Protozoa

Protozoa are a very diverse group of single-celled organisms, with more than 50,000 different types represented. The vast majority are microscopic, many measuring less than 1/200 mm, but some, such as the freshwater Spirostomun, may reach 0.17 in (3 mm) in length, large enough to enable it to be seen with the naked eye.

Scientists have discovered fossilized specimen of protozoa that measured 0.78 in (20 mm) in diameter. Whatever the size, however, protozoans are well-known for their diversity and the fact that they have evolved under so many different conditions.

One of the basic requirements of all protozoans is the presence of water, but within this limitation, they may live in the sea, in rivers, lakes, stagnant ponds of freshwater, soil, and in some decaying matters. Many are solitary organisms, but some live in colonies; some are free-living, others are sessile; and some species are even parasites of plants and animals (including humans). Many protozoans form complex, exquisite shapes and their beauty is often greatly overlooked on account of their diminutive size.

The protozoan cell body is often bounded by a thin pliable membrane, although some sessile forms may have a toughened outer layer formed of cellulose, or even distinct shells formed from a mixture of materials. All the processes of life take place within this cell wall. The inside of the membrane is filled with a fluid-like material called cytoplasm , in which a number of tiny organs float. The most important of these is the nucleus , which is essential for growth and reproduction. Also present are one or more contractile vacuoles, which resemble air bubbles, whose job it is to maintain the correct water balance of the cytoplasm and also to assist with food assimilation.

Protozoans living in salt water do not require contractile vacuoles as the concentration of salts in the cytoplasm is similar to that of seawater and there is therefore no net loss or gain of fluids. Food vacuoles develop whenever food is ingested and shrink as digestion progresses. If too much water enters the cell, these vacuoles swell, move towards the edge of the cell wall and release the water through a tiny pore in the membrane.

Some protozoans contain the green pigment chlorophyll more commonly associated with higher plants, and are able to manufacture their own foodstuffs in a similar manner to plants. Others feed by engulfing small particles of plant or animal matter. To assist with capturing prey, many protozoans have developed an ability to move. Some, such as Euglena and Trypanosoma are equipped with a single whip like flagella which, when quickly moved back and forth, pushes the body through the surrounding water body. Other protozoans (e.g., Paramecium) have developed large numbers of tiny cilia around the membrane; the rhythmic beat of these hairlike structures propel the cell along and also carry food, such as bacteria , towards the gullet. Still others are capable of changing the shape of their cell wall. The Amoeba, for example, is capable of detecting chemicals given off by potential food particles such as diatoms , algae, bacteria or other protozoa. As the cell wall has no definite shape, the cytoplasm can extrude to form pseudopodia (Greek pseudes, "false"; pous, "foot") in various sizes and at any point of the cell surface. As the Amoeba approaches its prey, two pseudopodia extend out from the main cell and encircle and engulf the food, which is then slowly digested.

Various forms of reproduction have evolved in this group, one of the simplest involves a splitting of the cell in a process known as binary fission. In species like amoeba, this process takes place over a period of about one hour: the nucleus divides and the two sections drift apart to opposite ends of the cell. The cytoplasm also begins to divide and the cell changes shape to a dumb-bell appearance. Eventually the cell splits giving rise to two identical "daughter" cells that then resume moving and feeding. They, in turn, can divide further in this process known as asexual reproduction, where only one individual is involved.

Some species that normally reproduce asexually, may occasionally reproduce through sexual means, which involves the joining, or fusion, of the nuclei from two different cells. In the case of paramecium , each individual has two nuclei: a larger macronucleus that is responsible for growth, and a much smaller micronucleus that controls reproduction. When paramecium reproduce by sexual means, two individuals join in the region of the oral groove—a shallow groove in the cell membrane that opens to the outside. When this has taken place, the macronuclei of each begins to disintegrate, while the micronucleus divides in four. Three of these then degenerate and the remaining nucleus divides once again to produce two micronuclei that are genetically identical. The two cells then exchange one of these nuclei that, upon reaching the other individual's micronucleus, fuse to form what is known as a zygote nucleus. Shortly afterwards, the two cells separate but within each cell a number of other cellular and cytoplasmic divisions will continue to take place, eventually resulting in the production of four daughter cells from each individual.

