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The Importance of Preserving the Environment in Forestry Development

1.1 Ecological Crisis: A Common Threat Facing Mankind

1.2 Man and Nature must be in Harmony

1.3 Tackling Contemporary Problems with Traditional Culture

1.4 Theory on Management: In Pursuit of Harmony

1.5 China's Forestry: Achievements with Hardships

1.6 The Real Position of Forestry

The 21st century is an extremely important period in the history of China's development. In the middle of the 20th century, the Chinese nation put an end to one hundred years of humiliation and founded the People's Republic of China (PRC), embarking on the great road to national revival. In the late 1970s, sound principles for the development of the nation were established. After more than twenty years of struggle, the country has made historic strides, from having adequate food and clothing to being well-off, and laid the foundation for a national take-off. Early in the 21st century, the Sixteenth National Congress of the Communist Party of China (CPC) has drawn up a major blueprint to keep pace with the times and to build a well-rounded and affluent society, so that China can stand among the ranks of the major powers in the world.

The 21st century will be a period of sustainable economic and social development of the country. The identification of this strategic goal has conferred on the forestry sector a special status, more important than at any time in history. The forestry industry has become the mainstay of ecological development, the foundation of sustainable economic and social development, the basis and starting point of development in the western region and an important component of the socialist modernization drive. A developed forestry industry will constitute one of the important symbols of state prosperity, national revival, and social progress. Protecting and developing forestry resources will therefore play an extremely important part in preserving the national ecological environment and ensuring effective space for the survival and progress of the Chinese nation, providing a sound basis for the progress of the national economy and society.

China is a developing country at a special stage when both the tasks of developing the economy and protecting the environment are arduous. Taking into account national conditions and the need to push forward the modernization drive, the country must take protecting the ecological environment as a basic strategy and make the realization of sustainable development a long-term goal. In the meantime, China is faced with the contradiction between developing the economy and improving the ecological environment, a contradiction all countries in the world cannot bypass in their modernization process. Moreover, this contradiction has become more salient and acute during the development stage. On the one hand, since the introduction of reforms and the opening up of the country, the national economy has grown by leaps and bounds, not only raising the overall economic development level but also improving the people's livelihood. As a result, there is a drastic change in the demands of society. The demands have become diversified and social awareness for improving the ecological environment has quickly grown. On the other hand, the foundations of the ecological environment were originally very fragile and the mistakes made in the development process caused by multiple factors have brought about unprecedented environmental problems. In the period of speedy economic development, the existing environmental problems have interwoven with new ones that have emerged, making these problems even more complex and more salient. The pressure to protect the ecological environment has thus become even greater while the overall quality of the ecological environment has been declining.

The reality of China's economic and social development, however, is that the general and conventional control measures for the ecological environment cannot by far meet the needs of economic and social development of the country, even less the requirements of the drive for sustainable development. The inference that “Others' yesterday is our today, and that others' today is our tomorrow” does not fit in with the reality of China's development. Following the traditional development model will hardly resolve the ecological environment problems. Not only that, but an unbearable price will also have to be paid that will ultimately hinder the realization of the strategy of sustainable development. Only through deeper understanding and greater creativity to meet the challenges can human society reach its goal of improving the quality of livelihood. China's ecological environment development is at a historic crossroad facing yet another major option for changing the development process.

Forests are the mainstay in the territory ecosystem and forestry constitutes the key to the development of the ecological environment. To accelerate its advancement it is necessary to push forward the development of the forestry industry. At present, the forestry industry shoulders the most arduous task in ecological environment development in history, facing unprecedented challenges. However, it has the opportunity to stimulate the whole nation to creatively change the ecological environment. The industry must adapt itself to the new requirements raised by national economic and social development and steadfastly switch the emphasis in forestry work to ecological development in order to realize a leap in development of the sector and keep pace with continuing innovations to achieve sustainable development at an early date.

1.1 Ecological Crisis: A Common Threat Facing Mankind

With all the trees felled and all the water resources dried, the value of a drop of water will equal that of blood in the future.

—Lu Xun

Forests are the mainstay of the land ecosystem, helping to preserve balance in the ecosystem. In the past, however, mankind did not fully understand this status and role of forests and carried out long-term and large-scale over-utilization of these resources, leading to much damage. During the agricultural revolution, vast expanses of forests were turned into farmland and the timber used as industrial materials during the period of industrial revolution. Until today, land reclamation by deforestation and felling of trees remain an important means of maintaining the national economy and the people's livelihood.

Over the past hundred years, mankind's utilization and damage of forests reached very shocking proportions. At the outset of human civilization, two-thirds of the Earth's land were covered by about 7.6 billion hectares of forests. By the middle of the 19th century, this acreage had been reduced to 5.6 billion hectares. At the end of the 20th century, it decreased further to 3.44 billion hectares, with forest cover declining to 27%. In other words, more than half of the forests on Earth has gone. The Global Environment Outlook 2000, released by the United Nations Environment Program, pointed out that the demand for timber and farmland has reduced the global forests by half and turned 30% of forests into agricultural land, thus destroying about 80% of virgin forests. The remaining virgin forests are either fragmented, or have degenerated or are uneven in distribution so that they can hardly meet the demands of human utilization.

What serious consequences have the destruction of forests brought about? From the global perspective, the drastic reduction of forests has directly led to six major ecological problems.

1.1.1 Serious Desertification of Land on the Globe

Desertification has been designated the “cancer of the Earth” and remains the main cause of the ecological crisis. Numerous factors contribute to desertification and the most damaging one is the destruction of forest vegetation. In history, the birthplaces of the ancient Babylonian, Egyptian, Indian, and ancient Yellow River civilizations were all lands of wealth with dense forests and thriving grass. The destruction of forest vegetation resulted in the declining and shifting of these civilizations. The ancient Babylonian civilization came into existence on the fertile Mesopotamian Plain in southwestern Asia which was nurtured by the two big rivers of the Euphrates and Tigris originating from the Zagros Mountains. The Babylonian kingdom of 4,000 to 5,000 years ago, and the Arabian Empire of more than 1,000 years ago, both took Babylon as their cultural center. The large-scale destruction of forests and grassland in the Zagros Mountains and on the Persian Plateau brought about serious desertification and destructive damage to the Babylonian civilization. Historical facts have proven that mankind cannot separate itself from forests and that their loss would lead to the loss of everything. As early as more than 100 years ago, Friedrich Engels warned the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Greece, Asia Minor, and other places not to fell all the trees in order to get farmland. Yet they did not expect that these places would become barren lands as a result. It is unfortunate that the warning was not heeded and that the forests continued to be destroyed and hence desertification expanded without interruption. Prior to the 1950s, there were some areas of Africa that had much forest vegetation, but, owing to indiscriminate felling and reclaiming, many of these regions have become deserts. The Sahara Desert each year swallows up to 1.5 million hectares of land southward, and has expanded by 560,000 square kilometers in this direction. Currently, the acreage of global desertification has reached 36 million square kilometers, one quarter of the total land area of the Earth, inflicting much damage and hardship to 110 countries. The damage caused by deforestation has been serious, extensive, and cruel as it has led to the shifting of civilizations, the decline of regimes, and the shrinking of space for human survival. No other natural disaster may reach such serious proportions.

1.1.2 Serious Global Soil Erosion

Water is the source of life while soil is the basis of survival, and forests are the clothing of the Earth. These are the three basic resources for human survival and development. Soil erosion is the most direct serious consequence of deforestation. Forests play an important role in soil formation and form the most effective protection layer. The loss of forests means the loss of fertile land. It has been determined through tests that with a rainfall of 340 millimeters, the scouring effect on one hectare of forested land is only 60 kilograms whereas for barren land it is 6,750 kilograms, 110 times higher than the forested land. The serious destruction of forests has made global soil erosion ever more serious, with the loss of 60 billion tons of top-soil per year. This has led to declining fertility and shortage of nutrients in farmland amounting to 2.99 billion hectares, representing 23% of the global land area. It is not difficult to imagine the threat which the continued loss of fertile soil poses to human survival.

1.1.3 Grave Global Droughts and Shortage of Water

Forests are called “green seas and oceans” and “invisible green reservoirs.” Forests and the soil under them may suck up great quantities of precipitation like sponge. Tests have shown that each hectare of forest may store 1,000 cubic meters of precipitation. The quantity of water stored by 10,000 hectares of forest equals that of a reservoir with a capacity of 10 million cubic meters. The 1980 White Paper on forestry in Japan stated that the water stored in the soil under the forests in Japan was estimated to amount to 230 billion cubic meters, eight times the water in Biwako with an area of 675 square kilometers. Forests may redistribute the precipitation, making the greater part of it effective water that is recycled locally. Without forests, however, the precipitation will flow away quickly through rivers, leading to great losses of precious fresh water resources and declining precipitation. Large-scale deforestation has resulted in global water shortages, with inadequate fresh water resources on 60% of land in more than 100 countries, which are suffering from serious water shortage. In some regions, the scramble for water resources has resulted in disputes between neighboring countries and led to the use of force, becoming one of the root causes of conflicts among the international community.

1.1.4 Serious Flooding

The role of forests in preventing flooding is reflected mainly in two aspects: the first is to stop soil erosion and store rainwaters; and the second is to prevent rivers, lakes, and reservoirs from being silted up. The vanishing forests have led to a sharp declining capacity for water storage. At the same time, under the scouring effect of rainwater, large quantities of soil flow downstream from the barren land to silt up the rivers, lakes, and reservoirs so that flooding waters cannot be drained away quickly. Torrential rains will thus cause extensive flooding. Flooding and droughts are two sides of the same coin; deforestation will result in droughts and flooding from precipitation. In the past, Bangladesh suffered from flooding once every fifty years, but because of the large-scale felling of trees, it experienced flooding once every four years in the 1970s and 1980s.

1.1.5 Loss of Animal and Plant Species

The forests are home to numerous species of plants and animals, one of the most valuable storehouses of biodiversity, and the basis of sustainable development, called the “heritage of the future.” More than half of the biological species on the globe live and procreate in forests. Thus, it is inevitable that the destruction of forests will be followed by the extinction of species. At present, the recorded biological species amount to 1.6 million, among which there are 80,000 plants that are edible for human beings, with thirty of them providing 95% of the plant protein that mankind needs. Currently, it is difficult to estimate the value of wild animal and plant species available for the future of mankind. As a result of the large-scale destruction of global forests, the present speed of extinction of these species is estimated to be about 1,000 times that of the natural speed. Therefore, the species on Earth are faced with an unprecedented crisis of extinction. Many unique species have already disappeared from the Earth. The loss of forests will undermine the foundation for sustainable development and jeopardize the future of the world.

