DHARMA AND DHARMAS

Sanskrit uses the term dharma in a variety of contexts requiring a variety of translations. Dharma derives from the root [.radical] dhr? (to hold, to maintain) and is related to the Latin forma. From its root meaning as "that which is established" comes such translations as law, duty, justice, religion, nature, and essential quality. Its oldest form, dharman, is found in the pre-Buddhist Rgveda, which dates to at least three thousand years ago. Thus, the Buddha must have known and used the term even before his enlightenment. At present, dharma is used generically for "religion," indicating religious beliefs and practices. Therav?da Buddhism uses the P?li variant dhamma; G?ndh?r? Pr?krit, as attested in the Dharmapada from Khotan (second century c.e., probably of Dharmaguptaka affiliation) uses either dhama or dharma. G?ndh?r?, the language (s) of the Gandh?ran cultural area, including Gandh?ra, Bactria, and Khotan, was the language used by the Buddhist schools in that area, such as Sarv?stiv?da, Mah?s??ghika, Dharmaguptaka, and so on. It is also the language from which most Chinese translations before the time of Kum?raj?va (350–409/413) derive. It is the Buddhist literature of the Gandh?ra region that was introduced to China during the first century b.c.e. through at least the fourth century c.e. The Chinese phonetic transliteration attests to the word dhama, but in canonical literature the term is almost always translated as fa (Japanese h?; Korean p?p). The common Chinese meaning of fa is law, plan, or method, but it is now vested with the full range of Buddhist meanings as well.

The Buddhist interpretation of dharma

The traditional meaning of dharma can be understood as uniform norm, universal and moral order, or natural law; it also includes one's social duty and proper conduct. The Buddha understood this universal order in terms of prat?tyasamutp?da (dependent origination), an eternal law governing all elements in this conditioned world. This dharma, which was rediscovered by the Buddha, was the subject matter of his teaching; hence, dharma also means teaching or doctrine.

The twelve links in the chain of dependent origination are explained in the s?tras of both the Pali nik?yas (divisions of the scriptural texts) and the Chinese ?gamas ("transmission" of Buddha's word), as well as in many scholastic texts. Two links are said to be in the past: ignorance (avidy?), which produces formations (samsk?ra). The meaning of formations comes close to karma (action). Eight links are in the present: consciousness (vijñ?na), producing name-and-form (n?mar?pa), a quasi-person, which leads to the six sensory faculties (?a??yatana), which lead to contact (spar?a) between the six sensory faculties, their objects, and the resulting six consciousnesses. This leads to feeling or experiencing (vedan?), which leads to craving (trsn?), which brings grasping (up?d?na), which leads to becoming or existence (bhava). Two links are in the future: birth (j?ti) and old age and death (jar?marana). This process explains the natural law that is the dharma. The path toward deliverance from this process governing birth, death, and rebirth can be found in the four noble truths.

The word dharma is also used for the corpus of discourses, the scriptural texts, that expound the Buddha's teaching. The practice of dharma is found in the vinaya, the monastic instructions. The practical application of dharma, involving the rules and regulations and their sanctions, is contained in the pr?timoksa. Each of these rules is also called dharma. Dharma and vinaya together constitute the teachings of the Buddha; what in the West is called Buddhism, the Buddhists themselves call the Dharmavinaya.

The Buddha, who had realized enlightenment not far from the capital of Magadha, preached his first sermon, the Dharmacakrapravartana-s?tra (Turning the Wheel of Dharma), in Sarnath in the Deer Park, some distance from the banks of the Ganges in V?r??as? or Benares. This sermon explains the path to salvation via the four noble truths. The Buddha's diagnosis sees everything as du?kha (suffering), which has a cause (samudaya), namely craving, which can be extinguished (nirodha) through the noble eightfold path (m?rga):

1. Right view
2. Right intention
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness
8. Right concentration

In the sequence of the eightfold path one distinguishes the monastic practice of cultivating prajn? (wisdom), morality (??la), and concentration (sam?dhi). Steps one and two of the path correspond to wisdom. Prajñ? is commonly translated as wisdom, even though this is the meaning that it received in a Mah?s??ghika milieu in northwestern India as a reaction against the Sarv?stiv?da. The Sarv?stiv?da sees prajñ? as an analytical knowledge of factors, or dharmas. Steps three to five of the path correspond to morality, which purifies one's conduct. Concentration corresponds to steps seven and eight. All three practices are associated with step six. Dharma, the doctrine, may also be understood as the truth about the phenomenal world, and how to

do away with its defilements. Thus, dharma also means knowledge, freeing one from phenomenal existence. The whole process of dependent origination begins with ignorance or nescience (avidy?). Dharma also means morality because it contains a code of moral conduct, and it means duty because one has a duty to comply with it while striving for nirv??a. These interpretations of dharma join the age-old understanding of the term as natural law and social duty, but this time given a Buddhist interpretation.

