Who Are the Poor?

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Chapter 2
Who Are the Poor?

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POOR

In 2005 almost thirty-seven million people in the United States, or 12.6% of the population, were poor. (See Table 2.1.) Another 4.2% had income-to-poverty ratios between 1 and 1.25, meaning that 16.8% of the U.S. population was poor or near-poor.

Race and Ethnicity

Historically, poverty rates have been consistently lower for whites than for minorities in the United States. According to the Census Bureau in Poverty in the United States: 2000 (September 2001, http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/p60-214.pdf), in 1959, 18.1% of all whites, or 28.5 million people, lived below the poverty level; in the same year, 55.1% of African-Americans, or 9.9 million people, lived in poverty. By 1970 the rate of poverty of white Americans had declined to 9.9%, about where it remained for the next ten years. The poverty rate for African-Americans was still almost triple that of whites in 1970, at 33.5%. By 2000, a year in which the U.S. economy was strong, only 9.4% of whites lived in poverty, whereas over one-fifth (22.1%) of all African-Americans did.

In 2005 African-Americans and Hispanics continued to be disproportionately affected by poverty. In 2005, 8.3% of non-Hispanic whites were poor, compared with 24.9% of African-Americans and 21.8% of Hispanics. (See Table 2.1.) Even more African-American and Hispanic children suffered from poverty. Over one-third (33.5%) of African-Americans under the age of eighteen and 28.3% of Hispanics under the age of eighteen were poor, compared with only 14.4% of white children in the same age group. (See Table 1.3 in Chapter 1.)

According to the Census Bureau, the overall Asian-American poverty rate in 2005 was 11.1% (or 1.4 million people). (See Table 2.1.) The rate was slightly lower than it was in 1987, the first year that the Census Bureau kept statistics on Asians and Pacific Islanders, when 12.7% lived below the poverty level. See Table 1.3 for the breakdown of poverty rates by different age groups among Asians and Pacific Islanders.

Age

CHILD POVERTY

Young adults and children under eighteen years of age were the age groups most likely to be poor (18.2% and 17.6%, respectively). Among these groups, it was the youngest children that suffered the most from poverty and deprivation. In 2005 one in five (20%) children under age six were poor, and more than one in four (25.4%) children under age six were poor or near-poor. Almost one in ten children this age (8.9%) were desperately poor, living in families with income-to-poverty ratios of under 0.5. (See Table 2.1.) In Poor Kids in a Rich Country: America's Children in Comparative Perspective (2003), Lee Rainwater and Timothy M. Smeeding indicate that the United States has the highest rate of child poverty among the fifteen richest nations in the world.

In 2005 children living with a female householder were particularly likely to live in poverty. Over a quarter of these children (28.7%) lived in poverty, compared with 13% of children living with a single dad and 5.1% of children living with married parents. (See Table 2.2.) Data from 2004 provide a more detailed look at children in female-householder families. In that year 53% of children under age six living in female-household families were poor, compared with 37% of children aged six to seventeen. (See Table 2.3.) Almost half (49%) of African-American children and over half (52%) of Hispanic children living in female-householder families were poor, compared with about a third (32%) of white, non-Hispanic children living in female-householder families.

Children are not only more likely than adults to be poor but they also arguably suffer more from the deprivations of poverty than do adults. Childhood poverty is a matter of great concern because strong evidence suggests that food insecurity and lack of good medical care caused by poverty can limit a child's physical and cognitive development. In addition, poverty is the largest predictor of child abuse and neglect. In fact, the Children's Defense Fund (2006, http://www.childrensdefense.org/site/PageNavigator/c2pp_poverty) argues that "poverty is the largest driving force behind the 'Cradle to Prison Pipeline,'" a life trajectory that the organization believes leads children to marginalized lives and premature deaths. In addition, the National Center for Children in Poverty states in "Children's Mental Health: Facts for Policymakers" (November 2006, http://www.nccp.org/media/ucr06b_text.pdf) that children in poverty are more likely to suffer from mental health problems than are other children.

TABLE 2.1
People with income below specified ratios of their poverty thresholds, by age, race, and family status, 2005
[Numbers in thousands. People as of March of the following year.]
Characteristic	Total	Income-to-poverty ratio
		Under 0.50		Under 1.00		Under 1.25
		Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
*Federal surveys now give respondents the option of reporting more than one race. Therefore, two basic ways of defining a race group are possible. A group such as Asian may be defined as those who reported Asian and no other race (the race-alone or single-race concept) or as those who reported Asian regardless of whether they also reported another race (the race-alone-or-in-combination concept). This table shows data using the first approach (race alone). The use of the single-race population does not imply that it is the preferred method of presenting or analyzing data. The Census Bureau uses a variety of approaches. About 2.6 percent of people reported more than one race in Census 2000.
Note: Details may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Source: Carmen DeNavas-Walt, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Cheryl Hill Lee, "Table 6. People with Income Below Specified Ratios of Their Poverty Thresholds by Selected Characteristics: 2005," in Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2005—Current Population Reports, U.S. Census Bureau, August 2006, http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/p60-231.pdf (accessed December 1, 2006)
All people	293,135	15,928	5.4	36,950	12.6	49,327	16.8
Age
Under 18 years	73,285	5,648	7.7	12,896	17.6	16,679	22.8
18 to 24 years	27,965	2,625	9.4	5,094	18.2	6,379	22.8
25 to 34 years	39,480	2,248	5.7	4,965	12.6	6,574	16.7
35 to 44 years	43,121	1,842	4.3	4,186	9.7	5,599	13.0
45 to 54 years	42,797	1,494	3.5	3,504	8.2	4,573	10.7
55 to 59 years	17,827	663	3.7	1,441	8.1	1,923	10.8
60 to 64 years	13,153	498	3.8	1,260	9.6	1,684	12.8
65 years and older	35,505	909	2.6	3,603	10.1	5,917	167
*Race and Hispanic origin**
White	235,430	10,288	4.4	24,872	10.6	33,864	14.4
White, not Hispanic	195,553	6,916	3.5	16,227	8.3	22,262	11.4
Black	36,802	4,302	11.7	9,168	24.9	11,484	31.2
Asian	12,580	647	5.1	1,402	11.1	1,909	15.2
Hispanic (any race)	43,020	3,701	8.6	9,368	21.8	12,582	29.2
Family status
In families	242,389	10,573	4.4	26,068	10.8	35,362	14.6
Householder	77,418	3,230	4.2	7,657	9.9	10,442	13.5
Related children under 18	72,095	5,209	7.2	12,335	17.1	16,028	22.2
Related children under 6	23,914	2,127	8.9	4,784	20.0	6,070	25.4
Unrelated subfamilies	1,220	308	25.2	456	37.4	568	46.5
Unrelated individual	49,526	5,048	10.2	10,425	21.1	13,397	27.1
Male	24,158	2,239	9.3	4,315	17.9	5,564	23.0
Female	25,367	2,809	11.1	6,111	24.1	7,833	30.9

POVERTY AMONG THE ELDERLY

In contrast with children, senior citizens are underrepresented among the poor. Barely one in ten (10.1%) adults aged sixty-five and older were poor, up by 0.3% from the year before. (See Table 2.2.) From 1959 to 2002 the number of people sixty-five years and older living in poverty dropped significantly, from about 35% to 10.4%. (See Figure 2.1.) Most observers credit Social Security for the sharp decline in poverty among the elderly.

Urban Areas

People living in inner cities are most likely to suffer from poverty. In 2005, 17% of people living in inner cities lived below the poverty line. (See Table 2.2.) Only 9.3% of people who lived in suburban areas—inside metropolitan statistical areas but outside principal cities—lived below the poverty line. In rural areas the poverty rate was also high—14.5%.

Family Status

In 2005 people living in families (10.8%) were less likely to suffer from poverty than people living in unrelated subfamilies (37.4%) or in households with unrelated individuals (21.1%). (See Table 2.1.) However, there was a great difference in the poverty rate between different family structures. Even though about one in every ten families in the United States was living in poverty in 2005, families headed by married couples had the lowest poverty rate (5.1%). More than a quarter (28.7%) of all families with a female householder (no husband present) were living in poverty, a 0.4% increase over the previous year. Male householders were also more likely than married-couple families to be in poverty (13%), but they were much less likely than female householders to be poor. (See Table 2.2.)

TABLE 2.2
People and families living in poverty, by demographic characteristics, 2004–05
[Numbers in thousands. People as of March of the following year.]
Characteristic	Below poverty in 2004^a		Below poverty in 2005		Change in poverty (2005 less 2004)^b
Characteristic	Number	Percentage	Number	Number	Number	Percentage
People
Total	37,040	12.7	36,950	12.6	−90	−0.1
Family status
In families	26,544	11.0	26,068	10.8	−476	−0.3
Householder	7,835	10.2	7,657	9.9	−177	−0.3
Related children under 18	12,473	17.3	12,335	17.1	−138	−0.2
Related children under 6	4,747	20.0	4,784	20.0	37	—
In unrelated subfamilies	570	45.4	456	37.4	−114	−8.1
Reference person	234	45.4	181	35.9	−53	−9.5
Children under 18	315	46.6	270	39.7	−45	−6.9
Unrelated individual	9,926	20.4	10,425	21.1	499	0.6
Male	4,316	18.2	4,315	17.9	−1	−0.4
Female	5,611	22.5	6,111	24.1	500	1.6
Race^c and Hispanic origin
White	25,327	10.8	24,872	10.6	−456	−0.3
White, not Hispanic	16,908	8.7	16,227	8.3	−682	−0.4
Black	9,014	24.7	9,168	24.9	154	0.2
Asian	1,201	9.8	1,402	11.1	201	1.3
Hispanic origin (any race)	9,122	21.9	9,368	21.8	246	−0.1
Age
Under 18 years	13,041	17.8	12,896	17.6	−145	−0.2
18 to 64 years	20,545	11.3	20,450	11.1	−95	−0.2
65 years and older	3,453	9.8	3,603	10.1	150	0.3
Nativity
Native	31,023	12.1	31,080	12.1	57	−0.1
Foreign born	6,017	17.1	5,870	16.5	−147	−0.6
Naturalized citizen	1,326	9.8	1,441	10.4	115	0.6
Not a citizen	4,691	21.6	4,429	20.4	−262	−1.3
Region
Northeast	6,260	11.6	6,103	11.3	−156	−0.3
Midwest	7,545	11.7	7,419	11.4	−126	−0.2
South	14,817	14.1	14,854	14.0	38	−0.1
West	8,419	12.5	8,573	12.6	154	—
Residence
Inside metropolitan statistical areas	(NA)	(NA)	30,098	12.2	(X)	(X)
Inside principal cities	(NA)	(NA)	15,966	17.0	(X)	(X)
Outside principal cities	(NA)	(NA)	14,132	9.3	(X)	(X)
Outside metropolitan statistical areas^d	(NA)	(NA)	6,852	14.5	(X)	(X)
Work experience
All workers (16 years and older)	9,384	6.1	9,340	6.0	−45	−0.1
Worked full-time, year-round	2,891	2.8	2,894	2.8	3	−0.1
Not full-time, year-round	6,493	12.8	6,446	12.8	−47	—
Did not work at least one week	15,871	21.7	16,041	21.8	170	—
Families
Total	7,835	10.2	7,657	9.9	−177	−0.3

SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES

An increasing number of children are being raised by one parent, usually the mother. The proportion of single-parent families grew rapidly between 1970 and the mid-1990s, whereas the proportion of families headed by married couples dropped. Since then the structure of U.S. households and families has remained relatively stable. In 2003, 23.3% of all households were married couples with children, down from 40.3% in 1970. (See Figure 2.2.) Another 28.2% of all households were married couples without children, down slightly from 30.3% in 1970. The percentage of other family households, including single-parent households headed by single women and single men, had risen to 16.4% of all households in 2003 from 10.6% in 1970. Most of these other family households were headed by female householders. Table 2.4 shows that in 2003 there were almost three times as many single female-headed families as there were single male-headed families (13.6 million female householders versus 4.6 million male householders).

TABLE 2.2
People and families living in poverty, by demographic characteristics, 2004–05 [continued]
[Numbers in thousands. People as of March of the following year.]
Characteristic	Below poverty in 2004^a		Below poverty in 2005		Change in poverty (2005 less 2004)^b
Characteristic	Number	Percentage	Number	Number	Number	Percentage
—Represents zero or rounds to zero.
(NA) Not available.
(X) Not applicable.
^aThe 2004 data have been revised to reflect a correction to the weights in the 2005 Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC).
^bDetails may not sum to totals because of rounding.
^cFederal surveys now give respondents the option of reporting more than one race. Therefore, two basic ways of defining a race group are possible. A group such as Asian may be defined as those who reported Asian and no other race (the race-alone or single-race concept) or as those who reported Asian regardless of whether they also reported another race (the race-alone-or-in-combination concept). This table shows data using the first approach (race alone). The use of the single-race population does not imply that it is the preferred method of presenting or analyzing data. The Census Bureau uses a variety of approaches. Information on people who reported more than one race, such as white and American Indian and Alaska Native or Asian and black or African American, is available from Census 2000 through American FactFinder. About 2.6 percent of people reported more than one race in Census 2000.
^dThe "Outside metropolitan statistical areas" category includes both micropolitan statistical areas and territory outside of metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas.
Source: Carmen DeNavas-Walt, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Cheryl Hill Lee, "Table 4. People and Families in Poverty by Selected Characteristics: 2004 and 2005," in Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2005—Current Population Reports, U.S. Census Bureau, August 2006, http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/p60-231.pdf (accessed December 1, 2006)
Type of family
Married-couple	3,216	5.5	2,944	5.1	−271	−0.5
Female householder, no husband present	3,962	28.3	4,044	28.7	82	0.4
Male householder, no wife present	657	13.4	669	13.0	12	−0.4

One factor in the rise of single-parent families is the rise in the divorce rate. In 1970 only 3.5% of men and 5.7% of women were separated or divorced. (See Figure 2.3.) By 2003, 10.1% of men and 13.3% of women were divorced. The percentage of divorced women is consistently higher than the percentage of divorced men because divorced men are more likely to remarry. After divorce, women most often raise the children. As Table 2.5 shows, almost two-thirds (64.2%) of custodial parents in 2003 were women.

