TOBIT (TOBIAS), BOOK OF

A deuteroncanonical book of the OT, written originally in Hebrew or aramaic, but wholly extant only in Greek and other versions. This article treats of its title; canonicity; language, texts, and recensions; structure; literary genre and purpose; sources; and time of composition.

Title. In the more ancient Greek manuscripts this work is entitled Tωβίτ or Tωβείτ (Tobit), while later editions give as its title βίβλος λόγων Tωβίτ (Book of the Words of Tobit). The Latin Vulgate title is Liber Tobiae (Book of Tobias). This discrepancy is due no doubt to a confusion of the names of father and son in the story itself. The Greek text clearly distinguishes between Tobit (the father) and Tobias (the son), while the Vulgate (incorrectly) calls both Tobias.

Canonicity. St. Jerome did not consider this book inspired (see, e.g., Patrologia Latina, 29:23–24). Similar views were expressed by Athanasius, Cyril of Jerusalem, Epiphanius, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Hilary. Other Fathers, however, such as Polycarp, the Pastor Hermae, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Cyprian, Ambrose, and Augustine, cite Tobit without reservation or qualification. The book is also found in the great Greek manuscripts of the 4th century. The first official declaration of canonicity came from the provincial council of Hippo (393). The same view was restated by the councils of Carthage (397 and 419) and has been reaffirmed by the ecumenical councils of Florence (1411), Trent (1546), and Vatican I (1870).

Language, Texts, and Recensions. Until recent years only the Greek text (and translations of it) were available. Scholars had already concluded from their

study of this text, however, that the original language must have been Semitic. Their conclusion has been confirmed by the discovery at Qumran of both Hebrew and Aramaic fragments of Tobit. It is not yet possible to determine which of these languages is the original, though some scholars give a slight preference to the Aramaic. (See, e.g., J. C. Greenfield, Journal of the American Oriental Society 82 [1962], 293.)

The Vulgate version of Tobit is a hasty translation of an Aramaic text (now lost), though Jerome was strongly influenced by the Old Latin version that, like all other known translations, derives from the Greek text. The Greek version itself exists in two rather divergent forms. The more elegant (but less reliable) Received Text is best represented by Codex B and Codex A. The more primitive and presumably better text is found in Codex S. These two types of text can be found, e.g., in Alfred Rahlfs's Septuaginta. Verse references in this article are made according to the Greek text.

Structure. The story begins with an account of the trials and virtues of an exiled Jew, Tobit. His exemplary conduct, particularly in his unselfish concern for lessfortunate compatriots, is rewarded by a fortuitous and ridiculous twist of fate that leaves him blind and exposes him to the abuse and mockery of his wife and friends.

The scene then changes abruptly to a distant land, where a Jewish maiden named Sara is sorely afflicted by a demon who had successively killed her seven bridegrooms on the first night of their married life. She too is subjected to cruel mockery and ridicule but takes refuge in fervent prayer.

At this point God sends an angel, Raphael, posing as a guide and companion of Tobit's son, Tobias, who has been directed to retrieve some money for his father from a distant land. There Tobias meets Sara, and, under the angel's expert guidance, they are married and the demon is routed. They return to Tobit, whose blindness is cured by a remedy prepared by Raphael. The story ends with a prayer by Tobit, who praises God's strange but wonderful ways and proclaims the divine sovereignty in human history, which assures the eventual glory of Jerusalem.

With exceptional skill and sensitivity the author portrays the drama of two souls who wrestle with the apparent disarray of salvation history, like two "loose ends" seeking the meaning of life. As the plot develops, these two loose threads are deftly woven into the fabric of God's loving design for His people. This happy conclusion reveals the author's purpose: his story is an illustration of the wisdom of faith.

Literary Genre and Purpose. The Book of Tobit is a good example of sapiential literature. The heroes and heroines are models of piety; the action pauses at times to permit the insertion of sage instructions for the unwary and inexperienced; and the happy outcome is a convincing demonstration of the wisdom of faith. It may best be described therefore as an edifying or didactic story.

