’s Council are expected in 2007.

There was a surge of interest in political reform after Bashar al-Asad assumed power in 2000. Human rights activists and other civil society advocates, as well as some parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as “Damascus Spring” (July 2000-February 2001). Asad also made a series of appointments of reform-minded advisors to formal and less formal positions, and included a number of similarly oriented individuals in his cabinet. The 2001 arrest and long-term detention of the two reformist parliamentarians and the apparent marginalizing of some of the reformist advisors in the past five years, indicate that the pace of any political reform in Syria is likely to be much slower than the short-lived Damascus Spring promised. A crackdown on civil society in 2005, in the wake of Syria’s withdrawal from Lebanon, and again in the late winter and spring of 2006, reinforced the perception that any steps towards political form were likely to be halting and piecemeal at best.

ECONOMY

Syria is a middle-income, developing country with an economy based on agriculture, oil, industry, and tourism. However, Syria’s economy faces serious challenges and impediments to growth, including: a large and poorly performing public sector; declining rates of oil production; widening non-oil deficit; wide scale corruption; weak financial and capital markets; and high rates of unemployment tied to a high population growth rate. In addition, Syria currently is the subject of U.S. economic sanctions under the Syria Accountability Act, which prohibits the export and re-export of most U.S. products to Syria.

As a result of an inefficient and corrupt centrally planned economy, Syria has low rates of investment, and low levels of industrial and agricultural productivity. Its GDP growth rate was approximately 2.9% in 2005, according to IMF statistics. The two main pillars of the Syrian economy have been agriculture and oil. Agriculture, for instance, accounts for 25% of GDP and employs 26% of the total labor force. The government hopes to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government has begun to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but reform thus far has been slow and ad hoc. For ideological reasons, privatization of government enterprises is explicitly rejected. Therefore major sectors of the economy including refining, ports operation, air transportation, power generation, and water distribution, remain firmly controlled by the government.

The Bashar al-Asad government started its reform efforts by changing the regulatory environment in the financial sector. In 2001, Syria legalized private banking and the sector, while still nascent, has been growing quickly in the last four years. Controls on foreign exchange continue to be one of the biggest impediments to the growth of the banking sector, although Syria has taken gradual steps to loosen those controls. In 2003, the government canceled a law that criminalized private sector use of foreign currencies, and in 2005 it issued legislation that allows licensed private banks to sell specific amounts of foreign currency to Syrian citizens under certain circumstances and to the private sector to finance imports. Syria’s exchange rate is fixed, and the government maintains two official rates—one rate on which the budget and the value of imports, customs, and other official transactions are based, and a second set by the Central Bank on a daily basis that covers all other financial transactions. There is, however, still an active black market for foreign currency.

Given the policies adopted from the 1960s through the late 1980s, which included nationalization of companies and private assets, Syria failed to join an increasingly interconnected global economy. Syria withdrew from the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1951 because of Israel’s accession. It is not a member of the WTO, although it submitted a request to begin the accession process in 2001. Syria is developing regional free trade agreements. As of January 1, 2005, the Greater Arab Free Trade Agreement (GAFTA) came into effect and customs duties were eliminated between Syria and all other members of GAFTA. In addition, Syria has signed a free trade agreement with Turkey and initialed an Association Agreement with the EU, neither of which has yet come into force. Until 2003, Syria’s balance of trade was in surplus. While 2004 Syrian government trade statistics indicated that the trade balance was in deficit, 2005 trade statistics indicate a surplus of $800 million, with total exports amounting to $6.8 billion against imports of $6.0 billion. Syria’s main exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government’s most important sources of foreign exchange.

Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Dayr al-Zurin eastern Syria. Syria’s rate of oil production has been decreasing steadily, from a peak close to 600,000 barrels per day (bpd) in 1995 down to approximately 425,000 bpd in 2005. Experts generally agree that Syria will become a net importer of petroleum not later than 2012. Syria exported roughly 200,000 bpd in 2005, and oil still accounts for a majority of the country’s export income. Syria also produces 22 million cubic meters of gas per day, with estimated reserves around 8.5 trillion cubic feet. While the government has begun to work with international energy companies in the hopes of eventually becoming a gas exporter, all gas currently produced is consumed domestically.

Some basic commodities, such as diesel, continue to be heavily subsidized, and social services are provided for nominal charges. The subsidies are becoming harder to sustain as the gap between consumption and production continues to increase. Syria has a population of approximately 18.6 million people and Syrian government figures place the population growth rate at 2.45%, with 75% of the population under the age of 35 and more than 40% under the age of 15. Approximately 200,000 people enter the labor market every year. According to Syrian government statistics, the unemployment rate is 12.3%, however, more accurate independent sources place it over 20%. Government and public sector employees constitute over one quarter of the total labor force and are paid very low salaries and wages. Government officials acknowledge that the economy is not growing at a pace sufficient to create enough new jobs annually to match population growth. The UNDP announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.

Syria has made progress in easing its heavy foreign debt burden through bilateral rescheduling deals with the majority of its key creditors in Europe, most importantly Russia, Germany, and France. Syria has also settled its debt with Iran and the World Bank. In December 2004, Syria and Poland reached an agreement by which Syria would pay $27 million out of the total $261.7 million debt. In January 2005, Russia forgave 80% of Syria’s $13 billion long-outstanding debt, and later that year Syria reached an agreement with Slovakia, and the Czech Republic to settle debt estimated at $1.6 billion. Again Syria was forgiven the bulk of its debt, in exchange for a one time payment of $150 million. According to the IMF, Syria’s current foreign debt is estimated at about $6.8 billion. Bulgaria and Romania are the largest debt holders, requiring a debt service of about $1.1 billion per year.

NATIONAL SECURITY

President Bashar Al-Asad is commander in chief of the Syrian armed forces, comprised of some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve 24 months in the military upon reaching the age of 18. Some 17,000 Syrian soldiers formerly deployed in Lebanon have been withdrawn to Syria in response to UNSCR 1559, which was passed in the fall of 2004. Demands that Syria comply with 1559 intensified after the February 2005 assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri.

Syria’s military remains one of the largest in the region, although the breakup of the Soviet Union—long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces—slowed Syria’s ability to acquire modern military equipment. Syria received significant financial aid from Gulf Arab states in the 1990s as a result of its participation in the first Gulf War, with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending. Besides sustaining its conventional forces, Syria seeks to develop its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) capability.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and achieving a comprehensive Arab-Israeli peace settlement, which includes the return of the Golan Heights, are the primary goals of President Asad’s foreign policy.

Relations with Other Arab Countries

Syria reestablished full diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1989. In the 1990-91 Gulf War, Syria joined other Arab states in the U.S.-led multinational coalition against Iraq. In 1998, Syria began a slow rapprochement with Iraq, driven primarily by economic needs. Syria continues to play an active pan-Arab role, although in the wake of the Hariri assassination, Syria became more isolated diplomatically, both in the region and beyond. Though it voted in favor of UNSCR 1441 in 2002, Syria was against coalition military action in Iraq in 2003. However, the Syrian Government accepted UNSCR 1483 (after being absent for the actual vote), which lifted sanctions on Iraq and established a framework to assist the Iraqi people in determining their political future and rebuilding their economy. Syria also voted for UNSCR 1511, which called for greater international involvement in Iraq and addressed the transfer of sovereignty from the U.S.-led coalition. Since the transfer of sovereignty in Iraq on June 28, 2004, Syria extended qualified support to the Iraqi Government and pledged to cooperate in the areas of border security, repatriation of Iraqi assets, and eventual restoration of formal diplomatic relations. While Syria has taken some steps to tighten controls along the Syria-Iraq border, Syria remains one of the primary transit points for foreign fighters entering Iraq. Consequently, relations between Syria and the Iraqi Government have been strained and formal diplomatic relations have not yet been re-established. Iraq continues to call for more action on the part of Syria to control its border and to prevent Iraqi and Arab elements residing in—or transiting—Syria from contributing financially, politically, or militarily to the insurgency in Iraq.

Involvement in Lebanon

Syria has played an important role in Lebanon by virtue of its history, size, power, and economy. Lebanon was part of post-Ottoman Syria until 1926. The presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon dated to 1976, when President Hafiz al-Asad intervened in the Lebanese civil war on behalf of Maronite Christians. Following the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Syrian and Israeli forces clashed in eastern Lebanon. However, Syrian opposition blocked implementation of the May 17, 1983, Lebanese-Israeli accord on the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon.

In 1989, Syria endorsed the Charter of National Reconciliation, or “Taif Accord,” a comprehensive plan for ending the Lebanese conflict negotiated under the auspices of Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco. In May 1991, Lebanon and Syria signed the treaty of brotherhood, cooperation, and coordination called for in the Taif Accord.

According to the U.S. interpretation of the Taif Accord, Syria and Lebanon were to have decided on the redeployment of Syrian forces from Beirut and other coastal areas of Lebanon by September 1992. Israeli occupation of Lebanon until May 2000, the breakdown of peace negotiations between Syria and Israel that same year, and intensifying Arab/Israeli tensions since the start of the second Palestinian uprising in September 2000 helped delay full implementation of the Taif Accords. The United Nations declared that Israel’s withdrawal from southern Lebanon fulfilled the requirements of UN Security Council Resolution 425. However, Syria and Lebanon claimed that UNSCR 425 had not been fully implemented because Israel did not withdraw from an area of the Golan Heights called Sheba Farms, which had been occupied by Israel in 1967, and which Syria now claimed was part of Lebanon. The United Nations does not recognize this claim. However, Lebanese resistance groups such as Hizballah use it to justify attacks against Israeli forces in that region. The danger of Hizballah’s tactics was highlighted when Hizballah’s attacks on and hostage taking of Israeli soldiers on July 12, 2006 sparked a 34-day conflict in Lebanon. After the conflict, the passing of UNSCR 1701 authorized the enhancement of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). Before the conflict, UNIFIL authorized a presence of 2000 troops in southern Lebanon; post-conflict, this ceiling is to be raised to 15,000. As of September 2006, 5,000 troops have deployed to southern Lebanon. UNIFIL is tasked with ensuring peace and security along the frontier and overseeing the eventual return of effective Lebanese government and military authority throughout the border region.

Until its withdrawal in April 2005, Syria maintained approximately 17,000 troops in Lebanon. A September 2004 vote by Lebanon’s Chamber of Deputies to amend the constitution to extend Lebanese President Lahoud’s term in office by three years amplified the question of Lebanese sovereignty and the continuing Syrian presence. The vote was clearly taken under Syrian pressure, exercised in part through Syria’s military intelligence service, whose chief in Lebanon had acted as a virtual proconsul for many years. The UN Security Council expressed its concern over the situation by passing Resolution 1559, which called for the withdrawal of all remaining foreign forces from Lebanon, disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias, the deployment of the Lebanese Armed Forces throughout the country, and a free and fair electoral process in the presidential election.

Former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri and 19 others were assassinated in Beirut by a car bomb on February 14, 2005. The assassination spurred massive protests in Beirut and international pressure that led to the withdrawal of the remaining Syrian military troops from Lebanon on April 26, 2005. Rafiq Hariri’s assassination was just one of a number of attacks that continue to target high-profile Lebanese critics of Syria. The UN International Independent Investigative Commission (UNIIIC) headed by Serge Brammertz is investigating Hariri’s assassination and is expected to report its findings to the Security Council by June 2007.

The United States supports a sovereign, independent Lebanon, free of all foreign forces, and believes that the best interests of both Lebanon and Syria are served by a positive and constructive relationship based upon principles of mutual respect and nonintervention between two neighboring sovereign and independent states. The United States calls for Syrian non-interference in Lebanon, consistent with UNSCR 1559 and 1701.

Arab-Israeli Relations

Syria was an active belligerent in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, which resulted in Israel’s occupation of the Golan Heights and the city of Quneitra. Following the October 1973 Arab-Israeli War, which left Israel in occupation of additional Syrian territory, Syria accepted UN Security Council Resolution 338, which signaled an implicit acceptance of Resolution 242. Resolution 242, which became the basis for the peace process negotiations begun in Madrid in 1981, calls for a just and lasting Middle East peace to include withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in 1967; termination of the state of belligerency; and acknowledgment of the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence of all regional states and of their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries.

As a result of the mediation efforts of then U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Syria and Israel concluded a disengagement agreement in May 1974, enabling Syria to recover territory lost in the October war and part of the Golan Heights occupied by Israel since 1967, including Quneitra. The two sides have effectively implemented the agreement, which is monitored by UN forces.

In December 1981, the Israeli Knesset voted to extend Israeli law to the part of the Golan Heights over which Israel retained control. The UN Security Council subsequently passed a resolution calling on Israel to rescind this measure. Syria participated in the Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991. Negotiations were conducted intermittently through the 1990s, and came very close to succeeding. However, the parties were unable to come to an agreement over Syria’s nonnegotiable demand that Israel withdraw to the positions it held on June 4, 1967. The peace process collapsed following the outbreak of the second Palestinian (Intifada) uprising in September 2000, though Syria continues to call for a comprehensive settlement based on UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338, and the land-for-peace formula adopted at the 1991 Madrid conference. Tensions between Israel and Syria increased as the second Intifada dragged on, primarily as a result of Syria’s unwillingness to stop giving sanctuary to Palestinian terrorist groups conducting operations against Israel. In October 2003, following a suicide bombing carried out by a member of Palestinian Islamic Jihad in Haifa that killed 20 Israeli citizens, Israeli Defense Forces attacked a suspected Palestinian terrorist training camp 15 kilometers north of Damascus. This was the first such Israeli attack deep inside Syrian territory since the 1973 war. During the summer of 2006 tensions again heightened due to Israeli fighter jets buzzing President Asad’s summer castle in response to Syria’s support for Hamas, Syria’s support of Hizballah during the July-August 2005 conflict, and the possible rearming of Hizballah in potential violation of UN Resolution 1701.

Membership in International Organizations

Syria is a member of the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Arab League, Arab Monetary Fund, Council of Arab Economic Unity, Customs Cooperation Council, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Food and Agricultural Organization, Group of 24, Group of 77, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Chamber of Commerce, International Development Association, Islamic Development Bank, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance Corporation, International Labor Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, INTERPOL, International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries, Organization of the Islamic Conference, United Nations, UN Conference on Trade and Development, UN Industrial Development Organization, UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, Universal Postal Union, World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, World Meteorological Organization, and World Tourism Organization.

Syria’s 2-year term as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council ended in December 2003.

U.S.-SYRIAN RELATIONS

U.S.-Syrian relations, severed in 1967, were resumed in June 1974, following the achievement of the Syrian-Israeli disengagement agreement. In 1990-91, Syria cooperated with the United States as a member of the multinational coalition of forces in the Gulf War. The U.S. and Syria also consulted closely on the Taif Accord, ending the civil war in Lebanon. In 1991, President Asad made a historic decision to accept then President Bush’s invitation to attend a Middle East peace conference and to engage in subsequent bilateral negotiations with Israel. Syria’s efforts to secure the release of Western hostages held in Lebanon and its lifting of restrictions on travel by Syrian Jews helped to further improve relations between Syria and the United States. There were several presidential summits; the last one occurred when then-President Clinton met the late President Hafiz al-Asad in Geneva in March 2000. In the aftermath of September 11th the Syrian Government began limited cooperation with U.S. in the war against terror.

Syria has been on the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism since the list’s inception in 1979. Because of its continuing support and safe haven for terrorist organizations, Syria is subject to legislatively mandated penalties, including export sanctions and ineligibility to receive most forms of U.S. aid or to purchase U.S. military equipment. In 1986, the U.S. withdrew its ambassador and imposed additional administrative sanctions on Syria in response to evidence of direct Syrian involvement in an attempt to blow up an Israeli airplane. A U.S. ambassador returned to Damascus in 1987, partially in response to positive Syrian actions against terrorism such as expelling the Abu Nidal Organization from Syria and helping free an American hostage earlier that year.