Another reason for the increase in single-parent families is the rise in people who never marry yet still have children. Jason Fields reports in America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2003 (November 2004, http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-553.pdf) that the percentage of people aged fifteen or older who had never married rose from 24.9% in 1970 to 28.6% in 2003. The proportion of those who have never married has increased as young adults delay the age at which they marry. Between 1970 and 2003 the median age at first marriage had risen from 20.8 years to 25.3 years for women, and from 23.2 years to 27.1 years for men. In addition, the proportion of all households that were unmarried-partner heterosexual households steadily rose between 1996 and 2003, from 2.9% to 4.2% of all households. (See Figure 2.4.)

Single-parent women are more likely than single-parent men to have never been married. In 2003, 4.4 million of 10.1 million single mothers (43.6%), compared with 601,000 of 1.7 million single fathers (35.3%), had never been married. (See Table 2.6.) In 2003 African-American single mothers were most likely to have never been married (1.9 million of 3.1 million, or 61.3%), followed by Hispanic women (850,000 of 1.8 million, or 47.2%), and non-Hispanic white women (1.5 million of 4.9 million, or 30.6%).

In 2002 African-American children were far more likely to live with a single parent than were white or Hispanic children. In that year 48% of African-American children lived with their mothers and 5% with their fathers. Twenty-five percent of Hispanic children lived with their mothers and 5% with their fathers. Sixteen percent of white children lived with their mothers and 4% with their fathers. (See Figure 2.5.)

Jason Fields reports in Children's Living Arrangements and Characteristics: March 2002 (June 2003, http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p20-547.pdf) that in 2002 a higher percentage of African-American children (9%) than Hispanics (6%) or whites (4%) lived with neither parent. In part, this is because African-American children are more likely to live with grandparents without the presence of either parent.

CHILD SUPPORT

Child support is an important source of income for single parents, especially mothers. In 2003, 64.2% of custodial mothers and 39.8% of custodial

TABLE 2.3
Percentage of all children and related children living below selected poverty levels, by demographic characteristics, 1980–2004
Characteristic	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004
Below 100% poverty
All children^b	18	20	22	22	22	21	21	20	20	20	21	22	22	23	22	21	21	20	19	17	16	16	17	18	18
Gender
Male	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	20	20	20	21	21	22	23	21	20	20	20	18	17	16	16	17	18	18
Female	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	20	19	20	21	22	23	23	22	21	21	20	19	17	16	16	17	18	18
Age
Ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	23	22	23	24	25	26	26	25	24	23	22	21	19	18	18	19	20	20
Ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	19	18	18	19	20	20	21	20	19	19	19	18	16	15	15	16	16	17
Race and Hispanic origin^c
White, non-Hispanic	12	13	14	15	14	13	13	12	11	12	12	13	13	14	13	11	11	11	11	9	9	10	9	10	11
Black	42	45	48	47	47	44	43	45	44	44	45	46	47	46	44	42	40	37	37	33	31	30	32	34	34
Hispanic^d	33	36	40	38	39	40	38	39	38	36	38	40	40	41	42	40	40	37	34	30	28	28	29	30	29
Region
Northeast	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	17	16	16	18	20	20	21	20	19	19	20	19	16	15	15	15	15	16
Midwest	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	19	16	19	19	20	20	20	19	17	16	15	15	14	13	13	13	15	17
South	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	24	24	23	24	24	26	25	24	24	23	22	20	19	18	19	19	20	20
West	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	19	20	20	20	22	22	23	23	22	23	22	21	18	17	16	17	18	18
Related children^a
Children in all families, total	18	20	21	22	21	20	20	20	19	19	20	21	22	22	21	20	20	19	18	17	16	16	16	17	17
Related children ages 0-5	20	22	23	25	23	23	22	22	22	22	23	24	26	26	25	24	23	22	21	18	18	18	19	20	20
Related children ages 6-17	17	18	20	20	20	19	19	18	17	17	18	20	19	20	20	18	18	18	17	16	15	15	15	16	16
White, non-Hispanic	11	12	14	14	13	12	12	11	11	11	12	12	12	13	12	11	10	11	10	9	9	9	9	9	10
Black	42	45	47	46	46	43	43	44	43	43	44	46	46	46	43	42	40	37	36	33	31	30	32	34	33
Hispanic^d	33	35	39	38	39	40	37	39	37	36	38	40	39	40	41	39	40	36	34	30	28	27	28	29	29
Children in married-couple families, total	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	10	10	10	10	11	11	12	11	10	10	10	9	9	8	8	9	9	9
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	12	11	12	12	12	13	13	12	11	12	11	10	9	9	9	10	10	10
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	10	9	9	10	10	10	11	10	9	9	9	9	8	8	7	8	8	8
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	7	6	7	7	7	7	8	7	6	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5	5
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	18	17	18	18	15	18	18	15	13	14	13	12	11	9	10	12	11	13
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	27	25	25	27	29	29	30	30	28	29	26	23	22	21	20	21	21	21
Children in female-house holder families, no husband present, total	51	52	56	55	54	54	54	54	53	51	53	56	55	54	53	50	49	49	46	42	40	39	40	42	42
Related children ages 0-5	65	66	67	68	65	66	65	66	64	62	66	66	66	64	64	62	59	59	55	51	50	49	49	53	53
Related children ages 6-17	46	47	51	50	49	48	50	48	48	46	47	50	49	49	47	45	45	45	42	39	36	35	36	37	37
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	38	37	36	40	41	40	39	38	34	35	37	33	29	28	29	29	31	32
Black	65	52	56	55	54	67	67	67	65	63	65	68	67	66	63	62	58	55	55	52	49	47	48	50	49
Hispanic^d	65	52	56	55	54	72	67	70	70	64	68	69	66	66	68	66	67	63	60	52	50	49	48	51	52

TABLE 2.3
Percentage of all children and related children living below selected poverty levels, by demographic characteristics, 1980–2004 [continued]
Characteristic	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004
Below 50% poverty
All children^b	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	9	9	8	9	10	10	10	10	9	9	9	8	7	7	7	7	8	8
Gender
Male	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	9	9	8	9	10	10	10	10	8	8	9	8	7	7	7	7	8	8
Female	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	9	9	9	9	10	11	10	10	9	10	9	8	7	7	7	7	8	8
Age
Ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	10	11	10	11	12	13	12	12	11	11	10	10	8	8	8	8	10	9
Ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	9	8	7	8	9	9	9	9	7	8	8	7	7	6	7	6	7	7
Race and Hispanic origin^c
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	5	5	4	5	5	6	6	5	4	5	5	4	4	4	4	4	4	5
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	23	25	23	23	26	27	26	24	21	21	20	18	15	15	16	15	18	17
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	15	16	13	14	15	16	15	17	16	15	16	14	11	10	11	11	11	10
Region
Northeast	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	7	7	6	8	9	9	10	9	9	10	10	8	8	6	7	6	7	8
Midwest	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	9	8	9	9	9	10	9	9	7	7	6	6	6	6	6	6	7	7
South	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	12	12	11	11	12	13	12	12	10	11	10	9	7	8	8	8	9	9
West	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	6	8	6	6	8	8	8	9	8	8	9	8	6	6	6	6	8	7
Related children^a
Children in all families, total	7	7	9	9	9	8	8	9	9	8	8	9	10	10	9	8	8	8	8	6	6	7	7	7	7
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	10	10	10	10	11	12	12	12	10	11	10	9	8	8	8	8	10	9
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	8	8	7	7	8	9	8	8	7	7	8	7	6	6	6	6	6	6
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	5	4	4	4	5	5	5	4	3	4	4	4	3	3	3	3	4	4
Black	17	21	23	23	23	22	23	23	24	22	22	25	27	26	23	20	20	20	17	15	15	16	15	17	17
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	15	16	12	14	14	15	14	17	16	14	16	13	11	9	10	11	11	10
Children in married-couple families, total	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	2	2	2	2	2	2
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	3	3	3	3	4	4	4	4	3	3	3	3	2	2	3	3	3	3
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	3	3	2	2	3	3	3	3	3	3	3	2	2	2	2	2	2	2
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	2	1	2	1	2	1	2	2	2	1	2
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	6	7	4	4	6	7	7	6	3	3	5	3	3	3	3	3	4	4
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	8	7	6	7	8	9	7	9	9	7	7	5	5	4	5	5	5	4
Children in female-house holder families, no husband present, total	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	28	29	26	28	29	30	29	28	24	26	26	23	20	19	20	20	22	22
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	36	38	34	37	37	39	36	37	34	35	34	31	27	28	28	28	31	31
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	25	25	22	23	25	26	25	24	19	22	22	19	17	15	17	16	17	18
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	19	18	16	19	19	20	19	18	13	18	17	15	13	12	13	12	15	15
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	38	38	36	37	40	41	40	36	32	33	31	29	25	24	27	25	27	27
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	32	39	30	32	31	31	30	36	33	34	36	32	27	25	26	26	25	28

TABLE 2.3
Percentage of all children and related children living below selected poverty levels, by demographic characteristics, 1980–2004 [continued]
Characteristic	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004
Below 150% poverty
All children^b	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	31	30	31	31	33	33	34	33	32	32	31	30	28	27	28	28	29	28
Gender
Male	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	31	30	31	31	32	33	34	33	32	31	30	29	28	27	27	28	29	28
Female	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	31	30	31	32	33	34	34	33	33	33	31	30	29	27	28	28	29	28
Age
Ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	33	34	34	35	36	38	38	37	36	35	34	32	31	29	30	31	32	32
Ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	29	28	28	30	31	31	32	31	31	30	29	28	28	25	26	27	27	27
Race and Hispanic origin^c
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	21	20	20	21	22	22	22	22	20	20	20	18	18	16	17	17	18	17
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	58	57	58	58	60	60	61	58	57	56	52	52	48	46	46	48	49	48
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	56	54	55	56	59	58	60	59	59	58	56	53	50	47	47	47	48	47
Region
Northeast	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	25	25	25	27	28	29	29	29	29	29	28	28	26	23	25	25	25	23
Midwest	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	29	27	28	29	30	30	30	30	27	26	24	25	23	22	23	23	25	26
South	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	35	35	36	36	37	38	39	36	36	35	34	32	31	30	31	31	32	31
West	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	31	31	32	31	34	34	35	36	35	35	34	33	31	29	28	30	30	30
Related children^a
Children in all families, total	29	32	34	34	32	32	30	30	30	30	31	32	33	33	32	32	31	30	29	28	26	27	27	28	28
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	33	34	34	34	36	37	38	37	35	35	33	32	30	29	30	31	31	31
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	29	28	28	29	30	30	31	30	30	29	28	27	27	25	25	26	27	26
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	20	20	20	21	21	21	22	21	19	19	19	18	17	16	17	17	17	17
Black	57	62	63	62	61	59	57	57	56	57	57	60	60	61	58	56	56	51	52	48	45	46	48	48	48
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	56	54	54	55	58	58	60	58	59	57	56	52	49	47	46	47	48	47
Children in married-couple families, total	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	20	19	20	20	21	21	22	21	20	20	19	18	17	16	17	18	18	17
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	22	23	23	22	24	24	25	23	21	22	21	20	19	18	19	20	20	20
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	19	17	18	19	19	20	20	19	19	19	17	17	17	15	16	16	17	16
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	15	14	14	15	15	15	15	15	13	13	12	11	11	10	11	11	11	10
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	32	30	33	32	32	33	35	28	26	28	24	26	21	21	21	25	22	23
Black^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	46	45	45	47	50	49	51	49	50	48	47	43	41	39	39	40	41	40
Children in female-house holder families, husband present, total	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	67	67	66	67	69	68	68	67	65	65	64	62	60	57	57	57	58	58
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	77	77	75	77	78	79	77	78	75	74	74	71	68	67	66	65	68	68
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	63	63	62	62	64	63	63	62	60	60	60	58	56	53	54	53	54	53
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	53	53	53	54	55	54	53	53	49	50	52	48	45	44	46	45	46	46
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	79	79	77	77	81	79	80	78	76	75	72	72	71	66	66	65	67	66
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	81	81	79	80	81	80	81	81	82	81	78	76	71	70	66	66	68	68

TABLE 2.3
Percentage of all children and related children living below selected poverty levels, by demographic characteristics, 1980–2004 [continued]
Characteristic	1980	1981	1982	1983	1984	1985	1986	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004
Below 200% poverty
All children^b	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	41	41	41	42	44	44	45	44	43	43	41	40	39	38	38	38	39	39
Gender
Male	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	41	41	41	43	44	44	45	44	43	43	41	40	39	38	38	38	39	39
Female	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	41	41	42	42	44	45	45	44	44	44	42	41	38	38	38	38	40	40
Age
Ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	44	45	45	46	48	48	50	48	47	47	45	43	42	41	42	42	42	43
ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	40	39	39	41	42	42	43	42	42	42	40	39	38	36	37	37	38	38
Race and Hispanic origin^c
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	31	31	30	32	33	33	33	32	31	31	30	28	27	26	27	26	26	27
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	68	67	68	68	70	71	72	68	68	68	64	64	61	59	57	60	61	61
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	68	66	67	70	72	71	73	72	73	72	69	67	64	63	62	62	63	62
Region
Northeast	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	34	34	35	36	38	39	39	38	38	39	38	37	35	33	34	34	34	32
Midwest	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	39	38	38	40	41	42	41	41	37	37	36	34	33	31	33	33	34	36
South	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	46	46	47	48	49	49	50	48	48	48	46	43	42	42	42	42	44	43
West	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	42	43	42	43	45	45	46	47	46	47	44	44	42	41	40	40	41	42
Related children^a
Children in all families, total	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	40	41	41	42	43	44	44	43	43	43	41	40	38	37	38	38	39	39
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	44	45	45	45	47	48	49	48	46	46	45	43	41	41	41	41	42	42
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	39	38	39	40	41	41	42	41	41	41	39	38	37	35	36	36	37	37
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	30	30	30	31	33	32	32	32	30	30	29	27	26	25	26	17	26	26
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	68	67	68	68	70	71	72	68	68	68	64	64	60	59	57	48	61	60
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	68	66	67	69	72	70	72	72	73	72	69	66	64	62	61	47	62	62
Children in married-couple families, total	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	30	30	30	31	33	32	33	32	31	31	29	28	27	26	27	27	27	27
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	34	35	34	34	36	35	36	35	33	34	33	31	29	29	30	30	30	31
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	29	28	28	30	31	31	31	30	30	30	27	27	26	25	25	25	26	26
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	24	25	24	25	26	25	25	25	23	23	21	20	19	18	19	19	19	18
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	46	44	46	45	46	47	50	42	39	43	38	39	35	36	33	36	36	36
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	60	58	60	62	65	64	65	64	66	65	63	59	58	55	54	56	56	56
Children in female-house holder families, no husband present, total	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	77	76	77	77	78	79	78	78	76	76	75	73	72	69	70	69	70	71
Related children ages 0-5	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	85	85	84	85	86	87	86	87	84	84	83	80	80	78	79	76	78	79
Related children ages 6-17	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	73	73	73	73	74	74	74	73	72	73	72	70	68	66	66	66	67	67
White, non-Hispanic	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	65	65	66	67	66	67	66	66	61	64	64	61	59	56	59	58	59	60
Black	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	86	86	85	86	88	88	88	85	87	85	83	82	82	79	77	76	78	79
Hispanic^d	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	89	87	87	89	87	88	89	90	88	89	86	84	82	82	80	79	80	80

TABLE 2.3

Percentage of all children and related children living below selected poverty levels, by demographic characteristics, 1980–2004 [continued]

—=Not available.