Protozoans have evolved to live under a great range of environmental conditions. When these conditions are unfavorable, such as when food is scarce, most species are able to enter an inactive phase, where cells become non-motile and secrete a surrounding cyst that prevents desiccation and protects the cell from extreme temperatures. The cysts may also serve as a useful means of dispersal, with cells being borne on the wind or on the feet of animals. Once the cyst reaches a more favorable situation, the outer wall breaks down and the cell resumes normal activity.

Many species are of considerable interest to scientists, not least because of the medical problems that many cause. The tiny Plasmodium protozoan, the cause of malaria in humans, is responsible for hundreds of millions of cases of illness each year, with many deaths occurring in poor countries. This parasite is transferred from a malarial patient to a healthy person by the bite of female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. As the mosquito feeds on a victim's blood the parasites pass from its salivary glands into the open wound. From there, they make their way to the liver where they multiply and later enter directly into red blood cells. Here they multiply even further, eventually causing the blood cell to burst and release from 6-36 infectious bodies into the blood plasma. A mosquito feeding on such a patient's blood may absorb some of these organisms, allowing the parasite to complete its life cycle and begin the process all over again. The shock of the release of so many parasites into the human blood stream results in a series of chills and fevers—typical symptoms of malaria. Acute cases of malaria may continue for some days or even weeks, and may subside if the body is able to develop immunity to the disease. Relapses, however, are common and malaria is still a major cause of death in the tropics. Although certain drugs have been developed to protect people from Plasmodium many forms of malaria have now developed, some of which are even immune to the strongest medicines.

While malaria is one of the best known diseases known to be caused by protozoans, a wide range of other equally devastating ailments are also caused by protozoan infections. Amoebic dysentery , for example, is caused by Entamoeba histolytica.; African sleeping sickness , which is spread by the bite of the tsetse fly, is caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma; a related species T. cruzi causes Chagas' disease in South and Central America; Eimeria causes coccidiosis in rabbits and poultry; and Babesia, spread by ticks, causes red water fever in cattle.

Not all protozoans are parasites however, although this is by far a more specialized life style than that adopted by free-living forms. Several protozoans form a unique, nondestructive, relationship with other species, such as those found in the intestine of wood-eating termites. Living in the termites' intestines the protozoans are provided with free board and lodgings as they ingest the wood fibers for their own nutrition. In the process of doing so, they also release proteins which can be absorbed by the termite's digestive system, which is otherwise unable to break down the tough cellulose walls of the wood fibers. Through this mutualistic relationship, the termites benefit from a nutritional source that they could otherwise not digest, while the protozoans receive a safe home and steady supply of food.

See also Amoebic dysentery; Entamoeba histolytica; Epidemiology, tracking diseases with technology; Waste water treatment; Water quality

Protozoa

Protozoa are a very varied group of single-celled organisms, with more than 50,000 different types represented. The vast majority are microscopic, many measuring less than 1/200 mm, but some, such as the freshwater Spirostomun, may reach 0.17 in (3 mm) in length, large enough to enable it to be seen with the naked eye . Scientists have even discovered some fossil specimens that measured 0.78 in (20 mm) in diameter. Whatever the size, however, protozoans are well-known for their diversity and the fact that they have evolved under so many different conditions. One of the basic requirements of all protozoans is the presence of water , but within this limitation they may live in the sea, in rivers , lakes or even stagnant ponds of freshwater, in the soil and even in some decaying matters. Many are solitary organisms, but some are colonial; some are free-living, others are sessile; and some species are even parasites of plants and animals—from other protozoans to humans. Many of them form complex, exquisite shapes and their beauty is often greatly overlooked on account of their diminutive size.

The cell body is often bounded by a thin pliable membrane , although some sessile forms may have a toughened outer layer formed of cellulose , or even distinct shells formed from a mixture of materials. All the processes of life take place within this cell wall. The inside of the membrane is filled with a fluid-like material called cytoplasm, in which a number of tiny organs float. The most important of these is the nucleus, which is essential for growth and reproduction. Also present are one or more contractile vacuoles, which resemble air bubbles, whose job it is to maintain the correct water balance of the cytoplasm and also to assist with food assimilation. Protozoans living in saltwater do not require contractile vacuoles as the concentration of salts in the cytoplasm is similar to that of seawater and there is therefore no net loss or gain of fluids. Food vacuoles develop whenever food is ingested and shrink as digestion progresses. If too much water enters the cell, these vacuoles swell up, move towards the edge of the cell wall, and release the water through a tiny pore in the membrane.