1.1.6 Greenhouse Effect Worsens

The increase of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has resulted in the climate becoming warmer, termed the “greenhouse effect.” Forests absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. One hectare of forest may, in producing 10 tons of dry matter, absorb 16 tons of carbon dioxide and release 12 tons of oxygen on average. Deforestation, on the other hand, releases carbon dioxide. At present, the carbon release caused by the destruction of forests is second only to that by mineral fuels. The greenhouse effect has inflicted serious damage on mankind. In the past one hundred years, the ice cap in the Arctic region has decreased by 42% and the sea surface has risen by some 50 centimeters. A study released by a research group in the United States on April 6, 2001 stated that in the past ten years, serious ecological disasters caused by the warming of the Earth were more than four times those in the 1950s. These disasters inflicted nine times more losses, amounting to US$625.2 billion, equal to the total value of the losses incurred in the previous forty years. There are principally three ways of reducing the greenhouse effect. The first one is to drastically reduce the use of mineral fuels; the second is to avoid the destruction of forest resources; and the third is to rebuild the forest vegetation on the Earth. Afforestation is the most cost-effective measure to control carbon dioxide.

Without a keen awareness of this environmental and ecological crisis, efforts to make progress in civilization may be hampered. From the major ecological crises described earlier, it is clear that the consequences of the destruction of forests are extremely serious. Scientists affirm categorically that if forests disappear from the Earth, 90% of living things will become extinct, 90% of the fresh water sources on the Earth will flow to the seas, biological nitrogen-fixation will decline by 90%, and biological release of oxygen will decrease by 60%. At the same time, there will be numerous accompanying ecological and production problems so that it will be difficult for mankind to survive. In fact, the series of ecological crises caused by the drastic decrease of forests has already constituted a strategic threat to the whole globe.

History has shown that human development is dependent upon the relationship between man and nature and the vicissitudes of forests, which to a certain degree reflects the process of human evolution and development. By respecting nature and protecting the ecology, mankind will enjoy superior living conditions, whereas the violation of nature and sabotage of the ecology will only lead to suffering from endless disasters. Mankind has already paid a heavy price for the serious sabotage of forests. Innumerable facts have proved that for a country, region, or ethnic group, its civilization will thrive if the forests there flourish, whereas its civilization will decline if the forests there degenerate. This is a law of nature independent of the human will. It is because of a deep understanding of this law that in the last twenty years, the international community has paid unprecedented attention to the issue of forestry. In 1984, scientists from the Rome Club strongly appealed that to save the ecological environment on Earth, it is essential first to save the forests on Earth. Edouard Saouma, former director-general of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, pointed out that forests are the future of mankind and the balance of the Earth. In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), commonly known as the Earth Summit, in Agenda 21, outlining the Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the Convention to Combat Desertification, gave top priority to forestry. The conference pointed out in the Statement of Principles for the Sustainable Management of Forests that forestry issues and opportunities should be examined in a holistic and balanced manner within the overall context of environment and development taking into consideration the multiple functions and uses of forests, including traditional uses, and the likely economic and social stress when these uses are constrained or restricted, as well as the potential for development that sustainable forest management can offer, and that forests are essential to economic development and the maintenance of all forms of life.

1.2 Man and Nature must be in Harmony

The concept of nature is changeable for human development history. The changed progress is: from enemy to example, to object, to partner. This is our answer.

—Unknown

The ever worsening ecological crisis has put a special importance on forests and forestry. Forestry is at the same time an ancient and a young industry. It is ancient because it has been a part of the prolonged historical process of the development of human society, being the earliest source of food and clothing and an important supplier of materials for mankind. In particular, it has been a living witness of the evolution of mankind, held in awe and veneration, and at the same time being obedient to, resisting, remolding, and adapting itself to and learning from nature.

It is young, because along with a continued deepening of understanding of itself and nature, new knowledge has been conferred on ancient forestry. The fundamental task of modern forestry is to build up an excellent ecological environment suitable for human survival and development. It may be said in this sense that modern forestry is at a higher stage in the development of the relationship between man and nature.

The relationship between man and nature has been studied since ancient times until today, covering the whole Earth from east to west. The debate concerning this relationship is still ongoing and presents itself with its features of unprecedented comprehensiveness, wholeness, depth and clarity, demanding scientifically-proven explanations and practical options.

Since earliest times, this relationship between man and nature has had a double impact. On one hand, owing to the need for survival, mankind has inevitably intervened with nature and resisted its force in order to gain the right to survive. On the other hand, nature, with its mighty force, has restrained the activities of mankind and demanded obedience to it. Thus, remolding and dependence as well as domination and subjugation have been part of the whole process of the evolution of the relationship between man and nature although, in different historical periods and at different development stages, the balance of power and forms of expression of these two trends have varied.

In the relationship between man and nature during primitive times, the latter enjoyed absolute superiority while man's ability to intervene with nature was extremely weak, with the force of nature surpassing by far that of man. Therefore, man's ability to remold nature was almost negligible.

During the period of the agricultural society, nature still dominated this relationship with man “bowing its head to acknowledge allegiance.” This situation was, however, different from that in primitive times. With the development of production and progress in science, partial differentiation was evident in the relationship. Man was able to extricate himself from the domination of nature and took the step of examining nature and himself from the perspective of a subject. Although the low level of production forces limited this differentiation between man and nature, yet, compared with ancient times, this represented historic progress. In this period, the superior position of nature vis-à-vis mankind was more concerned with the social material and practical activities. In ideology and concept, apart from recognizing his dependence on and submission to nature, man worshipped and held it in veneration but demanded coordination and integration with it.

The ideologies and cultures of ancient Greece and Rome, particularly their philosophy and mythology, expressed very typically and vividly the relationship between man and nature in an agricultural society. The Greek deities, with flesh and blood and full of humanist spirit, were the incarnation of natural forces and at the same time embodied the conquering power of mankind vis-à-vis nature. There were no supernatural deities and the power of deities was contained in all matter. Within the framework of the theory on natural deities, man maintained his respect and worship of nature and strove to obtain harmony between man and nature.

In this period, similar to the Western ideology of pursuing harmony between man and nature, the concept of the “integration of man with heaven” emerged in oriental culture. Although the theory was expressed in varied forms and the relevant views were not identical, the proposition of harmonious coexistence between man and nature was common to all of them. It is to be noted, however, that as in the ancient Greek and Roman times, the natural sciences possessed a relatively strong theoretical aspect and there was also the cultural tradition of probing metaphysics. As a result, their expositions on the relationship between man and nature were permeated with an active spirit and desire to understand and develop nature. The oriental concept of the “integration of man with heaven,” in terms of its main content, excluded the theoretical understanding of and active intervention in nature by man and, with a simple direct visual comparison, internal mystical analogies and a passive mind-set expressed the veneration of and identification with nature.

Throughout history, the decisive factor determining the relationship between man and nature was not ideology, but material force. Therefore, the speedy development of productive forces brought about by the progress in science conferred upon man the ability to overturn the control of nature. This signaled that the relationship between man and nature had entered into a new phase of development, which was industrial civilization. The fast development of modern natural sciences and the technological revolution continuously forged material weapons for remolding the world, and made social productive forces multiply at a shocking pace. Industrialization and modernization have increased mankind's confidence and pride. The fast-growing material wealth is proof of mankind's dominance over nature and continually reinforces its desire to further enhance its power. In the past, limited material pursuit and a sense of depression caused by the enslavement by nature led to retaliation against it. Mankind now dominates nature, but is in turn dominated by the desire for material possessions. Thus, mankind has lost its rationale and focus and forgotten the importance of a relationship of interdependence between man and nature.

The industrial civilization not only established the dominance of mankind over nature by creating material wealth, but it also made progress in the theoretical understanding of the relationship between man and nature. Because of the theorization and systemization of the natural sciences, the ongoing study of nature has also enriched the understanding of nature by mankind. Meanwhile, the trend towards naturalism in modern Western culture has provided new vistas and made new attempts to master in depth the relationship between man and nature from the ethical and aesthetic perspectives.

The industrial period provided mankind with the means for remolding nature and as man obtained social material wealth the relationship between man and nature began to develop in a direction contrary to what was expected. The desire of mankind to dominate nature became a strong driving force for social progress, but while much was achieved, it brought about a new predicament of development that pushed mankind toward finding new options.

1.3 Tackling Contemporary Problems with Traditional Culture

The most benevolent sages are like water. Cultivating people with moral integrity. Harmony nurtures boundless intelligence.

In the light of present developments, and the various types of ecological threats, a major turning point has been reached in the relationship between man and nature, which calls for a relook at the primitive but real issue—that of coordinating the relationship between man and nature. In this complex situation, China's long traditional culture provides deep spiritual wealth for solving this contemporary problem.

In traditional Chinese culture, the relationship between man and nature has been described as a “relationship between heaven and man.” This philosophical proposition is rich in meaning. The various schools of thought from the pre-Qin (221–206BC) times to the early Han Dynasty has offered insightful definitions for this proposition, including those presented by Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. These views have remained relevant even after thousands of years and constitute an excellent spiritual resource of the Chinese nation. They were not only held in high esteem by the open-minded emperors of various dynasties, but have also become the norms by which for thousands of years, mankind came to understand himself and nature.

1.3.1 The Taoist Concept of Unity of Heaven and Man

Taoism was one of the principal ancient philosophical schools in China which systematically expounded the relationship between heaven and man, and introduced propositions for understanding and explaining the relationship between man and nature, such as “unity of heaven and man,” “It is wise to know the laws,” “One will not fail if one knows where to stop,” and “Knowing how to be satisfied prevents one from being shamed.”

1.3.1.1 Man is an organic component part of nature

The philosophy of Lao Tze was a breakthrough in ancient philosophy where politics and ethics were taken as the axis, and thus the scope of thinking was expanded to the whole universe. His world outlook stated that all matter on Earth formed an entirety and that man was part of the matter between heaven and Earth. This was the earliest theory of the concept of “unity of heaven and man” in ancient China. This view was further explored in Zhuang Zi, a famous Taoist book of the preQin period, in which is stated: “All matter form an entirety,” and “Heaven and the Earth coexist with me and that all matter identify with me.” This overall concept of the unity of man and all matter in the world expressed a deep understanding in Chinese civilization of the relationship among mankind, the society, and nature.