^aA related child is a person ages 0-17 who is related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption, but is not the householder or the householder's spouse.

^bIncludes children not related to the householder.

^cFor race and Hispanic origin data in this table: From 1980 to 2002, following the 1977 Office of Management and Budget (OMB) standards for collecting and presenting data on race, the Current Population Survey (CPS) asked respondents to choose one race from the following: white, black, American Indian or Alaskan Native, or Asian or Pacific Islander. The Census Bureau also offered an "other" category. Beginning in 2003, following the 1997 OMB standards for collecting and presenting data on race, the CPS asked respondents to choose one or more races from the following: white, black, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander. All race groups discussed in this table from 2002 onward refer to people who indicated only one racial identity within the racial categories presented. People who responded to the question on race by indicating only one race are referred to as the race-alone population. The use of the race-alone population in this table does not imply that it is the preferred method of presenting or analyzing data. Data from 2002 onward are not directly comparable with data from earlier years. Data on race and Hispanic origin are collected separately; Hispanics may be any race.

^dPersons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.

Note: Data for 1999, 2000, and 2001 use Census 2000 population controls. Data for 2000 onward are from the expanded Current Population Survey sample. The poverty level is based on money income and does not include noncash benefits, such as food stamps. Poverty thresholds reflect family size and composition and are adjusted each year using the annual average Consumer Price Index level. The average poverty threshold for a family of four was $19,307 in 2004. The levels shown here are derived from the ratio of the family's income to the family's poverty threshold.

source: "Table ECON1.A. Child Poverty: Percentage of All Children and Related Children Ages 0-17 Living Below Selected Poverty Levels by Selected Characteristics, Selected Years 1980–2004," in America's Children in Brief: Key National Indicators of Well-Being, 2006, Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2006, http://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/tables/econ1a.asp (accessed January 2, 2007)

fathers were awarded child support. (See Table 2.5.) However, less than half of all custodial parents received all child support payments owed to them (46.2% of custodial fathers and 45.2% of custodial mothers). Almost a quarter of all custodial mothers (23%) and 28.4% of all custodial fathers due child support payments did not receive any.

Child support is often not enough to keep custodial mothers and their children out of poverty. According to the Census Bureau, between 1993 and 2001 the percent of custodial parents and their children living below the poverty level declined from 33.3% to 23.4%, and then remained statistically unchanged in 2002 and 2003. (See Figure 2.6.) However, the poverty rate among custodial mothers (26.1%) remained significantly higher than the poverty rate among custodial fathers (13.4%).

The Census Bureau further breaks down whether custodial parents received their child support payments by whether their families were below the poverty level in 2001. A lower proportion of custodial parents with incomes below the poverty level received child support payments in 2001 (65.6%) than did all custodial parents (73.9%). (See Table 2.7.) In addition, a lower proportion of the poor custodial parents (30.8%) than all custodial parents (44.8%) received the full amount of child support due them.

The average amount of child support due to custodial mothers in 2003 was $5,176; they actually received an average of $3,579. (See Table 2.5.) The average amount of child support due to custodial fathers in 2003 was $4,471; they actually received an average of $2,797. According to the Census Bureau, the mean total income of custodial mothers who actually received child support in 2001 was $28,258, substantially less than the mean total income of custodial fathers who received child support ($36,255). (See Table 2.7.)

By Race

The Census Bureau calculates the three-year average poverty rate of different racial and ethnic groups in the United States. It finds that non-Hispanic whites had the lowest rate, at 8.4%, followed by Asians, at 10.9%, and Native Hawaiians or other Pacific Islanders, at 12.2%. (See Table 2.8.) In contrast, more than one in five Americans of Hispanic origin (22%) and one in four African-Americans (24.7%) and Native Americans and Alaskan Natives (25.3%) lived in poverty.

Work Experience

The probability of a family living in poverty is influenced by three primary factors: the size of the family, the number of workers, and the characteristics of the wage earners. As the number of wage earners in a family increases, the probability of poverty declines. The likelihood of a second wage earner is greatest in families headed by married couples.

In 2004 most Americans aged sixteen and older, at or above the poverty level, worked at some point during the year (144.4 million of 200 million, or 72.2%). About 6.7% of all Americans who worked lived in poverty, compared with 21% of those who did not work that year. The rate of poverty was higher for those who worked only twenty-six weeks or less (18.4%) than for those who worked twenty-seven weeks or more (5.6%). (See Table 2.9.)

Most poor children live in families where one or more adults work. However, millions of working parents are not able to earn enough to lift their families out of poverty—even those who work full time all year.

Education

Not surprisingly, poverty rates drop sharply as years of schooling rise. In 2005 the median income for men aged twenty-five and older who had not completed high school was $22,138; for women it was only $13,076. (See Table 2.10.) Male high school graduates earned a median of $31,683, whereas females earned $20,179. Men with a four-year college degree earned a median of $53,693, whereas women earned $36,250. Heather Koball, Michelle Chau, and Ayana Douglas-Hall report in the fact sheet "Parents' Low Education Leads to Low Income, Despite Full-Time Employment" (October 2006, http://www.nccp.org/pub_pei06b.html) that most children who live in low-income or poor families have parents without any college education and that full-time employment does not protect families from low earnings.

GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE

With few exceptions, the demand for welfare assistance increased sharply in the 1990s. However, because of decreased funding and welfare reform measures that gave states more flexibility in dispersing benefits, a smaller proportion of eligible families actually received benefits. In the fact sheet "Decade of Welfare Reform: Facts and Figures—Assessing the New Federalism" (June 2006, http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/900980_welfarereform.pdf), the Urban Institute reports that even though 80% of eligible families were enrolled in welfare programs in 1996, by 2002 only 48% were enrolled. Some were ineligible because they had assets such as a car or a savings account that brought them above permitted limits. Others did not know they were eligible for benefits, whereas some knew they were eligible but chose not to accept benefits or thought the effort was not worth the amount of benefits they would receive.

Who Receives Benefits?

The Census Bureau reports that in 2004 about 76.7 million people, or 26.4% of the total U.S. population, lived in households that received some form of means-tested assistance—assistance based on earning below a certain amount. (See Table 2.11.) Approximately thirty-seven million people were living below the poverty level in 2004. (See Table 2.12.) Of those living in poverty, twenty-five million, or 67.6%, were receiving some form of means-tested aid.

Certain types of households were more likely than others to receive means-tested assistance. Almost nine out of ten (86.9%) poor families with children under eighteen years of age received government assistance. (See Table 2.12.) Poor families headed by a single mother were most likely to receive government assistance; 91.6% of these families received some form of government assistance. In fact, more than two out of three of all families with children headed by a single mother (69.6%) received some form of means-tested assistance in 2004. (See Table 2.11.) In comparison, about half (49.7%) of families headed by a single father received means-tested assistance in that year.

TABLE 2.4
Households, by type and selected characteristics, 2003
[In thousands, except average size]
Characteristic	All households	Family households				Nonfamily households
	All households	Total	Married couple	Other families		Nonfamily households
	Number	Total	Married couple	Male householder	Female householder	Total	Male householder	Female householder
X Not applicable.
Note: Data are not shown separately for the other race groups because of the small sample sizes in the Current Population Survey in the 2003 Annual Social and Economic Supplement.
Source: Jason Fields, "Table 1. Households by Type and Selected Characteristics: 2003," in America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2003—Current Population Reports, U.S. Census Bureau, November 2004, http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-553.pdf (accessed December 6, 2006)
All households	111,278	75,596	57,320	4,656	13,620	35,682	16,020	9,662
Age of householder
15 to 24 years	6,611	3,551	1,379	789	1,383	3,060	1,507	1,552
25 to 34 years	19,056	13,438	9,536	1,011	2,892	5,617	3,343	2,274
35 to 44 years	24,069	18,741	14,001	1087	3,652	5,328	3,278	2,051
45 to 54 years	22,623	16,863	13,297	922	2,644	5,760	2,971	2,789
55 to 64 years	16,260	11,261	9,543	413	1,305	4,999	2,023	2,976
65 years and over	22,659	11,741	9,565	434	1,743	10,918	2,898	8,020
Race and ethnicity of householder
White only	91,645	62,297	49,915	3,500	8,881	29,349	13,070	16,278
Non-Hispanic	81,166	53,845	44,101	2,674	7,070	27,321	11,968	15,353
Black only	13,465	8,928	4,165	762	4,000	4,538	2,043	2,495
Asian only	3,917	2,845	2,286	223	337	1,073	526	547
Hispanic (of any race)	11,339	9,090	6,189	872	2,029	2,249	1,228	1,021
Size of households
1 person	29,431	(X)	(X)	(X)	(X)	29,431	12,511	16,919
2 people	37,078	32,047	24,310	1,992	5,745	5,031	2,660	2,371
3 people	17,889	17,076	11,526	1,403	4,147	813	556	257
4 people	15,967	15,672	12,754	733	2,185	295	212	83
5 people	7,029	6,969	5,719	296	955	60	42	17
6 people	2,521	2,489	2,004	142	344	31	19	12
7 or more people	1,364	1,343	1,007	90	246	22	19	2
Average size	2.57	3.19	3.22	3.11	3.12	1.24	1.32	1.17
Number of related children under 18
No related children	72,367	36,685	30,261	2,240	4,183	35,682	16,020	19,662
With related children	38,911	38,911	27,059	2,416	9,437	(X)	(X)	(X)
1 child	16,511	16,511	10,378	1,429	4,704	(X)	(X)	(X)
2 children	14,333	14,333	10,800	683	2,850	(X)	(X)	(X)
3 children	5,771	5,771	4,235	220	1,317	(X)	(X)	(X)
4 or more children	2,296	2,296	1,646	84	566	(X)	(X)	(X)
Presence of own children under 18
No own children	75,310	39,628	31,406	2,741	5,481	35,682	16,020	19,662
With own children	35,968	35,968	25,914	1,915	8,139	(X)	(X)	(X)
With own children under 12	26,251	26,251	19,168	1,295	5,788	(X)	(X)	(X)
With own children under 6	15,584	15,584	11,743	729	3,111	(X)	(X)	(X)
With own children under 3	9,081	9,081	7,014	451	1,615	(X)	(X)	(X)
With own children under 1	2,917	2,917	2,255	181	481	(X)	(X)	(X)
Tenure
Owner	75,909	57,092	47,676	2,721	6,695	18,817	7,742	11,075
Renter	33,799	17,604	9,007	1,873	6,724	16,195	7,951	8,244
Occupies without payment	1,570	900	637	62	201	670	327	343

In 2004 a slightly higher proportion of females (27.6%) than males (25.2%) lived in a household that received means-tested assistance, or welfare benefits of any kind. (See Table 2.11.) About 40.8 million females received program assistance during 2004, compared with nearly 35.9 million males. Among those living below the poverty level, 14.2 million women, or 68.8% of females living below the poverty line, received benefits during some part of the year, compared with 10.8 million males, or 66.1% of males living below the poverty line. (See Table 2.12.)

One reason for the larger percentage of females receiving assistance is that women are more likely to live in a family without a spouse present. Another reason is that, as reported by many government and private studies, women, on average, earned approximately 76.7% of what men earn in 2005. (See Table 2.10.) Another reason is that fewer single mothers participate in the workforce permanently and full time than do single fathers. In Custodial Mothers and Fathers and Their Child Support: 2003 (July 2006, http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/p60-230.pdf), Timothy S. Grall reports that although 80.1% of custodial mothers worked in 2003, only 50.5% of them worked full time, year round, whereas 70.6% of custodial fathers held full-time, full-year jobs. Grall notes one reason that might be part of the cause of this disparity: Custodial mothers were more likely than custodial fathers to have two or more children living with them (44.4% and 35.9%, respectively).

