ORGAN

Antiquity

In its conventional form, an organ is basically a set of pipes activated by compressed air, under the control of a keyboard. It is thought to have been invented in Hellenistic Alexandria around the beginning of the second century c.e., and was called hydraulos (ύδρανλός – water pipe) since the air was compressed by a water-pressure mechanism. During the first centuries c.e. this mechanism came to be replaced by bellows, but the name hydraulos or hydraulis remained. The instrument spread through the Roman and Byzantine Empires as a crude but effective accompaniment to games and ceremonies in the circus and at court. Byzantine influence brought the organ both to the Persian court and to Europe in the eighth or ninth centuries.

It was the late Roman and Byzantine organ, with its multiplicity of pipes and – for that time – astounding tone-volume, that gave rise to the late talmudic identification of the magrefah ("rake") as an organ supposed to have been used in the Second Temple. The development of the legend, for such it is, can easily be traced. The Mishnah (Tam. 2:1; 3:8, and 5:6) states that a magrefah was among the implements used for cleaning the altar in the morning before the new daily sacrifice; and that the noise of its being thrown on the floor was one of several "noise-cues" which the priests used to ensure the smooth running of the ceremony (cf. The Letter of Aristeas 92; 94–96) in the absence of perceptible orders during the service. A hyperbole states that all these noises were audible "unto Jericho" (Tam. 3:8). The equating of magrefah with hydraulis must have occurred in the time of the *Tosefta, since Tosefta Arakhin 1:13–14 quotes R. Simeon b. Gamaliel as saying: "There was no hydraulis [הדראוליס] in the Temple since it confuses the voice and spoils the tune." The Jerusalem Talmud (Suk. 5:6, 55c–d) quotes R. Simeon b. Gamaliel, and then goes on to identify the biblical ugav with ardablis, and states that the magrefah had ten holes (or pipes) each emitting a hundred tones, or a hundred holes (or pipes) each emitting ten tones. Finally, in Arakhin 10b the identification magrefah-hydraulis appears as a categorical statement. Henceforth the identification of magrefah with organ remained practically unquestioned by most commentators and musicologists, although there is Rashi's compromise-exegesis to Arakhin 10b: "but it seems that there were two magrefot, one for [raking] the altar-remnants and one for song/music."

[Bathja Bayer]

The Organ in the Synagogue Before the 19^th Century

Little is known about the use of the organ in the synagogue before its introduction by Reform Judaism in the 19^th century. The earliest evidence of its use is in Italy in the 17^th century. Giulio *Morosini (Samuel Nahmias, Leone *Modena's pupil, who converted to Christianity) tells in his Via della Fede (Rome, 1683, p. 793) about the performance of the Jewish Academy of Music (Accademia degli impediti) in the Spanish synagogue of Venice, about 1628. On one occasion (Simḥat Torah) there was an organ among the instruments used but the Venetian rabbis disapproved of it because of its close association with Christian worship. But another Italian source of the 17^th century indicates that the organ was not frowned upon by some Italian rabbis of this period. Abraham Joseph Solomon *Graziano, rabbi of Modena (d. 1683) observed in glosses on the Shulḥan Arukh (oḤ 560:3): "… Jewish musicians should not be prevented from playing on the organ [to accompany] songs and praises performed [in honor of] God…" He went on to suggest that the argument of ḥukkot ha-goyim ("customs of the gentiles") was not relevant: no competent rabbinic authority would forbid organ playing; only ignorant people would oppose it.

The existence of a synagogue organ in Prague in the late 17^th and 18^th centuries is indicated by several writers. The use of the organ seems to have been linked mainly with the musical "inauguration of the Sabbath." The earliest mention is by Shabbetai *Bass, who uses the term ugav in the prayer book printed as a supplement to his Hebrew bibliography, Siftei Yeshenim (Amsterdam, 1680, 21b:3). Two later sources are J.J. *Schudt, (1664–1722) and Abraham Levi b. Menahem Tall (early 18^th century). The broadsheet Naye Tsaytung un Yudisher Oyftsug (1716) reveals the name of the Jewish builder of the "new organ" (Meir Mahler) employed during the celebrations of the Jewish community of Prague in honor of the birth of Prince Leopold, son of the German emperor, Charles vi.