Dharma is also the second of the three jewels or refuges (triratna)—Buddha, dharma, SA? gha. Taking this triple refuge is nowadays an essential criterion for being considered a Buddhist. The dharma is the truth and protector. The Buddha is the teacher of the dharma and becomes its personification. The disciples were advised to take the dharma as their guide after the Buddha's death. The dharma is the essence of the Buddha. Upon discovering the dharma, ??kyamuni attained buddhahood. The sa?gha, the monastic order, puts dharma into practice in daily life.

Mah?y?na Buddhism explains buddhahood by distinguishing two, three, or four aspects or bodies (k?ya). The two bodies are the law-body (dharmak?ya), which is the dharma, the essence of a buddha, and the material body (r?pak?ya), the physical aspect. The law-body is a personification of the truth of the universal law. Better known is the three-body breakdown, which includes the body of enjoyment (sambhogak?ya) or the reward-body, the body that enjoys the reward for previous meritorious conduct. It is the ideal buddha-body in the realm of the real (dharmadh?tu). An example would be Amit?bha, who made forty-eight vows while he was the bodhisattva Dharm?kara, and he gained buddhahood in the Western Paradise of Sukh?vat? after a long period of practice. The transformation-body (nirm?nak?ya) appears as a person during his or her earthly existence, and belongs to a specific time and place; ??kyamuni, the historical Buddha, is an example of transformation-body.

The Tripi?aka, the "three baskets" of the canon that contain the teaching, are also regarded as the teaching, the dharma. The first basket, the s?tras, is traditionally divided into either nine or twelve parts, based on literary form. The S?trapi?aka is now divided into nik?yas or ?gamas. The second of the three baskets contains the vinaya. With the phase of scholastic or abhidharma Buddhism during the last centuries b.c.e. and the first centuries c.e., abhidharma was added as a third basket, but not all schools agreed with this classification. Even within the Sarv?stiv?da there was a difference of opinion. One branch, the Vaibh??ikas, who were active in Kashmir from the third till the middle of the seventh century c.e. and were long considered to be the orthodoxy, said that the Abhidharmapi?aka was the Buddha's word. The earlier and very diverse western Sarv?stiv?da groups in the Gandh?ra area did not agree and considered only the s?tras to be definitive truth. These groups were called Sautr?ntika, as opposed to Vaibh??ika, and they did not have an Abhidharmapitaka, only abhidharma works.

Dharmas, or factors

The factors or constituents of the dharma, the teachings, are also called dharma (s). Such dharmas are psychophysical factors, which flow according to the natural process of dependent origination. Dharma theory explains how the human being is a flux or continuum (sant?na), without any permanent factor or soul (?tman). Existing reality is called the "realm of the real" (dharmadh?tu). Buddhism concerns itself with the phenomenal, by which existence is recognized. This phenomenal world is in constant change. Buddhism sees all phenomena as formations (sa?sk?ra), formative forces or volitions that are formed (sa?sk?ta) by causes and conditions. Formation has an active and a passive meaning. Factors (dharmas) are formed, but sometimes at least one unformed or uncompounded factor, nirv??a, is recognized. The Sarv?stiv?da, which had a tremendous influence in northwestern India and in East Asia, distinguish three unformed or uncompounded (asa?sk?ta) factors. Everything that is an obvious object of consciousness is a factor. A person, just like the whole of existence, is a flux, a series of impermanent factors, but sentient life has a sentient element: mind (manas) or consciousness. A human being is a flow of material and immaterial factors set in motion by karma and controlled by the law of dependent origination. Dharma theory explains how existence functions in the context of a human continuum. It explains its ultimate factors and it contains the possibility of stopping this continuum.

Originally Buddhism used a threefold classification of factors: (1) five skandha (aggregate), (2) twelve bases or sense fields (?yatana), and (3) eighteen elements (dh?tu). During the last centuries b.c.e., the dharma theory developed considerably in abhidharma Buddhism. The most influential dharma theory was that of the diverse Sarv?stiv?da schools. Other schools either adopted most of the Sarv?stiv?da dharma theory (as did the Mah???saka), introduced minor changes (Dharmaguptaka), were influenced by it (Buddhaghosa in fifth-century Theravada), reacted to it (Mah?s??ghika, Madhyamaka), or built on it (Vijñ?nav?da). The Vaibh??ikas in Kashmir inherited a fivefold classification from their Gandh?ran brethren, who, after about 200 c.e., came to be called Sautr?ntikas. Even among the western Sarv?stiv?dins there was no general agreement about the number of factors.