Some protozoans contain the green pigment chlorophyll more commonly associated with higher plants, and are able to manufacture their own foodstuffs in a similar manner to plants. Others feed by engulfing small particles of plant or animal matter. To assist with capturing prey , items many protozoans have developed an ability to move around. Some, such as Euglena and Trypanosoma are equipped with a single whiplike flagella which, when quickly moved back and forth, pushes the body through the surrounding water body. Other protozoans such as Paramecium have developed large numbers of tiny cilia around the membrane; the rhythmic beat of these hairlike structures propel the cell along and also carry food, such as bacteria , towards the gullet. Still others are capable of changing the shape of their cell wall. The amoeba , for example, is capable of detecting chemicals given off by potential food particles such as diatoms , algae , bacteria, or other protozoa. As the cell wall has no definite shape, the cytoplasm can extrude to form pseudopodia (Greek: pseudes, false; pous, foot) in various sizes and at any point of the cell surface. As the Amoeba approaches its prey, two pseudopodia extend out from the main cell and encircle and engulf the food, which is then slowly digested.

Various forms of reproduction have evolved in this group, one of the simplest involves a splitting of the cell in a process known as binary fission. In species like amoeba, this process takes place over a period of about one hour: the nucleus divides and the two sections drift apart to opposite ends of the cell. The cytoplasm also begins to divide and the cell changes shape to a dumb-bell appearance. Eventually the cell splits giving rise to two identical "daughter" cells which then resume moving and feeding. They, in turn, can divide further in this process known as asexual reproduction , where only one individual is involved.

Some species, which may reproduce asexually, may occasionally reproduce through sexual means, which involves the joining together, or fusion, of the nuclei from two different cells. In the case of paramecium, each individual has two nuclei: a larger macronucleus that is responsible for growth, and a much smaller micronucleus that controls reproduction. When paramecium reproduces by sexual means, two individuals join together in the region of the oral groove—a shallow groove in the cell membrane that opens to the outside. When this has taken place, the macronuclei of each begins to disintegrate, while the micronucleus divides in four. Three of these then degenerate and the remaining nucleus divides once again to produce two micronuclei that are genetically identical. The two cells then exchange one of these nuclei which, on reaching the other individual's micronucleus, fuses to form what is known as a "zygote nucleus." Shortly afterwards, the two cells separate but within each cell a number of other cellular and cytoplasmic divisions will continue to take place, eventually resulting in the production of four daughter cells from each individual.

Protozoans have evolved to live under a great range of environmental conditions. When these conditions are unfavorable, such as when food is scarce, most species are able to enter an inactive phase, where cells become non-motile and secrete a surrounding cyst that prevents desiccation and protects the cell from extreme temperatures. The cysts may also serve as a useful means of dispersal, with cells being borne on the wind or on the feet of animals. Once the cyst reaches a more favorable situation, the outer wall breaks down and the cell resumes normal activity.

Many species are of considerable interest to scientists, not least because of the medical problems that many cause. The tiny Plasmodium protozoan, the cause of malaria in humans, is responsible for hundreds of millions of cases of illness each year, with many deaths occurring in poor countries. This parasite is tra nsferred from a malarial patient to a healthy person by the bite of female mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles. As the mosquito feeds on a victims' blood the parasite passed from its salivary glands into the open wound. From there, they make their way to the liver where they multiply and later enter directly into red blood cells. Here they multiply even further, eventually causing the blood cell to burst and release from six to 36 infectious bodies into the blood plasma . A mosquito feeding on such a patients blood may absorb some of these organisms, allowing the parasite to complete its life cycle and begin the process all over again. The shock of the release of so many parasites into the human blood stream results in a series of chills and fevers—typical symptoms of malaria. Acute cases of malaria may continue for some days or even weeks, and may subside if the body is able to develop an immunity to the disease . Relapses, however, are common and malaria is still a major cause of death in the tropics. Although certain drugs have been developed to protect people from Plasmodium many forms of malaria have now developed, some of which are even immune to the strongest medicines.