TABLE 2.5
Award status given and support payments made to custodial parents, by demographic characteristics, 2003
[Numbers in thousands, as of spring 2004. Parents living with own children under 21 years of age whose other parent is not living in the home.]
Characteristic	Total	With child support agreements or awards
		Total	Percent	Due child support payments in 2003
				Total	Average due (dollars)	Average received (dollars)	Received all payments		Did not receive payments
				Total	Average due (dollars)	Average received (dollars)	Total	Percent	Total	Percent
*Public assistance program participation includes receiving at least one of the following: Medicaid, food stamps, public housing or rent subsidy, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), or general assistance.
Source: Timothy S. Grall, "Table 2. Demographic Characteristics of Custodial Parents by Award Status and Payments Received: 2003," in Custodial Mothers and Fathers and Their Child Support: 2003—Current Population Reports, U.S. Census Bureau, July 2006, http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/p60-230.pdf (accessed December 6, 2006)
All custodial parents
Total	13,951	8,376	60.0	7,256	5,104	3,499	3,290	45.3	1,708	23.5
Sex
Male	2,364	940	39.8	740	4,471	2,797	342	46.2	210	28.4
Female	11,587	7,436	64.2	6,516	5,176	3,579	2,948	45.2	1,498	23.0
Age
Under 30 years	3,296	1,888	57.3	1,653	3,872	1,964	503	30.4	423	25.6
30 to 39 years	5,118	3,260	63.7	2,894	5,024	3,815	1,347	46.5	766	26.5
40 years and over	5,538	3,228	58.3	2,710	5,941	4,097	1,439	53.1	519	19.2
Race and ethnicity
White alone	9,601	6,048	63.0	5,313	5,243	3,840	2,595	48.8	1,048	19.7
White alone, non-Hispanic	7,837	5,184	66.1	4,576	5,396	3,943	2,266	49.5	830	18.1
Black alone	3,554	1,852	52.1	1,547	4,607	2,104	522	33.7	532	34.4
Hispanic (any race)	1,977	975	49.3	832	4,320	3,782	371	44.6	246	29.6
Current marital status
Married	3,075	2,035	66.2	1,875	4,876	3,301	880	46.9	377	20.1
Divorced	5,023	3,309	65.9	2,865	5,768	4,196	1,486	51.9	610	21.3
Separated	1,632	880	53.9	682	5,093	3,035	282	41.3	183	26.8
Never married	4,005	2,037	50.9	1,736	4,245	2,801	609	35.1	505	29.1
Educational attainment
Less than high school diploma	2,200	1,208	54.9	988	3,826	3,682	404	40.9	326	33.0
High school graduate	5,123	3,078	60.1	2,685	4,740	2,781	1,101	41.0	714	26.6
Less than 4 years of college	4,589	2,849	62.1	2,541	5,275	3,608	1,199	47.2	493	19.4
Bachelor's degree or more	2,039	1,241	60.9	1,042	6,836	4,910	586	56.2	176	16.9
Selected characteristics
Family income below 2003 poverty level	3,343	1,964	58.7	1,689	4,248	2,548	594	35.2	530	31.4
Worked full-time, year-round	7,523	4,480	59.6	3,904	5,364	3,667	1,965	50.3	856	21.9
Public assistance program participation*	4,229	2,520	59.6	2,157	4,224	2,742	776	36.0	595	27.6
With 1 child	7,958	4,409	55.4	3,787	4,610	3,074	1,689	44.6	863	22.8
With 2 or more children	5,994	3,967	66.2	3,469	5,643	3,964	1,601	46.2	846	24.4
Child had contact with other parent in 2003	9,269	5,931	64.0	5,200	5,255	3,914	2,686	51.7	906	17.4

African-Americans and Hispanics were more likely than non-Hispanic whites and Asians to received some form of means-tested assistance in 2004. The Census Bureau notes in Current Population Survey, 2005 Annual Social and Economic Supplement (2005, http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/pov/new26_000.htm) that 17.6% of non-Hispanic whites, 23.3% of Asians, 46.8% of African-Americans, and 49.6% of Hispanics lived in households receiving some form of means-tested assistance in 2004. Among those with incomes below the poverty line, 55.1% of non-Hispanic whites, 54.7% of Asians, 80.4% of African-Americans, and 79.8% of Hispanics received benefits.

More than one-third (39.6%) of children under eighteen years old lived in households that received means-tested assistance at some time during 2004. Approximately one out of six people aged sixty-five or older (17.6%) received assistance. (See Table 2.11.)

Only 20.4% of those living in families headed by married couples received assistance in 2004. (See Table 2.11.) However, well over half (57.7%) of individuals in female-headed families with no spouse present received benefits. In contrast, about a third (36.2%) of those living in families headed by single men received means-tested benefits. The highest rate of assistance was provided to families headed by women with children under the age of six (75.1%).

LENGTH OF TIME IN POVERTY AND IN ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS

Entering and Exiting Poverty

For most poor Americans poverty is not a static condition. Some people near the poverty level improve their economic status within two years or less, whereas others at near-poverty levels become poor through economic catastrophes, such as an illness or job loss. Most data collected by the Census Bureau reflect a single point in time—in other words, showing how many people are in poverty or participating in a means-tested government program in a certain month. These surveys, however, do not reflect the dynamic nature of poverty for individual people and families.

The Census Bureau collects longitudinal information (measurements over time for specific individuals or families) about poverty and government program participation rates in its Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP). This makes it possible to measure the movement of individuals and families into and out of poverty (entry and exit rates) and the duration of poverty spells (the number of months in poverty for those who were not poor during the first interview month, but who became poor at some point in the study) as well as the length of time individuals and families use government programs.

In Dynamics of Economic Well-Being, Poverty 1996–1999 (July 2003, http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/p70-91.pdf), John Iceland uses data from the 1996 SIPP panel to examine poverty in the period from January 1996 through December 1999. He focuses on monthly measures of poverty and distinguishes between short- and long-term poverty. Some highlights of the survey include:

More than one in three people (34.2%) were poor for at least two months in the four years between 1996 and 1999.
About 2% of the population were chronically poor. That is, they were poor during all forty-eight months from January 1996 through December 1999. (See Figure 2.7.)
Nonelderly adults were more likely to exit poverty than children and the elderly.
Children had the highest entry rates into poverty and, along with retirement-age adults, had a low exit rate.
More than half of all poverty spells lasted two to four months, whereas 11.9% lasted more than twenty-one months. (See Figure 2.8.)

RACE AND AGE

Of the poor in 1996, non-Hispanic whites (57.1%) were more likely to have left poverty by 1999 than either African-Americans (42.4%) or Hispanics (41.6%). (See Figure 2.9.) Figure 2.10 shows the newly poor as a percent of the population that was not poor in 1996. Non-Hispanic whites were less likely to have entered poverty by 1999 than African-Americans or Hispanics.

The elderly (often on fixed incomes) and children were less likely to exit poverty than were people of other ages. About 32.4% of the elderly and 47.9% of children under eighteen years of age who were poor in 1996 were able to escape poverty by 1999. (See Figure 2.9.) Adults eighteen to sixty-four years of age were the most likely to escape—53.9% moved out of poverty. Only 3.3% of the elderly entered poverty by 1999, compared with 4.5% of children under eighteen years of age. (See Figure 2.10.)

TABLE 2.6
Single parents, by sex and demographic characteristics, 2003
[In thousands]
Characteristic	Single fathers					Single mothers
	Total	Race and ethnicity				Total	Race and ethnicity
		White only		Black only	Hispanic (of any race)		White only		Black only	Hispanic (of any race)
		Total	Non-Hispanic	Black only	Hispanic (of any race)		Total	Non-Hispanic	Black only	Hispanic (of any race)
*Married spouse absent includes separated.
Source: Jason Fields, "Table 4. Single Parents by Sex and Selected Characteristics: 2003," in America's Families and Living Arrangements: 2003—Current Population Reports, U.S. Census Bureau, November 2004, http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-553.pdf (accessed December 6, 2006)
All single parents	2,260	1,758	1,330	353	450	10,142	6,471	4,870	3,124	1,807
Type of family group
Family household	1,915	1,506	1,176	285	346	8,139	5,155	3,960	2,591	1,357
Related subfamily	260	175	97	62	84	1,596	1,003	645	475	390
Unrelated subfamily	84	78	58	6	20	407	313	265	58	61
Number of own children under 18
1 child	1422	1101	863	228	254	5,529	3,670	2,866	1,563	904
2 children	609	485	353	84	137	2,935	1,876	1,396	915	530
3 children	170	133	90	28	43	1,223	697	484	443	246
4 or more children	58	39	24	13	15	455	228	125	203	127
Presence of own children under 18
With own children under 18	2,260	1,758	1,330	353	450	10,142	6,471	4,870	3,124	1,807
With own children under 12	1,547	1,187	846	254	360	7,417	4,624	3,385	2391	1,405
With own children under 6	878	668	430	139	253	4,234	2,575	1,811	1,395	872
With own children under 3	530	404	261	84	152	2,287	1,364	956	789	453
With own children under 1	203	162	112	27	55	734	446	309	241	155
Education
Less than high school	450	356	170	64	195	1,966	1,267	600	585	736
High school graduate	953	742	590	146	156	3,577	2,235	1,726	1,169	586
Some college	580	426	269	113	62	3,298	2,065	1,722	1,055	396
Bachelor's degree or higher	277	234	302	29	35	1,301	904	822	315	90
Marital status
Never married	852	601	359	183	257	4,413	2,255	1,507	1,924	850
Married spouse absent*	344	264	203	53	63	1,810	1,193	773	479	480
Divorced	956	817	707	95	115	3,504	2,725	2,363	632	394
Widowed	107	76	62	22	15	416	298	228	89	83
Poverty status in 2002
Below poverty level	357	239	142	93	100	3,268	1,849	1,214	1,237	730
At or above poverty level	1,903	1,520	1,188	260	349	6,875	4,622	3,656	1,887	1,077

FAMILY STATUS

Poor families headed by married couples were much more likely than other poor family types to have left poverty by 1999, underscoring how having two potential wage earners in a family helps protect a family from poverty. Of the poor families headed by married couples in 1996, 59.7% were able to escape poverty by 1999. Only 39.4% of the poor families of other types recovered from poverty by 1999. (See Figure 2.9.) Nonpoor families headed by married couples were also significantly less likely to have entered poverty by 1999. (See Figure 2.10.) With at least two adults in the household, these families are more likely to have at least one person working than a family headed by a single person.

Having a Job Does Not Guarantee Escape from Poverty

The working poor are those people who participated in the labor force for at least twenty-seven weeks (either working or looking for work) and who lived in families with incomes below the official poverty level. Over 7.8 million workers in 2004 (5.6% of individuals aged sixteen and over in the labor force) found that their jobs did not provide enough income to keep them out of poverty. (See Table 2.13.)

Working women had a higher poverty rate (4 million workers, or 6.2%) than working men (3.8 million workers, or 5%). (See Table 2.13.) Although nearly three-quarters of the working poor were white (5.6 million workers, or 71.6%), African-American and Hispanic workers continued to experience poverty while employed at more than twice the rates of whites. African-Americans (10.6%) and Hispanics (10.5%) with at least twenty-seven weeks in the labor force had a far higher poverty rate than whites (4.9%) or Asians (4.4%). Younger workers were more likely to be in poverty than older workers. Much of the reason for this is that many younger workers are still in school and work at part-time or entry-level jobs that often do not pay well.

In general, the lower the educational level, the higher the risk of poverty. Among workers in the labor force for at least twenty-seven weeks in 2004, those with less than a high school diploma had a much higher poverty rate (15.2%) than high school graduates (6.5%). (See Table 2.14.) Far lower poverty rates were reported for workers with an associate's degree (3.1%) or a four-year college degree (1.7%). African-American and Hispanic workers, regardless of education levels, had higher poverty rates than white workers. The highest poverty rate (31.5%) was for African-American women workers without a high school diploma.

In 2004 working families headed by married couples without children were less likely than other family types to be poor (1.8%). (See Table 2.15.) The presence of children under age eighteen increased the married-couple poverty rate to 5.9%, reflecting the added monetary burdens of raising children and the decreased likelihood that a family will have two adults working full time. Single women with families were most likely to be living in poverty (23.3%). Single men with children were also relatively likely to be poor (12.4%).

In a family headed by a married couple, there is a greater likelihood that two members of the family are working than in a single-parent family. Two-income families are rarely poor. Only 1.5% of families headed by married couples with two or more wage earners were poor in 2004. (See Table 2.15.) Of the 4.2 million working-poor families, 1.9 million families (45.2%) were families maintained by women. Working women who were the sole supporters of their families had the highest poverty rate: 24.2%.

Several factors affect the poverty status of working families: the size of the family, the number of workers in the family, the characteristics of the workers, and various labor market problems. The addition of a child puts a financial strain on the family and increases the chances that a parent might have to stay home to care for the child. Even though a child in a single-parent family may work, children are usually employed for low pay and at part-time jobs. In addition, the more education a person has, the more his or her job is likely to pay. Single mothers are more likely to have less education than married women with children.

Finally, the labor market plays a major role in whether a working family lives in poverty. Three major labor market problems contributed to poverty among workers in 2004: unemployment, low earnings, and involuntary part-time employment. Only 0.8% of workers who did not suffer from any of these problems were poor in 2004, whereas 22.4% of low-paid workers were in poverty. (See Table 2.16.) Unemployment accounted for the poverty of 7.6% of workers, and involuntary part-time work for 2.4%. However, it was the combination of two or more factors that had the most devastating effect on families. Unemployment coupled with low earnings and involuntary part-time employment accounted for 38.8% of workers in poverty.

Duration of Program Spells

The most recent Census Bureau report using SIPP data focused on the use of government assistance programs by families and individuals. In Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Participation in Government Programs, 2001 through 2003—Who Gets Assistance (October 2006, http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/p70-108.pdf), Tracy A. Loveless and Jan Tin examine the use of government programs over the survey period. Some highlights of the survey include:

In 2003 one in five people (20%) took part in one or more major aid programs (Housing Assistance, Supplemental Security Income [SSI], Temporary Assistance for Needy Families [TANF]/general assistance, Food Stamps, or Medicaid) for at least one month. (See Figure 2.11.)
More individuals participated in Medicaid (16% for at least one month in 2003) than in any other single aid program. (See Figure 2.11.)
In an average month in 2003, 50.8% of people in poverty received benefits, compared with only 9.7% of people who were not poor. (See Figure 2.12.)
In 2003, 48% of all households headed by a single female participated in a major means-tested program for at least one month, compared with 25.7% of households headed by a single male and 13.7% of married-couple households. (See Figure 2.13.)
Adults who had not graduated from high school were more likely than high school graduates to participate in means-tested programs in an average month in 2003 (25.6% and 11.7%, respectively). (See Figure 2.14.)