[Israel Adler]

In the 19^th and 20^th Centuries

The organ was introduced by *Reform Judaism into the synagogue services as part of its stress on the aesthetic aspects of Jewish worship. The controversies surrounding the use of the organ began when Israel *Jacobson placed an organ into the temple he opened for his boys' school in Seesen, in 1810. He also employed the organ in the services which were held in private homes in Berlin from 1815 on. The Hamburg Temple, which opened in 1818, held services with organ accompaniment. From that time, this became the distinguishing feature of all Reform congregations. Of all the liturgical reforms introduced in the 19^th century, none has proved to be as divisive as the introduction of the organ. The introduction of an organ into a synagogue was usually followed by an exodus of the more traditionalist members who organized services for themselves without organ accompaniment. As the shibboleth of Reform, the organ figured primarily in Germany and, in the 19^th century, in America. French and Italian synagogues, not otherwise departing from traditional usage, introduced the organ without giving rise to controversy. For wedding ceremonies, the organ is played in some modern Orthodox synagogues. Many American Conservative synagogues also play it on the Sabbath. To justify their innovation, the Reformers published a collection of responsa, entitled Nogah ha-Ẓedek ("The Splendor of Justice," 1818). The Orthodox replied with a responsa collection of their own, Elleh Divrei ha-Berit ("These are the words of the Covenant," 1819). Since then, a vast literature has accumulated around the subject, consisting mainly of restatements and reformulations of the arguments used in 1818 and 1819.

Basically, three halakhic objections have been raised: (1) Playing the organ on the Sabbath, even by a non-Jew, is prohibited "work" – if not biblically forbidden, at least falling into the rabbinic category of shevut (occupations forbidden on Sabbaths and festivals); (2) as a sign of mourning for the destruction of the Temple, music in general is prohibited; (3) the organ is so closely associated with worship in the Christian churches that it would be a case of the prohibited "imitation of gentile customs" (ḥukkot ha-goyim) to play it in the synagogue.

The Reform justification has taken the following form: (1) the Shulḥan Arukh (oḤ 338:2) permits the playing of music by a non-Jew on the Sabbath for the purpose of entertaining a wedding party. What is permitted for a wedding party should be permitted all the more for the enhancement of worship. Moreover, just as the rules of shevut did not apply to the Temple, so they should not apply to the synagogues which have taken its place; (2) the prohibition of music as a sign of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem includes vocal no less than instrumental music. Yet tradition has obviously accepted vocal music for religious purposes (Sh. Ar., oḤ 560:3). Reform is merely extending the compromise to instrumental music as well. Beside, instrumental music was used in some pre-modern synagogues, although not on the Sabbath; a synagogue in Prague even had an organ; (3) the organ is not universal in Christian worship. Since there can be Christian worship without an organ, it follows that the instrument is by no means "essential" to that worship. Joel *Sirkes, in his responsum (Resp. Bah Yeshanot, no. 127) made a distinction between melodies which are an integral part of Christian worship and those which are not. The Reformers extended that distinction to musical instruments as well. In addition, they claimed instrumental music in the church is itself a borrowing from the Temple, in which there was an organ-like instrument, calledmagrefah (Ar. 10b–11a). While the use of the organ, particularly when played by non-Jewish musicians, has frequently led to the introduction of melodies akin to the traditional Jewish worship, it has likewise led both to a renaissance of modern synagogue music and to a revival of old Jewish modes. Hermann Heymann *Steinthal said: "The organ has restored to us the old ḥazzanut. It will preserve it, and transmit it to our children" (Ueber Juden und Judentum, 272). But Leopold *Zunz, a friend of the organ, cautioned: "Unity is the sweetest harmony. It is, therefore, better to refrain from the use of the organ…, if that should be the sole cause for a serious split in the congregation" (Zunz-Albeck, Derashot, 219).