1.3.1.2 Mankind must conform to the laws of nature

The philosophy of Lao Tze held that the movements and changes of all matter was governed by laws which were called “Tao of heaven.” Since heaven and man were united and man was part of nature, the rules made by man should be subordinate to the “Tao of heaven.” “The ways of men were conditioned by those of earth. The ways of earth, by those of heaven. The ways of heaven by those of Tao, and the ways of Tao by the self-so.” (Chapter 25, Lao Tze). “Therefore the Sage does not act, and so does not harm.” “To know the always-so is to be illumined; not to know it means to go blindly to disaster.” (Chapter 64, Lao Tze). To avert reckless action, it is essential to understand the laws of nature: “It is wise to know the laws.” “Without knowing the laws and acting recklessly will have a disastrous end.” It is therefore wise to understand the laws concerning the changes of all things in the world.

1.3.1.3 The folly of greed

With regard to the relentless pursuit of fame and wealth, Lao Tze offered the following advice: “Fame or one's own self, which matters to one most? One's own self or things bought, which should count most? In the getting or the losing, which is worse? Hence he who grudges expense pays dearest in the end; He who has hoarded most will suffer the heaviest loss. Be content with what you have and are, and no one can despoil you; who stops in time nothing can harm. He is forever safe and secure.” (Lao Tze, Chapter 44). Extreme avarice will surely lead to more expenditures and hoarding, more losses. Knowing how to be satisfied will prevent one from being humiliated, knowing when to stop appropriately will prevent one from getting into trouble. Thus, one may last long.

1.3.2 The Confucian Concept of Harmony of Man and Heaven

Confucianism is the mainstream of traditional Chinese culture. Fundamentally, the attitude of Confucian culture toward nature is similar to that of Taoism. Confucianism also holds that man is part of nature and identifies with all things in nature. Man should therefore take a submissive and friendly attitude toward nature to attain the ultimate goal of harmony between them. With regard to the attitude toward nature, however, Taoism advocates purity and simplicity and opposes human force intervening with nature. Confucianism, on the other hand, states that man is the wisest of the creatures on Earth and may make use of nature in accordance with its laws to rationally explore, utilize, and protect the natural environment.

1.3.2.1 Loving all things and respecting nature

Confucianism holds that “the benevolent regard everything under Heaven and the Earth as an integral unity” and if one of them thrives, all the others will; if one withers, the others will also. Respecting nature is like respecting man himself. In The Book of Changes, the first of the six Confucian classics, respecting, nurturing and preserving life was designated a great virtue of man (The Book of Changes). Xun Tze believed that “All creatures are born from the meeting of necessary conditions and grow up through nurturing,” and advocated applying “benevolence” to all living things. Dong Zhongshu of the Han Dynasty (206BC–AD220) also believed in extending Confucian “benevolence” from loving humans to loving things. He said, “The gentleman loves humans and his love extends to birds, animals and insects. What is his benevolence if he does not love these?” (Spring and Autumn Annals. The Law of Benevolence and Righteousness, by Chunqiufanlu).

1.3.2.2 Controlling the use of resources

During the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476BC), Guan Zhong was prime minister of the State of Qi. To achieve his objective of developing the economy and building a strong army and State, he placed great emphasis on the management of mountains, rivers, and forests in the State, the protection of biological resources, and promoted the principle of “prohibition of exploitation at proper times.” He said, “Although the mountains and forests are nearby and the grass is flourishing, the court must be restrained in its exploitation and prohibition of exploitation must be observed at proper times” (Guan Zi, Baguan). He suggested that people should develop and utilize natural resources in accordance with designated time periods. Later, Mencius and Xun Tze inherited and further developed Guan Zi's idea of “prohibition of exploitation at designated times.” Mencius maintained that biological resources should only be taken at designated times and with restraint. “Not missing the farming season, there will be more than enough grain to eat; suspending fishing at certain times, there will be more than enough fish and turtles to eat; felling at designated times, there will be more timber and firewood to use (Mencius, King Lianghui). Mencius was of the view that biological resources would multiply if earnestly protected, otherwise they would be exhausted. Therefore, “if well nurtured, everything will grow abundantly whereas if not, everything will wither” (Mencius, Gao Zi,Part One). Xun Tze also pointed out, “When the trees and grass flourish, there should not be felling and mowing so that they would continue growing. Timely spring ploughing, summer weeding, autumn harvesting, and winter storage will result in surplus grain for the common people. Fishing in the lakes and ponds should be prohibited at certain times so that there will be an abundance of fish and turtles for consumption. Felling and nurturing of trees at appropriate times allows the forests to mature so that the commoners will have enough to use” (Xun Tze, Royal Regulations).

1.3.2.3 With restraint, things can be put to best use

Confucianism attaches much importance to the administration of state affairs and the elevation of human, financial, and material resources to the level of state policy. When King Jing of the state of Qi consulted Confucius on state affairs, the latter replied, “The art of managing state affairs lie in economizing wealth.” (Confucius, Records of the Grand Historian, Chapter 17). Lu Zhi, the famous prime minister of the Tang Dynasty (AD618–907) once said, “There are limits to how much the land can nuture creatures and humans in making things. If we take or use them with restraint, there will be sufficient quantities for all; otherwise, there will be constant insufficiency. Sufficiency and scarcity depend on heaven, but their utilization on mankind. That is why the sages kept expenditure within the limits of income” (Lu Zhi, Collection of the Imperial Academy). Confucius put forward the proposition that the management of “state affairs lie in economizing wealth” principally from the political and economic perspectives, but objectively its significance is in protecting nature.

1.3.3 The Concept of Buddhist Fraternity

In traditional Chinese culture, Buddhism offered the most comprehensive definition of the ideology on respecting life. It subscribes to the view that creatures are equal, that all living things should be free in this mortal world, and that all should observe the moral discipline of not killing life.

1.3.3.1 The belief that all creatures are equal

In Buddhism, there is no clear distinction between man and nature. The definition of living things can be made in a broad or narrow sense. The narrow sense refers to man, while the broad sense includes all creatures. Life and the environment form an inseparable whole. Buddha regards man and all other creatures as equal.

1.3.3.2 The concept of the freedom of all living things

Proceeding from the doctrine that mankind is not at the center but stands among all things as equals, Buddhism advocates treating all things well and respecting life. Thus, one should care for and love all creatures, experience the miseries of all creatures as his own, experience the poor living environment of creatures as one's own, thus extending one's “love” or “benevolence” beyond one's offspring, wife, brothers or sisters, to all humans and creatures. This benevolence goes well beyond the care of mankind itself.

1.3.3.3 The moral concept of not killing life

The Buddhist concept of good and evil is specifically reflected in its commandments, which are the basic moral tenets that all Buddhist believers abide by. “No killing of life” has always been the most important among the Buddhist tenets. Killing life means not only harming the life of humans, but also that of all creatures. Killing life means depriving the right of life, which can bring about miseries and misfortune. Naturally, the Buddhist tenet of “not killing life” is a religious belief, and does not refer to biological protection in the ecological sense. This belief alone cannot solve the issue of protecting living things by man, but the idea of respecting life and treating nature well-expressed in this belief is valuable.

The above traditional thinking was born in distant ancient times, yet it contains rational elements and an eternal value which transcend time and state boundaries. And in it there are buds of the ideology of sustainable development. As an integral part of the overall wisdom of mankind, these ideas have enlightening significance for overcoming the ecological crisis facing contemporary mankind. From this, it is clear that forests should be treated as an important component of the unified whole of nature. It is also important to comprehensively understand the multiple values of forests and fully respect the laws of nature in the process of administering and managing them, taking and utilizing them with restraint, and rationally exploiting them.

1.4 Theory on Management: In Pursuit of Harmony

See, all things howsoever they flourish. Return to the root from which they grew. This return to the root is called Quietness; Quietness is called submission to Fate; What has submitted to Fate has become part of the always so. To know the always-so is to be illumined; Not to know it, means to go blindly to disaster.

—Lao Tze, Tao De Jing, Chapter 16

Even if mankind has won in its struggle against nature, and obtained the long-awaited fruit, rejoicing as the victor, yet the crisis arising from the victory has forced mankind to continually adjust and revise its relationship with forests. Development and innovation have always progressed in tandem with the process of forestry. Along with the continued evolution of practices in forestry in the various countries of the world, based on the theory of sustainable forest utilization established in the 17th century in Germany, there appeared one after another the theory of multifunctional forests, the theory of division of labor of forestry, the theory of new forestry, the theory of close-to-nature forestry, the theory of eco-forestry, and the theory of sustainable forest management. It may be said that the history of world forestry development is also one of evolution, with continued innovation in the theories of forestry development and the ever changing relationship between man and the forest. After establishing the strategic goal of achieving rapid and sustainable development, and fully assimilating the wisdom of traditional Chinese culture, it will be beneficial to draw on the experiences of other countries in developing the forestry industry. The sciences are a shared wealth of mankind which should be tapped to enable the further development of the industry.

1.4.1 The Theory of Sustainable Forest Utilization

In the mid-17th century, Germany, owing to the development of the salt, mining, metallurgical, glass, and ship-building industries, carried out large-scale felling and over-consumed its forest resources. At the beginning of the 18th century, a timber crisis arose which shocked the whole country. Because of the first timber crisis and the over-felling of virgin forests, Hans von Carlowitz, who proposed the theory of sustainable forest utilization in Germany, suggested the idea of artificial afforestation. He noted that it is an indispensable cause and the greatest art and science of this country to strive to build up and maintain forests which may be utilized in a sustainable, uninterrupted and continued manner. He also advanced the idea of complying with nature and proposed that suitable sites be set aside for the afforestation of certain species. He was acclaimed as the initiator of the theory of sustainable forest utilization by the Germans. The aim of the theory is to pursue the sustainability and stability of high-yielding timber output.

In 1795, German forester George L. Hartig noted that each wise leader in forestry must lose no time in evaluating forests and utilizing them as rationally as possible so that future generations will benefit at least as much as the present one. The quantity of timber from the national forests should be maintained through sustainable management under suitable conditions. Hartig's idea of sustainable forest management developed in his theory has been hailed by successive generations.

In 1826, the well-known “normal forest” model was conceived by Johann C. Hundeshagen. After being supplemented and developed, his theory became a classic theory of sustainable and balanced forest utilization. The theory of sustainable forest management has had a huge impact on the development of forestry in various countries and played a long-term and dominant role in the management of forestry, particularly in the management of natural forests.

1.4.2 The Theory of Timber Cultivation

German forester Hartig, while clearly setting forth the idea of sustainable forest management, also put forward the idea of timber cultivation. In 1811, he assumed office as the head of the Prussian Forest Administration in Berlin. During his term, he advocated the planting of pure coniferous forests and encouraged choosing fast-growing tree species to obtain a bigger output in a short time. His theory played a dominant role in the large-scale afforestation of Germany.