The length of time people received assistance, referred to as a spell, differed by program. As Figure 2.15 shows, the average number of months for receiving any means-tested assistance between 2001 and 2003 was 7.2 months. The spell length for TANF/general assistance (4.9 months) was shorter than that for food stamps (7.7 months) and Medicaid (7.6 months). The spell length for SSI was longest (fifteen months).

Table 2.17 gives more detail about the characteristics of people by the length of time they participated in major means-tested programs between 2001 and 2003. Among racial and ethnic groups, non-Hispanic whites (7 months), Hispanics (7.2 months), and African-Americans (7.5 months) had similar median durations of participation in means-tested programs, whereas Asians and Pacific Islanders had a significantly lower median duration of program participation (3.9 months). Adults who had not graduated from high school had a longer median duration of participation (7.4 months) than did high school graduates (5.6 months) or those with at least some college (3.9 months), reflecting the increased economic opportunities of those with higher educational attainments.

Families had a longer median duration of participation in major means-tested programs than did households of unrelated individuals (7.2 months and 5.2 months, respectively). (See Table 2.17.) Among families, those headed by a single female spent the longest time in these programs (7.7 months), compared with single male-headed households (7.3 months) and married-couple families (6.9 months).

TABLE 2.7
Custodial parents awarded child support and actually receiving it, by poverty level, 2001
[In thousands except as noted (13,383 represents 13,383,000). Custodial parents 15 years and older with own children under 21 years of age present from absent parents as of spring 2002. Covers civilian noninstitutional population. Based on Current Population Survey.]
Award and recipiency status	All custodial parents				Custodial parents below the poverty level
	Total		Mothers	Fathers	Total		Mothers	Fathers
	Number	Percent distribution	Mothers	Fathers	Number	Percent distribution	Mothers	Fathers
X Not applicable.
Source: "Table 558. Child Support—Award and Recipiency Status of Custodial Parent: 2001," in Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2006—Social Insurance and Human Services, U.S. Census Bureau, http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/social_insurance_human_services/socinsur.pdf (accessed January 2, 2007)
Total	13,383	(X)	11,291	2,092	3,131	(X)	2,823	308
With child support agreement or award	7,916	(X)	7,110	807	1,706	(X)	1,571	135
Supposed to receive payments in 2001	6,924	100.0	6,212	712	1,469	100.0	1,339	130
Actually received payments in 2001	5,119	73.9	4,639	480	963	65.6	885	77
Received full amount	3,099	44.8	2,821	278	453	30.8	423	30
Received partial payments	2,020	29.2	1,818	202	510	34.7	463	47
Did not receive payments in 2001	1,804	26.1	1,573	232	507	34.5	454	53
Child support not awarded	5,466	(X)	4,181	1,285	1,425	(X)	1,253	172
Mean income and child support
Received child support payments in 2001:
Mean total money income ($)	29,008	(X)	28,258	36,255	7,571	(X)	7,604	7,189
Mean child support received ($)	4,274	(X)	4,274	4,273	3,041	(X)	3,078	2,622
Received the full amount due:
Mean total money income ($)	32,338	(X)	31,734	38,479	7,963	(X)	7,958	8,032
Mean child support received ($)	5,665	(X)	5,655	5,768	4,576	(X)	4,701	2,831
Received partial payments:
Mean total money income ($)	23,899	(X)	22,865	33,199	7,223	(X)	7,281	6,647
Mean child support received ($)	2,141	(X)	2,132	2,219	1,677	(X)	1,595	2,487
Received no payments in 2001:
Mean total money income ($)	23,571	(X)	21,835	35,348	6,832	(X)	6,755	7,492
Without child support agreement or award:
Mean total money income ($)	24,055	(X)	19,339	39,396	6,113	(X)	6,089	6,287

Not surprisingly, people who were not employed full time and families with incomes under the poverty line had the longest median durations of participation in means-tested programs. Those who were employed full time spent a median of 3.8 months in these programs, compared with 6.6 months for those employed part time and 7.2 months for those who were either unemployed or not in the labor force. (See Table 2.17.) Families under the poverty line spent a median of ten months participating in means-tested programs, whereas families with incomes above the poverty line spent a median of only six months in these programs.

TABLE 2.8
Three-year average of poverty statistics, by race and Hispanic origin, 2003–05
[Numbers in thousands. People as of March of the following year]
Race^a and Hispanic origin	3-year average 2003–2005^b
Race^a and Hispanic origin	Number estimate	Percentage estimate
^aFederal surveys now give respondents the option of reporting more than one race. Therefore, two basic ways of defining a race group are possible. A group such as Asian may be defined as those who reported Asian and no other race (the race-alone or single-race concept) or as those who reported Asian regardless of whether they also reported another race (the race-alone-or-in-combination concept). This table shows data using the first approach (race alone). The use of the single-race population does not imply that it is the preferred method of presenting or analyzing data. The Census Bureau uses a variety of approaches. Information on people who reported more than one race, such as white and American Indian and Alaska Native or Asian and black or African American, is available from Census 2000 through American FactFinder. About 2.6 percent of people reported more than one race in Census 2000.
^bThe 2004 data have been revised to reflect a correction to the weights in the 2005 Annual Social and Economic Supplement (ASEC).
Source: Carmen DeNavas-Walt, Bernadette D. Proctor, and Cheryl Hill Lee, "Table 5. Number in Poverty and Poverty Rates by Race and Hispanic Origin Using 3-Year Average: 2003 to 2005," in Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2005—Current Population Reports, U.S. Census Bureau, August 2006, http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/p60-231.pdf (accessed December 1, 2006)
All races	36,617	12.6
White	24,824	10.6
White, not Hispanic	16,346	8.4
Black	8,988	24.7
American Indian and Alaska Native	573	25.3
Asian	1,335	10.9
Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander	79	12.2
Hispanic origin (any race)	9,180	22.0

TABLE 2.9
Poverty status and work experience of people in families and unrelated individuals, 2004
[Numbers in thousands. The unrelated individuals category includes people who live by themselves or with others not related to them.]
Poverty status and work experience	Total persons	In married-couple families				In families maintained by women			In families maintained by men			Unrelated individuals
Poverty status and work experience	Total persons	Husbands	Wives	Related children under 18	Other relatives	House-holder	Related children under 18	Other relatives	House-holder	Related children under 18	Other relatives	Unrelated individuals
^aData on families include people in primary families and unrelated subfamilies.
^bNumber below the poverty level as a percent of the total.
^cData not shown where base is less than 80,000.
Note: Data in this table may vary slightly from that previously published due to corrections to the sample weights.
Source: "Table 6. People in Families and Unrelated Individuals: Poverty Status and Work Experience, 2004," A Profile of the Working Poor, 2004, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 2006, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2004.pdf (accessed April 30, 2007)
Total
All people^a	225,236	57,326	57,911	5,712	17,641	13,968	2,089	10,977	4,869	513	5,093	49,137
With labor force activity	154,796	45,408	37,142	2,166	11,869	10,137	651	6,916	3,872	157	3,451	33,029
1 to 26 weeks	13,888	1,464	3,435	1,363	2,495	814	415	942	183	90	353	2,334
27 weeks or more	140,908	43,944	33,707	803	9,375	9,323	236	5,973	3,689	67	3,099	30,694
With no labor force activity	70,440	11,918	20,770	3,546	5,771	3,831	1,438	4,061	998	356	1,642	16,109
At or above poverty level
All people^a	200,049	54,156	54,702	5,324	16,856	10,009	1,484	9,259	4,217	463	4,576	39,003
With labor force activity	144,411	43,582	36,235	2,101	11,624	7,911	518	6,333	3,498	147	3,256	29,205
1 to 26 weeks	11,338	1,304	3,164	1,317	2,423	306	322	754	127	82	288	1,253
27 weeks or more	133,073	42,279	33,071	784	9,201	7,605	196	5,579	3,372	65	2,968	27,952
With no labor force activity	55,638	10,574	18,466	3,223	5,232	2,098	966	2,926	719	316	1,320	9,798
Below poverty level
All people^a	25,187	3,170	3,210	388	784	3,959	605	1,717	652	50	518	10,134
With labor force activity	10,385	1,826	906	64	245	2,226	133	582	373	10	196	3,823
1 to 26 weeks	2,549	161	270	46	72	508	94	188	56	8	65	1,081
27 weeks or more	7,836	1,665	636	19	173	1,718	39	394	317	2	130	2,742
With no labor force activity	14,802	1,344	2,304	323	539	1,733	472	1,135	279	40	322	6,310
Rate^b
All people^a	11.2	5.5	5.5	6.8	4.4	28.3	29.0	15.6	13.4	9.7	10.2	20.6
With labor force activity	6.7	4.0	2.4	3.0	2.1	22.0	20.4	8.4	9.6	6.3	5.7	11.6
1 to 26 weeks	18.4	11.0	7.9	3.4	2.9	62.5	22.5	20.0	30.7	8.7	18.5	46.3
27 weeks or more	5.6	3.8	1.9	2.3	1.8	18.4	16.8	6.6	8.6	(C)	4.2	8.9
With no labor force activity	21.0	11.3	11.1	9.1	9.3	45.2	32.8	27.9	28.0	11.3	19.6	39.2

TABLE 2.10
Past-year median earnings of workers, by gender, race and Hispanic origin, and educational level, 2005
[In 2005 inflation-adjusted dollars. Data are limited to the household population and exclude the population living in institutions, college dormitories, and other group quarters.]
Selected characteristic	Men	Women	Percent of men's earnings estimate
Selected characteristic	Median earnings (dollars) estimate	Median earnings (dollars) estimate	Percent of men's earnings estimate
Note: Data are based on a sample and are subject to sampling variability.
Source: Adapted from Bruce H. Webster, Jr., and Alemayehu Bishaw, "Table 5. Median Earnings in the Past 12 Months of Workers by Sex and Women's Earnings as a Percentage of Men's Earnings by Selected Characteristics for the United States: 2005," in Income, Earnings, and Poverty Data from the 2005 American Community Survey, U.S. Census Bureau, August 2006, http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/acs-02.pdf (accessed January 2, 2007)
Race and Hispanic origin
Full-time, year-round workers 16 years and older with earnings	41,965	32,168	76.7
White alone	44,850	33,237	74.1
White alone, not Hispanic	46,807	34,190	73.0
Black alone	34,433	29,588	85.9
American Indian and Alaska Native alone	33,520	27,977	83.5
Asian alone	48,693	37,792	77.6
Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander alone	35,426	30,041	84.8
Some other race alone	27,041	23,678	87.6
Two or more races	38,621	31,249	80.9
Hispanic (any race)	27,380	24,451	89.3
Educational attainment
Population 25 years and older with earnings	38,514	25,736	66.8
Less than high school graduate	22,138	13,076	59.1
High school graduate (includes equivalency)	31,683	20,179	63.7
Some college or associate's degree	39,601	25,736	65.0
Bachelor's degree	53,693	36,250	67.5
Graduate or professional degree	71,918	47,319	65.8

TABLE 2.11
Program participation status of household—all income levels, 2004
[Numbers in thousands. People who lived with someone (a nonrelative or a relative) who received aid. Not every person tallied here received the aid themselves.]
	Total	In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excluding school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Lived in public or authorized housing
	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
All races
All income levels
Both sexes
Total^a	290,605	76,745	26.4	66,659	22.9	18,484	6.4	21,905	7.5	59,107	20.3	10,618	3.7
Under 18 years	73,271	28,986	39.6	23,974	32.7	5,553	7.6	9,573	13.1	22,250	30.4	3,995	5.5
18 to 24 years	27,972	8,025	28.7	7,300	26.1	1,986	7.1	2,289	8.2	6,434	23.0	1,238	4.4
25 to 34 years	39,307	10,968	27.9	9,479	24.1	2,147	5.5	3,248	8.3	8,522	21.7	1,331	3.4
35 to 44 years	43,350	10,337	23.8	8,633	19.9	2,280	5.3	2,589	6.0	7,748	17.9	1,073	2.5
45 to 54 years	41,960	7,591	18.1	6,757	16.1	2,489	5.9	1,824	4.3	5,831	13.9	918	2.2
55 to 59 years	16,763	2,690	16.0	2,565	15.3	1,096	6.5	623	3.7	2,104	12.5	347	2.1
60 to 64 years	12,769	1,958	15.3	1,893	14.8	826	6.5	472	3.7	1,551	12.1	318	2.5
65 years and over	35,213	6,189	17.6	6,058	17.2	2,107	6.0	1,286	3.7	4,669	13.3	1,399	4.0
65 to 74 years	18,388	3,178	17.3	3,074	16.7	1,114	6.1	722	3.9	2,469	13.4	665	3.6
75 years and over	16,825	3,011	17.9	2,984	17.7	993	5.9	564	3.4	2,200	13.1	733	4.4
Male
Total	142,426	35,906	25.2	31,109	21.8	8,555	6.0	9,549	6.7	27,759	19.5	4,285	3.0
Under 18 years	37,481	14,960	39.9	12,417	33.1	2,908	7.8	4,910	13.1	11,537	30.8	2,041	5.4
18 to 24 years	14,048	3,549	25.3	3,171	22.6	900	6.4	857	6.1	2,761	19.7	433	3.1
25 to 34 years	19,675	4,816	24.5	4,208	21.4	918	4.7	1,169	5.9	3,761	19.1	438	2.2
35 to 44 years	21,468	4,692	21.9	3,987	18.6	1,065	5.0	1,037	4.8	3,614	16.8	379	1.8
45 to 54 years	20,555	3,579	17.4	3,154	15.3	1,115	5.4	783	3.8	2,714	13.2	353	1.7
55 to 59 years	8,003	1,189	14.9	1,133	14.2	524	6.6	217	2.7	945	11.8	121	1.5
60 to 64 years	6,044	834	13.8	807	13.3	357	5.9	173	2.9	653	10.8	97	1.6
65 years and over	15,151	2,287	15.1	2,233	14.7	767	5.1	404	2.7	1,774	11.7	424	2.8
65 to 74 years	8,466	1,305	15.4	1,261	14.9	449	5.3	248	2.9	1,043	12.3	221	2.6
75 years and over	6,685	981	14.7	972	14.5	318	4.8	156	2.3	731	10.9	202	3.0
Female
Total	148,179	40,840	27.6	35,551	24.0	9,929	6.7	12,355	8.3	31,348	21.2	6,333	4.3
Under 18 years	35,790	14,026	39.2	11,557	32.3	2,645	7.4	4,663	13.0	10,713	29.9	1,953	5.5
18 to 24 years	13,924	4,477	32.2	4,129	29.7	1,086	7.8	1,432	10.3	3,673	26.4	805	5.8
25 to 34 years	19,632	6,152	31.3	5,271	26.8	1,228	6.3	2,079	10.6	4,761	24.3	893	4.6
35 to 44 years	21,882	5,645	25.8	4,646	21.2	1,215	5.6	1,552	7.1	4,133	18.9	695	3.2
45 to 54 years	21,405	4,013	18.7	3,604	16.8	1,374	6.4	1,042	4.9	3,117	14.6	565	2.6
55 to 59 years	8,760	1,501	17.1	1,433	16.4	572	6.5	406	4.6	1,158	13.2	225	2.6
60 to 64 years	6,724	1,125	16.7	1,087	16.2	469	7.0	299	4.4	897	13.3	221	3.3
65 years and over	20,063	3,902	19.5	3,825	19.1	1,340	6.7	883	4.4	2,895	14.4	975	4.9
65 to 74 years	9,922	1,873	18.9	1,813	18.3	665	6.7	475	4.8	1,426	14.4	444	4.5
75 years and over	10,140	2,029	20.0	2,012	19.8	675	6.7	408	4.0	1,469	14.5	531	5.2