[Jakob J. Petuchowski]

bibliography:

antiquity: Idelsohn, Music, 14, 19, 242–4, 496; J. Yasser, in: Journal of the American Musicological Society, 13 (1960), 24–42; J. Perrot, L'orgue, de ses origines helléntistiques à la fin du xiiie siècle (1965), 14–19; H. Avenary, in: Taẓlil, 2 (1961), 66; C. Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments (1940), 124. modern times: Sendrey, Music, nos. 2537–86; Adler, Prat Mus, 28–30, 65, 74, 112, 263; A. Berliner, Zur Lehr' und zur Wehr, ueber und gegen die kirchliche Orgel im juedischen Gottesdienste (1904); S. Krauss, Zur Orgelfrage (1919), incl. bibl.

organ (Ger. Orgel; Fr. orgue; It. organo). Kbd. instr. operated by air blown by a bellows through pipes to sound the notes. Often known as ‘the king of instruments’ because of its normal large size, although it is made in various sizes. The phrase was coined by Machaut, who was probably referring also to the organ's versatility.

The principles of construction, in primary outline, are:(1) A row of pipes, graduated as to size (and hence as to pitch), is placed in a corresponding row of holes in a windchest, which is fed by a bellows.

Under each hole in the windchest is a pallet, i.e. a type of hinged cover which can be opened and closed.

The pallets are operated, in the older orgs., by a series of rods, called stickers, and these are connected with the kbd. of the instr. by levers called backfalls and rods called trackers: thus on depressing a finger-key a current of air is admitted to its particular pipe, and on releasing it the current of air is then cut off. In many modern organs, instead of the sticker-backfall-tracker action there are the tubes of a pneumatic action or the wires of an electric action.

What has been described is a theoretical org. of only one row of pipes. But in practice the windchest has several such rows, the pipes being some of wood and some of metal, some of normal pitch and some of a pitch an octave below or above that pitch, etc., some being simple (‘flue’) pipes and others supplied with a vibrating tongue of metal called a reed, and so on. The pallets extend, from front to back, under each of these rows, so admitting air to, or excluding it from, the pipes related to one finger-key of the organ, whilst from side to side of the windchest, under each row of pipes, runs a board with holes in it, called a slider; when slid into one position the holes in this board coincide with those under the pipes and so permit the pallets to operate as regards that row; when slid into another position they no longer coincide, and so cut off the operation of the pallets in admitting air. The sliding is accomplished (mechanically, pneumatically, or electrically) by connection with handles or other devices; these are the drawstops, stop-keys, etc., respectively, each of which operates one row of pipes—called a register or stop (we speak of an organ of ‘20 stops’, of ‘100 stops’, etc.).

A kbd. operated by the hands is called a manual and one operated by the feet, a pedal-board. All orgs. nowadays possess both types of kbd. When an instr. contains any considerable number of stops, differentiation in their use is made easier by their being distributed over 2, 3, or 4 manuals (occasionally more). These are banked up stepwise before the player. The chief manual is that of the great organ, which contains a variety of stops, incl. especially many of robust tone. Above it is that of the swell organ, the pipes belonging to which are enclosed in a swell box—with Venetian shutters which by means of a swell pedal can be opened or closed, so increasing or diminishing the volume of tone. Below the great organ manual, in a 3-manual organ, is that of the choir organ which contains softer stops, intended originally in a church, chiefly for the acc. of the choral body. If there is a 4th manual (above the swell manual) it is that of the solo organ (with special stops of the character indicated by that name), and there may also be an echo organ, with very soft stops.(2) The two varieties of stop are respectively called flue pipes and reed pipes. Both are graduated in size, the larger producing the lowest notes and the smaller the highest. The normal pitch of an organ (the same, properly, as that of a pf.) is the product of any set of open-ended flue pipes of which the largest (representing C two lines below the bass staff) is 8′ long, the length of the remaining pipes of the set diminishing by half as each octave is ascended. The tone from the stops with these pipes of normal size can be reinforced by that from others of abnormal size, with their pipe for low C 4′ or 2′ long (so that the whole stop concerned gives an effect respectively 1 or 2 octaves higher than the normal) or, on the other hand, 16′ or even 32′ long (so that the stop concerned gives an effect respectively 1 or 2 octaves lower than normal). There are also stops of other lengths which give intermediate pitches reinforcing some of the natural harmonics of the normally pitched stops: these are called mutation stops or, if several rows (ranks) of them are operated in chorus as though they made one, mixture stops. The chief stops on the pedal organ are pitched an octave below those of the manuals (i.e. whereas the chief stops of the manuals are 8′ stops, those of the pedal are 16′ stops).