In 1849, Martin Faustmann made public his “theory of net land earnings” which advocated obtaining the highest possible land rent from each stand, which made a big impact on the shaping of the then fast-growing coniferous forests. By the middle of the 19th century, Germany had plantations of trees representing 99% of the forests of the country, while natural forests formed only 1%. This campaign of afforestation under the guidance of the theory of timber cultivation was in effect the first practical large-scale renewal of forests by mankind. At that time, to pursue economic interests, vast areas of same-age coniferous forests were grown. After the second and the third generations, however, the practice led to the decline of land fertility and the capacity of forests to resist disaster, but it was difficult to change the practice. At the same time, the effective management of plantations produced faster and better trees, which lured people into cutting away the few natural forests to plant artificial ones, leading to the total loss of precious natural forests. These were the two hard lessons that the theory of timber cultivation brought about.

1.4.3 The Theory of Multifunctional Forests

As early as in 1811, German forester Heinrich von Cotta extended the word timber cultivation to forest development, expanding the definition of sustainable forest utilization to all forestry, with particular emphasis on building up mixed forests. In 1833, German scientist J.J.C. van Lier pointedly noted that due to disasters or shortsightedness, Germany constantly changed the composition of forests from healthy and sustainable broadleaf trees to ones with coniferous trees. Thus, like large-scale exploitation, this caused the forests to lose some of its characteristics.

In 1867, the head of the bureau in charge of state-owned forests in Germany put forward the theory of multi-beneficial forest for sustainable utilization and management, which proposed that the management of state-owned forests should take into consideration its responsibilities toward public interests, as well as meet the needs for timber and other forest products in a sustained manner, besides also serving other objectives of the forests.

In 1888, the theory of net forest earnings was established whereby the total benefits of the whole forest are to be taken into account. Therefore, it is important to strive for the highest returns from the whole forest and not just the standing forest. The benefits of forestry include the impact of forestry on climate, water, soil, prevention of natural disasters, and the health of mankind in terms of public health and ethics, thus further developing the theory of multi-beneficial forests for sustainable utilization and management. In 1922, the principle of sustainable forest management proposed that all elements (arbor, birds, mammals, insects, earthworms, and micro-organisms) should be kept in a state of balance, maintaining the multi-layer and mixed features of the forests. It promoted controlled and selected felling to replace indiscriminate felling, and encouraged broadleaf trees and lower growth be introduced in pure coniferous forests.

The German Forest Regulation of 1933 clearly stated that sustainable and planned management of forests should produce the largest possible quantity of timber as its goal and, at the same time, must maintain and increase the production capacity of the forests. In managing forests, one must take into consideration the beauty, landscape features, and the protection of wild animals, as well as provide recreational and shelterbelt forests. Owing to the outbreak of war, this law was not officially promulgated and implemented, yet its impact on the future was farreaching, laying the foundation for integrated management to achieve the three benefits of timber production, nature conservation, and tourism and entertainment.

After World War II, the management of forestry in Germany apparently changed in overall effects. In 1953, a German forestry expert introduced the concept of a forestry policy for maximum benefits. He stressed the importance of the relationship between forestry and other aspects of society and advanced the theory that forestry should serve the whole national economy, and promote social well-being. He held that the research on forestry should take into account the complex relationship between forestry and mankind and that the role of forestry should not be limited only to material interests, but also give higher value to ethics, spirit, and psychology. At the same time, some scientists have observed that the development of plantations for economic value has lost its status. They have proposed that the government should appropriate large amounts of funds to encourage the planting of broadleaf trees and mixed forests, change the coniferous-tree forests into broadleaf-tree and mixed forests, and revoke land rent for at least fifty years for broadleaf-tree forests, thus helping to bring about a change in the forestry policy of the federal government to taking as its objective the multiple benefits of forestry.

In the 1960s, Germany began to put into practice the “theory of multifunctional forests.” This theory was soon accepted by numerous countries, such as the United States, Sweden, Austria, Japan, and India, bringing about a wave of “multifunctional forest management” in the world.

1.4.4 The Theory of Ship Tracks, and the Theory of Coordination

On the question of the specific technical details on how to realize multifunctional and sustainable forest management, two different propositions appeared among the forestry scientific circles in Germany: the theory of ship tracks and the theory of coordination (harmonization). The former held that timber production should be regarded as the principal activity which should lead to the development of other benefits (just like a sailing ship with tracks on both sides). The theory of coordination is based on the principle of sustainability and the coordinated development of economic, ecological, and tourist benefits, putting timber production and other benefits on a par with each other. After many years of debate, the theory of coordination was universally accepted. Since the 1960s, the theory of coordination (harmonization) has become the guiding ideology and technological principle for addressing the contradictions and disputes between the various benefits of forestry in Germany. In 1975, the Forest Law of the Federal Republic of Germany stipulated that the development of forestry should take into account the three main goals: producing timber, protecting the natural ecology, and providing tourist and entertainment sites for the population. Since then, Germany has been the representative of the forest management model for the integration of these three main benefits.

1.4.5 The Theory of the Division of Forestry Functions

In the 1970s, the theory of the division of forestry functions became a challenge to the theory of sustainable forest management. Two forestry specialists in the United States conducted in-depth research and proposed guidelines for the management and utilization of forests for multiple benefits. They believed that in the future, world forest management would move toward planting special forests for different functions, not toward the integration of the three main benefits, and that the rise of plantations will change the structure of the world forestry products market. Toward the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, a pattern would emerge where “forest resources will move southward whereas timber will move northward.”

The theory of the division of forestry functions has drawn the attention of more and more countries and been applied in forestry practice.

In the late 1970s, a forestry specialist analyzed the different theories and also scientifically verified the theories of the division of forestry functions and coordination. He noted that the management of all forest land should not be the same and that intensive management could only be conducted on good forest land. He held that the view of sustainable harvest greatly limited the potential of forest biology and was a “shackle” preventing the realization of optimum economic benefits of forestry.

The result of research in the United States in the 1980s on the theory of the division of forestry functions has shown that plantations have excellent economic benefits, particularly in tropical regions and the Southern Hemisphere. Plantations will have a strong impact on the long-term supply of timber in the world. Only through raising the yield of forests can the supply of timber have a bright future. Numerous countries have devoted themselves to the development of industrial plantations and modern forestry has moved from felling natural forests to nurturing plantations. The development of plantations has contributed to major changes in the economy, with comparative advantages of divergent timber production, as well as the redistribution of forest resources. According to the theory of the division of forestry functions, all forests are to be developed for special divergent functions—that is, toward multiple benefits. In other words, some natural forest reserve forests can be used for leisure activities and environmental protection, others can be intensively managed plantations, while the majority of forests can be used for multiple benefits. Guided by this theory, the multifunctional management model has emerged as the dominant method of utilization.

1.4.6 The Theory of New Forestry

In the 1980s, American forester Jerry F. Franklin advanced the theory of new forestry. It was based on forest and landscape ecology and took the integration of the economic, ecological, and social values of forests as management objectives. It was aimed at developing forestry to not only produce timber and other forestry products in a sustained way, but also offer multiple benefits such as protecting biodiversity and improving the ecological environment. This theory sent shockwaves to forestry circles in the United States and drew the attention of Congress. The main characteristic of the new theory was to look at all forest resources as an integral whole, laying emphasis not only on timber production but also on the ecological and social benefits of forests. It promoted the integration of production and conservation of forestry, in particular, maintaining and improving the diversity of the standing forests and landscape structure. The management objectives were that conservation and redevelopment could not only ensure sustainable production of various forest products, but also generate multiple benefits from the forest ecosystem. The management objectives for improving the landscape structure were to rationally distribute forestry landscapes which could provide in a sustained manner multiple forestry products and other benefits. The theory of new forestry was a philosophy which averted the contradiction between traditional forestry production and protection of the environment and found a rational road to developing forestry. Forestry operators must recognize that forestry is not only a timber production base, but can also generate other public benefits. Meanwhile, the environmentalists should abandon their purely protectionist goal.

1.4.7 The Theory of Close-to-Nature Forestry Management

As early as in 1886, Karl Gayer raised doubts about the prevalent practice in then Germany of felling broadleaf-tree forests and planting coniferous trees. He said that fifty years ago it was difficult to forecast that the beeches today would lose value. It was difficult to guarantee that future generations would condone the forest management plan that is seen as necessary in light of the conditions today. In 1898, he remarked that the secret of production lay in the harmony of all forces and pointed out that mankind should engage in activities related to forestry in compliance with the above principles as much as possible.

In 1916, Frederic E. Clements introduced the theory of forestry succession. From 1947 to 1956, another specialist proposed a forest structure that promoted the practice of “close-to-nature” forestry. He divided the process of renewal and succession of forests into pioneer, medium, and climax forests. Though climax forests have the biggest storage volume, yet its growth and loss are equal, and there is no yield. However, if the timber forests give way to climax forests by selective felling, then whatever is felled will be replenished by growth. At the end of 1986, another forest specialiat explained that “close-to-nature” forestry means that the original trees in a certain community would be clearly retained and emphasized in the management plan. “Close-to-nature” forestry seeks to give emphasis to trees in the region which were part of the primitive forest after the glacier epoch.

In 1989, a forest expert differentiated the two concepts of “close-to-nature” and “complying with nature.” He said that basically the two concepts are the same. However, the use of the former term is more accurate than the latter. “Complying with nature” means adapting to nature in all aspects and being free from human influence, while “close-to-nature” implies that a forest, under the premise of maintaining its natural structure, deviates from the order of nature. The ratio of indigenous trees and their distribution, the nurturing and renewal of the standing forests, as well as the introduction of new tree species for economic purposes, must be compatible with natural conditions so as to ensure their self-conservation ability. Only those forests which are “close-to-nature” in its management model can give rise to benefits. Forestry operators should therefore promote these forests and maintain the forest structure. Through measures conducive to the growth of precious tree species, the production capacity of forests can be fully utilized, and the natural renewal of forests can be controlled at appropriate times. To achieve all these objectives in a sustained manner, the forest must be managed in a “close-to-nature” way. The main features of this management method are allowing local tree species to occupy a bigger area to ensure a natural life-cycle; the forest renewal program must depend mainly on natural aerial seeding; forest renewal must be implemented in batches and over different periods, first in small areas and then, in accordance with the need of young trees for light, gradually expanding the area of renewal; and making use of natural productive factors which do not require funding to achieve management goals.

The theory of “close-to-nature” has been gradually accepted by Germany and other European countries as the guiding ideology, principle, and goal for the development of forestry. Many countries are now conducting relevant research and experiments, posing a challenge to the theory of timber cultivation.