However, relations since the February 2005 assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Hariri have considerably deteriorated. Issues of U.S. concern include the Syrian government’s failure to prevent Syria from becoming a major transit point for foreign fighters entering Iraq, its refusal to deport from Syria former Saddam regime elements who are supporting the insurgency in Iraq, its ongoing interference in Lebanese affairs, its protection of the leadership of Palestinian rejectionist groups in Damascus, its deplorable human rights record, and its pursuit of weapons of mass destruction.

In May 2004, the Bush administration, pursuant to the provisions of the Syrian Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty Restoration Act, imposed sanctions on Syria which banned nearly all exports to Syria except food and medicine. In February 2005, in the wake of the Hariri assassination, the U.S. recalled its Ambassador to Washington. On 12 September, 2006 the U.S. embassy was attacked by four armed assailants with guns, grenades and a car bomb (which failed to detonate). Syrian Security Forces successfully countered the attack, killing three of the attackers and seriously wounding a fourth in front of the Embassy.

The Syrian government publicly stated the attack was a terrorist attack. Given the lack of a formal channel to cooperate on security, the USG has not received an official Syrian Government assessment of the motives or organization behind the attack, but security was upgraded at U.S. facilities. Both the Syrian ambassador to the U.S., Imad Mushtapha, and president Bashar Asad, however, blamed U.S. foreign policy in the region as contributing to the incident.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

DAMASCUS (E) Address: 2, Al-Mansour Street, PO Box 29; APO/FPO: AMEMB, Unit 70200, Box (D), APO AE 09892-0200; Phone: (963-11)333-1342; Fax: (963-11)224-7938; Workweek: Sunday-Thursday, 8:00-4:30; Website: usembassy.state.gov/Damascus.

Last Updated: 3/13/2006

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : January 31, 2007

Country Description: Since March 1963, the Syrian Arab Republic has been ruled by an authoritarian regime dominated by the Socialist Ba’ath Party. While the ruling Ba’ath party espouses a largely secular ideology, Islamic traditions and beliefs provide a conservative foundation for the country’s customs and practices. Syria has a developing, centrally-planned economy with large public (30%), agricultural (25%), and industrial (20%) sectors. Tourist facilities are available, but vary in quality depending on price and location.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport and a visa are required. Visas must be obtained prior to arrival in Syria from a Syrian diplomatic mission located in the traveler’s country of residence, although the Syrian visa policy with respect to American diplomats and citizens is currently under review. Foreigners who wish to stay 15 days or more in Syria must register with Syrian immigration authorities by their 15th day. Syrian-American men or American men of Syrian origin, even those born in the United States, may be subject to compulsory military service unless they receive a temporary or permanent exemption from a Syrian diplomatic mission abroad prior to their entry into Syria. (Please see the section on “Compulsory Military Service” below.) There are no special immunizations required for entry to Syria. AIDS tests are mandatory for foreigners ages 15 to 60 who wish to reside in Syria. The AIDS test must be conducted in Syria at a facility approved by the Syrian Ministry of Health. A residence permit will not be issued until the absence of the HIV virus has been determined. Foreigners wishing to marry Syrian nationals in Syria must also be tested for HIV. Syria usually will not give visas or residency permits to students wishing to study religion or Arabic in private religious institutions.

The Syrian government rigidly enforces restrictions on prior travel to Israel, and does not allow persons with passports bearing Israeli visa or entry/exit stamps to enter the country. Syrian immigration authorities will not admit travelers with Israeli stamps in their passports, Jordanian entry cachets or cachets from other countries that suggest prior travel to Israel. Likewise, the absence of entry stamps from a country adjacent to Israel, which the traveler has just visited, will cause Syrian immigration officials to refuse admittance. Entry into Syria via the land border with Israel is not possible. Americancitizen travelers suspected of having traveled to Israel have been detained for questioning.

Syrian security officials are also sensitive about travel to Iraq. There have been instances in which Americans, especially those of Arab descent, believed to have traveled to Iraq were detained for questioning at ports of entry/exit. Americans seeking to travel to Iraq through Syria have also on occasion been turned around and/or detained. On a number of occasions the border between Iraq and Syria has been closed without notice, stranding Americans on either side of the border.

Children under the age of eighteen whose fathers are Syrian or of Syrian descent must have their fathers’ permission to leave Syria, even if the parents are separated or divorced and the mother has been granted full custody by a Syrian court. Women in Syria are often subject to strict family controls. On occasion, families of Syrian-American women visiting Syria have attempted to prevent them from leaving the country. This can be a particular problem for young single women of marriageable age. Although a woman does not need her husband’s explicit consent every time she wishes to leave Syria, a Syrian husband may take legal action to prevent his wife from leaving the country, regardless of her nationality. Once such legal orders are in place, the U.S. Embassy cannot assist American citizens to leave Syria.

Visit the Embassy of the Syrian Arab Republic, 2215 Wyoming Ave. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, telephone (202) 232-6313 or check the Syrian Embassy’s home page on the Internet at http://www.syrianembassy.us for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: Syria is included on the Department of State’s List of State Sponsors of Terrorism. A number of the terrorist groups that have offices in Syria oppose U.S. policies in the Middle East. On September 12, 2006, the U.S. Embassy in Damascus was attacked by assailants using improvised explosives, gunfire, and two vehicles laden with explosives. On February 4, 2006, mobs protesting caricatures of the Prophet Mohammed destroyed the Norwegian and Chilean embassies and severely damaged the Danish and Swedish diplomatic missions. On April 27, 2004 there was a violent clash in which three people died in an area of Damascus where many foreign citizens reside. It has never been clear whether the shootout with Syrian security forces involved common criminals or terrorists. In 1998 and 2000, mobs attacked the U.S. Ambassador’s Residence and the U.S. Embassy, respectively. In 1997, twenty-two people were killed when a public bus was bombed in downtown Damascus. All of these attacks serve as reminders that Syria is not immune from political or purely criminal violence. Americans traveling through the area should remain aware that U.S. interests and citizens might be targeted.

Security personnel may at times place foreign visitors under surveillance. Hotel rooms, telephones, and fax machines may be monitored, and personal possessions in hotel rooms may be searched. Taking photographs of anything that could be perceived as being of military or security interest may result in problems with authorities.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site, where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement and the Middle East and North Africa Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: While a few cases of theft and assault have been reported to the Embassy, crime is generally not a serious problem for travelers in Syria. However, incidents of credit card and ATM fraud are on the rise.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to the local police, please contact the U.S. Embassy for assistance.

The Embassy staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Basic medical care and medicines are available in Syria’s principal cities, but not necessarily in outlying areas. Serious illnesses and emergencies may require evacuation to a Western medical facility.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC’s Internet site Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s website (WHO) at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Syria is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in Syria is hazardous and requires great caution. Although drivers generally follow traffic signs and signals, they often maneuver aggressively and show little regard for vehicles traveling behind or to the sides of them. Lane markings are usually ignored. Vehicles within Syrian traffic circles must give way to entering traffic, unlike in the United States. Pedestrians must also exercise caution. Parked cars, deteriorating pavement, and guard posts obstruct sidewalks, often forcing pedestrians to walk in the street.

For specific information concerning Syrian driving permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Syrian Embassy in Washington, D.C. at 2215 Wyoming Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C. 20008, tel. 202-232-6313.

Aviation Safety Oversight: Sanctions resulting from the passage of the Syria Accountability Act prohibit aircraft of any air carrier owned or controlled by the Syrian government to take off from or land in the United States. As there is no direct commercial air service by local carriers between the U.S. and Syria, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Syria’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s internet website at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Syrian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Syria of items such as weapons, narcotics, alcohol, tobacco, cheese, fruits, pharmaceuticals, modems, cosmetics, and some electrical appliances. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Syria in Washington, D.C. for specific information regarding customs requirements.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship is readily available. Although Syria is a signatory to the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, Syrian officials generally do not notify the American Embassy when American citizens are arrested. When the American Embassy learns of arrests of Americans and requests consular access, individual police officials have, on their own initiative, responded promptly and allowed consular officers to visit the prisoners. However, security officials have also in the past denied Embassy requests for consular access, especially in the case of dual citizens.

Foreign currencies can be exchanged for Syrian pounds only at government-approved exchange centers and licensed private banks. Syrian pounds cannot be changed back into foreign currency. There are six private banks operating in Syria, with branches and ATMs in most major cities. These ATMs usually honor major debit/credit systems. Funds may be transferred into Syria through Western Union. Wiring of funds through private banks is possible; however, transferring funds through the Commercial Bank of Syria is not possible.

Syrian-American and Palestinian-American men who have never served in the Syrian military and who are planning to visit Syria are strongly urged to check with the Syrian Embassy in Washington, D.C. prior to traveling concerning compulsory military service.

American men over the age of 18, even those who have never resided in or visited Syria, whose fathers are of Syrian descent, are required to complete military service or pay to be exempted. Possession of a U.S. passport does not absolve the bearer of this obligation.

The fee for exemption from military service ranges from $5,000 to $15,000 USD, depending upon circumstances, for Syrian-American and Palestinian-American men who live abroad. In January 2005 the Syrian government reduced mandatory military service from 30 months to 24 months. It also announced that Syrians born outside of Syria and residing abroad until the age of 18 have the option of being exempted from their service by paying $2000 USD. Those born in Syria who left the country before reaching the age of 11, and have resided abroad for more than 15 years can be exempted by paying $5000 USD. Contact the Syrian Embassy in Washington, D.C., for more information.

President Bush signed an executive order on May 11, 2004 implementing sanctions in accordance with the Syria Accountability Act. These sanctions prohibit the export to Syria of products of the United States other than food or medicine, and prohibit any commercial aircraft owned or controlled by the Syrian government from taking off from or landing in the United States. Under the authority provided in Section 5(b) of the Act, the President has determined that it is in the national security interest of the United States to waive the application of these sanctions in certain cases and for certain products, as specified in the Department of Commerce’s General Order No. 2. For additional information about implementation of the Syria Accountability Act, consult the Department of Commerce website at http://www.bis.doc.gov/.

Since 1979, the United States has designated Syria a State Sponsor of Terrorism due to its support for groups such as Hizbollah and Palestinian terrorist groups. The Terrorism List Government Sanctions Regulations prohibit U.S. persons from receiving unlicensed donations from the Syrian government. Additionally, U.S. persons are prohibited from engaging in financial transactions which a U.S. person knows or has reasonable cause to believe pose a risk of furthering terrorists’ acts in the United States. For additional information about the Terrorism List Government Sanctions Regulations, consult the terrorism brochure on the U.S. Department of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) home page on the Internet at http://www.treas.gov/ofac or via OFAC’s info-by-fax service at (202) 622-0077.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Syrian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Syria are strict and convicted offenders can expect prison sentences and heavy fines. Penalties for possession of even small amounts of illegal drugs for personal use are severe in Syria. Persons convicted in Syria for growing, processing, or smuggling drugs face the death penalty, which may be reduced to a minimum of 20 years’ imprisonment. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Syria are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Syria. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at 2, Al-Man-sour St., Abu Roumaneh. The international mailing address is P.O. Box 29, Damascus. Mail may also be sent via the U.S. Postal Service to: American Embassy Damascus, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-6110. Telephone numbers are (963)(11) 333-1342, fax number is (963)(11) 331-9678, e-mail: acsdamascus@state.gov. The government workweek in Syria is Sunday through Thursday; the private sector generally works Saturday through Thursday. The U.S. Embassy is open Sunday through Thursday. Additional information may be found on the Embassy website at http://damascus.usembassy.gov.

International Adoption : February 2007

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Note: The information contained in this flyer is intended as an introduction to adoption in the Syria. It is not intended as a legal reference. Currently there are no international or bilateral treaties in force between Syria and the United States dealing with international adoption.

Legal “Adoption” in Syria: The American Embassy in Damascus has been informed that in Syria religious authorities handle laws concerning personal status matters, such as adoption. Islamic Sharia law does not provide for adoption and the adoption of a Muslim child would not be recognized in Syria. Technically, adoption is allowable under the laws of various Christian denominations; however, it is the Embassy’s understanding that for the past 80 years most Christian churches in Syria have preferred not to handle adoptions in order to conform to Sharia law provisions on inheritance. The Embassy has been informed that Sharia law restricts distribution of inheritance to spouses and certain blood relatives and, for that reason, adoption does not exist in Syria.

Specific questions regarding adoption issues may be addressed to:

Embassy of the Syrian Arab Republic
2215 Wyoming Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20008
Phone: (202) 232-6313

U.S. Embassy in Damascus
Abu Roumaneh
Al-Mansur St. No. 2
P.O. Box 29
Damascus, Syria
Phone: (963) (11) 333-1342
Fax: (963) (11) 331-9678

For further information on international inter-country adoption, contact the Office of Children’s Issues at 202-736-7000, visit the State Department home page on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov, or send a nine-by-twelve-inch, self-addressed envelope to: Office of Children’s Issues, 2401 E Street, N.W., Room L127, Washington, D.C. 20037; Phone: (202) 736-7000; Fax: (202) 312-9743.

Travel Warning : November 13, 2006

This Travel Warning is being issued to alert U.S. citizens to the fact that non-emergency employees and family members have been authorized to return to the U.S. Embassy in Damascus, but the Department continues to urge U.S. citizens to defer all non-essential travel to Syria. This Travel Warning also alerts U.S. citizens to the ongoing safety and security concerns in Syria. It supersedes the Travel Warning issued on September 14, 2006.

On September 12, the U.S. Embassy in Damascus was attacked by assailants using improvised explosives, gunfire, and two vehicles laden with explosives. However, the Embassy perimeter was not breached. This attack underscores the presence of terrorist groups in Syria that have the ability and intent to target American interests. The Embassy is working with the Syrian authorities to address these threats and the security issues raised by the attack on the Embassy.

U.S. citizens who remain in or travel to Syria despite this Travel Warning are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Damascus, and to obtain updated information on travel and security in Syria. Americans in Syria should exercise caution and take prudent measures to maintain their security. These measures include being aware of their surroundings, avoiding crowds and demonstrations, keeping a low profile, varying times and routes for all required travel, and ensuring travel documents are current.

U.S. consular personnel remain available to provide emergency information and services to American citizens. The U.S. Embassy in Damascus, Syria, is located at 2, Al-Man-sour St., Abu Roumaneh. The Embassy telephone number is (963) (11) 333-1342, fax (963) (11) 331-9678, e-mail: acsdamascus@state.gov. American citizens may register with the Embassy online by visiting https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs. Additional information may be found on the Embassy website at http://usembassy.state.gov/damascus.

Updated information on travel and security in Syria may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747 within the United States or, from overseas, 1-202-501-4444. Additional details can be found in the Department of State’s Consular Information Sheet for Syria, the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, and the Middle East and North Africa Public Announcement which are available on the Department’s Internet website at http://travel.state.gov.

SYRIA

Syrian Arab Republic

Major Cities:
Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia

Other Cities:
Deir-ez-Zor, Der'ā, Hama, Hasakeh, Homs, Raqqa, Tartūs

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated April 1997. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

Archaeologists estimate that SYRIA is part of a civilization that may have existed as long ago as the third millennium B.C. Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, and, in part, Crusaders before finally coming under the control of the Ottoman Turks. Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Paul was converted on the road to Damascus and established the first organized Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.

The Syrians, after a long and turbulent existence under wars and occupation, proclaimed independence in 1941, and established autonomy a few years later when British and French troops were withdrawn from within Syrian borders. The country, made a French mandate in 1920 by the League of Nations, had been under the control of France's Vichy Government until British and French troops occupied it early in World War II. In 1958, Syria merged with Egypt as part of the United Arab Republic, but withdrew from that agreement in September 1961.