The many references to precise locations (Thisbe, Nineveh, Jerusalem, Ecbatana) and to historical personages (Salmanasar V, Sennacherib, Asarhaddon) may appear to indicate an intention to write serious history. It is well to bear in mind, however, that this was the usual ancient manner of providing "realism." Moreover, such references often cause insurmountable difficulties when one attempts to relate them to a consistent outline of history. Thus, for example, the tribe of Nephtali was not deported during the reign of Salmanasar V (1.2), but rather during that of Tiglath-Pileser III; the schism in Israel occurred long before the time of Tobit (in spite of 1.4), and the "two-days journey" from Rages to Ecbatana (5.6) is in fact a trek of some 185 miles.

These considerations, joined with a better knowledge of ancient literary forms and a more tolerant attitude toward a sane and temperate criticism, have caused most scholars to abandon the attempt to defend the historicity of Tobit. They see in it rather a story that, while quite probably reflecting and alluding to plausible historical situations, is in fact created primarily to illustrate a profound and eminently true religious doctrine.

This religious truth is in essence a statement of the ultimate and inevitable vindication of the life of faith as contrasted with a life "prudently" adapted to the demands of a seemingly erratic course of history. Tobit and Sara have committed themselves to a philosophy of faith and, in the beginning, this decision brings them nothing but mockery and reproach. But all the while God is guiding the forces of history behind the façade of Raphael and through the exemplary obedience of Tobias. At the end, it is seen that what had appeared to be a crazy quilt of meaningless episodes was in reality the perfectly consistent pattern of an all-wise God, who rules history with sovereign ease and who grants to His persevering servants a share in the final vision of the triumph of His wisdom.

Such an interpretation of history was particularly appropriate during the postexilic period of the Old Testament, when the Jewish nation was successively bullied and harried by a series of oppressors. Tobit and Sara represent Israel herself, apparently helpless on the senseless wheel of history, whereas God works quietly to bring her to her promised glory. It is in a somber context of discouragement and bewilderment, therefore, that the author sets before his people a story that illustrates the trustworthiness of Israel's ancient faith.

Sources The author of Tobit manifests a rather intimate familiarity with various OT books. His knowledge of the Patriarch stories of Genesis is particularly notable. Many of the religious values that are highlighted there are emphasized in Tobit also: marriage within the tribe (cf. Gn 24.3–4 with Tb 10.12), hospitality (cf. Gn 18.3–8 with Tb 8.19), filial piety (cf. Gn 43.27 with Tb 2.4), chastity (cf. Gn 39.9 with Tob 8.4), and fatherly blessings (cf. Gn 27.27 with Tb 14.11). One may legitimately surmise that this clearly intentional parallel was meant to remind the contemporary Israelites that they, like the Patriarchs, were living on hope, and therefore could scarcely do better than to adopt the Patriarchal virtues and attitudes toward life and history.

Many scholars have also noted points of similarity between Tobit and various non-biblical legends. The biblical author was undoubtedly aware of the Story of Ahikar, who is presented as Tobit's nephew in this book (1.21–22; 2.10; 11.17–18; 14.10, 15), and was influenced by some of the maxims attributed to that famous sage. It is very hazardous, however, to conclude that even such superficial dependence exists in the case of such legends as the Ungrateful Dead or the Poisonous Maiden stories (see R. H. Pfeiffer, A History of New Testament Times [New York 1949] 269–271). Such themes are only partially relevant, and they would appear to be too much the patrimony of all mankind to be traceable to any specific source.

Time of Composition. Most authors agree that the Book of Tobit was composed about 200 b.c. The general atmosphere of the narrative (e.g., the prominence of angels and the emphasis on legal prescriptions) suggests a date toward the end of the postexilic period. On the other hand, the absence of any hint of the Maccabean successes would appear to demand a date prior to that period (early 2d century b.c.). It should be remarked, however, that a few scholars, noting the fine "Imperial Aramaic" of the Qumran fragments, have raised the possibility of an earlier (perhaps 4th century) date (see J. Bright, A History of Israel [Philadelphia 1959] 417–18).

Bibliography: c. moore, Tobit, Anchor Bible v. 40A (New York 1996). i. nowell, "Tobit," New Jerome Biblical Commentary (Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1990) 568–579. j. fitzmyer, "The Aramaic and Hebrew Fragments of Tobit in Cave 4" Catholic Biblical Quarterly 57, 655–675. p. deselaers, "Das Buch Tobit," Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, 43 (Freiburg 1982).

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