1.4.8 The Theory of Sustainable Forest Management

In the 1960s, because of unrestrained economic development, forest resources became seriously depleted, and air pollution and the global ecological environment worsened. A report, Our Common Future, by the World Commission on Environment and Development expounded the perception, definition, standard, and policy of sustainable development. The core aim of sustainable development is to satisfy the needs of the present generation, and at the same time not hinder the ability to meet the needs of future generations, with an emphasis on the indispensability of both development and protection of the environment. In 1992, the UNCED held enthusiastic discussions and reached common understanding. The conference emphasized that the sustainable development of forests was an important component of sustainable economic development, and that forests were the main factor in the protection of the environment and an indispensable resource for the economic development of various sectors, as well as the conservation of all living things. The theory of sustainable forest management refers mainly to the forest ecosystem's management of the productive forces, species, inheritance diversity, and the ability to reproduce. It is the guiding ideology for forest management based on the theories of contemporary sustainable development and ecological protection, combined with the characteristics and special management of the laws of forestry. It is also an organic component for the sustainable development of the whole society. The theory of sustainable development recognizes the multifunctional feature of forests and the diversity of forest management conditions, taking into account the interests of both the present and future generations, and emphasizing the protection of biodiversity. The concept of the sustainable management of forests has already become a theoretical foundation and basic principle for countries in the world to formulate their cross-century strategy for forestry development.

1.4.9 An Evaluation of the Various Theories

Since modern times, the evolution of the theories on forestry fully shows that mankind's understanding of forestry has been a gradual process, experiencing four great leaps, each of which played a promoting role for the development of forestry. Even in the 21st century, these theories reflect the wisdom of mankind and offer clear insights.

1.4.9.1 The theory of sustainable forest utilization

The theory of sustainable forest utilization has contributed to the understanding that forest resources are not inexhaustible and that only through careful exploitation and cultivation can forests serve the development of mankind in a sustained way. The realization of this understanding is the ultimate goal in the development of forestry.

One way to realize sustainable utilization of timber is by cultivating forests. In this way forest resources can achieve natural renewal, as well as through artificial renewal with the intervention of human forces. It recognizes that plantations have the advantages of quick growth, being more suitable, and having higher per-unit yield, thus helping to meet the increasing needs of mankind for timber. For regions of scarce or no forests but with proper conditions for growing trees, forest cultivation might be an effective channel to alleviate the contradiction between timber supply and demand.

1.4.9.2 The theory of multifunctional forests

The biggest contribution of the theory of multifunctional forests was the recognition that non-timber forest products and the value of protecting nature and forestry tourism are no less valuable than timber products derived from forestry. Furthermore, along with the changes in social demands, the value of the former would continue to increase and reach a dominant status. It was imperative, through multi-objective management, to establish rational structures to utilize the multiple functions of forestry to benefit mankind to the greatest possible degree.

The theory of ship tracks, the theory of coordination, the theory of the division of forestry functions and the theory of new forestry are all useful outcomes arising from the search for basic channels for maximizing the multiple functions and for realizing the multi-benefits from the sustainable utilization of forests. The theory of ship tracks is most relevant in circumstances where timber demand is high, the timber industry occupies a large share in the national economy, and forest resources are comparatively inadequate. It underlines the importance of taking into account the three major benefits, with priority given to timber production. The theory of coordination is applicable when the demand for timber is not great, and forest resources are relatively abundant and evenly distributed. The core of the theory is the integrated management of the three benefits. The theory of the division of forestry functions is applicable when both ecological and forestry product demands are very great and forest resources are inadequate and not evenly distributed. The imperative is to divide and manage resources locally and to integrate the whole industry. The theory of new forestry is applicable where a higher quality of life is demanded, the forest resources are very rich, the economy is developed, and higher management costs can be supported. This theory takes into account the three major benefits but gives priority to ecological benefits.

1.4.9.3 The theory of close-to-nature forestry management

This theory was advanced on the basis of reflections on the theory of timber cultivating. It fully recognizes that although inappropriate human intervention might achieve high timber yields, this intervention could bring about negative impacts on the ecological environment, and that correcting such negative impacts would be costly. This theory is applicable for ecological protection for public benefit, and for remolding plantations.

1.4.9.4 The theory of sustainable forest management

The theory incorporated into its vision the interests of the present and future generations, the interests of foresters and the whole society as well as the economic, ecological, and social benefits of forestry. The theory has been welcomed by numerous countries in the world as it is in line with the overall and long-term interests of the whole society and has become the guiding principle and theoretical basis for the development of forestry in the world.

1.5 China's Forestry: Achievements with Hardships

At present, China is undergoing a period of transition from a traditional society to a modern one. It is on the road to advancement, despite hardships and there is new hope and great enthusiasm. However, the path forward is fraught with doubts and difficulties.

1.5.1 Achievements

In the past half century, the Central Government of the CPC with keen insight, have all showed concern for the issue of forestry and taken a series of policy measures. As early as the 1950s, Mao Zedong launched a series of calls to “green the motherland” and “turn the land into a garden.” In 1981, Deng Xiaoping initiated a voluntary tree-planting campaign involving the whole population and introduced the slogan “Plant trees everywhere and make our country green in the interest of future generations.” In 1991, Jiang Zemin launched the call to mobilize the CPC and the nation to green the country. Later he announced the goal to “vigorously plant trees and build forests, green the barren land, and rebuild the northwestern region with beautiful mountains and rivers.” Because of the importance given by the CPC and government, their leadership and the long-term and constant efforts of the people in the whole country, great achievements have been made in forestry. The preserved acreage of plantations in China amounts to about 47 million hectares, ranking first in the world. The forested areas and storage capacity have continued to grow over the years, achieving a double increase; and the percentage of forest cover has been raised to 16.55%. China has set an example among the developing countries with no or few forests by successfully increasing its forest vegetation quickly and exerted a positive impact on the international community.

During the decades of the development process of its forestry industry, China has gradually set a pattern for forestry development with Chinese characteristics. These include the joint participation of the whole society, initiating forest ecological development programs, controlling ecologically fragile areas, and giving priority to the protection of forest resources and biodiversity.

1.5.1.1 Afforestation and greening

In China's forestry development, the emphasis has all along been in expanding forest areas and increasing forest resources, practicing multi-type, multi-tree species, multiform and multilayer afforestation, and accelerating the land greening process and raising the percentage of forest cover.

In the early period after the foundation of the PRC, in order to protect farmland, improve the ecological environment and build up new timber production bases, large-scale tree-planting and afforestation campaigns were launched in the whole country. After the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the CPC, the drive for afforestation and greening entered into a phase of accelerated development. As a result, the percentage of forest cover in the whole country jumped from 8.6% at the beginning of the period of the foundation of the PRC to 16.55% at the end of the 20th century. Twelve provinces and autonomous regions, including Guangdong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, Hubei, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Shandong, Guangxi, Jilin, Hainan, and Jiangsu have basically eliminated afforestable barren mountains. Currently, China boasts of 158,941 million hectares of forests, ranking fifth in the world; 46.667 million hectares of commercial plantations, ranking first in the world; a total standing stock of 12.49 billion cubic meters, of which 11.27 billion cubic meters are standing stock volume, occupying seventh place in the world. This represents a turnaround of the situation over a long period when standing stock volume consistently declined and entered into the development stage when both the forest area and stock volumes increased.

In 1981, initiated by Deng Xiaoping, the Fourth Session of the Fifth National People's Congress discussed and passed the Resolution on the Tree-planting Campaign by the Nation. The tree-planting campaign involving all the nation was introduced in both urban and rural regions of the country with its distinctive public-benefit, voluntary, and law-defined features. Thus, an excellent situation to “mobilize the whole party, the whole people to plant trees and build forests, green the motherland” took shape with the leaders at different levels taking the lead. According to the statistics, over the period of twenty years, at least 7 billion person-times took part in this voluntary tree-planting program; they planted more than 35 billion trees. In the whole country, 197,000 tree-planting bases were set up. With the participation of all the people in this tree-planting campaign, the process of greening was accelerated and tangible results were achieved in greening and afforestation in the sectors concerned.

To accelerate the pace of ecological improvement, China implemented key ecological development programs aimed at improving the ecological environment and increasing forest resources. In 1978, the State decided to build the Three-North Shelterbelt Development Program in the “three-northern” regions (northeast, north, and northwest) where the ecological environment was fragile, thus ushering in the first of China's key ecological development programs. Then the State successively launched the Coastal Shelterbelt Development Program, the Plain Greening Program, the Shelterbelt Development Program for the Middle and Upper Reaches of the Yangtze River, the Taihang Mountains Afforestation Program, the Desertification Combating Program, the Integrated Shelterbelt Program for the Huaihe River Valley and the Taihu Lake Region, the Integrated Shelterbelt Program for the Zhujiang (Pearl) River Valley, the Integrated Shelterbelt Program for the Liaohe River Valley, and the Shelterbelt Development Program for the Middle Reaches of the Yellow River. The planned acreage of the ten projects was 7.056 million square kilometers, representing 73% of the country, and basically covering the principal regions of China where soil erosion, sandstorms, and salinization are serious and the ecological environment fragile. By 2000, the State had afforested 42.2186 million hectares of land in the ten key ecological programs. Practice has shown that developing forestry through programs is a successful experience, as well as an effective way to develop forestry that conforms to national conditions and has Chinese characteristics.

1.5.1.2 Developing the forestry industry, and optimizing the industrial structure

Forestry is one of the basic industries in China and it is closely linked to the development of the national economy and the improvement of people's livelihood. Timber and other forestry products play important roles in the light, chemical, national defense, architecture, mining, railway, communications, agriculture, food, and pharmaceutical industries.

After the founding of the PRC, in order to meet the urgent needs for the restoration and development of the national economy, the State developed state-owned forests and introduced collective forests in the south in a systematic way. In the light of the existing conditions, such as the distribution of forests and the direction of timber flows, the State established state-owned forest areas around the Greater and Minor Xing'anling Mountains, Changbaishan Mountains, Wandashan Mountains in the northeast and Inner Mongolia, the Jinshajiang River, Dadu River, Yalongjiang River, Minjiang River in the southwest, and the Qinling Mountains, Bailongjiang River, Tianshan Mountains, and A'ertaishan Mountains in the northwest. The State set up a total of 138 felling and transportation enterprises (forest bureaus or forest sites). Moreoever, four water transport enterprises were set up. In the collective forestry centers of ten southern provinces and the autonomous region—Zhejiang, Anhui, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Guizhou—158 key forestry counties were built, as well as 380 forestry centers (nurseries and felling centers), and a batch of transport and storage enterprises, which all practiced independent accounting. About 139,000 kilometers of highways and 4,516 kilometers of railway were built. The forestry enterprises have provided timber and numerous other forestry products to the State and society and made great contributions to the development of the national economy, constituting an important foundation for its development. In particular, in the early days of the PRC, numerous tasks waited to be done, with all the industries and professions urgently needing timber and other important materials. At the time, all the workers in the forestry industry made great efforts to increase the output value of forestry, which was placed among the first five in total output value of industry and agriculture. Up to 2000, the forestry industry provided the whole society with a total of 2.26 billion cubic meters of timber, 8.4 billion stems of bamboo, and large quantities of forestry and related products, such as tea-seed oil, tung oil, raw lacquer, walnut, chestnut, and traditional Chinese medicines. In 2000, the total output value of the forestry industry in China reached 340 billion yuan, thus laying the foundation for a relatively developed forestry industry system.