While malaria is one of the best known diseases known to be caused by protozoans, a wide range of other equally devastating ailments are also caused by protozoan infections. Amoebic dysentery , for example, is caused by Entamoeba histolytica; African sleeping sickness , which is spread by the bite of the tse-tse fly, is caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma; a related species T. cruzi causes Chagas' disease in South and Central America; Eimeria causes coccidiosis in rabbits and poultry; and Babesia, spread by ticks, causes red water fever in cattle.

Not all protozoans are parasites however, although this is by far a more specialized life style than that adopted by free-living forms. Several protozoans form a unique, nondestructive, relationship with other species, such as the those found in the intestine of wood-eating termites . Living in the termites' intestines the protozoans are provided with free board and lodgings as they ingest the wood fibers for their own nutrition . In the process of doing so, they also release proteins which can be absorbed by the termite's digestive system , which is otherwise unable to break down the tough cellulose walls of the wood fibers. Through this mutualistic relationship, the termites benefit from a nutritional source that they could otherwise not digest, while the protozoans receive a safe home and steady supply of food.

With such a vast range of species in this phylum, it is not surprising that little is still known about the vast majority of species. Many protozoans serve as an essential food source for a wide range of other animals and are therefore essential for the ecological food webs of higher organisms. Many are also, of course, important for medical purposes, while others are now being used in a range of businesses that include purification of filter and sewage beds. No doubt as further research is undertaken on these minute organisms we shall learn how more of these species might be of assistance, perhaps even in combating some of the major diseases that affect civilization, including those caused by other protozoans.

Protozoa

Protozoa are a diverse group of single-celled organisms that include more than 50,000 species. The vast majority are microscopic, many measuring less than 1/200 mm, but some, such as the freshwater Spirostomun, may reach 0.17 in (3 mm) in length, large enough to be seen with the naked eye. Scientists have even discovered some fossil specimens that measured 0.78 in (20 mm) in diameter. Many protozoans form complex, exquisite shapes and their beauty is often greatly overlooked on account of their diminutive size.

All protozoans require water, but within this limitation they may live in oceans, rivers, lakes, stagnant ponds of water, moist soil and even decaying matter. Many are solitary but some are colonial; some are free-living others are sessile; and some are parasites of plants and animals—from other protozoans to humans.

The protozoan cell is often bounded by a thin pliable membrane, although some sessile forms may have a toughened outer layer formed of cellulose, or even distinct shells formed from a mixture of materials. The inside of the cell is filled with a fluidlike material called cytoplasm, in which a number of tiny organs are located. The most important of these is the nucleus, which is essential for growth and reproduction. Also present are one or more contractile vacuoles, whose job it is to maintain the correct water balance of the cytoplasm. If too much water enters the cell, these vacuoles swell up, move towards the edge of the cell wall, and release the water through a tiny pore in the membrane. Protozoans living in saltwater do not require contractile vacuoles as the concentration of salts in the cytoplasm is similar to that of seawater and osmosis is negligible. Food vacuoles develop whenever food is ingested and shrink as digestion progresses.

Some protozoans contain the green pigment chlorophyll more commonly associated with plants, and are able to manufacture their own carbohydrates in a similar manner to plants. Others feed by engulfing small particles of plant or animal matter. To assist with capturing prey, many protozoans have developed the ability for locomotion. Some, such as Euglena and Trypanosoma are equipped with a long whiplike flag-ella which, when quickly moved back and forth, pushes the body through the surrounding water body. Other protozoans such as paramecium have developed large numbers of tiny cilia around the membrane; the rhythmic beat of these hairlike structures propel the cell along and also carry food, such as bacteria, towards the gullet. Still others are capable of changing the shape of their cell wall. The amoeba, for example, is capable of detecting chemicals given off by potential food particles such as diatoms, algae, bacteria, or other protozoa. As the cell wall has no definite shape, the cytoplasm can extrude to form pseudopodia (Greek: pseudes, false; pous, foot) in various sizes and at any point of the cell surface. As the Amoeba approaches its prey, two pseudopodia extend out from the main cell and encircle and engulf the food, which is then slowly digested.