Syria has been directly involved in the Middle East unrest of the last 30 years. Its troops have aided Egypt in attacks on Israel (1973); have battled Christian forces in Lebanon (1976 and 1981); and have fought Israeli troops inside Lebanon (1982). More recently, the Syrian government sided with Iran during its long war with Iraq (1980-1988); became the first of the Arab countries to denounce the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait (1990); and used their considerable influence to help free U.S. hostages held in Lebanon (1991).

Life throughout Syria is a tapestry of modern and ancient aspects. The country possesses a rich and varied cultural heritage and meaningful economic potential.

MAJOR CITIES

Damascus

The origins of Damascus lie under the millennia of sands that have covered its secrets from the time of the Garden of Eden. According to local mythology, Eden sat astride the Barada River and was a fertile land blessed with a mild climate. Its claim to be the oldest, continuously-inhabited city is reinforced by its central location in relation to ancient civilizations and its acknowledged importance on the earliest trade routes. Damascus has a splendid covered bazaar. The Hamidiyyah Souk (bordered by Mahmat Pasha, the Street called Straight) is mentioned in the Bible as a thriving ancient marketplace.

Damascus is a city of sharp contrasts, with Roman arches shading Ottoman architecture on the same street featuring international five-star hotels. In the Old City, the narrow streets twist and wind around ancient gates and arches past fascinating homes and mosques. From the open stalls, shouts announcing new products and great prices compete with braying donkeys, passing street vendors and large crowds of people seeing the souk again or for a first time. Car horn cacophonies are standard musical fare in major metropolitan areas and Damascenes are proficient in this artform. With comforting regularity, the prayer calls mark the passing of time; the schedule adjusted, by tradition, for the moon and the weather.

Business hours and days are based on religion and culture. Friday is the official day of rest for the predominantly Muslim community; Jews observe the Sabbath; and Christians take Sunday off. Many shops open around 09:00 and close for several hours around lunch (14:00 to 17:00). The work day may end at 20:00 or later. These hours do not apply before or during the Eid holidays.

Food

Excellent fresh fruits and vegetables in season are available in vegetable souks and in small neighborhood shops. Damascenes love their food and Syrian food is among the best in the Middle East. Prepare to learn to cook with new spices and methods. Spices are available and fresh, so don't ship old spice-reward your taste buds with sharp and distinct fresh spice flavors.

There are a few butchers in most neighborhoods and the quality of meats can be good. There is beef, chicken, goat, lamb, turkey, and veal in the marketplace. There are two pork butchers who will provide sides of pork. You will need to learn which cuts you want and enjoy experimenting with fresh meats. Some shops have begun to carry baked and smoked hams, bacon and prosciutto to satisfy the foreign community's demands. These products are imported and expensive.

Fresh fish is available in limited quantities and varieties. It is useful to know your fish before buying as most is brought on ice from the coast. Several salesmen come around the neighborhoods with their trucks laden with fish and shrimp. Once you make contacts, the fishmongers will help you choose. Frozen fish appears in the shops from time to time. Canned fish (i.e., anchovies, crab, salmon, sardines, smelts and tuna) can be found imported from the Far East.

Dairy products are abundant. Butter, whipping cream, creme fraiche, cream cheese, and long-life whole, low fat, and skimmed milk are always available. Yogurts and ice creams come in both the local and imported varieties, and butter is made in Syria, both salt-free and lightly salted. Many shops import butter and cheeses from Denmark, England, Finland, France, Germany, and Bread is the staple of most cultures' diets and Syria is no exception. People consume the flat Arabic bread, French style baguettes, white flour and multi-grain buns and loaves. The Armenian bakers make a crusty Russian style wheat loaf. Most of these use no preservatives or salt, therefore they do not keep well.

Syrian sweets are world famous. Bakeries make large varieties of delicious pastries including baklava, macaroons, meringue, cookies and cakes with almonds and pistachios, creams and cheeses, honey and other sweeteners (rose-water, for example).

Alcoholic beverages (liquor, beer and wine) are available through the local duty-free stores. Quite a variety is imported by these organizations. Syria and Lebanon produce wines and beers and certain liquors that can be purchased in most corner grocery stores.

Syrians enjoy smoking the argileh (water pipe) and use either the dark black tobacco made famous in Latakia and throughout Persia or the fruited brown tobacco found in the Gulf States.

Syria produces a large variety of soft drinks under license from Royal Crown and Crush, to all the carbonated mixers (tonic, soda, bitter lemon, etc.) Fruit drinks are popular and produced locally. There are tetra-pack boxes of orange, grapefruit, lemon, pineapple and mango juice in liter and quarter liter sizes, with and without sugar added.

Clothing

Damascenes are very social and enjoy dressing for any occasion. Styles vary from the very conservative to the resplendent. Clothes that are imported from the West can be very expensive, but are available. There are many styles of clothes that Syria imports. Local production is growing and Syria is a producer of cotton and other cloth products.

Men: Social life is informal. Gentlemen wear dark suits for most formal occasions and coat and tie is the accepted evening wear.

In the summer season, lightweight suits are desirable for office wear. It does get hot, even with air-conditioning in the work place. Winter is cold enough to warrant wool or wool blend suits. Damascus has reasonably good dry-cleaning services and only the most exotic clothing might be at risk.

Women: In Arabic culture, one can never go wrong with a more conservative outfit for different occasions. Nevertheless, Damascus is quite cosmopolitan and women enjoy wearing ornate cocktail dresses for evening and formal events. Several dressy outfits, short or long, should satisfy most needs. The ladies wear dresses or pantsuits for daily wear and it behooves you to remember the season and weather.

In summer, cotton and linen blends are probably the most comfortable for inside (climatized) and outside. Slacks are acceptable and popular with the younger Syrians for day wear. Shorts, tank-tops, and other revealing dress is not suitable for street wear (except maybe in the beach cities) and will make you much more uncomfortable than the weather. Your winter wardrobe should include a wool coat and a raincoat for the rainy season. Sweaters and medium weight wools are probably the most comfortable from November to March. Syrian women wear furs; if you bring one to Damascus, bring all the necessary supplies for cleaning and storage as these are difficult to find.

Bring comfortable walking shoes to Syria; walking is a social event and everybody walks. Women's shoes are available in the market but sizes may be difficult to find and styles are not always comparable to those in the U.S. American brand lingerie, panty hose and stockings are not imported. European lingerie is expensive and sizes vary from what you may be used to at home.

Children: All of the observations above apply to children's clothing. Children's clothes should include durable playwear and tennis shoes (sneakers) for school and home. Students at the Damascus Community School dress very much like the kids they see on TV; a lot like those you find at your local school or mall. Preschoolers find the largest variety in the market from which to choose and infant clothing is reasonably priced. You can keep up with their growing spurts by shopping locally.

Supplies and Services

American toilet articles and cosmetics are expensive, when available, in Syria. Gentlemen without brand preferences have little difficulty obtaining necessary items in the local markets. American products for women are rarely available, though European substitutes can usually be found

Most drugs and medications are available in Damascus, either in the generic lines or in specific European labels, and are almost always less expensive than in the U.S. Nevertheless, if you have specific medical requirements, you should check with your doctor and bring sufficient supplies until you become familiar with the local pharmacies. Contact lens solutions and supplies should be brought with you.

Damascus offers a good selection of dress makers and tailors. Quality and the speed of production vary widely and, as with any service sector, it is best to know your provider. Nevertheless, this enterprise gets generally high marks. Shoe and boot makers and repair shops are also available. Handmade riding boots cost about $150 and men's loafers run from $50 to $100.

There are plenty of beauty and barber shops that are up on the latest European styles and provide full services including shampoos, cuts, sets, permanents, manicures, pedicures, and massages. The cost of these services is very reasonable

Religious Activities

The majority of Syrians are Sunni Muslim and there are many mosques that serve both the Sunni and the small Shi'a communities. Damascus has many cultures and religious traditions and was a home to the earliest Christian and Islamic communities. There is one Jewish synagogue, several Roman Catholic churches, even more Orthodox (Eastern) churches, including Armenian, Greek, Russian, and Syrian Orthodox, several Protestant churches including Anglican (Episcopalian), Baptist, Communitarian, and Presbyterian. Mormons maintain a house of prayer and a community center in Amman, Jordan. Most Far Eastern religions are not represented (have no official presence) in Damascus

Education

The Damascus Community School (DCS), organized in 1950, provides English language based education from Pre-K through 12th grade. The student base (290 pupils in 94-95) included 21 nationalities drawn from the diplomatic and business communities as well as the local community. 60% of the student body is Syrian. Teachers are primarily U.S.-certified Americans and overseas hires. There are 35 full time teachers hired from overseas, 10 local hires and a support staff of 15, including office personnel. The school is accredited by the Middle States Schools Organization and belongs to E.M.A.C. (Eastern Mediterranean Activities Council.) School transcripts from DCS serve as a basis for enrollment in U.S. schools.

School programs include computer sessions for all grade levels, liberal arts electives including drama, journalism, music and dance. Pupils can choose either Arabic or French language programs for the foreign language requirement. DCS offers English as a second language (E.S.L.) for foreign students.

The campus is located in a pleasant residential area and is centrally located. The campus' central courtyard is landscaped and comfortably laid out for social interaction. The playground areas include a soccer field, basketball court and two jungle gym areas for the younger students. The school cafeteria provides, for a fee, daily hot lunches and a variety of snacks and drinks. The school opens in late August and maintains a 180-day schedule equivalent to the standard U.S. public school schedule. For enrollment at DCS a student is required to furnish a birth certificate, transcripts or previous school records; health certificate and/or medical records including vaccination and immunization schedules, two current photos and proof of residence in Damascus, Syria.

Sports

The Sheraton, Meridien and Ibla Cham Hotels all offer memberships, for a fee, to their pool and tennis complexes. All have resident trainers and coaches. Sheraton's compound has six hard surface courts, a large pool, a children's pool, and a children's playground. The Meridien has four soft surface (clay) courts, and a large pool and gardens. Locally owned and managed, the Ibla Cham has eight hard surface courts, two pools and an equestrian paddock with rental horses available to the public. For tennis players, it is best to bring balls, racket strings and handle wraps as they are very expensive, when available.

There are several riding clubs in the city, generally for more advanced riders. Horses can be purchased and stabled at these clubs for a fee. Riding wear and boots are made in the souk and are not expensive: However, saddles, tack, medicines and other gear should be shipped from the States.

Golf is not played much in Syria and the two courses are more than five hours away from Damascus. The Cham Palace has a bowling alley that is open to the public. Fishing opportunities are very limited except on the coast. Camping is permitted by the Syrian Government and is popular with many in the diplomatic community. There are wonderful, undeveloped, areas throughout the country that campers regularly visit.

Runners can look forward to joining the Hash House Harriers based in the British Embassy Club. Running is becoming a popular sport with Syrians and joggers are out daily in the larger parks around the city. The Canadians have organized a mini-marathon (Terry Fox Run) for the past two years.

Sports equipment of all types, including shoes, is all imported and quite expensive. Sizes and styles are very limited

Touring and Outdoor Activities

Syria, a cradle of civilization and squarely on the crossroads between East and West, has something for everyone.

Bosra , on the Syrian-Jordanian border and two hours south of the city, features possibly the best preserved Roman amphitheater anywhere. A medieval Arab citadel surrounds the theater. Ramparts of this fort have protected the Roman architecture since the 12th century. This site hosts a musical arts festival each September. The area was an important agricultural center to the Romans. A recently discovered, Pompeii-like, volcanically covered, Roman city has excited the archeological and historical communities with some wonderful finds.

Krak des Chevaliers , described by Lawrence of Arabia as the Vatican of the Middle East, is two hours north of Damascus overlooking a large valley and the pass from Homs to the coast. This Crusader fortress, built on a promontory originally developed by the Emir of Homs in 1031 AD, is a classic example of the siege defenses of the Middle Ages. Well preserved and massive, the castle complex supported a community of over 4,000 knights and retainers and had a rock-hewn stable large enough for 500 horses. Crusader knights occupied it from 1110 AD and deeded it to the Hospitaliers who finally capitulated to the Mameluke Sultan Baibars in 1271. The villages around the Krak are predominantly Catholic to this day.

Kuneitra , up on the Golan Heights, was the site of some of the fiercest fighting between Syria and Israel in both the '67 and '73 wars. The village has remained untouched since being placed under UN supervision in 1974. Several diplomatic missions have staged concerts and picnics on its fertile plain where one can see snow-capped mountains and skiers on the Israeli-occupied side of the Golan.

Maloula , less than an hour from Damascus, is the site of the early Christian convent dedicated to St. Takla. The Syrian icons and paintings are particularly interesting, and still produced here. Maloula has the distinction of being uniquely bilingual with Aramaic (the language of Jesus Christ and the New Testament writings) still spoken by a large portion of the population.

Palmyra , an oasis that served the silk and spice trade from Nineveh, Babylon, Persepolis and points east of the Mediterranean, has the distinction of being mentioned in the Old Testament books of Kings and Songs of Solomon. Its biblical name, Tadmor, recalls its importance as an early center of trading and culture. The name appears in the annals of Roman conquests and the Emperor Valerian was so taken by the city, when he visited in the third century, that he granted it free city-state status and renamed it Palmyra Valeriana.

Three hours from Damascus on the road to Baghdad, these ruins are an extraordinary example of the synthesis of Roman, Syrian and Persian cultures. At its peak it boasted a population of over 50,000. Tadmori tycoons controlled trade throughout Anatolia and Syria in the Eastern Empire. Witness to their power and fame lies in the valley of tombs just north of the ruins of Palmyra. Queen Zenobia, who rebelled against Rome and expanded the "Palmyran kingdom" to Egypt and eastern Asia Minor, drew the wrath of the Emperor Aurelian who destroyed Palmyra in 273 AD. He returned to Rome with Zenobia in golden chains and paraded her through the city. On the Aurelian Arch in Rome, one can still see the humiliation of Palmyra's queen. The city's importance waned and it was bypassed by history after this period. Its extensive oasis provides a walk through history along hard paths beneath the date, fig and pomegranate trees.

Sednayah , the Santiago de Compostela of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, is a picturesque village built around an old monastery that was a popular pilgrimage point during the Crusades. Christians considered it an essential stop on the way to Jerusalem and accrued plenary indulgences for the visit.

Many more sites and sights, too numerous to mention, make Syria a travelers' wonderland. Several worth mentioning include an ancient, beautifully painted and well-preserved synagogue, Dura Europos. It is one of the many interesting sites on the high plains of the Euphrates valley area. Crusader and Arabic fortresses dot the coastal plain, which are as impressive and massive as the Krak des Chevaliers. Roman ruins that are a day's march from each other feature well-pre-served mosaics and unusual architectural syntheses.

Campers often choose to set up their tents near these sites and use the long weekends to explore little known and undeveloped areas. Hikers find many areas that provide a feast for their eyes as well as a feat for their feet. In the spring and fall many walking clubs take advantage of the Ghuta, an agriculturally developed oasis near Damascus, to enjoy the blossoms or the fruits of the lush orchards. Picnic and camping sites are not developed or equipped. You should plan to bring any camping or picnic gear that will make these outings more pleasant.

Outside Syria

Travel by car or plane is reasonably easy and inexpensive. Amman is four hours away by car. The Nabatean ruins at Petra, Roman ruins at Jerash, Jerusalem and Israel are only a few of the possibilities. Direct, short flights to Athens, Cairo, Dubai, Istanbul, Larnaca, Sanaa, and Vienna make tourism a relatively affordable hobby from Damascus.