TABLE 2.11
Program participation status of household—all income levels, 2004 [continued]
[Numbers in thousands. People who lived with someone (a nonrelative or a relative) who received aid. Not every person tallied here received the aid themselves.]
	Total	In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excluding school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Lived in public or authorized housing
	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
Household relationship
Total^a	290,605	76,745	26.4	66,659	22.9	18,484	6.4	21,905	7.5	59,107	20.3	10,618	3.7
65 years and over	35,213	6,189	17.6	6,058	17.2	2,107	6.0	1,286	3.7	4,669	13.3	1,399	4.0
In families^b	241,153	67,084	27.8	57,277	23.8	15,413	6.4	18,801	7.8	52,030	21.6	8,005	3.3
Householder	77,019	18,554	24.1	16,074	20.9	4,480	5.8	5,278	6.9	14,359	18.6	2,505	3.3
Under 65 years	64,877	16,618	25.6	14,207	21.9	3,736	5.8	4,870	7.5	12,794	19.7	2,295	3.5
65 years and over	12,142	1,935	15.9	1,868	15.4	744	6.1	409	3.4	1,565	12.9	210	1.7
Related children under 18 years^e	72,164	28,392	39.3	23,450	32.5	5,450	7.6	9,386	13.0	21,757	30.1	3,962	5.5
Under 6 years	23,750	9,839	41.4	8,880	37.4	1,961	8.3	3,638	15.3	8,362	35.2	1,588	6.7
6 to 17 years	48,414	18,553	38.3	14,571	30.1	3,490	7.2	5,748	11.9	13,395	27.7	2,374	4.9
Own children 18 year and over^g	22,262	6,272	28.2	5,706	25.6	2,194	9.9	1,474	6.6	5,073	22.8	620	2.8
In married-couple families^f	185,226	37,809	20.4	31,503	17.0	6,878	3.7	6,779	3.7	28,790	15.5	2,035	1.1
Husbands^f	58,118	9,396	16.2	7,998	13.8	1,884	3.2	1,639	2.8	7,139	12.3	599	1.0
Under 65 years	47,516	8,189	17.2	6,825	14.4	1,469	3.1	1,451	3.1	6,155	13.0	465	1.0
65 years and over	10,601	1,207	11.4	1,173	11.1	415	3.9	188	1.8	984	9.3	134	1.3
Wives^f	58,118	9,396	16.2	7,998	13.8	1,884	3.2	1,639	2.8	7,139	12.3	599	1.0
Under 65 years	49,892	8,548	17.1	7,166	14.4	1,596	3.2	1,509	3.0	6,465	13.0	499	1.0
65 years and over	8,225	848	10.3	832	10.1	288	3.5	130	1.6	674	8.2	100	1.2
Related children under 18 years^e	51,220	14,604	28.5	11,536	22.5	1,757	3.4	2,934	5.7	10,826	21.1	719	1.4
Under 6 years	17,397	5,269	30.3	4,600	26.4	582	3.3	1,231	7.1	4,338	24.9	344	2.0
6 to 17 years	33,823	9,335	27.6	6,936	20.5	1,175	3.5	1,703	5.0	6,488	19.2	375	1.1
Own children 18 years and over^g	14,197	3,020	21.3	2,720	19.2	958	6.7	406	2.9	2,489	17.5	98	0.7
In families with male householder, no spouse present	13,886	5,028	36.2	4,252	30.6	1,100	7.9	1,180	8.5	3,867	27.8	431	3.1
Householder	4,893	1,667	34.1	1,436	29.3	387	7.9	405	8.3	1,296	26.5	142	2.9
Under 65 years	4,425	1,538	34.8	1,311	29.6	340	7.7	376	8.5	1,195	27.0	131	3.0
65 years and over	468	129	27.6	124	26.6	47	10.1	29	6.2	101	21.6	11	2.4
Related children under 18 years^e	3,915	1,944	49.7	1,556	39.7	295	7.5	495	12.6	1,471	37.6	165	4.2
Under 6 years	1,262	747	59.2	668	52.9	116	9.2	229	18.2	645	51.1	69	5.5
6 to 17 years	2,653	1,197	45.1	888	33.5	179	6.7	266	10.0	826	31.1	96	3.6
Own children 18 years and over^g	1,450	379	26.2	346	23.8	115	8.0	80	5.5	282	19.5	36	2.5
In families with female house-holder, no spouse present	42,040	24,247	57.7	21,522	51.2	7,435	17.7	10,842	25.8	19,373	46.1	5,539	13.2

TABLE 2.11
Program participation status of household—all income levels, 2004 [continued]
[Numbers in thousands. People who lived with someone (a nonrelative or a relative) who received aid. Not every person tallied here received the aid themselves.]
	Total	In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excluding school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Lived in public or authorized housing
	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
^aUniverse: All people except unrelated individuals under age 15 (such as foster children). Since the Current Population Survey (CPS) asks income questions not only to people age 15 and over, if a child under 15 is not part of a family by birth, marriage, or adoption, we do not know their income and cannot determine whether or not they are poor. Those people are excluded from the totals so as not to affect the percentages.
^bPeople in families: People who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption. People who are related to each other but not to the householder are counted elsewhere (usually as unrelated subfamilies).
^cPeople in unrelated subfamilies: People who are not related to the householder, but who are related to each other, either as a married couple or as a parent-child relationship with an unmarried child under 18.
^dUnrelated individuals: People who are not in primary families (the householder's family) or unrelated subfamilies.
^ePeople in families with related children. People living in a family where at least one member is a related child—a person under 18 who is related to the householder but is not the householder or spouse.
^fIn married-couple families the householder may be either the husband or wife.
^gOwn children: Sons and daughters, including stepchildren and adopted children, of the householder.
Source: "Pov26: Program Participation Status of Household—Poverty Status of People: 2004, All Races—All Income Levels," in Current Population Survey, 2005 Annual Social and Economic Supplement, U.S. Census Bureau, 2005, http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/pov/new26_001_01.htm (accessed January 2, 2007)
Householder	14,009	7,491	53.5	6,641	47.4	2,208	15.8	3,234	23.1	5,924	42.3	1,764	12.6
Under 65 years	12,207	6,767	55.4	5,951	48.7	1,884	15.4	3,022	24.8	5,328	43.6	1,687	13.8
65 years and over	1,801	724	40.2	690	38.3	324	18.0	212	11.8	596	33.1	77	4.3
Related children under 18 years^e	17,029	11,845	69.6	10,358	60.8	3,398	20.0	5,957	35.0	9,459	55.5	3,079	18.1
Under 6 years	5,091	3,823	75.1	3,611	70.9	1,262	24.8	2,178	42.8	3,379	66.4	1,176	23.1
6 to 17 years	11,938	8,022	67.2	6,747	56.5	2,136	17.9	3,779	31.7	6,080	50.9	1,903	15.9
Own children 18 years and over^g	6,614	2,872	43.4	2,640	39.9	1,121	16.9	987	14.9	2,302	34.8	486	7.3
In unrelated subfamilies^c	1,255	664	52.9	584	46.5	102	8.2	212	16.9	564	44.9	35	2.8
Under 18 years	675	369	54.7	325	48.1	61	9.0	125	18.5	314	46.5	18	2.6
Under 6 years	202	109	53.8	103	50.8	22	10.6	48	23.9	97	48.0	8	3.7
6 to 17 years	473	261	55.1	222	46.9	39	8.3	77	16.2	217	45.9	10	2.2
18 years and over	580	295	50.8	259	44.7	42	7.2	87	15.0	250	43.1	17	2.9
Unrelated individuals^d	48,198	8,997	18.7	8,798	18.3	2,969	6.2	2,891	6.0	6,513	13.5	2,579	5.4
Male	23,442	4,276	18.2	4,149	17.7	1,448	6.2	1,334	5.7	3,218	13.7	1,027	4.4
Under 65 years	20,121	3,585	17.8	3,459	17.2	1,250	6.2	1,203	6.0	2,757	13.7	757	3.8
Living alone	9,807	1,113	11.3	1,113	11.3	488	5.0	422	4.3	780	8.0	429	4.4
65 years and over	3,321	691	20.8	690	20.8	198	6.0	131	3.9	461	13.9	269	8.1
Living alone	2,908	585	20.1	585	20.1	148	5.1	102	3.5	370	12.7	260	8.9
Female	24,756	4,721	19.1	4,649	18.8	1,521	6.1	1,557	6.3	3,295	13.3	1,552	6.3
Under 65 years	16,628	3,028	18.2	2,956	17.8	1,047	6.3	1,127	6.8	2,243	13.5	797	4.8
Living alone	9,543	1,430	15.0	1,430	15.0	576	6.0	655	6.9	946	9.9	640	6.7
65 years and over	8,128	1,693	20.8	1,693	20.8	474	5.8	430	5.3	1,052	12.9	755	9.3
Living alone	7,708	1,559	20.2	1,559	20.2	416	5.4	391	5.1	938	12.2	748	9.7

TABLE 2.12
Program participation status of household—persons below poverty level, 2004
[Numbers in thousands. People who lived with someone (a nonrelative or a relative) who received aid. Not every person tallied here received the aid themselves].
	Total	In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excluding school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Lived in public or authorized housing
	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
All races
Below poverty level
Both sexes
Total^a	36,997	25,022	67.6	22,681	61.3	7,552	20.4	13,390	36.2	20,009	54.1	5,959	16.1
Under 18 years	13,027	11,230	86.2	9,973	76.6	3,096	23.8	6,552	50.3	9,165	70.4	2,716	20.9
18 to 24 years	5,068	2,742	54.1	2,583	51.0	818	16.1	1,382	27.3	2,260	44.6	685	13.5
25 to 34 years	4,924	3,368	68.4	3,036	61.7	857	17.4	1,856	37.7	2,719	55.2	711	14.4
35 to 44 years	4,272	2,946	69.0	2,570	60.2	841	19.7	1,443	33.8	2,247	52.6	555	13.0
45 to 54 years	3,507	2,040	58.2	1,888	53.8	801	22.8	994	28.3	1,549	44.2	453	12.9
55 to 59 years	1,416	674	47.6	648	45.7	284	20.0	317	22.4	510	36.0	173	12.2
60 to 64 years	1,326	530	40.0	522	39.4	257	19.4	260	19.6	423	31.9	159	12.0
65 years and over	3,457	1,492	43.2	1,461	42.3	598	17.3	586	17.0	1,136	32.9	508	14.7
65 to 74 years	1,721	792	46.0	769	44.7	340	19.7	347	20.2	615	35.8	272	15.8
75 years and over	1,736	700	40.3	691	39.8	259	14.9	239	13.8	520	30.0	235	13.5
Male
Total	16,381	10,828	66.1	9,753	59.5	3,129	19.1	5,569	34.0	8,606	52.5	2,312	14.1
Under 18 years	6,667	5,782	86.7	5,147	77.2	1,577	23.6	3,335	50.0	4,714	70.7	1,383	20.8
18 to 24 years	2,157	1,023	47.4	952	44.1	288	13.4	455	21.1	794	36.8	208	9.7
25 to 34 years	1,907	1,112	58.3	986	51.7	250	13.1	539	28.3	858	45.0	161	8.5
35 to 44 years	1,788	1,138	63.7	1,004	56.1	300	16.8	511	28.6	875	48.9	179	10.0
45 to 54 years	1,631	904	55.4	823	50.5	327	20.0	390	23.9	673	41.3	148	9.1
55 to 59 years	594	232	39.1	223	37.6	115	19.4	90	15.1	183	30.9	53	9.0
60 to 64 years	579	201	34.7	197	34.0	90	15.5	97	16.7	159	27.5	46	7.9
65 years and over	1,058	436	41.2	422	39.9	183	17.3	154	14.5	349	33.0	133	12.5
65 to 74 years	615	264	42.9	253	41.1	111	18.0	99	16.2	206	33.5	79	12.8
75 years and over	443	172	38.8	169	38.2	72	16.3	54	12.2	143	32.3	54	12.1
Female
Total	20,617	14,193	68.8	12,927	62.7	4,423	21.5	7,820	37.9	11,403	55.3	3,648	17.7
Under 18 years	6,360	5,449	85.7	4,826	75.9	1,520	23.9	3,217	50.6	4,451	70.0	1,333	21.0
18 to 24 years	2,911	1,718	59.0	1,631	56.0	530	18.2	927	31.8	1,466	50.4	477	16.4
25 to 34 years	3,017	2,256	74.8	2,050	68.0	607	20.1	1,317	43.6	1,861	61.7	550	18.2
35 to 44 years	2,484	1,808	72.8	1,566	63.0	541	21.8	932	37.5	1,372	55.2	376	15.2
45 to 54 years	1,877	1,136	60.5	1,065	56.8	474	25.3	604	32.2	875	46.6	304	16.2
55 to 59 years	823	442	53.7	425	51.6	169	20.5	227	27.6	327	39.7	119	14.5
60 to 64 years	747	330	44.1	325	43.5	167	22.4	163	21.8	264	35.3	114	15.2
65 years and over	2,398	1,056	44.0	1,039	43.3	415	17.3	433	18.0	787	32.8	375	15.6
65 to 74 years	1,105	528	47.8	517	46.7	229	20.7	247	22.4	409	37.0	193	17.5
75 years and over	1,293	528	40.8	522	40.4	186	14.4	185	14.3	378	29.2	182	14.0
Household relationship
Total^a	36,997	25,022	67.6	22,681	61.3	7,552	20.4	13,390	36.2	20,009	54.1	5,959	16.1
65 years and over	3,457	1,492	43.2	1,461	42.3	598	17.3	586	17.0	1,136	32.9	508	14.7
In families^b	26,564	20,470	77.1	18,256	68.7	5,865	22.1	11,398	42.9	16,556	62.3	4,732	17.8
Householder	7,854	5,690	72.5	5,142	65.5	1,703	21.7	3,177	40.4	4,639	59.1	1,420	18.1