Various forms of reproduction have evolved among the protozoa. One of the simplest involves a splitting of the cell in a process known as binary fission or asexual reproduction. In species like amoeba, this process takes place over a period of about one hour: the nucleus divides and the two sections drift apart to opposite ends of the cell. The cytoplasm also begins to divide and the cell changes shape to a dumbbell appearance. Eventually the cell splits giving rise to two identical “daughter” cells, which then resume moving and feeding.

Some species may occasionally reproduce through sexual means, which involves the joining together, or fusion, of the nuclei from two different cells. In the case of paramecium, each individual has two nuclei: a larger macronucleus that is responsible for growth, and a much smaller micronucleus that controls reproduction. When paramecium reproduces sexually, two individuals join together in the region of the oral groove—a shallow groove in the cell membrane that opens to the outside. When this has taken place, the macronuclei of each begins to disintegrate, while the micronucleus divides in four. Three of these then degenerate and the remaining nucleus divides once again to produce two micronuclei that are genetically identical. The two cells then exchange one of these nuclei, which, upon reaching the other individual’s micronucleus, fuses to form what is known as a “zygote nucleus.” Shortly afterwards, the two cells separate but within each cell a number of other cellular and cytoplasmic divisions will continue to take place, eventually resulting in the production of four daughter cells from each individual.

Protozoans live in a great range of environmental conditions. When these conditions are unfavorable, such as when food is scarce, most species are able to enter an inactive phase, where cells become non-motile and secrete a surrounding cyst that prevents desiccation and protects the cell from extreme temperatures. The cysts may also serve as a useful means of dispersal, with cells being borne on the wind or on the feet of animals. Once the cyst reaches a more favorable situation, the outer wall breaks down and the cell resumes normal activity.

Many species are of considerable interest to scientists, not least because of the medical problems that many cause. The Plasmodium protozoan, the cause of malaria in humans, is responsible for hundreds of millions of cases of illness each year, with many deaths occurring in poor countries. This parasite is transferred from a malarial patient to a healthy person by the bite of female Anopheles mosquitoes. As the mosquito feeds on a victims’ blood the parasite passed from its salivary glands into the open wound. From there, they make their way to the liver where they multiply and later enter directly into red blood cells. Here they multiply even further, eventually causing the blood cell to burst and release from three to 36 infectious bodies into the blood plasma. A mosquito feeding on such a patient’s blood may absorb some of these organisms, allowing the parasite to complete its life cycle and begin the process all over again. The shock of the release of so many parasites into the human blood stream results in a series of chills and fevers—typical symptoms of malaria. Acute cases of malaria may continue for some days or even weeks, and may subside if the body is able to develop an immunity to the disease. Relapses, however, are common and malaria is still a major cause of death in the tropics. Although certain drugs have been developed to protect people from Plasmodium many forms of malaria have now developed, some of which are immune to the strongest medicines.

Amoebic dysentery is caused by Entamoeba histolytica; African sleeping sickness, which is spread by the bite of the tse-tse fly, is caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma; a related species T. cruzi causes Chagas’ disease in South and Central America; Eimeria causes coccidiosis in rabbits and poultry; and Babesia, spread by ticks, causes red water fever in cattle.

Some protozoan species form nondestructive relationships with other species such as the protozoans found in the intestine of wood-eating termites. Living in the termites’ intestines the protozoans are provided with a place to live as they ingest the wood fibers for their own nutrition. In the process of doing so, they also release proteins which can be absorbed by the termite’s digestive system, which is otherwise unable to break down the tough cellulose walls of the wood fibers. Through this mutualistic relationship, the termites benefit from a nutritional source that they could otherwise not digest, while the protozoans receive a place to live and a steady supply of food.

Protozoans are an important food source for a wide range of animals and are therefore essential for the ecological food webs. Many also play a role in medical research while others are used in industry, for example in the purification of filter and sewage beds.