Entertainment and Social Activities

Cultural life in Syria is multifaceted. The Syrian Government is in the process of building a multi-function arts complex that will include an opera house and a concert hall. Presently the Damascus Symphony performs at several different venues including the Asad Library auditorium. Some diplomatic missions sponsor artists and performers from their respective countries and a few have year-around schedules. The Russian Embassy has a once-a-month musical program that has featured classical quartets, classical and modern pianists, and full orchestras. USIS brings a variety of performers representative of the American music scene. Hotels sponsor travelling troupes. The Syrian Government's festivals in Aleppo, Bosra and during the Damascus Fair supplement the fall schedule. Most of these have a token fee or request a donation of $2.00 to $5.00.

Several formal dances or balls are held throughout the year, the highlight being the Marine Corps Birthday Ball that is well attended by the community. The oil companies sponsor a country and western night that includes foods flown in from the States and a live band.

Movie theaters in Damascus feature Egyptian, Jordanian and Syrian films as well as American, French and Italian. Most are in the original language and subtitled. Prices are inexpensive.

Life in Damascus can run late and is often organized around sumptuous meals. Food is a reflection of culture and civilization, and Damascus has had over 7,000 years to develop its extensive and delicious cuisine. Arabic food, especially Lebanese and Syrian, are a gourmand's delight with flavor-filled sauces of creams and spices covering vine-ripened eggplant and zucchini stuffed with lamb, onions and pine-nuts. Restaurants of all categories and price ranges abound. There are few Oriental (Chinese and Japanese) restaurants in the city. The predominance of foreign food is either French or Italian. The hotels compete to provide bountiful buffets and schedule weeks featuring the foods of other countries, such as German week during Oktoberfest and a summer Fiesta Mexicana.

The American Women in Damascus (AWD), holds monthly meetings that feature programs on regional archeology, cultural life in Damascus, etc. This group often sponsors special activities including gourmet cooking presentations, handicrafts, card competitions (such as bridge, belot), exercise classes, old-city tours, and several fund-raising events throughout the year.

Ahlan wa Sahlan, sponsored by the wife of Syrian Vice President Khaddam, is another international group that is very active in Damascus and strives to include most foreigners in many social and cultural activities. Group meetings and locations are announced each month and programs include arts displays, music performances, haute cuisine demonstrations and tastings, and introductions to Syrian agroindustries including viticulture. There are nominal fees for membership in either of the above.

Aleppo

Aleppo, with a population of more than 2.2 million, is the second largest city in Syria. It played an important role in Islamic defenses during the Crusades and has competed with Damascus for predominance in area politics since the days of the Roman Empire. The citadel, an ancient fortress rising out of the center of town, dominates the view of the city. It casts its shadows on the colorful bazaar that competes only with the souk in Damascus for variety.

Tourists use Aleppo as a base for visiting many "dead cities" of northern Syria dating back to Ugarit and Hittite ages. Ebla, an iron age center searched for by archaeologists for centuries and found recently, is just south of the city. Early Christian ascetics, such as Simon Stylites, made their base a few kilometers north of Aleppo.

The Aleppo Museum is second only to the National Museum in Damascus for collections in Ugarit, Hittite, early Greek and Roman artifacts from Syria. T.E. Lawrence and Agatha Christie sat on the balconies of the Baron Hotel, still open and popular, and wrote while sipping tea and admiring the sunsets. This train stop, now in the center of a congested part of downtown, is featured in "Murder on the Orient Express."

Aleppo was a flourishing trade center during the 16th century, but its importance declined with the use of sea routes to India and the later opening of the Suez Canal. Twice, it was nearly destroyed by earthquakes—first in 1822, and again eight years later. Aleppo was the state of French mandate which united with Damascus in 1925 to form the state of Syria.

Located in the semi-desert region of northwest Syria, Aleppo is a commercial center where grains, cotton, and fruit are grown. A market for wool and hides, Aleppo manufactures silk, printed cotton textiles, cement, and dried fruits and nuts, especially pistachios.

Aleppo has an international airport and is connected to Damascus and Latakia by rail, as well as with Turkey and Iraq.

The University of Aleppo (founded in 1960), Aleppo Institute of Music (founded in 1955), and Muslim theological schools are located in the city. Landmarks include the 12th-century Byzantine Citadel and the Great Mosque, built in 715.

Education

International School of Aleppo is a coeducational, day, company-sponsored school for children in kindergarten through grade 12. Founded in 1976 and sponsored by the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, the school offers a modified U.S. curriculum to about 100 students. Of the 49 staff members, 10 are American.

The school year runs from September to June, with a two-week vacation at Christmas and a one-week spring break. International School is located in a southwest suburb of Aleppo. Facilities include three buildings, 22 classrooms, science laboratories, playing fields, tennis courts, and a 3,000-volume library. The address of International School of Aleppo is: P.O. Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria.

Latakia

Syria's principal port, Latakia, lies on the Mediterranean Sea. It is situated in the center of a rich agricultural region. Since the completion of its deep-water harbor in 1959, it has exported cereals, raw cotton, asphalt, bitumen, fruit, and Latakia tobacco, which has been cultivated since the 17th century. Sponge fishing, vegetable oil milling, and cotton ginning are among the city's industries.

Historically, Latakia was the ancient Phoenician city of Ramitha, and later prospered as the Roman city, Laodicea ad Mare. It was captured by the Crusaders in 1098, and flourished in the 12th century. The city was part of the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century until World War I. Latakia was the capital of the Territory of the Alaouites from 1920 to 1942. Its current population exceeds 300,000.

Near Latakia is the site of the Canaanite city of Ugarit, which has produced many interesting artifacts now on display in the Damascus Museum. Ruins of a Crusader castle are also a short distance from Latakia. Beaches abound here, but chemical pollution from the port is widespread, and care must be used in selecting a swimming place.

OTHER CITIES

DEIR-EZ-ZOR (also spelled Dayrar-Zawr and Dayr al-Zur) is located in eastern Syria on the Euphrates River. A prosperous farming town with a cattle-breeding center, an agricultural school, and salt rock mines nearby, Deir-ez-Zor is also a hub for trans-desert travel, and has an airport. The modern city was constructed by the Ottoman Empire in 1867 to halt the incoming Arab tribes of the Euphrates region. France occupied Deir-ez-Zor in 1921, making it the seat of a large garrison. Taken by the British in 1941, it became part of independent Syria in 1946. The population is approximately 150,000.

DER'Ā (also spelled Dar'ā), the chief city of the Hawrān region, is located 65 miles south of the capital, near the border with Jordan. There is no industry here, but the city is a market center and rail junction. Der'ā has Greco-Roman era ruins, as well as a 13th-century mosque. A pivotal battle was waged here in 636 that led to the decimation of the Byzantine forces and the Arab conquest of Syria. The population of Der'ā is well over 50,000.

HAMA lies on the Orontes River, about 75 miles south of Aleppo. With a population over 250,000, Hama is the market center for an irrigated farm region that grows cotton, wheat, barley, millet, and maize. Famous old waterwheels, some as great as 90 feet in diameter, bring water from the Orontes for irrigation. Hama is a road and rail center, with an airport nearby. The city manufactures cotton, silk, and woolen textiles, towels, carpets, and dairy products. Historically, Hama was settled as early as the Bronze and Iron Ages. It was often mentioned in the Bible as Hamath, the northern boundary of the Israelite tribes. As part of the Persian Empire, Hama was conquered by Alexander the Great. It also was part of the Byzantine and Ottoman empires. Following World War I, Hama became a constituent of the French Levant States (League of Nations) mandate and, in 1941, part of independent Syria. Landmarks here include the remains of a Roman aqueduct that is still in use, and the Great Mosque of Djami al-Nuri, which was a Christian basilica until 638.

HASAKEH (also spelled Hasakah and Hassaka) lies on the Khābūr River, 340 miles northeast of Damascus. This is a major road junction and hub of a large irrigated farming district. Assyrian refugees from Iraq settled here during the French mandate of Syria in the early 1930s. The population of Hasakeh exceeds 75,000.

HOMS is located in west-central Syria, about halfway between Damascus and Aleppo, and near the Lebanon border. Situated on the Orontes River, it is a commercial center situated in a fertile plain where grapes, wheat, barley, and onions are grown. Items manufactured in the city include petroleum products, flour, fertilizer, processed foods, and silk, cotton, and woolen textiles. With a population of over 480,000, Homs is also a road and rail junction. Historically, Homs was called Emesa and was the site of a great temple to the sun god Baal. The city came into prominence in the third century when a priest from the temple became the Roman emperor Heliogabalus. Homs was part of the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century until after World War I, when it was part of the French mandate of the League of Nations.

RAQQA (also spelled Raqqah or Rakkah) is the capital of the governorate of the same name, situated on the left bank of the Euphrates River, 100 miles southeast of Aleppo. The ancient Greeks were the first known inhabitants of the Raqqa area, calling it Nicephorium. A number of palatial homes were built here in early Arab times, when it was a base of operations against the Byzantines. Modern development began with the construction of the nearby Tabaqah Dam on the Euphrates in 1968. There is a museum in Raqqa featuring finds from area archaeological digs. A government team of archaeologists has excavated and restored edifices from the 'Abbāsid period here. The population of Raqqa is roughly over 87,000.

TARTŪS (also spelled Tartous) is the country's second port, with a population over 55,000. Located 42 miles south of Latakia on the Mediterranean, Tartūs dates to at least the fourth century. The city's museum, built by the Crusaders and formerly called the Cathedral of Our Lady of Tortosa, is considered a fine example of crusader architecture of the period. The ruins of the Castle of the Templars are in the older district. Tartūs is also the hub of a fertile agricultural area and is a fishing port.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Syrian Arab Republic is at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea and at the northern end of the Afro-Asian Rift Valley. It abuts Turkey on its northern border; Iraq on its east; Jordan on the south; Israel, Lebanon and the Mediterranean on the west. Syria's area, approximately 185,000 sq. km. (71,500 sq. mi.), comprises several distinct climatic conditions. The western coastal plain is a narrow, fertile stretch of land that is the most humid area of the country, with milder winters and summers than the rest of the country. Due east in the Orontes River valley, the northern extension of the Afro-Asian rift, is a rich agricultural area that continues into the Bekaa Valley to the south. East of the Orontes valley begins the desert region.

The largest cities of Syria: Damascus, Homs, and Aleppo are located on the eastern side of the mountain spine created by the rift. Further to the east is the Syrian Desert with its ancient oasis-city, Palmyra. In the northeast, the Anatolian Mountains serve as a natural barrier between Syria and Turkey, and Syria and Iraq. Here is found the Jazira Valley watered by the Euphrates River that is the grain belt of Syria. The oil fields of Syria are also in this area.

Damascus, the capital and one of the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world, rests at around 700 m. (2,300 ft.) above sea level on the Barada River in the southwestern section of the country. Climatic conditions in Damascus are comparable to those of cities in the southwestern United States. There are four seasons in the city with spring, winter and fall generally lasting eight to twelve weeks apiece. Summers can be long, dry, and hot. Short winters can be cold and rainy, with occasional snow. Average annual rainfall in Damascus has been 255 mm. (10 in.) in the past decade.

Temperatures in the city range from lows of 0°C (32°F) at night to highs of 20°C (68°F) during the day in the winter, and in the summer from 16°C (60°F) to 38°C (100°F). Though snow falls infrequently in Damascus, it does snow in the mountains near the city and some roads are impassible during these storms. The climate variation in Syria allows a robust agriculture with year-round availability of fruits and vegetables, most staple grains, and cotton.

Population

Syria's population is estimated at 16.7 million (2001 est.), with approximately 60% in the urban centers and the remainder comprising a strong agrarian rural minority. Population in the Damascus metropolitan area is estimated at around four million; Aleppo, the second largest city, has 1.5 million people; and Homs 400,000.

Roughly 90% of the citizens are Arab. Other minorities include Armenians, Circassians, Kurds, and Turks. Around 74% of the populace is Sunni Muslim. Alawis and other Muslim sects account for 16% and the Christians 10%. There is a small and dwindling community of Jews in Syria.

Arabic is the official language of the country. Many professionals and businesspersons speak English. French is still widely spoken by educated Syrians, particularly the older generation. Some Syrians, especially the Druze, speak Spanish. Kurdish, Armenian, Syriac, and Circassian are other minority languages in use in Syria.

Public Institutions

Syria has a presidential form of government with dominant executive power held by the President. The daily operation of government is directed by a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers. Legislation is vested in a unicameral body, the Syrian People's Council, composed of 250 members elected from lists prepared in various governorates but constitutionally representing the population at large. Syria has a judicial system based originally on the French Napoleonic Code. The highest court of appeal is the Court of Cassation (equivalent to the Supreme Court of the United States).

The most important political party in Syria is the Ba'th Party (est. March 1963). Its political slogan proclaims the principles of Arab unity, freedom, and socialism. Various factions of the Ba'th Party have ruled the country since 1963. The Constitution guarantees the Ba'th party a majority in the People's Council. Several smaller political parties, including the Communist Party, have joined with factions of the Ba'th to create a majority in the People's Council and provide most of the ministerial-level officials in the government. Syria's armed forces and security services are an important factor in the political scene.

Two of the most important economic organizations are the Chamber of Commerce and the Chamber of Industry, reflecting Syria's business and agriculture-based economy. Many governmental and religious social organizations operate orphanages and hospitals in addition to private (for profit) health care providers.

Arts, Science and Education

Damascus maintains one of the best museums in the Middle East, housing samples of its immense history from Neolithic times to the arts and crafts of today. Entering through the Qasr al-Hair al-Gharbi facade that has been rebuilt from an Omayyad desert palace in Palmyra, one finds Hittite, Assyrian, Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Islamic antiquities. There is a reconstructed underground tomb (hypogea), a synagogue (Dura Europos) and an elaborately detailed old Damascene house from the last century. Next door to the museum are the Suleimaniye Mosque, madrasa (school), and hospice. This classic Ottoman complex was designed and built around 1560 in Syrian fashion with black and white striped masonry and contains one of the loveliest gardens in Damascus. The complex houses the Army Museum and a handicraft market that displays all the traditional crafts of Syria. The Azm Palace, near the Omayyad Mosque (Islam's first great house of prayer) is located in the old city. Also built in Turkish design in the 18th century, it houses displays of everyday Damascene life, now long gone. Museums throughout the country capture the enormous diversity of the cultures and ages of Syria. Archeological sites from the Bronze Age (Ebla) through Graeco Roman (Palmyra and Bosra) and Islamic/Crusader (Sulaiman's Fort, Krak de Chevaliers) are not only sites to see but also venues for cultural events that occur throughout the year.

Contemporary and modern art galleries are found around Damascus with frequently scheduled exhibitions. Other exhibits take place at the Arab Cultural Center, the Asad Library, the People's Gallery, and the exhibition hall of the National Museum. There are more than thirty Arab Cultural Centers throughout the country. Several embassies also operate cultural centers in Damascus, including the British, French, German, Russian, and Spanish.

The American Cultural Center, which was first established in the 1950's, houses a library with approximately 5,500 books, 120 magazines, video tapes, cassette tapes, and microfilms. The USIS library collection features sections on art, literature, history, Arabic translations, and reference works. Magazines include the major journals (Time, Newsweek, U.S. News and World Report ); a variety of general interest publications; plus some highly specialized periodicals. Activities include film presentations, U.S. performing groups, art exhibits, and lectures.

A major opera house and conservatory are presently under construction in Damascus which will house the Damascus Music Conservatory (est. 1960), as well as one of the few symphonies and opera troupes of the Middle East. Scheduled for completion in 1996, it will offer a broad range of programs in the performing arts, including Arabic and Western music and dance. There is a music conservatory in Aleppo (est. 1964) as well. Music instructors of voice and instruments are available in Damascus, and instruments are available for purchase or rent.

Cultural activity in Damascus increases during the annual Damascus International Fair. Major cultural programs are sponsored by Bulgaria, France, Great Britain, Russia, Spain, and Yugoslavia. The Bosra Festival of the Performing Arts is held annually in September in the restored Roman amphitheater of Bosra, two hours drive south of Damascus.