Besides ‘open-ended flue pipes’ there are flue pipes which have a stopper at the top (‘end-plugged’ is a term used in various entries in this dictionary), which lowers their pitch by an octave. The chief manual stop of the organ is the 8′ open diapason: but there is generally also a stopped diapason, also, from its pitch, spoken of as an 8′ stop although, in actual physical length, 4′. (These stops are also to be found in the pedal department.)

By a system of couplers (see couples) the pedal organ can have one or more of the manuals connected with it. Some of the organ's stops are imitative of other instrs. such as the flute, the orchestral oboe, clarinet, and trumpet (the last 3 being reed stops), and the gamba (a string-toned stop, supposed to reproduce the tone of the old viola da gamba). Stops presumably intended to be imitative are the vox humana (a reed stop) and the vox angelica or voix céleste (with 2 flue pipes to each note slightly out of tune with each other, so producing a somewhat mysterious effect—or, if only one, by the drawstop simultaneously bringing into action some normally tuned soft stop). The tremulant is not a stop, though operated by the player by similar means: it causes a slight fluctuation of the tone.

History

: the org. is the oldest kbd. instr. The first was built by Ktesibios, a Gr. engineer living in Alexandria, in the 3rd cent. BC. This was called the hydraulis, and wind pressure was stabilized by the use of water. During the 4th cent. AD bellows replaced the hydraulic mechanism (creating the pneumatic org.), and thereby increasing the vol. of sound. In the medieval org., pipes were of the ‘flute’ type (voiced with a lip, like the recorder); instead of the hydraulis kbd. (levers, each with a return mechanism, which were depressed by fingers to play notes), there was a series of tongues or sliders which were pulled or pushed manually; 2 players were often required, seated at the same manual; pipes sometimes outnumbered sliders by 10 to 1 and each note was prod. by a simultaneous ‘mixture’ of different pipes, producing a variety of timbre and pitch—there were unisons (basic pitch), octaves (octave higher), and quints (1 or more octaves plus a 5th higher).

During the 13th and 14th cents. the fashion for building very large instrs. was succeeded by a trend to smaller varieties, with the clumsy slider movement being replaced by the more flexible and sensitive kbd. One of the most popular types of org. from the 13th to the 16th cent. was the portative org. (organetto), so called because it could be carried. There were usually 2 rows of pipes giving a range of up to 2 octaves. The player provided his own air supply, using the right hand for the kbd. and the left for the bellows. The portative org. was monophonic, suited to playing a solo dance-tune. The ‘great’ church org. gained additional kbds. to offer variety of tone, that at Halberstadt, Ger., built in 1361, having 3 manuals and a pedal kbd. It had 20 bellows worked by 10 men. When the wind pressure was strong, the player had to use the full power of his arm to hold down a key. Between the cath. and the portative orgs. in size was the positive, which could be used in church and for chamber mus. It required 2 or 3 sets of bellows and someone else to operate them so that the player could use both hands on the kbd. Though not portable, the positive could be easily moved, smaller versions often standing on a table. In Eng. it became known as the ‘chair’ org., corrupted into ‘choir’ org.