Protozoa

Protozoa (meaning "first animals") are heterotrophic, single-celled or colonial eukaryotes. Individuals are microscopic and range in size from a few to hundreds of micrometers, depending on the species. Most protozoa are animal-like (heterotrophic) because their carbon and energy must be obtained by eating or absorbing organic compounds originating from other living organisms. As eukaryotes they have several organelles , including at least one nucleus that contains most of the cell's deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Beyond this broad description, it is difficult to define protozoa because they are so diverse and only distantly related to each other. While the term "protozoa" is commonly used, it has little basis in evolutionary history, or phylogeny, of these organisms. Taxonomic systems try to assign organisms to a monophyletic group, that is, one that includes an ancestor and all of its descendants. Plants, animals, and fungi are monophyletic groups; protozoans are not. (The understanding of evolutionary relationships of uni-cellular eukaryotes is in a state of flux.) Further complicating a precise definition of protozoa is the close relationship between some protozoa and unicellular algae. Modern taxonomic treatments recognize these similarities and group protozoa, photosynthetic unicellular algae, and slime molds together as protists or protoctists. Whichever term one prefers, the classification is not monophyletic. Despite the fact that protozoa is not a proper taxonomic name, it is a useful, functional term. Ecologists differentiate between autotrophic and heterotrophic components of an ecosystem, and it is natural to separate the animal-like protozoa from the photosynthetic algae based on their nutritional mode. (However, Euglena, which can be induced to lose their chloroplast, illustrate why unicellular algae are included with protozoa.)

As is appropriate for heterotrophic organisms that capture food, most protozoa are motile (able to move). The way they move is one of the important characteristics historically used to divide them into major groups: amoebae, flagellates, and ciliates. Apicomplexa, formerly called Sporazoa, is a fourth group of generally obligate parasitic protozoa. Amoebae crawl along surfaces by extending a cytoplasm -filled pseudopod (false-foot) that bulges outward from any edge of the cell. Flagellates and ciliates use specialized organelles, flagella and cilia, that differ primarily in length and number, to propel the cells through water. Flagella are whiplike structures that usually occur one to a few per cell and have an undulating motion. Cilia are shorter and move in concert, like oars, with alternating power and recovery strokes. Sporozoa are either nonmotile or very slow.

Other organelles that are widely distributed among protozoa include food vacuoles, in which ingested particles are digested, and lysosomes that fuse with food vacuoles and supply digestive enzymes. Contractile vacuoles, common in freshwater protozoa, eliminate water that moves into the cells by osmosis . Extrusomes are associated with the membrane of many protozoa and contain material that can be ejected from the cell. Some extrusomes secrete an amorphous material that is involved in formation of a capsule or cyst, and others discharge a pointed projectile that may serve for protection or predation. The thousands of "trichocysts" distributed over the surface of the ciliate Paramecium are extrusomes that discharge rapidly in response to physical stimulation and are probably effective deterrents to some predators. Ciliates are unique among protozoa in having two kinds of nuclei: the micronucleus, which is involved only in sexual reproduction; and the macronucleus, which is involved only in the production of messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) for cell function.

Most protozoa reproduce most of the time by equal binary fission, in which a cell divides into two daughter cells after the chromosomes have been duplicated and distributed between them. This asexual mode of reproduction leads to rapid population growth of a clone of genetically identical cells. However, sex is widespread in protozoa and complicated life histories do exist. Sexuality is associated with environmental change and interrupts asexual reproduction; sex in protozoa usually marks the end of the existence of a genetically unique individual, when it becomes the gamete (reproductive cell) or gametes.

Protozoa are ubiquitous (found everywhere); they are present in all aquatic or moist environments, and their cysts can be found in even the most inhospitable parts of the biosphere. Most are free-living and eat bacteria, algae, or other protozoa. Protozoa are important components of aquatic and soil ecosystems, where they eat bacteria that are too small to be efficiently captured by most animals and are in turn eaten by other organisms. Bacterivorous protozoa also are abundant in activated sludge sewage treatment plants and, in fact, are necessary for their proper functioning. There are several protozoa of medical and economic importance. Examples include the flagellate Trypanosoma, which causes African sleeping sickness; the amoeba Entamoeba histolytica, which can attack the intestinal wall and cause amoebic dysentery, and the sporozoans of the Plasmodium species, which cause malaria.