Since independence, Syria's educational facilities have grown in quality and quantity. The literacy rate has increased to 70% (86% male, 56% female). Elementary education is theoretically compulsory; however, this is not enforced in cities and towns, and is not yet possible in all the smaller villages due to shortages of teachers and buildings. Bright Syrian students, nevertheless, are entitled to free education from elementary through university levels. The government has emphasized education as a major goal by establishing a system of teacher-training colleges. Vocational schools are available throughout the country. The Ministry of Education controls the curricula and teaching methods of primary and secondary schools, excluding those with exclusively foreign student populations or operating under a licensed foreign charter.

Damascus University and Syrian higher education date back to 1903 when Turkish rulers founded a school of medicine and pharmacy in Damascus. During the French Mandate, authorities added several more faculties to form the Syrian University, now known as Damascus University. This institution now encompasses nine separate locations in the city and enrolls 95,000 students, about 20% women.

Aleppo University, founded in 1961, was a joint effort by the Syrian Government and UNESCO, supplemented by the Ford Foundation. It is a modern university with faculties in engineering, agriculture, medicine, law, and letters. Enrollment exceeds 60,000. Tishrin University in Latakia, founded in 1977, includes the Maritime Institute and enrolls around 20,000. The Ba'th University of Homs, founded in 1979, is the newest in the Syrian university system. It features an agricultural facility in Hama and has a 10,000-member student body.

All universities are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education. Arabic is the language of instruction for all undergraduate work, although some French and English literature courses are also taught in Arabic. Postgraduate work requires a functional knowledge of a foreign language. The system of education reflects French influence in organization, nomenclature of degrees, and method of teaching. Special Arabic classes for foreigners are offered at the Arabic Institute.

Commerce and Industry

Syria is a middle-income developing country, with a diversified economic base in agriculture and industry. Per capita gross domestic product is about $3,100 (2000 est.).

Watered in the northeast by the Euphrates River and its tributaries, in the west by the Orontes and other mountain streams, and in the southwest by headwaters of the Yarmuk, Syria produces large quantities of wheat, barley, cotton, and other crops.

Situated astride the traditional trade routes linking Europe with the Arabian Peninsula and Asia, Syria has always had a large and dynamic merchant class. In the past decade, Syria has also become an important producer of crude oil. From the 1960s until recently, the government pursued nationalization policies to enlarge the industrial base. These included building cement factories, a steel mill, two oil refineries, a fertilizer plant, sugar refineries, grain silos, and flour mills that now supply most of the country's basic needs. Nationalization also affected Syria's financial, banking, and insurance sectors. Under government management, the competitiveness and efficiency of these enterprises have atrophied mainly due to monopolistic practices, overemployment, inadequate compensation of employees, and low rates of capital replenishment.

Syria's participation in the Gulf War coalition briefly gave the government access once again to substantial financial aid resources. These are being used to develop a wide range of projects to rehabilitate the country's deteriorating infrastructure and public sector enterprises. That assistance, mostly from Arab countries and Japan, has allowed Syria to modernize its telecommunications systems, expand its electricity generation capacity to overcome serious power shortages, and recapitalize some public sector enterprises. However, nonpayment of debts to foreign creditors, including the U.S., has jeopardized the volume of future assistance.

Unlike other socialist governments, Syria never destroyed its merchant class, leaving agricultural production and trade in its hands. Thus, when the government passed a new investment incentive law in 1991 (Law #10), domestic private sector investment rose dramatically. Additional ad hoc economic liberalization measures have fostered this regeneration of private sector industry, such that private businesses now produce over half of Syria's GDP. However, Syria's inefficient and anachronistic government-run financial sector has severely inhibited Syrians, repatriation of capital invested abroad, as well as foreign investment. As the Syrian Government carries out the next steps of its incremental reform program, the private sector should respond with increased investment and it will take its rightful place at center state of the Syrian economy.

Today Syria exports crude petroleum, cotton, textiles, phosphates, sugar, and food products to Europe and to other Arab countries. Meanwhile, its main imports are raw materials essential for industry and agriculture, advanced oil field equipment, and heavy machinery used in the construction of infrastructure projects.

Transportation

Local

There is an extensive public transportation system within Damascus that includes buses and taxis, and "service" vans. City bus service is inexpensive, but generally crowded and hard to learn. The "service" system (shared vans that travel specific routes) is both cheap and efficient (vans are available practically every minute or two). It, too, however, requires knowledge of the established routes. Taxis, the most popular form of public transport for foreigners, are readily available and very inexpensive. Cabs are generally painted yellow and have a taxi emblem or light. They are also distinguishable by their red-lettered license plates. There are even radio-dispatched taxi services in the cities. Fares, usually on a meter, run from about 25SL to 50SL for most in-city travel. The fare to the airport is around 500SL and may be a fixed amount without the use of the meter. If the taxicab does not have a meter, fares should be agreed upon before entering the vehicle.

Although there are street names, most Syrians orient themselves by landmarks and well-known sites. If you know the street address of your destination, it is still useful to know a restaurant, hotel, government building, or embassy nearby that the locals use as reference.

Regional

It is relatively simple to travel throughout Syria using the public transportation systems. Climatized buses with waiters offering on-board food and drink service, en route video presentations, and express destinations are available between major cities. Sample fares from Damascus to Aleppo average 100SL ($2.38). Taxis are also available between most cities. One may either rent the whole vehicle or buy a seat. A Damascus to Aleppo taxi ride costs about 500SL ($11.90); rental of the vehicle for the same trip is around 3, OOOSL ($71.43).

Rental cars with drivers are available and moderately priced. One way trips to Aleppo and Latakia cost 4,500 to 6,500SL ($108 to $155) and round trips are prorated costing about 35% more than the one way fare. Trains operate on limited schedules to several cities around the country, but service and conditions are poor. Schedules of times and prices are available from the Ministry of Transportation.

All-weather roads exist between most Syrian cities and to many touristic sites throughout the country. The roads are of reasonable quality though most are traveled by heavy truck traffic and may be in varying states of repair. Driving is most dangerous at night when unlit parked cars or unlit moving cars are traveling along the poorly lit highways.

International

International European carriers serve Damascus from Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Istanbul, London, Paris, Rome, and Vienna. Middle East carriers fly from Bahrain, Cairo, Dubai, Jeddah, Kuwait, Riyadh, Sanaa, Tunis, and other points. Syrian Air serves an expanded list of stops and has reciprocal agreements with smaller regional airlines that include flights to Larnaca and Beirut. These lists change every six months subject to economic and political considerations.

Communications

Telephones, Modems, and Fax

Syria's telephone system is currently being revamped and updated. Generally, international service is good and local service is improving, though still subject to occasional interruption, throughout the country. Calls to the United States cost 125SL (approximately $3.00) per minute from 8 am to 2 am local time. From 2 am to 8 am, the cost is 63SL per minute. PTT, the national telecommunications utility, generates phone bills almost one year late, and discrepancies are difficult to contest and resolve. Access to ATT, MCI, and Sprint is available from some numbers in Damascus and is recommended. Membership cards to any of these long distance companies should be obtained prior to arrival.

PTT requires that modem and fax users pay a 600SL fee for a data line

Radio and TV

Electronic media, i.e., radio and television, is government owned and operated in Syria. Radio Damascus, across several AM and FM bands, broadcasts primarily in Arabic, though there are several English and French language programs including short news presentations. Syrian TV has two channels. One channel broadcasts primarily in Arabic. Programming includes Egyptian and Jordanian soap operas and features. The other channel has an eclectic mix of European and American serials and movies in either English or French. The European PAL and Middle East SECAM TV systems are used in Syria. Local specifications include 625 line screens, 220v, 50 cycle power units. U.S. standard (NTSC) television sets will not work and are not readily convertible. multi-system set that operates in SECAM and PAL is necessary. Local signals from adjacent countries can be picked up with a sufficiently large roof antenna

There are a few local cinemas that feature primarily Arabic movies and older American and French films that have been subtitled. They are not widely frequented by Westerners.

Printed Media

There is a limited selection of English, French, and Arab language newspapers and magazines available in Syria. Publications include the dailies: International Herald Tribune, Middle East News, Syria Times, and several from Cairo, Riyadh, and Amman. Weeklies include The Economist, Newsweek, Paris Match, and Time. There is some government censorship and papers arrive at the newsstands several days late. Technical journals (i.e., Scientific American et. al.) and special interest magazines (such as Architectural Digest, Southern Living, et. al.) are not generally available. Single copy prices can be considerably higher than you are accustomed to in the United States. Any subscriptions sent through international mail are subject to the same censorship regulations that are applied to newsstand sales and delivery may be additionally delayed.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

Private medical care in Damascus is adequate for routine problems and very inexpensive. U.S. prescription drugs and medicines (or their European equivalents) are generally available across the counter in Syria. Though you may not find a specific drug, and there can be shortages, most drugs and medicines can be ordered by the local pharmacists and the prices are generally lower than they are in the United States.

Several Damascus hospitals are equipped and competent for emergency cases and routine care. Nursing care, however, is substandard. The regional medical authority recommends medical evacuation for major surgery, pregnancy confinement and delivery, long-term hospitalization, and high risk care

Community Health

The city services include potable water at the tap, trash removal, street sweeping, and periodic spraying for flying insects.

The water provided by the city main has been tested periodically (several times per year over the past three years) and found acceptably free of impurities and drinkable. Nevertheless, there is always a risk in any urban community that purification processes may fail. Water in Damascus need not be boiled, but anywhere else in Syria it is recommended that boiled and filtered or bottled water be consumed.

Trash dumpsters (large green receptacles) are available on most streets in the city. Collections are scheduled daily and city regulations require that all trash be disposed of in plastic bags. There is no rigid observation of these rules, though the population seems to make considerable effort to keep Damascus a clean city. Street sweepers dressed in orange overalls are apparent in most neighborhoods.

Seasonally, the city management sprays a concentrated mix to control the mosquito population that breeds on and around the Barada River. Flies can also be a problem in the warmer months. Spraying is done by large tank trucks that pass through the neighborhoods in the evening and morning hours. Larger insects (ants, silverfish and cockroaches) can be problematic on the lower floors of apartment buildings.

Preventive measures to safeguard personal health in Syria include verifying that all persons have necessary inoculations before arriving and completing any inoculation programs that may require boosters. Though Syria has a program of childhood immunizations, many childhood diseases exist in country, including chicken pox, measles, and mumps. There are cases of tuberculosis and cholera reported.

Though Damascus is clean by most urban standards, normal precautions against diseases including amoebic dysentery, typhoid, various errant parasites and hepatitis should be taken. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be washed and soaked in Clorox or Miltons before use and consumption. Dining out requires some conscious decisions about what may or may not be eaten.

Seasonal weather changes that raise dry, dusty air can cause sinus and other upper-respiratory infections. These can be aggravated by the smog and strong desert winds. Humidifiers often relieve some of this discomfort and are recommended.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

The best way to reach Damascus is by air. Transfer points through Europe include Amsterdam, Athens, Frankfurt, London, Paris, and Rome. Alternatively one can arrive from Amman or Cairo, though these are neither as efficient nor as simple. Be sure to book your travel early and clearly as there are two peak travel seasons in Syria corresponding to the spring and fall, and peak travel season through Europe is in the summer. Travel to and through the Middle East is not as simple or efficient as in Europe or the U.S. Make sure that you have all your necessary travel documents.

A passport and a visa are required. Visas must be obtained prior to arrival in Syria. The government of Syria does not allow persons with passports bearing an Israeli visa or entry/exit stamps to enter the country. Similar restrictions apply to persons born in the Gaza region or who are of Gaza descent. Entry into Syria via the land border with Israel is not possible. Foreigners who wish to stay 15 days or more in Syria must register with Syrian immigration authorities by their 15th day there. American men between the ages of 18 and 45 who are of Syrian birth or recent descent are subject to the Syrian compulsory military service requirement unless they receive a temporary or permanent exemption from the Syrian Embassy in the United States prior to their entry into Syria.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship are readily available.

An AIDS test is not required for foreigners prior to arrival in Syria; however, tests are mandatory for foreigners age 15 to 60 who wish to reside in Syria. The AIDS test must be conducted in Syria at a facility approved by the Syrian Ministry of Health. A residence permit will not be issued until the absence of the HIV virus has been determined. Foreigners wishing to marry Syrian nationals in Syria must also be tested for HIV. For further entry information, travelers may contact the Embassy of the Syrian Arab Republic, 2215 Wyoming Ave. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, telephone (202) 232-6313 or check the Syrian Embassy's home page on the Internet at http://www.syrianembassy.org.

American citizens are cautioned that the Syrian government rigidly enforces restrictions on prior travel to Israel. Travelers with Israeli stamps in their passports, Jordanian entry cachets, or cachets from other countries that suggest prior travel to Israel will cause Syrian immigration authorities to refuse the traveler admission to Syria. Likewise, the absence of entry stamps from a country adjacent to Israel, which the traveler has just visited, will cause the Syrian immigration officials to refuse admittance. American citizen travelers suspected of having traveled to Israel have been detained for questioning.

Syrian security officials are also sensitive about travel to Iraq. There have been instances in which Iraqi-Americans or Americans believed to have traveled to Iraq were detained for questioning at ports of entry/exit.

Syrian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Syria of items such as weapons, narcotics, alcohol, tobacco, cheese, fruits, pharmaceuticals, modems, cosmetics, and some electrical appliances. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Syria in Washington, D.C. for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Americans living in or visiting Syria are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Damascus and obtain updated information on travel and security within Syria. The U.S. Embassy is located in Abu Roumaneh, al-Mansur Street No. 2, P.O. Box 29, Damascus. The telephone numbers are [963] (11) 333-2814, 332-0783, 333-0788, and 333-3232. The fax number is [963] (11) 331-9678. The Embassy is open Sunday through Thursday.

Pets

Pets should arrive with all of the proper inoculations, including rabies. A certificate not older than 60 days from a licensed veterinarian showing current and valid inoculations is a requirement for animals entering the country. No quarantine is required. Non-diplomatic personnel should be prepared to pay duty on imported pets as they are not considered personal property. The duty is calculated on the shipping charges, not on a declared value. There are veterinarians, though services may not meet U.S. standards. Animal medicines are not readily available and are more expensive than in the United States.

Dogs must always be walked on leashes since there is an official government dog-removal program. All housing in Damascus is apartment style. Very few are garden apartments with enclosed outdoor areas. Large animals may be uncomfortable in small, enclosed homes.

Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures

The Syrian Lira or Pound (SL) is a controlled currency. It cannot be exchanged for any other currency except at government-approved exchange centers within Syria, and it cannot be changed back into foreign currency. Travelers must declare all foreign currency when they enter Syria. There are no foreign banks and few ATMs in Syria, and it is impossible to wire or otherwise transfer money from the United States to Syria. Credit cards are not generally accepted in Syria.

The current exchange rate is 46.00SL to US$1.00 (May 2002).

Syria uses the metric system of weights and measures.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 … New Year's Day

Feb. 22 … Unity Day

Mar. 8 … Revolution Day

Apr. 17… Independence Day

May 6 … Martyrs' Day

Apr./May … Easter (Orthodox)^*

May 1 … Labor Day

May 6 … Martyrs' Day

July 23 … Egyptian Revolution Day

Sept. 1… United Arab Republic Day

Nov. 16… National Day

Dec. 25… Christmas

… Hijra New Year^*

… Ramadan^*

… Id al-Fitr^*

… Id al-Adha^*

… Lailat al Meiraj^*

… Mawlid an Nabi^*

^*Variable

RECOMMENDED READING

These titles are provided as a general indication of material published on this country. The Department of State does not endorse unofficial publications.

Abu Daber, Kamel S. The Arab Ba'th Socialist Party. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1966.