At the close of the Middle Ages, several improvements occurred in construction of large church orgs., making them less unwieldy. By the beginning of the 16th cent. the kbd. had been altered to make it as responsive as that of smaller orgs; registration for each kbd. could be controlled by stops which worked in a similar way to the slider mechanism; in addition to open and stopped ‘flue’ pipes, there were ‘reed’ pipes employing a single vibrating tongue and a resonator; stops were contrasted, many of them being designed to imitate instr., and couplers were used to join manual to manual or manual to pedals. Further improvements were added over the course of the next century. Pedals were not introduced into Eng. org.-building until nearly the end of the 18th cent. In Paris, 1867, electricity was first used to activate the key action. Since that time every kind of refinement has been introduced to make orgs. capable of a wider and subtler range of tone-colour. The elec. org. was introduced in 1935. See also regal.

Organ

An organ is a structural part of a plant or animal that carries out a certain function and is made up of two or more types of tissue. Each organ plays a key role in keeping the organism alive. A group of organs that work together to do a certain job is called an organ system.

Very often, a person's liver, heart, brain, and kidneys (among others) are referred to as internal organs, or vital organs. This is because they are usually inside the body (although some, like eyes, are not), and they are vital, or essential, to keeping us alive. The word vital can also mean living or alive. Plants also have many kinds of vital organs, such as leaves, stems, roots, and the various parts of a flower. However, whether in plants or animals, an organ is usually composed of two or more types of tissue that work together to do a particular job. For example, the heart is an organ whose job it is to pump blood throughout the body. It is made up of muscle tissue that contracts, nerve tissue that transmits impulses, connective tissue that binds it together, and epithelial tissue that lines its surfaces. Tissue is considered to be a group of similar cells that all do the same job. Some organs, like the heart, have only one job to do, while others, like the liver, may have many tasks to perform.

When a group of organs are linked together to perform a certain function, it is called an organ system. In large, complex animals, there are ten major organ systems that work together to make up the organism. The main organ systems of complex animals include the skeletal system, nervous system, circulatory system, respiratory system, muscular system, digestive system, excretory system, endocrine system, reproductive system, and integumentary system.

The skeletal system consists of bones and cartilage and helps support and protect the body. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sense organs, and nerves. It collects, processes, and distributes information. The circulatory system includes the heart and blood vessels. It transports essential materials throughout the body. The respiratory system is made up of the lungs and air passageways. It supplies necessary oxygen while removing carbon dioxide (a major atmospheric gas). The muscular system consists of large, skeletal muscles that contract, as well as cardiac muscle and the smooth muscle. The digestive system includes the mouth, stomach, intestines and other organs that break down and absorb food. The excretory system consists of the kidneys, bladder, and other ducts, or tubes, that remove waste from the blood. The endocrine, or glandular, system consists of the thyroid, pituitary, mammary, and other glands. These glands release hormones (chemical messengers) into the circulatory system to regulate metabolic activities (all the body's chemical processes). The reproductive system is made up of the testes, ovaries, penis, vagina, and uterus. It passes on genes to its offspring. The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, and nails that serve to protect the body and to regulate its temperature, as well as to receive stimuli.

The organs of a plant are its leaves, stems, roots, and the various parts of its flowers. A flower is actually an example of an organ system in a plant, since it is usually composed of stamens, pistils, petals, bracts, and receptacle. The stamens are its male reproductive organ, and are composed of anthers and filaments. The pistil is the female reproductive organ and consists of a stigma, style, and ovary.

[See alsoBrain; Circulatory System; Digestive System; Endocrine System; Excretory System; Heart; Integumentary System; Muscular System; Nervous System; Reproductive System; Respiratory System; Sense Organ; Skeletal System ]

Organ

An organ is a functional structure of multicellular organisms which consists of a group of several different tissues. Many multicellular organisms have individual cells grouped together into tissues, a group of many associated cells with similar function; tissues grouped together into organs, a group of tissues interacting so as to form a functional unit; and organs grouped together into organ systems, a group of closely interacting organs.