Since the introduction of reforms and the opening up of China, the forestry industry has been oriented to the market, moving from the traditional single-industry structure and forest management into a phase of speedy development when timber production, forestry chemistry, and the manufacture of forestry machinery have been constantly adjusted to meet the needs. In 2000, the output of wood-based panels reached 20.02 million cubic meters and the production of forestry chemical products such as rosin, tanning extracts, and shellac witnessed large increases, while their quality was also greatly improved. Among these products, the production of rosin occupied first place in the world. The manufacturing of forestry machinery also experienced fast growth, with its variety amounting to hundreds of products.

Many new industries also emerged and developed quickly, such as forest tourism, flowers and plants, wood chips, forest food, forest medicines, economic forests, and the bamboo industry. In 2000, the acreage of commercial forests in the country stood at 22.98 million hectares and their products amounted to 67 million tons, ranking first in the world, thus ending the shortage experienced earlier. More than 1,000 forest parks were built, which received 278 million Chinese visitors and foreign tourists during the Ninth Five-Year Plan period.

During the many years of development, a forestry system has taken shape in China. As a result, forestry has become a comprehensive industry encompassing silviculture, timber production, forest chemical industry, forest machine manufacturing, forest tourism, flowers and plants, forest foods, and commercial forest products.

1.5.1.3 Protection of forest resources and biodiversity

Soon after the emergence of the PRC, the CPC and government upheld the importance and protection of forest resources. In 1950, it formulated the principle of “universally protecting forests, and implementing afforestation in key areas,” and a series of measures were taken to intensify the protection of forests. The “Three Preventions” included the prevention of forest fires, prevention of forest diseases and pests, and prevention of indiscriminate logging and illegal poaching. Public security in forests and forest administrative facilities have also gradually improved and become major means of protecting the forest resources.

The capacity for forest fire management and control have also improved greatly. This has been achieved by setting up a chain of organizational and command system and management network for forest fire control. In China, a three-dimensional observation network has been installed in the country, including satellite monitoring, aircraft cruising, and ground observation. Since 1987 (with the exception of a few years), the ratio of damage caused by forest fires has been kept under 0.5 per thousand, lower than the world average of 1 per thousand.

Forest disease and pest control and management have also experienced gradual improvement. The acreage of controlled areas have increased from 300,000 hectares in the 1950s to 5.7 million hectares currently. China has also blazed a new multi-faceted trail in ecological control, which includes biological and chemical control.

The fundamental aim of China's forestry development and management is to plan and control the utilization of forest resources. In 1987, it imposed a quota for felling forest resources. It gradually set up and improved the system for checking and monitoring timber transport and processing operations, and instituted a licensing system for forest land use, strictly controlling resources consumption and forest land loss. Through these effective measures, in recent years, the consumption of forest resources has declined at an average of 10 million cubic meters per year. Twenty-five provinces (autonomous regions) have realized this objective where growth was higher than consumption. Moreover, since 1973, a series of documents has been successively formulated and promulgated concerning the administration of resource property rights and assets appraisal, representing important steps in forest resources administration.

Major achievements have been made in the development of nature reserves and the protection of wild animals and plants, and a biodiversity protection system has taken shape, laying a sound foundation for permanently preserving the most precious natural heritage of the country. From 1956, China began to demarcate nature reserves and by 2000, 1,551 nature reserves of various kinds had been indentified in the whole country, covering forest ecosystems, endangered species, important wetlands, and natural and historic relics. They have a total acreage of 1.3 million square kilometers, or 12.9% of the national territory. In addition, 1,217 forest parks were set up covering an area of 113,000 square kilometers. In this way, the elite forests with the richest biodiversity, the highest scientific and historic value, the best ecological benefits, and the most precious wild animals and plants in the country have been put under effective protection. Among the established facilities are sixteen nature reserves, including the Changbai Mountains, Wolong, Fanjing Mountains, Shennujia, Wuyi Mountains, Bogeda Peak, Xiling Gele, and Dinghushan Mountains, which have been incorporated into the Man and Biosphere Reserve Network. Fourteen nature reserves, including Zhailong of Heilongjiang, Xianghai of Jilin, East Dongting Lake of Hunan, Boyang Lake of Jiangxi, Bird Island of Qinghai, and Dongzhaigang of Hainan have been inscribed in the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat. Since the 1980s, the State has launched Seven Key Rescue Projects which have achieved tangible results: The Giant Panda Conservation Project, Crested Ibis Rescue Project, the Protection and Development Project for Alligator Sinensis, the Hainan Eld's Deer Rescue Project in Hainan Province, the Pere David Deer Rescue Project, the Wild Horse Breeding and Reintroduction to the Wild Project, and the Rescue Project for Saiga Antelope. At the same time, a batch of sperm, gamete, and embryo banks with modern management facilities for preserving the cells of wild animals and plants with ultra-low temperature techniques have been successively built. In addition, more than 400 bases for the relocation, protection, and nurturing of precious and rare plants and seed resources, and more than 100 botanical gardens, tree gardens, and 13,000 hectares of nurseries were set up. Work was also started to rescue and reproduce endangered animals and plants, and artificial reproduction of more than sixty precious and rare wild animals was successfully conducted. Eighty per cent of the first batch of precious and rare plants were conserved in ex-situ.

1.5.1.4 Improving legislation for a stable development environment

Since the promulgation of the first Forest Law of the PRC (for trial implementation) in 1979, four other forestry laws, including the Forest Law of the PRC, Law of the PRC on the Protection of Wildlife, the Seed Law of the PRC, the Law of the PRC on Soil Erosion Prevention and Control, have been passed and implemented. The State Council has also introduced and implemented eleven administrative regulations, such as the Regulations on the Implementation of the Forest Law, Regulations on Forest Fire Control, Regulations on Forest Diseases and Pests Prevention and Control, and more than fifty rules for government departments, as well as more than 300 local government rules. At present, a forest legal system has been put in place, with the Forest Law of the PRC, the Law of the PRC on the Protection of Wildlife, and the Law of the PRC on Soil Erosion Prevention and Control as the core, and supplemented by laws, administrative regulations, department rules, and local rules and regulations. The system includes numerous legal regimes covering forest land and forest property rights management, afforestation and forest tending, slash renewal, licensed and limited felling, monitoring and checking of timber transport, monitoring and management of timber business and processing, export control of wild animals and plants, and seedlings and forest plant quarantine. These laws and regulations for the protection of forest resources and wild animals and plants provide a legal guarantee for the sustainable development of forestry.

For law enforcement, 6,200 forest public security stations have been set up by the forest administrative departments of the thirty provinces (autonomous regions, municipalities) manned by more than 50,000 forest security policemen. There are nearly 2,000 timber checking points approved by the provincial governments and 37,000 grassroots forest stations. The various kinds of forest law enforcement personnel number 200,000, and their ranks are growing each day. A complete forest law enforcement contingent has been established covering forest resources and administration, forest public security, prosecution and law enforcement, protection of wild animals and plants, forest fire control, plant quarantine, and forest diseases and pests prevention and control. According to available statistics, from 1986 to 1998, the public security departments of the country discovered and handled a total of 1.4 million cases of contraventions related to forestry and wild animals, punished 2.27 million people for various crimes, and retrieved 1.4 billion yuan of direct losses.

It is essential for the fast development of forestry to carry out the strategy of “developing forestry through science and education.” Soon after the emergence of the PRC, the scientific, technological and educational aspects of forestry went through a zigzag pattern of development. After the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the CPC, however, these aspects entered into a new era of sound and stable development. In 1989, the Ministry of Forestry, in line with the strategy of “reviving the country through science and education,” decided to implement the policy of “developing forestry through science and education,” with priority given to the development of scientific and educational aspects. As a result, scientific research and education in forestry witnessed rapid growth and realized tangible achievements. Through more than fifty years of development, a forestry scientific research and dissemination system has been formed with complete disciplines, a stable contingent of staff, adequate equipment, and rational layout. Statistics show that since the emergence of the PRC, 5,100 major scientific and technological achievements have been made and the contribution ratio of forestry science and technology rose from 21.2% in the late 1980s to 30.3% at the end of the 1990s. Owing to the care and leadership of the forestry departments at all levels, a multilayer multi-type, and multiform forestry educational system has been shaped, encompassing elementary, occupational, higher and adult education levels, which provide continuous intellectual and human resources support for the development of forestry.

A grassroots forestry social service system has also gradually emerged. A three-layer forestry social service system encompassing county forestry science and technology dissemination stations, seedling stations, and township forest stations has been established. In particular, the grassroots forest stations have played an indispensable role. They are public institutions set up by the forestry departments for organizing and offering guidance to collectives and individuals in the rural areas in forestry production, and form the nucleus for providing forestry social services. In the early period of the PRC, work had begun on setting up grassroots forest stations but progress was slow. Since the introduction of reforms and opening up of the country, along with specific reforms in the forestry industry, the forestry departments at all levels have begun to realize more and more the importance of accelerating the building of grassroots forest stations. In 1988, the Ministry of Forestry declared the strengthening of the building of grassroots forest stations as one of its six reforms. The ministry place it high on its agenda, took a series of effective measures, and accelerated the pace in building these forest stations. By the end of 2000, the number of grassroots forest stations had reached 37,000, among which 20,200 stations were built after 1988, which was 1.2 times the figure built in more than thirty years from the founding of the PRC to 1987.