American University, Foreign Area Studies. Syria: A Country Study. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Ball, Warwick. Syria, A Historical and Architectural Guide. Scorpion Publishing LTD.: Essex, England, 1994

Burns, Ross. Monuments of Syria, An Historical Guide. I.B. Tauris & Co.: London, England, 1992

Dam, Nikolaos Van. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Sectarianism, Regionalism, and Tribalism in Politics, 1961-1978. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979.

Devlin, John F. The Ba'th Party, A History from Its Origins in 1966. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976.

Finlay, Hugh. Jordan and Syria, A Travel Survival Kit. Lonely Planet Publications: Australia, 1993

Haddad, Robert M. Syrian Christians in Muslim Society. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970.

Kerr, Malcolm. The Arab Cold War: 1958-1964, A Study of Ideology in Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967.

Longrigg, Stephen H. Syria and Lebanon Under French Mandate. New York: Octagon Books, 1972.

Maalouf, Amin. The Crusades Through Arab Eyes. London, 1977

Petran, Tabitha. Syria. Ernest Benn: London, 1972

Pipers, Daniel. Greater Syria. Oxford University Press, 1990

Seale, Patrick. Asad, the Struggle for the Middle East University of California Press: Berkeley, 1988

Thubron, Colin. Mirror to Damascus. London: Heinemann, 1967.

Weiss, Harvey, ed. Ebla to Damascus: Art and Archaeology of Ancient Syria. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute Traveling Exhibitions Service, 1985.

Ziadeh, Nicola. Damascus Under the Mamelukes. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1964.

SYRIA

Compiled from the August 2004 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Syrian Arab Republic

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 185,170 sq. km. (71,504 sq. mi.), including 1,295 sq. km. of Israeli-occupied territory; about the size of North Dakota.

Cities: Capital—Damascus (pop. 5 million). Other cities—Aleppo (4.5 million), Homs (1.8 million), Hama (1.6 million), Lattakia (1 million), Idleb (1.2 million), al-Hasakeh (1.3 million).

Terrain: Narrow coastal plain with a double mountain belt in the west; large, semiarid and desert plateau to the east.

Climate: Mostly desert; hot, dry, sunny summers (June to August) and mild, rainy winters (December to February) along coast.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Syrian(s).

Population: (July 2003 est.) 18.2 million.

Growth rate: (2004 est.) 2.4%.

Major ethnic groups: Arabs (90%), Kurds (9%), Armenians, Circassians, Turkomans.

Religions: Sunni Muslims (74%), Alawis (12%), Christians (10%), Druze (3%), and small numbers of other Muslim sects, Jews, and Yazidis.

Languages: Arabic (official), English and French (widely understood), Kurdish, Armenian, Aramaic, Circassian.

Education: Years compulsory—primary, 6 yrs. Attendance—98.7%. Literacy—89.7% male, 64% female.

Health: (2002 est.) Infant mortality rate—23/1,000. Life expectancy—68.47 yrs. male, 71.02 yrs. female.

Work force: (5.5 million, 2002 est.) Services (including government)—39.7%; agriculture—30.3%; industry and commerce—30%.

Government

Type: Republic, under Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party regimes since March 1963.

Independence: April 17, 1946.

Constitution: March 13, 1973.

Branches: Executive—president, two vice presidents, prime minister, Council of Ministers (cabinet). Legislative—unicameral People's Council. Judicial—Supreme Constitutional Court, High Judicial Council, Court of Cassation, State Security Courts.

Administrative subdivisions: 13 provinces and city of Damascus (administered as a separate unit).

Political parties: Arab Socialist Resurrection (Ba'ath) Party, Syrian Arab Socialist Party, Arab Socialist Union, Syrian Communist Party, Arab Socialist Unionist Movement, Democratic Socialist Union Party.

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Economy (2003 est.)

GDP: $20.5 billion (at current prices).

Real growth rate: 3.3%.

Per capita GDP: $1,165.

Natural resources: Crude oil and natural gas, phosphates, asphalt, rock salt, marble, gypsum, iron ore, chrome and manganese ores

Agriculture: Products—cotton, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruits and vegetables. Arable land—32%.

Industry: Types—mining, manufacturing (textiles, food processing), construction, petroleum.

Trade: Exports—$5.143 billion: petroleum, textiles, phosphates, antiquities, fruits and vegetables, cotton. Major markets—EU, Arab countries, U.S., New Independent States, Eastern Europe. Imports—$4.845 billion: foodstuffs, metal and metal products, machinery, textiles, petroleum. Major suppliers—Germany, Turkey, Italy, France, U.S., Japan.

PEOPLE

Ethnic Syrians are of Semitic stock. Syria's population is 90% Muslim—74% Sunni, and 16% other Muslim groups, including the Alawi, Shi'a, and Druze—and 10% Christian. There also is a tiny Syrian Jewish community.

Arabic is the official, and most widely spoken, language. Arabs, including some 400,000 Palestinian refugees, make up 90% of the population. Many educated Syrians also speak English or French, but English is the more widely understood. The Kurds, many of whom speak Kurdish, make up 9% of the population and live mostly in the northeast corner of Syria, though sizable Kurdish communities live in most major Syrian cities as well. Armenian and Turkic are spoken among the small Armenian and Turkoman populations.

Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density is about 140 per sq. mi. Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 11. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrollment at postsecondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 78% for males and 51% for females.

Ancient Syria's cultural and artistic achievements and contributions are many. Archaeologists have discovered extensive writings and evidence of a brilliant culture rivaling those of Mesopotamia and Egypt in and around the ancient city of Ebla. Later Syrian scholars and artists contributed to Hellenistic and Roman thought and culture. Zeno of Sidon founded the Epicurean school; Cicero was a pupil of Antiochus of Ascalon at Athens; and the writings of Posidonius of Apamea influenced Livy and Plutarch. Syrians have contributed to Arabic literature and music and have a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Although declining, the worldfamous handicraft industry still employs thousands.

HISTORY

Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the center of one of the most ancient civilizations on earth. Around the excavated city of Ebla in northern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500 to 2400 B.C. The city of Ebla alone during that time had a population estimated at 260,000. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be the oldest Semitic language.

Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, and, in part, Crusaders before finally coming under the control of the Ottoman Turks. Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Paul was converted on the road to Damascus and established the first organized Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.

Damascus, settled about 2500 B.C., is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It came under Muslim rule in A.D. 636. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak, and it became the capital of the Omayyad Empire, which extended from Spain to India from A.D. 661 to A.D. 750, when the Abbasid caliphate was established at Baghdad, Iraq.

Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around 1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt, it continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840.

French Occupation

In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under King Faysal of the Hashemite family, who later became King of Iraq. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the clash between his Syrian Arab forces and regular French forces at the battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the League of Nations put Syria under French mandate. With the fall of France in 1940, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free French occupied the country in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.

Independence to 1970

Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence of April 17, 1946, Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval. A series of military coups, begun in 1949, undermined civilian rule and led to army colonel Adib Shishakli's seizure of power in 1951. After the overthrow of President Shishakli in a 1954 coup, continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military eventually brought Arab nationalist and socialist elements to power.

Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser's leadership in the wake of the 1956 Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt. On February 1, 1958, the two countries merged to create the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties ceased overt activities.

The union was not a success, however. Following a military coup on September 28, 1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as the Syrian Arab Republic. Instability characterized the next 18 months, with various coups culminating on March 8, 1963, in the installation by leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council

of the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party (Ba'ath Party), which had been active in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.

The Ba'ath takeover in Syria followed a Ba'ath coup in Iraq the previous month. The new Syrian Government explored the possibility of federation with Egypt and Ba'ath—controlled Iraq. An agreement was concluded in Cairo on April 17, 1963, for a referendum on unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialize. Thereafter, the Ba'ath regimes in Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity. These plans foundered in November 1963, when the Ba'ath regime in Iraq was overthrown. In May 1964, President Amin Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of mass organizations—labor, peasant, and professional unions—a presidential council, in which executive power was vested, and a cabinet. On February 23, 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, intra-party coup, imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government. The coup leaders described it as a "rectification" of Ba'ath Party principles. The defeat of the Syrians and Egyptians in the June 1967 war with Israel weakened the radical socialist regime established by the 1966 coup. Conflict developed between a moderate military wing and a more extremist civilian wing of the Ba'ath Party. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the "Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected this political disagreement within the ruling Ba'ath leadership. On November 13, 1970, Minister of Defense Hafiz al-Asad affected a bloodless military coup, ousting the civilian party leadership and assuming the role of prime minister.

1970 to 2000

Upon assuming power, Hafiz al-Asad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Asad's Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Ba'ath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Asad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Asad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Asad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Ba'ath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962.

The authoritarian regime was not without its critics, though most were quickly dealt with. A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s, however, from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who reject the basic values of the secular Ba'ath program and object to rule by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the archconservative Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the regime. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government crushed the fundamentalist opposition centered in the city of Hama, leveling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing many thousands of dead and wounded. Since then, public manifestations of antiregime activity have been very limited.

Syria's 1990 participation in the U.S.led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other Arab states and with the West. Syria participated in the multilateral Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz Al-Asad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.

Hafiz Al-Asad died on June 10, 2000, after 30 years in power. Immediately following Al-Asad's death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34 years old, which allowed his son, Bashar Al-Asad legally to be eligible for nomination by the ruling Ba'ath party. On July 10, 2000, Bashar Al-Asad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote, according to Syrian government statistics.

2000 to 2004

In the aftermath of September 11, 2001 the Syrian government began limited cooperation with U.S. in the global war against terrorism. However, Syria opposed the Iraq war in March 2003, and bilateral relations with the U.S. swiftly deteriorated. In December 2003, President Bush signed into law the Syria Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty Restoration Act of 2003, which provided for the imposition of a series of sanctions against Syria if Syria did not end its support for Palestinian terrorist groups, end its military and security presence in Lebanon, cease its pursuit of weapons of mass destruction, and meet its obligations under United Nations Security Council resolutions regarding the stabilization and reconstruction of Iraq. In May 2004, the President determined that Syria had not met these conditions and implemented sanctions that prohibit the export to Syria of items on the U.S. Munitions List and Commerce Control List, the export to Syria of U.S. products except for food and medicine, and the taking off from or landing in the United States of Syrian government-owned aircraft. At the same time, the U.S. Department of the Treasury announced its intention to order U.S. financial institutions to sever correspondent accounts with the Commercial Bank of Syria based on money-laundering concerns, pursuant to Section 311 of the USA PATRIOT Act. Acting under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), the President also authorized the Secretary of the Treasury, in consultation with the Secretary of State, to freeze assets belonging to certain Syrian individuals and government entities.

GOVERNMENT

The Syrian constitution vests the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party with leadership functions in the state and society and provides broad powers to the president. The president, approved by referendum for a 7-year term, also is Secretary General of the Ba'ath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front. The president has the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and states of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel.

Along with the National Progressive Front, the president decides issues of war and peace and approves the state's 5-year economic plans. The National Progressive Front also acts as a forum in which economic policies are debated and the country's political orientation is determined. However, because of Ba'ath Party dominance, the National Progressive Front has traditionally exercised little independent power.

The Syrian constitution of 1973 requires that the president be Muslim but does not make Islam the state religion. Islamic jurisprudence, however, is required to be a main source of legislation. The judicial system in Syria is an amalgam of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws, with three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. In addition, religious courts handle questions of personal and family law.

The Ba'ath Party emphasizes socialism and secular Arabism. Although Ba'ath Party doctrine seeks to build national rather than ethnic identity, ethnic, religious, and regional allegiances remain important in Syria.

Members of President Asad's own sect, the Alawis, hold most of the important military and security positions. In recent years there has been a gradual decline in the party's preeminence, often in favor of the leadership of the broader National Progressive Front. The party also is now dominated by the military, which consumes a large share of Syria's economic resources.

Syria is divided administratively into 14 provinces, one of which is Damascus. A governor, whose appointment is proposed by the minister of the interior, approved by the cabinet, and announced by executive decree, heads each province. The governor is assisted by an elected provincial council.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 10/6/04

President: Asad , Bashar al-
Vice President: Khaddam , Abd al-Halim ibn Said
Prime Minister: Utri , Muhammad Naji al-
Min. of Agriculture: Safir , Adil
Min. of Awqaf: Ayyubi , Muhammad Ziyad al-
Min. of Culture: Sayyid , Mahmud al-
Min. of Defense: Turkmani , Hassan Ali, Lt. Gen.
Min. of Economy & Trade: Lutfi , Amir Husni
Min. of Education: Sad , Ali
Min. of Electricity: Dahar , Munib Saim al-
Min. of Expatriates: Shaban , Buthaynah
Min. of Finance: Husayn , Muhammad al-
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Shara , Farouk al-
Min. of Health: Husami , Mahir, Dr.
Min. of Higher Education: Murtada , Hani
Min. of Housing & Construction: Mushantat , Nihad
Min. of Industry: Tayyarah , Ghassan
Min. of Information: Dakhlallah , Mahdi
Min. of Interior: Kan'an , Ghazi, Maj. Gen.
Min. of Irrigation: Bunni , Nadir al-
Min. of Justice: Ghafri , Muhammad al-
Min. of Local Government & Environment: Atrash , Hilal al-
Min. of Oil: Haddad , Ibrahim
Min. of Presidency Affairs: Lahham , Ghassan
Min. of Social Affairs & Labor: Arif , Dayala al-Haj
Min. of Telecommunications & Technology: Munajjid , Bashir al-
Min. of Tourism: Qalaa , Sadallah Agha al-
Min. of Transportation: Ubayd , Makram
Min. of State: Ahmad , Yusuf Sulayman
Min. of State: Shaar , Bashar
Min. of State: Kharrat , Muhammad Yahya
Min. of State: Aswad , Husam al-
Governor, Central Bank: Kabbarah , Bashar
Ambassador to the US: Mustafa , Imad
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Miqdad , Faisal

Syria maintains an embassy in the United States at 2215 Wyoming Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-232-6313; fax: 202-234-9548). Consular section hours are 10:00 a.m.-2:00 p.m., Monday-Friday. Syria also has an honorary consul at 5433 Westheimer Rd., Suite 1020, Houston, TX 77056 (tel. 713-622-8860; fax. 713-965-9632).

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Officially, Syria is a republic. In reality, however, it is an authoritarian regime that exhibits only the forms of a democratic system. Although citizens ostensibly vote for the President and members of Parliament, they do not have the right to change their government. The late President Hafiz Al-Asad was confirmed by unopposed referenda five times. His son, Bashar Al-Asad, also was confirmed by an unopposed referendum in July 2000. The President and his senior aides, particularly those in the military and security services, ultimately make most basic decisions in political and economic life, with a very limited degree of public accountability. Political opposition to the President is not tolerated. Syria has been under a state of emergency since 1963. Syrian governments have justified martial law by the state of war, which continues to exist with Israel and by continuing threats posed by terrorist groups.

The Asad regime (little has changed since Bashar Al-Asad succeeded his father) has held power longer than any other government since independence; its survival is due partly to a strong desire for stability and the regime's success in giving groups such as religious minorities and peasant farmers a stake in society. The expansion of the government bureaucracy has also created a large class loyal to the regime. The President's continuing strength is due also to the army's continued loyalty and the effectiveness of Syria's large internal security apparatus, both comprised largely of members of Asad's own Alawi sect. The several main branches of the security services operate independently of each other and outside of the legal system. Each continues to be responsible for human rights violations.

All three branches of government are guided by the views of the Ba'ath Party, whose primacy in state institutions is assured by the constitution. The Ba'ath platform is proclaimed succinctly in the party's slogan: "Unity, freedom, and socialism." The party is both socialist, advocating state ownership of the means of industrial production and the redistribution of agricultural land, and revolutionary, dedicated to carrying a socialist revolution to every part of the Arab world. Founded by Michel 'Aflaq, a Syrian Christian and Salah al-Din Al-Bitar, a Syrian Sunni, the Ba'ath Party embraces secularism and has attracted supporters of all faiths in many Arab countries, especially Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon. Since August 1990, however, the party has tended to de-emphasize socialism and to stress pan-Arab unity.