Protozoa have many features linking them to the other kingdoms of life. Scientists widely believe that animals evolved from protozoan ancestors, probably colonial choanoflagellates. New tools and methods from molecular biology are leading to a better understanding of the evolutionary relationships to multicellular organisms and among protozoa.

see also Algae; Cell Motility; Cytoskeleton; Lysosomes; Osmoregulation; Plankton; Protista; Protozoan Diseases

Robert W. Sanders

Bibliography

Anderson, O. Roger, and Marvin Druger, eds. Explore the World Using Protozoa. Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association and the Society of Protozoologists, 1997.

Lee, John J., Seymour H. Hutner, and Eugene C. Bovee, eds. An Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa, 2nd ed. Lawrence, KS: Society of Protozoologists, 2001.

Patterson, David J. Free-Living Freshwater Protozoa: A Color Guide. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

EUGLENA

Species in the genus Euglena are photosynthetic members of a diverse group of pigmented and colorless flagellates in the order Euglenida. Both protozoologists and botanists traditionally have studied them. The cylindrical shape of the body is maintained by a flexible pellicle composed of the cell membrane and a layer of protein strips. Euglena have large, bright green chloroplasts and two flagella that arise from within a pocket on the anterior end. Usually only one flagellum is long enough to emerge from the reservoir. Beside the reservoir is a small, red-pigmented spot, the stigma, which is associated with a light-sensing region. Many euglenids have visible rods or rings made of paramylum, which, like starch, is a glucose storage molecule.

Euglena swim with a gyrating motion using their emergent flagellum, which pull the organism forward like a propeller. When not swimming, Euglena often alternately contract and elongate the pellicle, causing a bulge to move from one end of the cell to the other in a characteristic "euglenoid motion." Euglena are most common in organically rich freshwater environments.

AMOEBA

Most amoebae live on surfaces in moist soil or aquatic sediment. They are easily over-looked because they are small, predominantly transparent, and slow moving. Amoebae are characterized by the flow of granular cytoplasm into lobes of cell membrane (pseudopodia) that serve the dual functions of motility and food capture. These protozoa typically lack a fixed external anatomy and are flexible but can be categorized by the shape and number of the pseudopodia. Pseudopodia can occur as multiple rounded or needlelike projections or as a single advancing front. When a food particle is encountered, pseudopodia surround it with a membrane-enclosed sac that pinches off internally to form a food vacuole. In addition to food vacuoles, a contractile vacuole and a single large nucleus or many small nuclei can be distinguished. Some amoebae excrete tests, or shells. The marine foraminiferans harden their shells with calcium carbonate, and fossilized foram shells make up a large proportion of some marine sediments and terrestrial deposits (like the White Cliffs of Dover, England).

Protozoa

Protozoa are a group of single-celled organisms that live by taking in food. As a major group in the kingdom Protista, protozoa are described as having animal-like—rather than plantlike—qualities, since they move about to find and eat their food. Since they are protists, protozoa are eukaryotes (they contain a nucleus).

GROUPS OF PROTOZOA

The word protozoa literally means "first animal," indicating that they are considered to be the early ancestor cells from which more complex, multicelled animals evolved. As animal-like protists, protozoa are divided into four phyla (one of the seven major classification groups that biologists use to identify and categorize living things) based mainly on how they move about.

Flagellates. The first group is the flagellates called Mastigophora, which move about by the use of one or more flagella (a whiplike tail). This phylum, also known as Zoomastigina, lives in a watery environment. Flagellates are very diverse since some live as parasites (organisms that live in or on other organisms and benefit from the relationship) and others as free-living organisms.

CHARLES LOUIS ALPHONSE LAVERAN

French biologist Charles Laveran (1845–1922) discovered the parasite (an organism that lives in or on another organism and benefits from the relationship) that causes human malaria (a disease characterized by cycles of chills, fever, and sweating). This was the first time that a disease was shown to be caused by living animal cells called protozoa (a group of single-celled organisms that live by taking in food). His creative work not only led to understanding the disease and its transmission by certain species of mosquito but also directed many other researchers into this new field.