1.5.1.5 International exchanges and broadening development channels

China's international cooperation and exchanges in forestry expertise were begun in the 1950s when it learnt from the experiences of the Soviet Union in forestry development. At that time, in view of the general domestic and international situation and the realities of China's forestry sector, the emphasis was laid on introducing the experiences of the Soviet Union and the East Germany in forest management and technical equipment as well as inviting some Soviet experts to work in the country. These measures laid the foundation for China's forestry development and promoted forestry production and scientific and technological education. The real all-dimensional international exchanges and cooperation in forestry, however, were initiated only after the start of reforms and the opening up of the country. Since then, it has continually stepped up exchanges and cooperation with foreign countries, progressing from purely scientific and technological exchanges and assistance to Third World countries to the introduction of technologies and equipments, unfolding economic and trade activities, attracting overseas capital, contracting and exploitation of forests in other countries, and from contacts with the former Soviet Union and some East European countries to extensive exchanges with different regions and countries. A multilayer, multichannel, multiform, and all-dimensional structure with the aim of opening up to the outside world in the area of forestry, and integrating scientific and technological exchanges and economic cooperation, has been established. Currently, China's forestry departments have formed working and cooperative relations with one-third of the countries in the world and several regions, as well as a dozen international organ-izations. China has joined eleven international organizations, and signed forestry cooperation agreements with twenty-two countries. According to statistics, during the Ninth Five-Year Plan period, China's forestry industry utilized a total of US$2.56 billion for its programs, of which $1.1 billion was in the form of direct foreign investment and $1.46 billion in loans and grants. During this period, it also participated in more than thirty overseas forestry development projects, with an investment capital of US$300 million approved and used.

1.5.2 A Tortuous Experience

The nature, status, and role of forestry have always been directly related to particular social development stages. The main requirements of the society for forestry in different eras determine the principal features and social identity of forestry. A substantial change in the identity of forestry hinges mainly on the economic and political environment and the cognition level deriving from this. It is a historical legacy that the situation of forestry is subordinate to national conditions.

In the early period of the PRC, the first task of forestry was timber production to meet the needs of national economic development and for supporting the war. As important economic resources, forests played an important role in satisfying the needs of the State for timber, and thus timber production dominated forestry activities from the early period to the 1970s. This, in a concentrated way, reflected the strong demand for timber production from the central to local governments. To realize the goal, the main task of forestry was the felling of vast expanses of inherited (natural) forests. An outstanding example was that in the middle of the 1960s, the State concentrated its financial, material, and human resources on this industry and, adopting the model used in building the Daqing Oil Field, organized major campaigns for developing the Daxing'anling Forest Zone and Jinshajiang Forest Zone. Timber production contributed greatly to meeting the needs of the State for timber in industry, capital development, and military fields, and ensuring the supply of firewood for the big and midsized cities of the country, thus breaking up the imperialist economic embargo against China and helping to consolidate the people's regime.

At the same time, the Central Government of the CPC realized that the role of forestry should not be limited to timber production and emphasized the sustainable supply capacity and the role of forestry related to the environment. In the 1950s, Mao Zedong launched two calls to “green the motherland” and “turn the land into a garden.” Zhou Enlai issued the directive: “The more is felled, the more there will be; the more is felled, the better the quality will be; keep the mountains green for sustainable utilization.” He noted, “Our country has too small an area of forests with inadequate timber resources which can neither meet the needs of the long-term development of the country, nor protect vast land against wind, sand, floodings, and droughts, so that agricultural production is gravely threatened. Such a serious situation requires changes.” He emphasized, “Promoting afforestation by the masses is the priority method to expand timber resources and ensuring the needs for the long-term development of the country, as well as an effective measure to reduce and avert sandstorms, floodings, and droughts and guarantee bumper harvests in agriculture.” These inscriptions and directives reflected in a concentrated way the fact that the Central Government of the CPC had a relatively comprehensive understanding of forest resources, their protection, and proper utilization, and the role it could play in ensuring that forestry benefits agricultural production.

Based on this understanding, a series of principles and policies on forestry were formulated, embodying this ideology. In September 1949, the First Plenary Session of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference adopted a common program which clearly stipulated, “Protect forests and develop forestry in a planned way.” Not long after this, a working principle for forestry was put forward, which said, “Universally protecting the existing forests and carrying out large-scale afforestation and cultivation of forests will ensure the irrigation of farmland and increase yield. Rational lumbering and exploitation of national forest resources will guarantee the supply for national development, in particular timber for industry.” These policies conformed to the situation of forestry at that time.

However, during the period of socialist development in the early days of the PRC up to the Great Leap Forward, from the adjustment of the national economy to the Cultural Revolution, the requirements for economic development and the social upheavals had a great impact on forestry development. Although in theory, “protecting forests and developing forestry in a planned way” was emphasized, in practice forestry had to concentrate on timber production as the main activity as it shouldered the task of providing timber for national development and the people's livelihood.

The principal demand of society from the forests was timber as forest resources were understood to be economic resources. Although its importance to the environment was emphasized, forestry work was not clearly understood. This lack of understanding was due to its social and epochal background.

1. The economic environment had a relatively strong restraining feature. On the one hand, the profits of forestry enterprises were quite appealing to the national treasury. On the other, the need for timber was irreplaceable and, compared with the extent of shortage of other resources, there was more room for maneuver in raising timber supply. Once there was a conflict between forestry and other development objectives, forests would fall victim. In the 1950s, in order to get iron and steel, forests became a source of material. From the 1960s to the 1970s, to increase grain output, reclaiming forest land and wetlands became the main measures.

2. Human understanding of forestry was one-sided. At the time, people universally held that the main objective in developing forestry was to ensure a sustained supply of timber. As for the role of forests in the environment, it was subordinate to the premise of meeting the need for timber. According to the theory on forestry business, sustainable utilization was recognized as the core, yet the relationship between forestry on the one hand and the national economy and its related departments on the other was confined to the economic field, showing the limited understanding of development.

From the end of the 1970s to the late 1990s, China's forestry industry entered into a phase when timber production and environmental improvement enjoyed equal importance. During this period, a series of major changes took place in the understanding of the role of forestry by the society, society's main requirements, and the theory on forest management.

On one hand, because of the awareness of the importance of the ecology and the lessons drawn from the deterioration of the ecological environment over a long period, the satisfaction of ecological needs was taken to be a task of forestry development. The implementation of the Three-North Shelterbelt Development Program in 1978 signaled that environmental improvement had become one of the main tasks of forestry development in China. It also signified that forestry development had entered into an era of simultaneous development of commercial and ecological forestry. Later, ecological improvement projects such as the Shelterbelt Development Program for the Middle and Upper Reaches of the Yangtze River, the Coastal Shelterbelt Development Program, the Taihangshan Mountain Shelterbelt Development Program, and the Plain Greening Program were successively started. In the meantime, the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council formulated a series of policies and measures to push forward the process of afforestation by the whole population. It also implemented the principle that “Greening the motherland is the first priority in the realization of a virtuous cycle in the natural ecosystem, as well as a strategic ideology for the important issue of quadrupling the aggregate output value of industry and agriculture at the end of this century” (The March 1984 Directive of the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council in introducing the Campaign of Greening the Motherland). The protection of biodiversity of the forests and its function as the bank for biological species genes were also mentioned when the CPC and the State affirmed the protection and development of forestry resources.

Along with the rapid development of the national economy, the demands for forestry products were also rising. Therefore, timber production and the cultivation of forest resources still occupied a dominant position in the guiding ideology for forestry development and work practice. The development of commercial forest bases, the cultivation of forests on the plains, the adjustments of the industrial structure in the forest areas related to this, as well as a series of policies and measures aimed at enhancing the supply capacity of forestry enterprises and improving their economic situation were promoted in a concerted way.

The integration of traditional forestry centered around timber production and modern forestry with multiple functions was fully reflected in a better understanding of forestry and its practice. However, in spite of this understanding, the guiding principle that timber production should be the main activity to continually meet the demand for forestry products for economic development still occupied a dominant position. Meanwhile, the concept of ecological benefits and the working principles formed on this basis began to direct forestry activities. In terms of practice, both the felling and utilization of forest resources, as well as ecological protection projects in key areas and the introduction of an afforestation campaign among the whole society marched ahead shoulder to shoulder. In this period, importance began to be placed on the ecological functions of forests and various shelterbelts with ecological benefits were developed. For many reasons, however, forestry could not shake off the development pattern which placed timber production at the core. It was an important topic for policy-makers, builders, and theoretical circles of this period to reflect on the understanding of the position of forestry.

The Fifteenth National Congress of the CPC formally took environmental protection as a fundamental state policy and set down the principles regarding the relationship between economic development and the population, resources and the environment, intensifying the control of environmental pollution, planting trees and grass, effective water and soil conservation, preventing and controlling desertification, and improving the ecological environment. The Sixteenth National Congress of the CPC again emphasized that sustainable economic development must be given priority and the fundamental state policies on family planning and environmental protection be preserved. The general principle regarding forestry development was that ecological improvement and protection and development of forest resources must be upheld. The promulgation of the amended Forest Law of the PRC and the initiating of protection programs with regard to natural forest resources marked a major turning point in forestry development in China.

In the twenty-odd years since the introduction of reforms and the opening up of the country, China's economic development has greatly improved, the dominant demand of society for forestry has fundamentally changed, and forestry, in terms of its social nature, has become the mainstay of environmental development. As a result of the gradual forming and maturing of the theory on sustainable development, the society's understanding of forestry has widened from a purely economic perspective to other aspects, becoming an important component of economic, political, and cultural development. With regard to the relationship between social and economic development, the rapid and sustained economic growth has improved the mutual relations between the various factors of social development so that changes have taken place in development objectives and the security of the ecological environment has also become a priority goal.

1.6 The Real Position of Forestry

Socialism itself is the first stage of communism, and here in China we are still in the primary stage of socialism—that is, the underdeveloped stage. In everything we do, we must proceed from this reality, and all planning should be consistent with it.

—Deng Xiaoping

To guide forestry development in China, it is important to conduct a scientific analysis and evaluation of the current conditions. Only when the overall impact of forestry on national development and its position in the world forestry structure are known can a proper understanding of the development of forestry be developed and the main tasks identified to move the industry forward.

1.6.1 The Low Status of Forestry

Since the founding of the PRC, particularly since the reforms and opening up of the country, the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council have placed great importance on forestry and taken a series of major measures for reform and development of the industry so that the productive forces have been greatly liberated and developed. Outstanding achievements have been made in this area: the average of forest plantations in China is the largest in the world, and a large proportion of the population has taken the road to wealth through developing forestry. However, owing to historical and natural reasons, the status of forestry production has been relatively low, with the management being extensive, the system of transition slow, the level of social development in forest areas not high, and the relations of production unable to meet the requirements of the productive forces. There is a big gap between this situation and the multiple needs for forestry as a result of economic and social development, and between China and other countries in the development of forestry. Forestry has become a weak link in the economic and social development of China which is at the primary stage of socialism.