Six smaller political parties are permitted to exist and, along with the Ba'ath Party, make up the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of parties that represents the sole framework of legal political party participation for citizens. While created ostensibly to give the appearance of a multi-party system, the NPF is dominated by the Ba'ath Party and does not change the essentially one-party character of the political system. Non-Ba'ath Party members of the NPF exist as political parties largely in name only and conform strictly to Ba'ath Party and government policies. There were reports in 2000 that the government was considering legislation to expand the NPF to include new parties and several parties previously banned; these changes have not taken place.

The Ba'ath Party dominates the Parliament, which is known as the People's Council. Elected every 4 years, the Council has no independent authority. Although parliamentarians may criticize policies and modify draft laws, they cannot initiate laws, and the executive branch retains ultimate control over the legislative process. During 2002, two independent members of Parliament who had advocated political reforms were stripped of their parliamentary immunity and tried and convicted of charges of "attempting to illegally change the constitution." The government has allowed independent non-NPF candidates to run for a limited allotment of seats in the 250-member People's Council. The current allotment of non-NPF deputies is 83, ensuring a permanent absolute majority for the Ba'ath Party-dominated NPF. Elections for the 250 seats in the People's Council last took place in 2003.

There was a surge of interest in political reform after Bashar al-Asad assumed power in 2000. Human rights activists and other civil society advocates, as well as some Parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as "Damascus Spring" (July 2000-February 2001). Asad also made a series of appointments of reform-minded advisors to formal and less formal positions, and included a number of similarly oriented individuals in his Cabinet. The arrest and long-term detention of two reformist Parliamentarians, Ma'mun al-Humsy and Riad Seif, in August and September 2001, respectively, and the apparent marginalizing of some of the reformist advisors in the past four years, indicate that the pace of any political reform in Syria is likely to much slower than the short-lived Damascus Spring promised.

ECONOMY

Syria is a middle-income, developing country with a diversified economy based on agriculture, industry, and energy. During the 1960s, citing its state socialist ideology, the government nationalized most major enterprises and adopted economic policies designed to address regional and class disparities. This legacy of state intervention and price, trade, and foreign exchange controls still hampers economic growth, although the government has begun to revisit many of these policies, especially vis-à-vis the financial sector and the country's trade regime.

Despite a number of significant reforms and ambitious development projects of the early 1990s, as well as more modest reform efforts currently underway, Syria's economy still is slowed by large numbers of poorly performing public sector firms, low investment levels, and relatively low industrial and agricultural productivity.

Despite the mitigation of the severe drought that plagued the region in the late 1990s and the recovery of energy export revenues, Syria's economy faces serious challenges. With almost 60% of its population under the age of 20, unemployment higher than the current estimated range of 20%-25% is a real possibility unless sustained and strong economic growth takes off. Oil production has leveled off, but recent agreements allowing increased foreign investment in the petroleum sector may boost production in two to three years.

Taken as a whole, Syrian economic reform thus far has been incremental and gradual, with privatization not even on the distant horizon. The government, however, has begun to address structural deficiencies in the economy such as the lack of a modern financial sector through changes to the legal and regulatory environment. In 2001, Syria legalized private banking. In 2004, four private banks began operations. In August 2004, a committee was formed to supervise the establishment of a stock market. Beyond the financial sector, the Syrian Government has enacted major changes to rental and tax laws, and is reportedly considering similar changes to the commercial code and to other laws, which impact property rights.

Commerce has always been important to the Syrian economy, which benefited from the country's location along major east-west trade routes. Syrian cities boast both traditional industries such as weaving and driedfruit packing and modern heavy industry. Given the policies adopted from the 1960s through the late 1980s, Syria failed to join an increasingly interconnected global economy. In late 2001, however, Syria submitted a request to the World Trade Organization to begin the accession process. Syria had been an original contracting party of the former General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade but withdrew in 1951 because of Israel's joining. Major elements of current Syrian trade rules would have to change in order to be consistent with the WTO. Syria is intent on signing an Association Agreement with the European Union that would entail significant trade liberalization.

The bulk of Syrian imports have been raw materials essential for industry, agriculture, equipment, and machinery. Major exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. Earnings from oil exports are one of the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.

Of Syria's 72,000 square miles, roughly one-third is arable, with 80% of cultivated areas dependent on rainfall for water. In recent years, the agriculture sector has recovered from years of government inattentiveness and drought. Most farms are privately owned, but the government controls important elements of marketing and transportation.

The government has redirected its economic development priorities from industrial expansion into the agricultural sectors in order to achieve food self-sufficiency, enhance export earnings, and stem rural migration. Thanks to sustained capital investment, infrastructure development, subsidies of inputs, and price supports, Syria has gone from a net importer of many agricultural products to an exporter of cotton, fruits, vegetables, and other foodstuffs. One of the prime reasons for this turnaround has been the government's investment in huge irrigation systems in northern and northeastern Syria, part of a plan to increase irrigated farmland by 38% over the next decade.

Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Dayr az Zawr in eastern Syria. This discovery relieved Syria of the need to import light oil to mix with domestic heavy crude in refineries. Recently, Syrian oil production has been about 530,000 barrels per day. Although its oil reserves are small compared to those of many other Arab states, Syria's petroleum industry accounts for a majority of the country's export income. The government has successfully begun to work with international energy companies to develop Syria's promising natural gas reserves, both for domestic use and export. U.S. energy firm, ConocoPhillips, completed a large natural gas gathering and production facility for Syria in late 2000, and will continue to serve as operator of the plant until December 2005. In 2003, Syria experienced some success in attracting U.S. Petroleum companies, signing an exploration deal with partners Devon Energy and Gulfsands and a seismic survey contract with Veritas.

Ad hoc economic liberalization continues to provide hope to Syria's private sector. In 1990, the government established an official parallel exchange rate (neighboring country rate) to provide incentives for remittances and exports through official channels. This action improved the supply of basic commodities and contained inflation by removing risk premiums on smuggled commodities.

Over time, the government has increased the number of transactions to which the more favorable neighboring country exchange rate applies. The government also introduced a quasi-rate for noncommercial transactions in 2001 broadly in line with prevailing black market rates. Exchange-rate unification remains an elusive goal as pressure is building for Syria to harmonize its exchange rate system.

Given the poor development of its own capital markets and Syria's lack of access to international money and capital markets, monetary policy remains captive to the need to cover the fiscal deficit. Although in 2003 Syria lowered interests rates for the first time in 22 years and again in 2004, rates remain fixed by law. In a positive move in 2003, Syria canceled an old and troublesome law governing foreign currency exchange; however, new regulations have yet to be implemented. Some basic commodities continue to be heavily subsidized, and social services are provided for nominal charges.

Syria has made progress in easing its heavy foreign debt burden through bilateral rescheduling deals with virtually all of its key creditors in Europe, although debt owed to the former Soviet Union remains an unsolved problem.

NATIONAL SECURITY

President Bashar Al-Asad is commander in chief of the Syrian armed forces, comprising some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve 30 months in the military upon reaching the age of 18. About 17,000 Syrian soldiers are currently deployed in Lebanon. The breakup of the Soviet Union—long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces—has slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. Nevertheless, its military remains one of the largest and most capable in the region. Syria received significant financial aid from Gulf Arab states as a result of its participation in the Gulf War, with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending. Besides sustaining its conventional forces, Syria seeks to develop its weapons of mass destruction (WMD) capability.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and achieving a comprehensive Arab-Israeli peace settlement, which includes the return of the Golan Heights, are the primary goals of President Asad's foreign policy.

Relations With Other Arab Countries

Syria's relations with the Arab world were strained by its support for Iran during the Iran-Iraq War, which began in 1980. With the end of the war in August 1988, Syria began a slow process of reintegration with the other Arab states. In 1989, it joined with the rest of the Arab world in readmitting Egypt to the 19th Arab League Summit at Casablanca.

This decision, prompted in part by Syria's need for Arab League support of its own position in Lebanon, marked the end of the Syrian-led opposition to Egypt and the 1977-79 Sadat initiatives toward Israel, as well as the Camp David accords. It coincided with the end of the 10-year Arab subsidy to Syria and other front-line Arab countries pledged at Baghdad in 1978. Syria reestablished full diplomatic relations with Egypt in 1989. In the 1990-91 Gulf War, Syria joined other Arab states in the U.S.-led multinational coalition against Iraq. In 1998, Syria began a slow rapprochement with Iraq, driven primarily by economic needs. Syria continues to play an active pan-Arab role, which has intensified as the peace process collapsed in September 2000 with the start of the second Palestinian uprising (Intifada) against Israel.

Though it voted in favor of UNSCR 1441 in 2002, Syria was against coalition military action in Iraq in 2003. However, the Syrian government accepted UNSCR 1483 (after being absent for the actual vote), which lifted sanctions on Iraq and established a framework to assist the Iraqi people in determining their political future and rebuilding their economy. Syria also voted for UNSCR 1511, which called for greater international involvement in Iraq and addressed the transfer of sovereignty from the U.S.-led coalition. Since the transfer of sovereignty in Iraq on June 28, 2004, Syria has extended qualified support to the Interim Iraqi Government and pledged to cooperate in the areas of border security, repatriation of Iraqi assets, and eventual restoration of formal diplomatic relations. While Syria has taken some steps to tighten controls along the Syria-Iraq border, Syria remains one of the primary transit points for foreign fighters and weapons entering Iraq.

Involvement in Lebanon

Syria plays an important role in Lebanon by virtue of its history, size, power, and economy. Lebanon was part of post-Ottoman Syria until 1926. The presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon dates to 1976, when President Asad intervened in the Lebanese civil war on behalf of Maronite Christians. Following the 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Syrian and Israeli forces clashed in eastern Lebanon. The late U.S. Ambassador Philip Habib negotiated a cease-fire in Lebanon and the subsequent evacuation of PLO fighters from West Beirut. However, Syrian opposition blocked implementation of the May 17, 1983, Lebanese-Israeli accord on the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon. Following the February 1984 withdrawal of the UN Multinational Force from Beirut and the departure of most of Israel's forces from southern Lebanon a year later, Syria launched an unsuccessful initiative to reconcile warring Lebanese factions and establish a permanent cease-fire. Syria actively participated in the March-September 1989 fighting between the Christian Lebanese Forces and Muslim forces allied with Syria. In 1989, Syria endorsed the Charter of National Reconciliation, or "Taif Accord," a comprehensive plan for ending the Lebanese conflict negotiated under the auspices of Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco.

At the request of Lebanese President Hrawi, the Syrian military took joint action with the Lebanese Armed Forces on October 13, 1990, to oust rebel Gen. Michel Aoun who had defied efforts at reconciliation with the legitimate Government of Lebanon. The process of disarming and disbanding the many Lebanese militias began in earnest in early 1991. In May 1991, Lebanon and Syria signed the treaty of brotherhood, cooperation, and coordination called for in the Taif Accord, which is intended to provide the basis for many aspects of Syrian-Lebanese relations. The treaty provides the most explicit recognition to date by the Syrian Government of Lebanon's independence and sovereignty.

According to the U.S. interpretation of the Taif Accord, Syria and Lebanon were to have decided on the redeployment of Syrian forces from Beirut and other coastal areas of Lebanon by September 1992. Israeli occupation of Lebanon until May 2000, the breakdown of peace negotiations between Syria and Israel that same year, and intensifying Arab/Israeli tensions since the start of the second Palestinian uprising in September 2000 have helped delay full implementation of the Taif Accords. The United Nations declared that Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon fulfilled the requirements of UN Security Council Resolution 425. However, Syria and Lebanon claimed that UNSCR 425 had not been fully implemented because Israel did not withdraw from an area of the Golan Heights called Sheba Farms, which had been occupied by Israel in 1967, and which Syria now claimed was part of Lebanon. The United Nations does not recognize this claim. However, Lebanese resistance groups such as Hizballah use it to justify attacks against Israeli forces in that region, creating a potentially dangerous flashpoint along the Lebanon-Israeli border. The UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) maintains about 2,000 troops in southern Lebanon tasked with ensuring peace and security along the frontier and overseeing the eventual return of effective Lebanese government and military authority throughout the border region.

In 2004, Syria still maintained approximately 17,000 troops in Lebanon. The U.S. supports a sovereign, independent Lebanon, free of all foreign forces, and believes that the best interests of both Lebanon and Syria are served by a positive and constructive relationship based upon principles of mutual respect and nonintervention between two neighboring sovereign and independent states. The U.S. supports the immediate withdrawal of Syrian and Iranian forces from Lebanon, consistent with the spirit of the Taif Accord, that calls for the extension of Lebanese government control over the entire territory of Lebanon.

Arab-Israeli Relations

Syria was an active belligerent in the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, which resulted in Israel's occupation of the Golan Heights and the city of Quneitra. Following the October 1973 Arab-Israeli War, which left Israel in occupation of additional Syrian territory, Syria accepted UN Security Council Resolution 338, which signaled an implicit acceptance of Resolution 242. Resolution 242, which became the basis for the peace process negotiations begun in Madrid, calls for a just and lasting Middle East peace to include withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in 1967; termination of the state of belligerency; and acknowledgment of the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence of all regional states and of their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries.

As a result of the mediation efforts of then U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Syria and Israel concluded a disengagement agreement in May 1974, enabling Syria to recover territory lost in the October war and part of the Golan Heights occupied by Israel since 1967, including Quneitra. The two sides have effectively implemented the agreement, which is monitored by UN forces.

In December 1981, the Israeli Knesset voted to extend Israeli law to the part of the Golan Heights over which Israel retained control. The UN Security Council subsequently passed a resolution calling on Israel to rescind this measure. Syria participated in the Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991. Negotiations were conducted intermittently through the 1990s, and came very close to succeeding. However, the parties were unable to come to an agreement over Syria's nonnegotiable demand that Israel withdraw to the positions it held on June 4, 1967.

The peace process collapsed following the outbreak of the second Palestinian (Intifada) uprising in September 2000, though Syria continues to call for a comprehensive settlement based on UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338, and the land-for-peace formula adopted at the 1991 Madrid conference.

Tensions between Israel and Syria increased as the Intifada dragged on, primarily as a result of Syria's unwillingness to stop giving sanctuary to Palestinian terrorist groups conducting operations against Israel. In October 2003, following a suicide bombing carried out by a member of Palestinian Islamic Jihad in Haifa that killed 20 Israeli citizens, Israeli Defense Forces attacked a suspected Palestinian terrorist training camp 15 kilometers north of Damascus. This was the first such Israeli attack deep inside Syrian territory since the 1973 war.

Membership in International Organizations

Syria is a member of the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Arab League, Arab Monetary Fund, Council of Arab Economic Unity, Customs Cooperation Council, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, Food and Agricultural Organization, Group of 24, Group of 77, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Chamber of Commerce, International Development Association, Islamic Development Bank, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance Corporation, International Labor Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, INTERPOL, International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Non-Aligned Movement, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries, Organization of the Islamic Conference, United Nations, UN Conference on Trade and Development, UN Industrial Development Organization, UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, Universal Postal Union, World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, World Meteorological Organization, and World Tourism Organization.

Syria's 2-year term as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council ended in December 2003.

U.S.-SYRIAN RELATIONS

U.S.-Syrian relations, severed in 1967, were resumed in June 1974, following the achievement of the Syrian-Israeli disengagement agreement. In recent years, Syria and the U.S. have worked together in areas of mutual interest. In 1990-91, Syria cooperated with the U.S. as a member of the multinational coalition of forces in the Gulf War. The U.S. and Syria also consulted closely on the Taif Accord, ending the civil war in Lebanon. In 1991, President Asad made a historic decision to accept then President Bush's invitation to attend a Middle East peace conference and to engage in subsequent bilateral negotiations with Israel. Syria's efforts to secure the release of Western hostages held in Lebanon and its lifting of restrictions on travel by Syrian Jews helped further to improve relations between Syria and the United States. There were several presidential summits; the last one occurred when then-President Clinton met the late President Hafiz al-Asad in Geneva in March 2000. In the aftermath of September 11 the Syrian government began limited cooperation with U.S. in the war against terror.