TABLE 2.12
Program participation status of household—persons below poverty level, 2004 [continued]
[Numbers in thousands. People who lived with someone (a nonrelative or a relative) who received aid. Not every person tallied here received the aid themselves].
	Total	In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excluding school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Lived in public or authorized housing
	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
Under 65 years	7,062	5,360	75.9	4,833	68.4	1,563	22.1	3,038	43.0	4,366	61.8	1,348	19.1
65 years and over	792	330	41.7	309	39.0	139	17.6	138	17.4	273	34.4	72	9.1
Related children under 18 years^e	12,460	10,826	86.9	9,604	77.1	3,018	24.2	6,389	51.3	8,821	70.8	2,689	21.6
Under 6 years	4,737	4,108	86.7	3,852	81.3	1,241	26.2	2,508	52.9	3,631	76.6	1,141	24.1
6 to 17 years	7,723	6,718	87.0	5,752	74.5	1,777	23.0	3,880	50.2	5,190	67.2	1,548	20.0
Own children 18 years and over^g	1,775	1,239	69.8	1,142	64.4	442	24.9	640	36.0	1,009	56.9	267	15.0
In married-couple families^f	11,824	7,879	66.6	6,631	56.1	1,439	12.2	3,328	28.1	5,957	50.4	787	6.7
Husbands^f	3,222	1,852	57.5	1,588	49.3	390	12.1	789	24.5	1,405	43.6	205	6.4
Under 65 years	2,739	1,698	62.0	1,438	52.5	318	11.6	730	26.7	1,272	46.5	161	5.9
65 years and over	484	154	31.8	150	31.0	72	14.9	59	12.2	133	27.5	44	9.1
Wives^f	3,222	1,852	57.5	1,588	49.3	390	12.1	789	24.5	1,405	43.6	205	6.4
Under 65 years	2,859	1,750	61.2	1,488	52.0	339	11.9	744	26.0	1,317	46.1	175	6.1
65 years and over	363	102	28.2	101	27.8	51	13.9	45	12.5	88	24.1	30	8.2
Related children under 18 years^e	4,581	3,671	80.1	3,009	65.7	544	11.9	1,572	34.3	2,751	60.1	342	7.5
Under 6 years	1,751	1,416	80.9	1,269	72.5	214	12.2	651	37.2	1,194	68.2	166	9.5
6 to 17 years	2,831	2,254	79.6	1,740	61.5	330	11.6	921	32.5	1,557	55.0	176	6.2
Own children 18 years and over^g	568	337	59.4	302	53.2	70	12.3	126	22.2	274	48.3	29	5.2
In families with male householder, no spouse present	1,917	1,356	70.8	1,139	59.5	332	17.3	541	28.2	1,032	53.9	209	10.9
Householder	658	452	68.6	391	59.3	116	17.6	182	27.6	354	53.8	70	10.6
Under 65 years	597	422	70.6	364	61.0	109	18.3	172	28.8	329	55.2	68	11.4
65 years and over	61	30	48.8	26	42.8	7	10.7	10	16.0	25	40.2	2	3.0
Related children under 18 years^e	747	620	83.1	507	68.0	140	18.7	265	35.6	468	62.7	101	13.5
Under 6 years	309	244	78.8	214	69.3	58	18.6	115	37.3	202	65.4	51	16.6
6 to 17 years	437	377	86.2	293	67.1	82	18.8	150	34.4	266	60.8	50	11.4
Own children 18 years and over^g	141	79	55.9	70	50.0	15	10.7	31	21.9	63	44.5	5	3.3
In families with female householder, no spouse present	12,823	11,235	87.6	10,485	81.8	4,095	31.9	7,529	58.7	9,566	74.6	3,735	29.1
Householder	3,973	3,387	85.2	3,162	79.6	1,197	30.1	2,205	55.5	2,880	72.5	1,146	28.8
Under 65 years	3,700	3,225	87.2	3,015	81.5	1,131	30.6	2,127	57.5	2,750	74.3	1,116	30.2
65 years and over	273	161	59.1	147	54.0	66	24.1	78	28.7	130	47.6	30	10.8
Related children under 18 years^e	7,132	6,535	91.6	6,088	85.4	2,335	32.7	4,551	63.8	5,601	78.5	2,246	31.5
Under 6 years	2,677	2,448	91.4	2,369	88.5	969	36.2	1,742	65.0	2,234	83.4	924	34.5
6 to 17 years	4,455	4,087	91.8	3,719	83.5	1,366	30.7	2,810	63.1	3,367	75.6	1,322	29.7
Own children 18 years and over^g	1,066	823	77.2	770	72.2	357	33.5	483	45.3	672	63.0	233	21.8
In unrelated subfamilies^c	570	434	76.2	391	68.7	79	13.8	179	31.5	376	66.0	31	5.4
Under 18 years	314	246	78.3	221	70.4	47	14.9	107	34.2	213	67.8	16	5.1
Under 6 years	103	80	77.3	75	72.5	19	18.5	41	39.7	70	67.7	6	6.0
6 to 17 years	211	166	78.7	146	69.4	28	13.1	66	31.5	143	67.8	10	4.6
18 years and over	256	189	73.8	170	66.5	32	12.5	72	28.2	163	63.8	15	5.7

TABLE 2.12
Program participation status of household—persons below poverty level, 2004 [continued]
[Numbers in thousands. People who lived with someone (a nonrelative or a relative) who received aid. Not every person tallied here received the aid themselves].
	Total	In household that received means-tested assistance		In household that received means-tested assistance excluding school lunch		In household that received means-tested cash assistance		In household that received food stamps		In household in which one or more persons were covered by Medicaid		Lived in public or authorized housing
	Total	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent	Number	Percent
^aUniverse: All people except unrelated individuals under age 15 (such as foster children). Since the Current Population Survey (CPS) asks income questions not only to people age 15 and over, if a child under 15 is not part of a family by birth, marriage, or adoption, we do not know their income and cannot determine whether or not they are poor. Those people are excluded from the totals so as not to affect the percentages.
^bPeople in families: People who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption. People who are related to each other but not to the householder are counted elsewhere (usually as unrelated subfamilies).
^cPeople in unrelated subfamilies: People who are not related to the householder, but who are related to each other, either as a married couple or as a parent-child relationship with an unmarried child under 18.
^dUnrelated individuals: People who are not in primary families (the householder's family) or unrelated subfamilies.
^ePeople in families with related children. People living in a family where at least one member is a related child—a person under 18 who is related to the householder but is not the householder or spouse.
^fIn married-couple families the householder may be either the husband or wife.
^gOwn children: Sons and daughters, including stepchildren and adopted children, of the householder.
Source: "Pov26: Program Participation Status of Household—Poverty Status of People: 2004, All Races—Below Poverty Level," in Current Population Survey, 2005 Annual Social and Economic Supplement, U.S. Census Bureau, 2005, http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032005/pov/new26_002_01.htm (accessed January 2, 2007)
Unrelated individuals^d	9,864	4,117	41.7	4,034	40.9	1,608	16.3	1,812	18.4	3,077	31.2	1,197	12.1
Male	4,284	1,754	40.9	1,708	39.9	675	15.8	763	17.8	1,333	31.1	444	10.4
Under 65 years	3,828	1,543	40.3	1,497	39.1	586	15.3	692	18.1	1,174	30.7	363	9.5
Living alone	1,497	597	39.9	597	39.9	285	19.0	318	21.3	445	29.7	242	16.2
65 years and over	456	211	46.3	211	46.3	89	19.6	70	15.4	160	35.0	81	17.8
Living alone	390	170	43.7	170	43.7	73	18.7	58	14.8	125	32.0	75	19.3
Female	5,580	2,363	42.3	2,326	41.7	933	16.7	1,050	18.8	1,743	31.2	752	13.5
Under 65 years	3,938	1,654	42.0	1,617	41.1	659	16.7	769	19.5	1,248	31.7	450	11.4
Living alone	1,727	826	47.8	826	47.8	394	22.8	446	25.8	586	33.9	376	21.8
65 years and over	1,642	709	43.2	709	43.2	274	16.7	280	17.1	495	30.2	302	18.4
Living alone	1,513	653	43.1	653	43.1	247	16.3	262	17.3	445	29.4	298	19.7

TABLE 2.13
Poverty status by age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 2004
[Numbers in thousands; people in the labor force for 27 weeks or more]
Age and sex	Total	White	Black or African American	Asian	Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	Below poverty level					Rate^a
Age and sex	Total	White	Black or African American	Asian	Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	Total	White	Black or African American	Asian	Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	Total	White	Black or African American	Asian	Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. In addition, people whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race and, therefore, are classified by ethnicity as well as by race.
^aNumber below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
^bData not shown where base is less than 80,000.
Source: "Table 2. People in the Labor Force for 27 Weeks or More: Poverty Status by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, 2004," in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2004, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 2006, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2004.pdf (accessed January 23, 2007)
Total, 16 years and older	140,908	115,662	15,819	6,039	18,296	7,836	5,615	1,670	266	1,930	5.6	4.9	10.6	4.4	10.5
16 to 19 years	4,208	3,550	410	103	595	430	319	80	7	93	10.2	9.0	19.5	7.0	15.6
20 to 24 years	13,327	10,792	1,591	410	2,363	1,557	1,164	279	33	310	11.7	10.8	17.5	8.2	13.1
25 to 34 years	30,867	24,453	3,959	1,598	5,728	2,227	1,508	577	57	709	7.2	6.2	14.6	3.6	12.4
35 to 44 years	35,003	28,295	4,200	1,702	4,814	1,774	1,266	382	85	491	5.1	4.5	9.1	5.0	10.2
45 to 54 years	33,705	28,057	3,633	1,357	3,127	1,195	852	251	53	225	3.5	3.0	6.9	3.9	7.2
55 to 64 years	18,578	15,938	1,609	717	1,362	548	423	89	20	88	3.0	2.7	5.6	2.8	6.5
65 years and older	5,221	4,577	417	152	308	106	83	11	10	14	2.0	1.8	2.6	6.3	4.4
Men, 16 years and older	75,887	63,368	7,401	3,284	11,174	3,799	2,892	621	154	1,156	5.0	4.6	8.4	4.7	10.3
16 to 19 years	2,068	1,736	209	48	346	188	126	46	3	45	9.1	7.3	22.1	^b	13.1
20 to 24 years	7,102	5,854	756	204	1,479	686	525	109	19	173	9.7	9.0	14.5	9.4	11.7
25 to 34 years	17,203	13,973	1,842	911	3,695	1,067	808	185	27	447	6.2	5.8	10.0	3.0	12.1
35 to 44 years	19,001	15,658	1,942	957	2,931	875	678	132	52	297	4.6	4.3	6.8	5.4	10.1
45 to 54 years	17,737	15,001	1,704	688	1,783	641	471	113	35	143	3.6	3.1	6.6	5.2	8.0
55 to 64 years	9,870	8,557	752	389	773	276	228	35	11	44	2.8	2.7	4.6	2.7	5.6
65 years and older	2,906	2,589	196	87	166	66	56	1	7	7	2.3	2.2	0.7	8.6	4.2
Women, 16 years and older	65,022	52,294	8,419	2,755	7,122	4,036	2,723	1,049	112	774	6.2	5.2	12.5	4.1	10.9
16 to 19 years	2,140	1,814	201	54	249	241	193	34	5	48	11.3	10.6	16.8	^b	19.2
20 to 24 years	6,225	4,938	835	206	883	871	640	170	14	136	14.0	12.9	20.3	7.0	15.4
25 to 34 years	13,664	10,479	2,117	688	2,033	1,159	700	393	30	262	8.5	6.7	18.6	4.4	12.9
35 to 44 years	16,002	12,637	2,258	746	1,883	899	587	250	34	194	5.6	4.6	11.1	4.5	10.3
45 to 54 years	15,968	13,057	1,928	670	1,343	554	381	138	18	82	3.5	2.9	7.1	2.6	6.1
55 to 64 years	8,707	7,381	858	328	589	272	195	55	10	45	3.1	2.6	6.4	2.9	7.6
65 years and older	2,316	1,988	221	65	142	40	27	10	2	7	1.7	1.4	4.3	^b	4.7

