The Nain Singh Expeditions Describe Tibet

Overview

Any attempt to establish a chronological opening and closing of Tibet's borders during the eighteenth century will produce conflicting reports—depending on whether they originate in England, India, Nepal, China, or Tibet itself. One fact remains constant, however. No one disputes the enormous contributions of Nain Singh, an Indian Pundit who explored the secret world of Tibet and gave the world valuable geographical and cultural information about one of the most tightly guarded and protected countries in the world.

Background

Early in the seventeenth century, both the Jesuits and Capuchins were thrown out of Tibet. However, in 1846, two French Lazarist priests, Evarist Huc and Joseph Gabet, entered the gates to Lhasa and became the first missionaries to see the Tibetan capital for almost a full century. Lhasa had long been the official seat of government for Tibet but, because of strong religious ties to central China, they were not entirely autonomous.

From the initial subjugation of India by the British in the seventeenth century, the new rulers had been aware of the commercial possibilities that awaited them and their goods in the neighboring Himalayan states. They remained passive until they were finally in control of territory that encompassed all the land from the Bay of Bengal to the foothills of the mighty mountain barriers to the north. Coincidentally, the Ghurkas were engaged (at the same time) in taking over the smaller Newar states which now form Nepal: Katmandu, Bhatgaon, and Patan. These were particularly desirable to the Ghurkas because they controlled the all-important trade routes between the Gangetic plain and Tibet. This control caused a marked decline of the early trading that the English had established through the East India Company and forced them to consider alternate routes to Lhasa and the rest of Tibet.

The British were not alone in seeking this valuable exchange of goods. Russia was showing a marked interest in central China and had already made several exploratory forays into the interior. Records from the late eighteenth century show lists of goods which the British believed would attract the interest of the Tibetans: second-quality cloth, cheap watches, clocks, trinkets, pocket-knives, scissors, large (but imperfect) pearls, shells, smelling-bottles, and similar barter items. In exchange for this questionable quality merchandise, the British expected to receive gold dust, silver, musk from the musk deer, yak tails (which they used as fly whisks), and precious wool for their mills. Later, it was discovered that there were gold-producing mines in Tibet, along with other primitive and precious metals.

In the early 1800s, there were several explorers and dilettantes who ventured into Tibet, Nepal, and other exotic territories, but the notes they brought home were—in the words of John MacGregor, author of Tibet: A Chronicle of Exploration (1970)—short on fact, long on trivia.

Under the rule of Queen Victoria, the British Empire had prospered and grown. It stretched so far around the world that it gave rise to the motto: "The sun never sets upon the British Empire." With all its acquisitions, India remained their most important territory. It truly was the "Jewel in the Crown" and the British had every intention of exploiting both the land and its people to their greatest advantage.

Impact

Accordingly, in 1852, the government commissioned Thomas George Montgomerie, a British army engineer, to prepare maps of the entire country—a daunting task for any team. (A look at a world atlas will show the enormous amount of territory occupied by the Indian states.) Twelve years later, Montgomerie had mapped the domains of the maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir, located in northwestern India. It was a monumental accomplishment, but Montgomerie then encountered a problem. He found that many parts of India were forbidden to outsiders and opted not to risk his men or equipment in defying the border guards. Further, the land itself was a formidable barrier in that India is bordered on the north by the snow-capped Himalayas, which were difficult in good weather and impassable when snows were present. This natural barrier provided good protection for the small states of Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan and kept the foreigners out. In addition, these states, along with Tibet, were highly suspicious of British power in any form.

Montgomerie was a curious man. He wanted to know what was on the other side of the mountain. Sending an Englishman was not an option so he sent a Muslim clerk in his office (Abdul Hamid) to Yarkand, a small village in what was then called Chinese Turkistan. After six months, Hamid had accurately mapped the location of Yarkand and, as an added bonus, had used some of his time to spy on Russian activities in the surrounding areas. Unfortunately, Hamid died while returning to India but when his notes were delivered to Montgomerie, he was so pleased that he set up a training center for Indians who would penetrate Tibet and report on any activities they observed. The recruits were called "pundits," a word meaning teacher or educated person.