1.6.1.1 Inadequate forest resources

China's forests cover only 16.55% of the country, representing only 60% of the world average of 26%. In terms of forest area, China ranks fifth in the world, after Russia, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. The per capita forest area, however, is only 0.128 hectares, one-fifth of the world average of 0.6 hectares. China's forest-growing stock occupies seventh place in the world, after Russia, Brazil, Canada, the United States, Zaire, and Indonesia. Its per capita forest-growing stock is only 9.0 cubic meters, one-eighth of the world average of 81 cubic meters. It is quite clear that the above three figures are quite low compared with those of the developing countries, let alone the developed ones.

In terms of total volume, China's cultivated land represents 7.1% of the world total, water resources 7%, and forest resources only 3.3%. The per capita cultivated land is equal to 41.48% of the world average, per capita water resources is one-fourth of the world figure, and per capita forest resources less than one-eighth. It is obvious that the shortfall in China's forest resources is more serious than that of cultivated land and water resources.

The forest resources are not only inadequate in total volume, but also extremely uneven in their distribution. They are abundant in the northeast but scarce in the northwest. The forest area and growing stock of the five remote provinces (autonomous region) of Heilongjiang, Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Sichuan, and Yunnan represent, respectively 41.3% and 52.4% of the total in the country. However, Northern China, the Central Plains, the lower reaches of the Yangtze and Yellow rivers, where the population is dense and the economy is developed, and the western regions where the environment is fragile, such as Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, a greater part of Tibet and west Inner Mongolia, have extremely inadequate forest resources, with the forest cover in some provinces being less than 1%.

1.6.1.2 The low quality of forest resources

The per hectare stock of the country's standing forests is 78.06 cubic meters, representing only 68.5% of the world average. Of this, the per hectare stock of timber forests is 72.5 cubic meters while that of the plantations is only 34.76 cubic meters. The annual growth of each hectare of standing forests is 3.35 cubic meters while the acreage of standing forests with a canopy density of between 0.2–0.3 is 20.1% of the area of all the standing forests. Apparently, the quality of China's forests is lower than that of the developed countries.

The age structure of the forests is also varied and the exploitable resources remain inadequate. During the interval between the fourth and fifth surveys of national forest resources inventories, the maturing and matured part of the timber forests decreased by 172,000 hectares, and their stock declined by 160 million cubic meters. The harvesting area of the young and middle-aged forests occupies 78.5% of the total harvesting acreage of standing forests, while their stock represents 57.7% of the total stock for harvesting, with exploitable reserve resources continuing to decrease.

1.6.1.3 The slow growth of forest resources

In recent years, as a result of large-scale afforestation, the acreage of forest plantations in China reached 46.667 million hectares. Yet, problems plaque the plantation sector. The first is that plantations with the same tree species have weak resistance. The second problem is that the survival rate of afforestation has not been high. According to surveys, from 1990 to 1995, the nationwide rate of afforestation declined from 94.3% to 83%. A comparison between the fifth and the fourth inventories of national forest resources showed that the percentage of forest cover with a canopy density above 0.2 rose by 1.43 percentage points from 15.12% to 16.55%, but that of forest land with a canopy density above 0.3 declined from 13.92% to 13.22%.

Forest resources have suffered serious damage with the huge loss of forest land. Nationwide, the annual average above-quota consumption of forest resources amounted to 86.79 million cubic meters. During the interval between the fourth and fifth inventories, a total of 10.81 million hectares of land intended for forest was turned to non-forest land, either because of the change of use or requisition, with an annual average of 2.163 million hectares. Between the two inventories, 2.81 million hectares of forest land also changed to non-forest land, averaging 562,000 hectares per year.

1.6.1.4 The slow development of forestry production

The development of forestry production has lagged behind and cannot meet the multiple needs of economic and social development. First, it cannot satisfy the domestic demand for timber, which has to be imported annually, including wood products, and pulp and paper products equivalent to 47 million cubic meters of timber. Second, it can hardly meet the increasingly huge ecological requirements of society. The deterioration of the country's ecological environment is accelerating and the acreage of soil erosion nationwide has amounted to 3.67 million square kilometers—that is, 38% of the national territory. Moreover, this area is increasing by 10,000 square kilometers each year. Each year, 3,436 square kilometers of desertificated area is added, equal to a midsized county. Nearly 400 million people in the country live in regions affected by desertification. Sandstorms erupt with increasing frequency and 15–20% of animal and plant species are on the verge of extinction, higher than the world average of 10%. Human activities, such as deforestation for land reclamation, cultivation on steep slopes, and reclamation of land on the banks of lakes, have damaged the ecological environment and aggravated the losses inflicted by natural disasters. The worsening of the ecological environment has gravely affected the economic and social development of China.

Forest resources are a basic variable determining the survival and development of forestry. The aggregate forest volume has an impact on the condition of the country's environment, strategic options, and development path, and determines the basic policies on national forestry development. China's forestry is still at a relatively low level of development, and the basic contradiction of the present stage is that between the increasing and varied needs of the society and the lagging forestry production. It is the fundamental long-term task of forestry to liberalize and develop its production. To better meet the needs of the national economy and improve the people's livelihood through a better ecological environment and more forest products, it is imperative to take drastic measures to achieve the sustainable management of forestry and facilitate the development of social productive forces. Only through a proper understanding of the development process of forestry, will it be possible to analyze and grasp the various contradictions of forestry, formulate scientific guiding principles and development strategies and take feasible measures to push forward the comprehensive development of forestry in earnest.

1.6.2 Forestry Undergoes Deep Changes

At present, forestry is undergoing a transitional period when traditional practices are giving way to modern ones, and the status of modern forestry is being gradually established and consolidated. In this period, the factors pushing traditional forestry toward modernization are becoming more numerous and stronger. This transition includes a transformation both in the model for forestry growth and in the economic system of forestry, as well as an adjustment in the direction of development and the main activities of forestry. The principle characteristic of traditional forestry was the pursuit of sustainable utilization of timber—that is, taking forest products such as timber to meet human material needs as its principal task. Modern forestry, however, seeks not only the sustainable utilization of timber, but also to give full play to the three benefits of forestry, especially ecological and social benefits. Along with this transition, deep changes are taking place in the demand-supply relationship, consumption patterns, and resource distribution.

1.6.2.1 Changes in the demand–supply relationship

In the past, what the society asked of forestry was mainly to satisfy its material needs, such as timber and other forest products. With continued economic and social development, the society has expanded and increased its demands of forestry. What is more important is that the ecological requirement of society has also become greater and more urgent. This ecological requirements has replaced the demand for forest products as the more important need of society in the new era. However, the contradiction between the slow growth of forest resources and the increasing requirements of society for an improved ecological environment will become the main issue of present-day forestry. Consequently, the goal of forestry development will have to be adjusted from focusing on sustainable utilization of timber as the main task in the past to taking into account all the three benefits, with ecological benefits as the priority.

1.6.2.2 Changes in consumption patterns

Along with social and economic development, people's livelihood has also improved. When many rural people were trying to solve the problems of inadequate food and clothing, the urban folks developed a taste for fashionable dresses and nutritious food. When the majority of the rural population resolved the problems of food and clothing, the urban people paid more attention to housing, the environment, and air quality. This indicates that the consumption pattern of the society is in transition from consumption for survival in the past to the coexistence of consumption for survival, enjoyment, and development. As the main component of the terrestrial ecosystem, forests are important resources on which mankind depends for survival and development. They can improve the ecological environment, provide various kinds of materials, and play an indispensable role in ensuring consumption for survival, enjoyment, and the development of mankind. Therefore, accelerating the development of forestry and beautifying the mountains and rivers not only conform to the objectives of production for a socialist society, but have also become an aspiration of people from all walks of life. Thus, it is imperative to identify the new tasks and requirements for forestry brought about by the changes in the consumption pattern of the society, offer new opportunities for the development of forestry, and specify the starting point of work.

1.6.2.3 Changes in the mode of resource distribution

The most problematic aspect of forestry development lies in part on the fact that it is an undertaking for public welfare which depends on the government for its development, and in part that it is a basic industry which depends on enterprises for its development. Under the system of a planned economy, both the former and the latter depend upon the distribution of resources by the State. One of the drawbacks of this way of resource distribution is the huge wastage. Without regard for tree species, plantations were adopted as the means of intensive management, but this was both unnecessary and uneconomical as it deviated from the thinking of real intensive management. The essence of intensive management is that it should be practiced where necessary whereas extensive management should be carried out where it is warranted. In the past, forestry might have been extensively managed with no distinction made between management objectives and development models as everything was put together. With the establishment of a socialist economic system and continually deepening reform of management by different sectors in forestry, major changes are taking place in the pattern by which the society distributes forest resources. The development of the ecological environment is the responsibility of the government, which plans the distribution of resources, whereas the development of the forestry industry depends on enterprise behavior, where investment entities are pluralistic and the distribution of resources are decided by the market.

In the transitional period from traditional to modern forestry, the industry itself underwent a series of major changes. One was the change in the guiding principles of forestry development. In China, the focus of forestry development no longer became the traditional sustainable utilization of timber, but took into account the three main benefits, especially the ecological benefit. The second was the change in the pattern of forestry development. The upper reaches of the Yangtze River and the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River will become the core regions of China's ecological development. The southern and southeastern regions, where the natural and geographical conditions are better, will be the regions where the forestry industry will be concentrated. As the focal points, the fast-growing and high-yielding timber forests as the source of industrial materials will resolve the issue of the long-term supply of forest products. The third was the change in forest management and administrative systems as well as operational mechanisms.

After the reform of management by forest type was put in place, the management and administrative systems fell into two categories. The first was forestry to cater to public welfare as a social undertaking, which will seek to provide the best ecological and social benefits. This undertaking for public welfare will be sponsored mainly by government investment but at the same time will encourage public participation in a common effort. This process will be implemented mainly through legal and administrative means, supplemented if necessary by economic means, and in compliance with the requirements of the society for ecological environment improvement. The second category was commercial forests which is a basic industry pursuing largely economic benefits. In addition to the support and protection of the State in terms of its industrial policies, the development of commercial forests will be regulated mainly by the market regime. They will be operated and managed as enterprises, mainly through economic and legal means, and their production will be organized according to market demands. The fourth change was in the pattern and structure of afforestation and greening. In the past, whether it was forests for public welfare or commercial forests, they were all subjected to the same method of afforestation with intensive operations and high input. They were mainly planted with faster growing trees as arbor forests for higher economic value. Little regard was given for closing hillsides to facilitate afforestation, either by air sowing, or the growing of bushes and grass. In accordance with the requirements of modern forestry, in the future, consideration should be given to local conditions, combining the closing of hillsides with air sowing and afforestation by planting bushes and grass.

Considering the various conditions described above, it seems that forestry development at present faces an unprecedented and auspicious opportunity for growth, and there is great potential to realize speedy high-quality development of forestry in this period.