TABLE 2.14
Poverty status by educational attainment, race, ethnicity, and sex, 2004
[Numbers in thousands]
Educational attainment, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity	Total	Men	Women	Below poverty level			Rate^a
	Total	Men	Women	Total	Men	Women	Total	Men	Women
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. In addition, people whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race and, therefore, are classified by ethnicity as well as by race.
^aNumber below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
^bIncludes people with a high school diploma or equivalent.
^cIncludes people with bachelor's, master's, professional, and doctoral degrees.
^dData not shown where base is less than 80,000.
Source: "Table 3. People in the Labor Force for 27 Weeks or More: Poverty Status by Educational Attainment, Race, Hispanic or Latino Ethnicity, and Sex, 2004," in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2004, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 2006, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2004.pdf (accessed January 23, 2007)
Total, 16 years and older	140,908	75,887	65,022	7,836	3,799	4,036	5.6	5.0	6.2
Less than a high school diploma	16,013	10,032	5,981	2,427	1,341	1,087	15.2	13.4	18.2
Less than 1 year of high school	5,055	3,490	1,566	846	562	284	16.7	16.1	18.1
1-3 years of high school	9,226	5,463	3,763	1,368	672	696	14.8	12.3	18.5
4 years of high school, no diploma	1,732	1,079	653	214	106	107	12.3	9.8	16.4
High school graduates, no college^b	42,922	24,129	18,792	2,792	1,382	1,410	6.5	5.7	7.5
Some college or associate degree	40,570	19,818	20,753	1,903	727	1,176	4.7	3.7	5.7
Some college, no degree	27,385	13,706	13,679	1,499	575	924	5.5	4.2	6.8
Associate degree	13,186	6,112	7,073	404	152	252	3.1	2.5	3.6
Bachelor's degree and higher^c	41,404	21,908	19,495	714	350	364	1.7	1.6	1.9
White, 16 years and older	115,662	63,368	52,294	5,615	2,892	2,723	4.9	4.6	5.2
Less than a high school diploma	12,957	8,410	4,547	1,790	1,072	718	13.8	12.7	15.8
Less than 1 year of high school	4,374	3,095	1,279	728	497	231	16.6	16.1	18.0
1-3 years of high school	7,296	4,450	2,846	935	492	444	12.8	11.0	15.6
4 years of high school, no diploma	1,287	865	422	128	84	44	9.9	9.7	10.4
High school graduates, no college^b	34,898	19,844	15,054	1,939	1,009	930	5.6	5.1	6.2
Some college or associate degree	33,356	16,621	16,736	1,362	559	804	4.1	3.4	4.8
Some college, no degree	22,312	11,419	10,893	1,062	447	616	4.8	3.9	5.7
Associate degree	11,044	5,202	5,842	300	112	188	2.7	2.2	3.2
Bachelor's degree and higher^c	34,450	18,494	15,957	523	252	271	1.5	1.4	1.7
Black or African American, 16 years and older	15,819	7,401	8,419	1,670	621	1,049	10.6	8.4	12.5
Less than a high school diploma	2,022	1,054	968	490	185	305	24.3	17.6	31.5
Less than 1 year of high school	303	174	130	57	25	32	18.8	14.3	25.0
1-3 years of high school	1,406	724	681	359	141	218	25.5	19.5	32.0
4 years of high school, no diploma	313	156	157	74	19	55	23.7	12.3	35.1
High school graduates, no college^b	5,867	3,052	2,815	697	286	411	11.9	9.4	14.6
Some college or associate degree	4,825	2,023	2,803	383	101	283	7.9	5.0	10.1
Some college, no degree	3,450	1,464	1,986	307	74	233	8.9	5.1	11.7
Associate degree	1,375	558	817	77	27	50	5.6	4.8	6.1
Bachelor's degree and higher^c	3,105	1,272	1,833	99	49	50	3.2	3.8	2.7
Asian, 16 years and older	6,039	3,284	2,755	266	154	112	4.4	4.7	4.1
Less than a high school diploma	498	236	261	50	28	22	10.1	11.8	8.5
Less than 1 year of high school	224	114	110	25	17	8	10.9	14.5	7.3
1-3 years of high school	203	96	107	19	10	10	9.6	10.0	9.2
4 years of high school, no diploma	71	26	44	6	2	4	^d	^d	^d
High school graduates, no college^b	1,146	644	502	61	38	23	5.3	5.8	4.7
Some college or associate degree	1,235	611	625	76	41	35	6.1	6.7	5.6
Some college, no degree	820	415	404	64	33	30	7.8	8.0	7.5
Associate degree	416	195	220	12	7	5	2.9	3.8	2.1
Bachelor's degree and higher^c	3,161	1,793	1,367	79	48	31	2.5	2.7	2.3
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, 16 years and older	18,296	11,174	7,122	1,930	1,156	774	10.5	10.3	10.9
Less than a high school diploma	6,608	4,509	2,098	1,170	733	437	17.7	16.3	20.8
Less than 1 year of high school	3,530	2,508	1,022	660	458	202	18.7	18.3	19.8
1-3 years of high school	2,535	1,628	908	437	228	209	17.2	14.0	23.0
4 years of high school, no diploma	542	373	169	73	47	26	13.5	12.5	15.6
High school graduates, no college^b	5,461	3,341	2,119	462	278	184	8.5	8.3	8.7
Some college or associate degree	4,043	2,110	1,933	231	114	118	5.7	5.4	6.1
Some college, no degree	2,968	1,573	1,395	176	91	85	5.9	5.8	6.1
Associate degree	1,075	537	538	55	23	32	5.1	4.2	6.0
Bachelor's degree and higher³	2,185	1,214	971	66	31	35	3.0	2.6	3.6

TABLE 2.15
Poverty status of families, by selected characteristics, 2004
[Numbers in thousands]
Characteristic	Total families	At or above poverty level	Below poverty level	Rate*
Note: Data relate to primary families with at least one member in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
*Number below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
Source: "Table 5. Primary Families: Poverty Status, Presence of Related Children, and Work Experience of Family Members in the Labor Force for 27 Weeks or More, 2004," in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2004, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 2006, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2004.pdf (accessed January 23, 2007)
Total primary families	63,912	59,652	4,261	6.7
With related children under 18 years	36,154	32,565	3,589	9.9
Without children	27,758	27,087	671	2.4
With one member in the labor force	27,307	23,696	3,611	13.2
With two or more members in the labor force	36,605	35,956	649	1.8
With two members	30,960	30,361	599	1.9
With three or more members	5,645	5,595	50	.9
Married-couple families	48,675	46,725	1,950	4.0
With related children under 18 years	26,288	24,742	1,546	5.9
Without children	22,387	21,983	404	1.8
With one member in the labor force	16,727	15,255	1,471	8.8
Husband	12,664	11,463	1,202	9.5
Wife	3,477	3,249	228	6.6
Relative	585	543	42	7.1
With two or more members in the labor force	31,949	31,470	479	1.5
With two members	27,241	26,793	448	1.6
With three or more members	4,708	4,677	31	.7
Families maintained by women	10,944	9,019	1,925	17.6
With related children under 18 years	7,548	5,793	1,755	23.3
Without children	3,396	3,226	170	5.0
With one member in the labor force	7,937	6,143	1,793	22.6
Householder	6,611	5,009	1,602	24.2
Relative	1,326	1,134	191	14.4
With two or more members in the labor force	3,007	2,875	132	4.4
Families maintained by men	4,293	3,908	385	9.0
With related children under 18 years	2,319	2,030	289	12.4
Without children	1,975	1,878	96	4.9
With one member in the labor force	2,644	2,298	347	13.1
Householder	2,217	1,932	285	12.9
Relative	427	366	61	14.3
With two or more members in the labor force	1,649	1,611	39	2.3

TABLE 2.16
Poverty status and labor market problems of full-time wage and salary workers, 2004
[Numbers in thousands]
Poverty status and labor market problems	Total	At or above poverty level	Below poverty level	Rate^a
^aNumber below the poverty level as a percent of the total in the labor force for 27 weeks or more.
^bThe low-earnings threshold in 2004 was $278.03 per week.
Source: "Table 8. People in the Labor Force for 27 Weeks or More: Poverty Status and Labor Market Problems of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers, 2004," in A Profile of the Working Poor, 2004, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, December 2006, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswp2004.pdf (accessed January 23, 2007)
Total, full-time wage and salary workers	109,297	105,520	3,777	3.5
No unemployment, involuntary part-time employment, or low earnings^b	90,805	90,076	729	.8
Unemployment only	5,612	5,188	424	7.6
Involuntary part-time employment only	2,325	2,270	55	2.4
Low earnings only	7,244	5,620	1,623	22.4
Unemployment and involuntary part-time employment	998	924	74	7.4
Unemployment and low earnings	1,318	789	530	40.2
Involuntary part-time employment and low earnings	682	461	221	32.4
Unemployment, involuntary part-time employment, and low earnings	313	191	122	38.8
Unemployment (alone or with other problems)	8,242	7,093	1,149	13.9
Involuntary part-time employment (alone or with other problems)	4,318	3,847	472	10.9
Low earnings (alone or with other problems)	9,557	7,062	2,495	26.1

TABLE 2.17
Median spell length in major means-tested programs, by type of program and demographic characteristics, 2001–03
[In months]
Characteristic	Any means-tested programs^a	TANF/GA	Supplemental Security Income	Food stamps	Medicaid	Housing assistance^b
Characteristic	Median	Median	Median	Median	Median	Median
All recipients^c	7.2	4.9	15.0	7.7	7.6	4.0
Race and Hispanic origin^d
White	7.1	4.0	15.0	7.4	7.6	3.9
Not Hispanic	7.0	4.0	11.7	7.5	7.6	3.9
Black	7.5	6.5	11.8	8.6	7.9	7.5
Asian or Pacific Islander	3.9	11.4	(X)	7.1	7.0	3.7
Hispanic	7.2	4.0	22.3	7.0	7.7	3.9
Not Hispanic	7.2	5.4	11.9	7.8	7.6	4.0
Age^e
Under 18 years	7.9	6.3	11.3	8.8	9.7	7.0
18 to 64 years	5.4	4.0	15.0	7.1	7.4	3.9
65 years and older	4.0	(B)	15.7	19.8	4.9	7.9
Sex
Men	7.0	5.7	15.2	7.2	7.7	3.9
Women	7.3	4.4	12.0	8.2	7.6	5.0
Educational attainment (people 18 and older)
Less than high school graduate	7.4	4.3	19.7	10.2	7.7	7.2
High school graduate, no college	5.6	3.9	16.2	7.0	7.2	3.9
Some college	3.9	3.9	7.9	5.2	5.0	3.8
Disability status (people 15 to 64 years old)
With a work disability	7.8	4.0	19.3	11.6	9.3	7.6
With no work disability	4.5	4.0	7.8	6.5	7.1	3.8
Residence
Metropolitan	7.1	5.9	11.9	7.6	7.6	4.0
Central city	7.1	6.9	11.9	7.8	7.6	4.4
Noncentral city	7.2	5.6	13.4	7.3	7.6	3.9
Nonmetropolitan	7.4	3.8	19.0	7.9	7.9	3.9
Region
Northeast	7.2	7.2	15.6	9.0	7.6	4.0
Midwest	7.3	5.3	11.7	7.7	7.8	7.3
South	7.2	3.8	12.9	8.0	7.6	3.9
West	7.0	5.1	11.5	6.1	7.6	3.9
Family status
In families	7.2	4.9	11.5	7.6	7.7	4.0
In married-couple families	6.9	3.9	11.5	6.0	7.3	3.8
In families with a female householder, no husband present	7.7	5.8	11.3	8.8	9.9	7.6
In families with a male householder, no wife present	7.3	3.8	15.7	8.4	7.8	3.8
Unrelated individuals	5.2	4.6	(X)	9.5	7.6	3.9
Employment and labor force status (people 18 and older)
Employed full-time^f	3.8	3.7	3.9	3.9	3.9	3.7
Employed part-time	6.6	3.7	11.6	6.3	7.3	4.0
Unemployed	7.2	3.9	(B)	8.4	7.5	5.1
Not in labor force	7.2	4.7	19.0	11.4	7.5	7.3

TABLE 2.17
Median spell length in major means-tested programs, by type of program and demographic characteristics, 2001–03 [continued]
[In months]
Characteristic	Any means-tested programs^a	TANF/GA	Supplemental Security Income	Food stamps	Medicaid	Housing assistance^b
Characteristic	Median	Median	Median	Median	Median	Median
(X) Not applicable. (B) The sample size is too small for analysis.
^aMajor means-tested programs include Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), General Assistance (GA), Supplemental Security Income (SSI), food stamps, Medicaid, and housing assistance.
^bMedian duration cannot be computed when more than half of the spells are continuing in the last month of data collection. (This situation is especially likely to occur for elderly recipients whose incomes from other sources are unlikely to rise over time.)
^cMedian duration for each program is derived only for those who begin participating in each program at the start of the survey, while those who are already in the program at the start of the survey are excluded from the analysis.
^dHispanics may be any race.
^eAge, educational attainment, and other variables are measured at the time the spells begin, except that, for those who are already on programs at the start of the survey, these characteristics are measured at the first interview.
^fFull-time and part-time employment reflects the average employment status.
^gFamily income-to-poverty threshold ratio reflects the monthly poverty status. A ratio of under 1.00 indicates that a person is in poverty, whereas a ratio of higher than or equal to 1.00 indicates that a person is not in poverty.
Source: Tracy A. Loveless and Jan Tin, "Table A7. Median Duration of Participation in Major Means-Tested Programs by Program: 2001–2003 (in months)," in Dynamics of Economic Well-Being: Participation in Government Programs, 2001 through 2003, Who Gets Assistance?—Current Population Reports U.S. Census Bureau, October 2006, http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/p70-108.pdf (accessed January 2, 2007)
Family income-to-poverty ratio^g
Under 1.00	10.0	5.9	(X)	11.5	11.4	7.6
1.00 and over	6.0	3.9	11.3	5.8	7.3	3.8