The U.S. continues to have serious differences with Syria, however. Syria has been on the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism since the list's inception in 1979. Because of its continuing support and safe haven for terrorist organizations, Syria is subject to legislatively mandated penalties, including export sanctions and ineligibility to receive most forms of U.S. aid or to purchase U.S. military equipment. In 1986, the U.S. withdrew its ambassador and imposed additional administrative sanctions on Syria in response to evidence of direct Syrian involvement in an attempt to blow up an Israeli airplane. A U.S. ambassador returned to Damascus in 1987, partially in response to positive Syrian actions against terrorism such as expelling the Abu Nidal Organization from Syria and helping free an American hostage earlier that year. There is no evidence that Syrian officials have been directly involved in planning or executing terrorist attacks since 1986. Other issues of U.S. concern include the Syrian government's human rights record, its support for terrorist groups in Syria and Lebanon, its pursuit of weapons of mass destruction, its continued military and security presence in Lebanon, and since the Iraq war, infiltration of foreign fighters and weapons across the Syrian-Iraqi border. In May 2004, the Bush administration, pursuant to the provisions of the Syrian Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty Restoration Act, implemented sanctions on Syria.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

DAMASCUS (E) Address: 2, Al-Mansour Street, PO Box 29; APO/FPO: AMEMB, Unit 70200, Box (D), APO AE 09892-0200; Phone: (963-11)333-1342; Fax: (963-11)224-7938; Workweek: Sunday-Thursday, 8:00-4:30; Website: usembassy.state.gov/damascus

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

February 4, 2005

Country Description: The Syrian Arab Republic has a developing, mixed-sector economy. The ruling Ba'ath party espouses a largely secular ideology, but Islamic traditions and beliefs provide a conservative foundation for the country's customs and practices. The constitution refers to Islamic jurisprudence as a principal source of legislation, but the legal system remains influenced by French practice. Tourist facilities are widely available, and vary in quality depending on price and location

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport and a visa are required. Americans may enter Syria for up to 15 days without a visa if they have a prearranged program with a Syrian travel agent and a representative of the agent meets the traveler at the port of entry. Otherwise, visas must be obtained prior to arrival in Syria. The government of Syria does not allow persons with passports bearing an Israeli visa or entry/exit stamps to enter the country. Entry into Syria via the land border with Israel is not possible. Foreigners who wish to stay 15 days or more in Syria must register with Syrian immigration authorities by their 15th day there. Syrian-American men or Americans of Syrian origin may be subject to the Syrian compulsory military service requirement unless they receive a temporary or permanent exemption from a Syrian diplomatic mission abroad prior to their entry into Syria. (Please see the section on "Compulsory Military Service" below.) There are no special immunizations required for entry to Syria. AIDS tests are mandatory for foreigners age 15 to 60 who wish to reside in Syria. The AIDS test must be conducted in Syria at a facility approved by the Syrian Ministry of Health. A residence permit will not be issued until the absence of the HIV virus has been determined. Foreigners wishing to marry Syrian nationals in Syria must also be tested for HIV. Syria usually will not give visas or residency permits to students wishing to study religion or Arabic in private religious institutions.

See our Foreign Entry Requirements brochure for more information on Syria and other countries. Travelers may contact the Embassy of the Syrian Arab Republic, 2215 Wyoming Ave. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, telephone (202) 232-6313 or check the Syrian Embassy's home page on the Internet at http://www.syriaembassy.us for the most current visa information.

The Syrian government rigidly enforces restrictions on prior travel to Israel. Syrian immigration authorities will not admit travelers with Israeli stamps in their passports or Jordanian entry cachets or cachets from other countries that suggest prior travel to Israel. Likewise, the absence of entry stamps from a country adjacent to Israel, which the traveler has just visited, will cause Syrian immigration officials to refuse admittance. American-citizen travelers suspected of having traveled to Israel have been detained for questioning.

Syrian security officials are also sensitive about travel to Iraq. There have been instances in which Americans, especially those of Arab descent, believed to have traveled to Iraq were detained for questioning at ports of entry/exit. Americans seeking to travel to Iraq through Syria have also on occasion been turned around and/or detained. On a number of occasions the border between Iraq and Syria has been closed without notice stranding Americans on either side of the border.

Children under the age of eighteen whose fathers are Syrian or of Syrian descent must have the father's permission to leave Syria, even if the parents are separated or divorced and the mother has been granted full custody by a Syrian court. Women in Syria are often subject to strict family controls. On occasion, families of Syrian-American women visiting Syria have attempted to prevent them from leaving the country. This can be a particular problem for young single women of marriageable age. Although a woman does not need her husband's explicit consent every time she wishes to leave Syria, a Syrian husband may take legal action to prevent his wife from leaving the country, regardless of her nationality. Once such legal orders are in place, the U.S. Embassy cannot assist American citizens to leave Syria.

Safety and Security: Syria is included on the Department of State's List of State Sponsors of Terrorism. A number of terrorist groups present in Syria oppose U.S. policies in the Middle East. On April 27, 2004 there was a violent clash in an area of Damascus where many foreign citizens reside, in which three people were killed. A 1997 bombing of a public bus in downtown Damascus, which killed 22 people, and the 1998 and 2000 mob attacks against the U.S. Embassy serve as reminders that Syria is not immune from political violence. Americans traveling through the area should remain aware that U.S. interests and citizens might be targeted.

Security personnel may at times place foreign visitors under surveillance. Hotel rooms, telephones, and fax machines may be monitored, and personal possessions in hotel rooms may be searched. Taking photographs of anything that could be perceived as being of military or security interest may result in problems with authorities.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution, Middle East and North Africa Public Announcement, Travel Warnings, and other Public Announcements can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or, for callers outside the United States and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

The Department of State urges American citizens to take responsibility for their own personal security while traveling overseas. For general information about appropriate measures travelers can take to protect themselves in an overseas environment, see the Department of State's pamphlet A Safe Trip Abroad and Tips for Travelers to the Middle East and North Africa.

Crime: Crime is generally not a serious problem for travelers in Syria.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the U.S. Embassy for assistance. The Embassy staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed. See our information on Victims of Crime at http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/emergencies/emergencies_1748.html.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Basic medical care and medicines are available in Syria's principal cities, but not necessarily in outlying areas.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDCs Internet site Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's website (WHO) at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Syria is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in Syria can be hazardous and requires great caution. Although drivers generally follow traffic signs and signals, they often maneuver aggressively and show little regard for vehicles traveling behind them. Lane markings are usually ignored. Vehicles within Syrian traffic circles must give way to oncoming traffic, unlike in the United States. Pedestrians must also exercise caution. Parked cars, deteriorating pavement, and guard posts obstruct sidewalks, often forcing pedestrians to walk in the street.

For specific information concerning Syrian driving permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Syrian Embassy in Washington, D.C. at 2215 Wyoming Avenue, NW 20008, #202-232-6313

Aviation Safety Oversight: Sanctions resulting from the passage of the Syria Accountability Act prohibit aircraft of any air carrier owned or controlled by the Syrian government to take off from or land in the United States. As there is no direct commercial air service by local carriers between the U.S. and Syria, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Syria's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet website at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Special Circumstances: Syrian customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Syria of items such as weapons, narcotics, alcohol, tobacco, cheese, fruits, pharmaceuticals, modems, cosmetics, and some electrical appliances. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Syria in Washington for specific information regarding customs requirements. Please see our information on customs regulations.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship are readily available. Although Syria is a signatory to the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, consular notification and access to arrested Americans are problematic. Syrian officials generally do not notify the American Embassy when American citizens are arrested. When the American Embassy learns of arrests of Americans and requests consular access, individual police officials have, on their own initiative, responded promptly and allowed consular officers to visit the prisoners. However, security officials have also in the past denied Embassy requests for consular access, especially in the case of dual citizens.

Foreign currencies cannot be exchanged for Syrian pounds except at government-approved exchange centers within Syria, and Syrian pounds cannot be changed back into foreign currency. There are only three private banks operating in Syria, with no more than two branches each in Damascus, and few ATMs. These limited ATMs do not honor all debit/credit systems. Funds may be transferred into Syria through Western Union. Bank wiring of funds is rare, difficult to achieve, can take a long period of time to clear, and can be costly in terms of fees.

Syrian-American and Palestinian-American men who have never served in the Syrian military and who are planning to visit Syria are strongly urged to check with the Syrian Embassy in Washington, prior to traveling, concerning compulsory military service.

American men over the age of 18, even those who have never resided in or visited Syria, whose fathers are of Syrian descent, are required to complete military service or pay to be exempted. Possession of a U.S. passport does not absolve the bearer of this obligation.

The fee for exemption from military service ranges from $5,000 to $15,000 depending upon circumstances, for Syrian-American and Palestinian-American men who live abroad. In January 2005 the Syrian government reduced mandatory military service from 30 months to 24 months. It also announced that Syrians born outside of Syria and residing abroad until the age of 18 have the option of being exempted from their service by paying $2000 USD. Those born in Syria who left the country before reaching the age of 11, and who have resided abroad for more than 15 years can be exempted by paying $5000 USD. Contact the Syrian Embassy in Washington, D.C., for more information.

President Bush signed an executive order on May 11, 2004 implementing sanctions in accordance with the Syria Accountability Act. These sanctions prohibit the export to Syria of products of the United States other than food or medicine, and prohibit any commercial aircraft owned or controlled by the Syrian government from taking off from or landing in the United States. Under the authority provided in Section 5(b) of the Act, the President has determined that it is in the national security interest of the United States to waive the application of these sanctions in certain cases and for certain products, as specified in the Department of Commerce's General Order No. 2.

For additional information about implementation of the Syria Accountability Act, consult the Department of Commerce website (www.bos.doc.gov). Since 1979, the United States has designated Syria a State Sponsor of Terrorism due to its support for groups such as Hizballah and Palestinian terrorist groups. The Terrorism List Government Sanctions Regulations prohibit U.S. persons from receiving unlicensed donations from the Syrian government. Additionally, U.S. persons are prohibited from engaging in financial transactions with respect to which a U.S. person knows or has reasonable cause to believe that the financial transaction poses a risk of furthering terrorists' acts in the United States. For additional information about the Terrorism List Government Sanctions Regulations, consult the terrorism brochure on the U.S. Department of the Treasury, Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) home page on the internet at http://www.treas.gov/ofac or via OFAC's info-by-fax service at (202) 622-0077.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Syrian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Syria are strict and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines. Penalties for possession of even small amounts of illegal drugs for personal use are severe in Syria. Persons convicted in Syria for growing, processing, or smuggling drugs face the death penalty, which may be reduced to a minimum of 20 years imprisonment. Engaging in illicit sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Locations: - Americans living or traveling in Syria are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Syria. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. - The U.S. Embassy is located at 2, Al-Mansour St., Abu Roumaneh. The international mailing address is P.O. Box 29, Damascus. Mail may also be sent via the U.S. Postal Service to: American Embassy Damascus, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-6110. Telephone numbers are (963) (11) 333-1342, fax number is (963) (11) 331-9678, e-mail: acsdamascus@state.gov. The government workweek in Syria is Sunday through Thursday; the private sector generally works Saturday through Thursday. The U.S. Embassy is open Sunday through Thursday.

Additional information may be found on the Embassy website at http://usembassy.state.gov/damascus.

International Adoption

January 2005

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family

Disclaimer: The information in this circular relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign counsel.

NOTE: The information contained in this flyer is intended as an introduction to adoption in the Syria. It is not intended as a legal reference. Currently there are no international or bilateral treaties in force between Syria and the United States dealing with international adoption.

Legal "Adoption" in Syria: The American Embassy in Damascus has been informed that in Syria religious authorities handle laws concerning personal status matters, such as adoption. Islamic Sharia law does not provide for adoption and the adoption of a Muslim child would not be recognized in Syria. Technically, adoption is allowable under the laws of various Christian denominations; however, it is the Embassy's understanding that for the past 80 years most Christian churches in Syria have preferred not to handle adoptions in order to conform to Sharia law provisions on inheritance. The Embassy has been informed that Sharia law restricts distribution of inheritance to spouses and certain blood relatives and, for that reason, adoption does not exist in Syria.

Specific questions regarding adoption issues may be addressed to: Embassy of the Syrian Arab Republic; 2215 Wyoming Avenue, N.W.; Washington, D.C. 20008; Phone: (202) 232-6313. Or. U.S. Embassy in Damascus; Abu Roumaneh; Al-Mansur St. No. 2; P.O. Box 29; Damascus, Syria; Phone: (963) (11) 333-1342; Fax: (963) (11) 331-9678.

International Parental Child Abduction

January 2005

The information below has been edited from the report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Parental Child Abduction section of this book and review current reports online at travel.state.gov

Disclaimer: The information in this circular relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign counsel.

General Child Custody Information: Syrian custody law generally follows Islamic law. The father or his family is usually entitled to custody of a child. Although the courts do grant the mother physical custody in some cases, permission to take the children outside Syria is not granted (See Exit Permits below), particularly when the child is under nine years old if a boy, or under eleven years old if a girl. Some American parents have been successful in obtaining custody before Syrian courts. A list of lawyers willing to handle such cases is available from both the Office of Children's Issues and the U.S. Embassy in Damascus.

One important factor in obtaining custody in Syria is whether the Syrian parent has registered either the marriage or the child's birth with Syrian authorities, either in Syria or at the Syrian Embassy in Washington. Contact the Office of Children's Issues in the Department of State or the Syrian Embassy to inquire if a marriage or birth has been registered, if a child has been issued a Syrian passport, or for general information on Syrian family law.

Dual Nationality and Exit Permits: Children born to Syrian citizens acquire Syrian citizenship even when they are born in the United States and are U.S. citizens. If a dual national child of a Syrian father enters Syria on a U.S. passport and tourist visa and has stayed less than one month, he or she should be able to depart with his or her mother unless the Syrian father contacts Syrian emigration authorities to prevent departure. However, if the child has stayed in Syria for longer than one month, paternal permission is required for departure.

There is no legal way to circumvent this requirement. The child needs to be issued an exit visa by the Syrian authorities, which requires the Syrian father's written permission, regardless of whether the child's passport is the same one he or she used to enter Syria, or whether it is a replacement passport issued by the U.S. Embassy in Damascus.

If the father is absent, the law delegates his authority over the child to a person regarded as the child's guardian, not the mother. No guardian is officially appointed by the Syrian court, rather, the role is assigned automatically to a male relative of the father. This guardian will almost never risk family disapproval by acting counter to the father's wishes.

Please Note: American citizens who travel to Syria place themselves under the jurisdiction of Syrian courts. U.S. court orders cannot usually be enforced in Syria.

If a Syrian parent chooses to remain in Syria or leave a child behind in Syria, the U.S. Embassy cannot force either the parent or the Syrian Government to return the child to the United States, regardless of what custody orders U.S. courts may issue, nor is it possible in most cases to extradite a Syrian parent to the United States for parental child abduction. American citizens planning a trip to Syria with dual national children should bear this in mind.

Specific questions regarding child custody in Syria may be addressed to: Embassy of the Syrian Arab Republic; 2215 Wyoming Avenue, N.W.; Washington, D.C. 20008; Phone: (202) 232-6313. Or, U.S. Embassy Damascus; Abou Roumaneh; Al-Mansur St. No. 2; P.O. Box 29; Damascus, Syria; Phone: (963) (11) 333-1342; Fax: (963) (11) 331-9678.