Searching for reliable Indians led Montgomerie to a family known to have worked previously for both English and German explorers. His first pundits were the headmaster of a school in the village—Nain Singh—and his cousin, Mani Singh. Both proved adept and showed considerable skill in using surveying instruments, navigational astronomy, and altitude calculation methods. But these men were not just surveyors or geographers, they were trained as spies and traveled with secretly compartmented luggage and hidden pockets in their clothing.

One of their most interesting achievements was a particular method of walking. They were trained to perfect their stride so that each pace was the same size as the previous one. With this system, they were able to measure distances by keeping count of the number of paces in any given period. Also, they shortened their Buddhist prayer beads from 108 to 100 to aid them in their counting. Both were given code names but Nain Singh was always the "chief pundit."

The two men began their first venture into Tibet in January of 1865 and arrived in Katmandu, Nepal, two months later. A suspicious governor at the Tibetan border refused to let them enter and the cousins separated to devise other ways of getting through the gates. Nain joined a caravan and posed as a merchant and was able to get through to Jih-k'a-tse, the second largest city in Tibet.

In January of 1866, Singh found himself in Lhasa where his real work was to begin. Records show that he completed 20 solar and stellar observations that came amazingly close to the exact latitude of Lhasa. Also, by using the boiling point of water, he was able to calculate Lhasa's altitude at 11,700 feet (3,566 m) above sea level. This figure is also very close to what we know presently.

Although Singh was invited to a group audience with the twelfth Dalai Lama, he decided to forgo the opportunity since he believed some of the Tibetans were becoming suspicious of his activities. Since capture would mean execution, he went back to his caravan and resumed their course along the main east-west trade route of Tibet. He used this portion of the trip to chart the Tsangpo River from its source to its confluence with the Kyi-Chu River. The caravan was attacked and Singh was held captive but finally found his way back to India by July of 1867. His cousin, Mani, also returned about the same time. They had been away for more than two years and had walked 1,200 miles (1,920 km). They deduced this by converting the number of steps they had taken: 2,500,000.

After a short rest, Singh began his second expedition into Tibet. He had reported seeing large golden Buddhas, confirming what the British had already suspected: Tibet held large quantities of gold. This time he was accompanied by his brother, Kalian, who had also been trained as a pundit. After numerous difficulties, both from foul weather and suspicious Tibetans, the two men split up as they had planned. Nain found the goldfields which were in a hostile, bleak plain at 16,000 feet (4,877 m), possibly the highest inhabited spot in the world. Although the man in charge of the field was suspicious, Singh was able to gain his confidence by giving him some coral jewelry for his wife. He reported seeing one gold nugget that weighed two pounds (.91 kg).

While on his way home, he managed to free his cousin, Mani, who had been held prisoner by some nomads and also located his brother, Kalian. All three returned safely to India.

In 1874, the British government asked Singh to make one more expedition to Lhasa. His ultimate goal was to reach Peking (now known as Beijing), China. Singh and four companions disguised themselves as Buddhist monks, rounded up a flock of sheep as additional cover and set out on their last adventure. They never reached Peking but were able to gather much valuable information by mapping mountain lakes and finding some that had never been mentioned previously.

The group reached Lhasa in 1875 but stayed only two days. Rumors about British spies were circulating and fearing apprehension, Singh sent the others to Kashmir. He then headed for the fastest route to India but was captured and held in prison until February 1876. He was able to escape and returned home via Calcutta.

Nain Singh was an impressive example of loyalty and resourcefulness. His feats were reported in the Geographical Magazine of the Royal Geographical Society, who awarded him its coveted gold medal for his accomplishments. He also received a gold watch from the Paris Geographical Society. The government granted him a parcel of land and a life-time pension for his contributions to the crown.

After his historical discoveries, Singh was active in training other pundits to assist the government in its continuing efforts to expand trade routes. He ultimately retired to his land where he lived a quiet life. Conflicting reports about his demise state that he died in 1882 from cholera, but another report indicates that he died in 1895 from a heart attack. His contributions to his country and the rest of the world regarding the Asian continent remain a benchmark for all who followed.

GERALD F. HALL

Further Reading

Lamb, Alastair. Britain and Chinese Central Asia; The Road to Lhasa, 1767 to 1905. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960.

Saari, Peggy and Daniel Baker. Explorers and Discoverers;From Alexander the Great to Sally Ride. Detroit: Gale Research, 1995.