Animals, plants, and fungi often have many different organs whose different functions are integrated, enabling multicellular organisms to maintain themselves, grow, and reproduce. The organization of cells into tissues and organs presumably leads to a higher level of physiological integration and efficiency. In general, plants and fungi have fewer organs than animals. Moreover, the bodies of plants and fungi are not always as easily divided into discrete organs as are the bodies of animals.

Some examples of organs in animals are the stomach, heart , and lungs. The structure and function of the stomach are described here as an example. The stomach is an expanded region of the digestive system which is connected to the esophagus at the anterior end, and to the small intestine at the posterior end. The stomach stores and breaks down food before it passes through the pyloric valve, a special valve at the posterior end, and then into the small intestine, another organ. Glands in the stomach wall secrete special chemicals and enzymes which are responsible for the partial digestion of food.

Some examples of organs in plants are the leaf , stem, and root. Leaves are among the most prominent plant organs, so they are described here. A leaf is an out-growth of a stem. Leaves have three main physiological functions: photosynthesis , the biological conversion of light into chemical energy ; transpiration , the evaporative movement of water out of the plant; and cellular respiration, the breakdown of foods and synthesis of high energy compounds.

Some examples of organs in fungi are haustoria (absorbing organs) and the sexual organs. The sexual organs of basidiomycete mushrooms are the best known fungal organs, so they are described here. In typical basidiomycete mushrooms, the fungal body develops into a morphologically complex organ called a basidiocarp. The basidiocarp is composed of sterile cells called psueudoparenchyma, and fertile club-shaped cells, called basidia. The basidia arise from the underside of the fleshy gills of a mushroom and each bears four haploid spores. These spores are shed from the gills, germinate, and eventually fuse with another sexually compatible individual.

See also Tissue.

Organ

An organ is a functional structure of multicellular organisms which consists of a group of several different tissues. Many multicellular organisms have individual cells grouped together into tissues, a group of many associated cells with similar function; tissues grouped together into organs, a group of tissues interacting so as to form a functional unit; and organs grouped together into organ systems, a group of closely interacting organs.

Animals, plants, and fungi often have many different organs whose different functions are integrated, enabling multicellular organisms to maintain themselves, grow, and reproduce. The organization of cells into tissues and organs presumably leads to a higher level of physiological integration and efficiency. In general, plants and fungi have fewer organs than animals. Moreover, the bodies of plants and fungi are not always as easily divided into discrete organs as are the bodies of animals.

Some examples of organs in animals are the stomach, heart, and lungs. The structure and function of the stomach are described here as an example. The stomach is an expanded region of the digestive system which is connected to the esophagus at the anterior end, and to the small intestine at the posterior end. The stomach stores and breaks down food before it passes through the pyloric valve, a special valve at the posterior end, and then into the small intestine, another organ. Glands in the stomach wall secrete special chemicals and enzymes which are responsible for the partial digestion of food.

Some examples of organs in plants are the leaf, stem, and root. Leaves are among the most prominent plant organs, so they are described here. A leaf is an outgrowth of a stem. Leaves have three main physiological functions: photosynthesis, the biological conversion of light into chemical energy; transpiration, the evaporative movement of water out of the plant; and cellular respiration, the breakdown of foods and synthesis of high energy compounds.

Some examples of organs in fungi are haustoria (absorbing organs) and the sexual organs. The sexual organs of basidiomycete mushrooms are the best known fungal organs, so they are described here. In typical basidiomycete mushrooms, the fungal body develops into a morphologically complex organ called a basidiocarp. The basidiocarp is composed of sterile cells called psueudoparenchyma, and fertile club-shaped cells, called basidia. The basidia arise from the underside of the fleshy gills of a mushroom and each bears four haploid spores. These spores are shed from the gills, germinate, and eventually fuse with another sexually compatible individual.

See also Tissue.