Charles Laveran was born in Paris, France, the son of a military doctor. When he was five years old, the family was transferred to Algeria. Returning to Paris at the age of eleven, Laveran eventually entered the same military medical school his father had attended and graduated in 1867. Continuing in his father's footsteps, he joined the military medical service and saw active duty during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). It was then that he saw how disease can ravage an army worse than any enemy. In 1878 he was sent to Algeria as his father had been, and it was there that he began a careful study of the disease malaria. Malaria was common in many parts of Algeria, and had affected humans for centuries, with no one able to do anything to prevent it. For a long time it was believed to be caused by mal aria, the Italian words for "bad air." During Laveran's time, it was thought that perhaps it had a bacterial cause since French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was discovering more and more bacterial diseases.

Laveran went about his research in a careful, methodical way, and although he was limited by a primitive, low-powered microscope, he spent a great deal of time examining blood samples from malaria patients both living and dead. Finally, in November 1880, he first observed under the microscope tiny circular and cylindrical bodies that had moving flagella or hair-like filaments. This, he knew, was no bacteria. Instead, he knew it was a living animal cell, a minute, single-celled creature called a protozoon (plural, protozoa). Once inside the human body, protozoa act like parasites. A parasite is a species that lives in or on another species at the expense of that species. In other words, the parasite thrives and the host gets sick or even dies. The particular protozoan parasite that Laveran discovered was later named plasmodium.

Laveran had a great deal of trouble, however, convincing a skeptical medical community of his protozoan discovery, and eventually it took the great Pasteur to agree with him before everyone was convinced. Laveran was able to study the cycle of malaria in the red blood cell and discovered exactly what goes on there. He found that the protozoa increased in size inside the red blood cell until they almost filled it, at which time they then divided and formed spores. When these spores were freed from the destroyed blood cell, they invaded healthy blood cells and continued to do the same thing. Laveran had a strong feeling that the malaria protozoa were nurtured and transmitted to humans by certain types of mosquito, but it remained for the English physician, Ronald Ross (1857–1932), to finally prove this in 1897. Laveran went on to study other protozoan diseases and eventually joined the Pasteur Institute devoting the rest of his life to the study of tropical diseases. For his discovery of the protozoa plasmodium, Laveran was awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.

Sarcodina. The second group of protozoa are the members of the phylum Sarcodina, commonly known as amoeba. An amoeba is recognized because it has no particular, fixed shape. It has been described as looking formless like a bag of jelly. The reason for this is that the amoeba's single cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane and is constantly changing shape. It is this constant shape-changing that allows the amoeba to move. Amoeba can be found in all types of water and even in the soil. >Some are parasites of humans and can cause fever, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea. There is also a species of shelled amoeba in which the organism's cytoplasm (jelly-like cell contents) is protected by a shell it has created out of its own mineral secretions. With names like foraminiferams, heliozoans, and radiolarians, the shells of these tiny water creatures represent some of the most intricate and beautiful designs of nature.

Sporozoa. The third group of protozoa belong to the phylum Sporozoa and are parasitic spore-formers. In their adult stage, they cannot move, but during another stage, they live in a host who transfers them to yet another organism who they infect. This is how the species Plasmodium vivax goes from a mosquito to a human and infects the latter with malaria. This particular protozoan kills between 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 people every year.

Ciliophora. Finally, the phylum Ciliophora makes up the fourth group of protozoa. These organisms are characterized by short, flexible, hair-like strands or filaments called cilia that cover their bodies. These move in a rhythmic, coordinated manner and are able to propel the protozoan through its liquid environment. Some species, like the Paramecium, have as many as 15,000 cilia per cell and can move very quickly. Ciliates are the most structurally complex of all the single-celled organisms on Earth, and although most ciliates reproduce asexually, some species conduct a complicated form of sexual reproduction called conjugation. Conjugation is similar to mating since one of the ciliates (the donor or "male") produces a small protein tube through which genes are transferred to the recipient or "female" when the cells are joined together. Although conjugation achieves gene mixing, it does not result in the production of an entirely new individual. Most ciliates are found in fresh and salt water and are fierce predators, eating bacteria and other small organisms.

Many protozoans serve as an essential food source for a wide range of animals. Therefore, they are very important to the ecological food web (the transfer of energy in an ecosystem) of higher organisms. Some are also used for medical purposes while others serve such practical uses as purification of sewage beds.

[See alsoProtists ]