Callinicus of Heliopolis

600?-700?

Syrian Architect and Inventor

Callinicus (also spelled Kallinikos) was born in the Syrian city of Heliopolis sometime in the seventh century. Little is known regarding his life, and if it were not for one significant invention, he would have been just one of the billions of forgotten people in history. Callinicus, an architect by trade, is credited with the invention of Greek fire. This military weapon was a highly combustible material that, once explosively expelled from a cannon-like barrel onto enemy troops, ships, or buildings, was nearly impossible to extinguish. It was a secret weapon of the Byzantine Greeks and was instrumental in many of their military conquests.

Around the time Callinicus was born, there was significant hostility between the Arab and Byzantine empires. This would eventually spill over to his hometown of Heliopolis in Syria, where Callinicus was an architect and inventor. In order to flee from the advancing onslaught, he escaped from Syria and made his way to Constantinople. Callinicus was still concerned about the advancing Arabs, however, as he had evacuated his city just months before the battle of Yamuk. He was concerned that not only would the Arabs capture his beloved homeland, but possibly his newfound country as well. Thus, it seems that this Jewish refugee began to experiment with various combinations of chemicals to develop a weapon that would help defend against the Arabs. Callinicus eventually hit upon a specific combination of materials that was so insidious and effective that it helped to change the course of history. He had invented a weapon known as Greek fire, and delivered its formula to the Byzantine emperor.

The exact composition of Greek fire is unknown. It was kept as a closely guarded state secret with only the emperor and the Callinicus family who manufactured it knowing the formula. Despite the fact that the exact makeup of Greek fire still eludes our detection even today, it is assumed that it was a mixture of naphtha, pitch, sulfur, possibly saltpeter, and possibly some other unknown ingredients. When exposed to air, the mixture spontaneously burst into fire and could not be extinguished with water. In fact, this substance would burn even when submerged in water. There were few known substances that could extinguish it, with sand and urine being the two most common.

In order to use this effectively, the Romans developed a large siphon that served as a propellant, which was mounted on the hull of the ship and operated in similar fashion to a syringe. From there the Greek fire could be propelled onto a ship to wreak havoc with the enemy. Another great advantage was that it rarely backfired on its user. This weapon was quite effective and gave the Roman navy a distinct advantage.

Greek fire was first successfully used by the Byzantine fleet against the invading Arabs in the Battle of Cyzicus, off the coast of Constantinople, in 673. It was a weapon that gave the user such a decisive tactical edge that its introduction into the warfare of its time was comparable in its demoralizing influence to the introduction of nuclear weapons in modern times. Historical sources derived from Roman, Greek, and Arab writers agree that it surpassed all other incendiary weapons of the day in both its physical and psychological dominance. Thus, the dominance and longevity of the Roman fleet owes a great deal to Callinicus and his closely guarded secret.

JAMES J. HOFFMANN