Nevertheless, the Sarv?stiv?da branch that was most influential in Central and East Asia, in the Gandh?ran part of northwestern India, and in Kashmir after the demise of the Vaibh??ikas, was the branch that ultimately based its classification on such texts as the Abhidharmahrdaya (Heart of Scholasticism) and on the Astagrantha (Eight Compositions), both probably from the first century b.c.e. This branch used a fivefold classification as found in the Pañcavastuka (Five Things), which was translated in China during the second century c.e. and advocated a Buddhist version of the five elements or modes that were popular at the time. The A??agrantha was revised and renamed Jñ?naprasth?na (Course of Knowledge) at the end of the second century c.e. and became the central text or corpus (?ar?ra) for the Vaibh??ikas. The Abhidharmahrdaya was commented on in the Mi?rak?bhidharmah?daya (Sundry Heart of Scholasticism), and this text was the basis of Vasubandhu's Abhidharmako?abh??ya (Storehouse of Abhidharma), which dates to the early fifth century. The influence of the Abhidharmako?abh??ya, or Ko?a, was and is considerable. When a Tibetan text was written to instruct Khubilai's Mongol crown prince in Buddhism late in the thirteenth century, the manual was based on the Ko?a. However, the old classification in five aggregates was never forgotten. When Skandhila, a Gandh?ran living in "orthodox" Kashmir during the fifth century, composed his Abhidharm?vat?ra (Introduction to Scholasticism), he classified the factors on the basis of the five aggregates or skandhas, but added the three unformed factors.

The original threefold classification of dharmas

The earliest division of the factors was into five skandha, twelve bases or sense fields (?yatana), and eighteen elements (dh?tu). The five aggregates (skandha means literally "bundles") divide sentient life into five psychophysical elements:

1. Form or matter (rupa)
2. Feeling (vedana)
3. Notions or perceptions (samjña)
4. Formations (samskara), also called volitions or formative forces
5. Consciousness (vijñana)

Aggregates two through five may be called name (n?ma). Name-and-form is a synonym for the five aggregates, which are fundamentally impermanent. They have nothing one might consider to be a "self," and they bring suffering, being inevitably subject to change. The first five disciples of the Buddha became arhats (saints) upon understanding the teaching of the egolessness of the aggregates. Matter has mass; it obstructs. It incorporates the four great elements: earth (hardness), water (moisture), fire (heat), air (motion). Feelings may be physical or mental, and are classified as either pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral. Notions are concepts, which are formed; one may have the concepts of color and form, for example, when seeing a green leaf. Formations are the mind in action, in which volition (cetan?) is central. Consciousness is the cognitive function.

The twelve bases (?yatana) refer to the process of cognition. ?yatana means "a place of entry," namely the six sense organs or faculties (indriya), the six internal bases. Alternatively, ?yatana can refer to that which enters, namely the six objects (vi?aya) of cognition, the six external bases. The twelve ?yatana are: the six bases of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind; and the six objects of color or form, sound, smell, taste, palpables, and mental or immaterial objects (the factors).

The eighteen elements are distinguished in relation to the flow of life in the three realms of existence: the realm of sensuality (k?madhatu), the realm of subtle matter (r?padh?tu), and the immaterial realm (?r?padh?tu). The first twelve constitute the above twelve bases (ayatana), to which are added the six corresponding consciousnesses: visual consciousness through to mental consciousness.

Sarvastivada dharma theory

Many Sarv?stiv?da texts elaborate on dharma theory. Besides the texts already mentioned, one may add the Dharmaskandha (Aggregate of Factors) and the Prakara?a (Treatise). Existence is described in four categories of formed factors, totaling seventy-two factors, and one category of three unformed or unconditioned factors, thus giving seventy-five dharmas in all. The five categories are:

1. Matter (rupa)
2. Thought (citta)
3. Thought-concomitants or mentals (caitta) associated with thought, arising in association with pure consciousness or mind
4. Formations dissociated from thought (cittaviprayukta)
5. Unformed factors (asamskrta)

Form or matter contains eleven factors: the first five faculties and their objects, plus unmanifested form (avijñaptir?pa). When mental action is made manifest in physical or vocal action, it is described by the term intimation (vijñapti). When it is not externalized or made manifest, the material aspect is nonintimated, and thus unmanifested. One might understand avijñaptir?pa as the moral character of a person or a force of habit. It is a potential form, preserved in the physical body. Not all branches of the Sarv?stiv?da school distinguished this material factor, but it appears in the ??riputr?bhidharma, which is said to be of Dharmaguptaka affiliation.

The second category—thought—is just the one factor of mind, or pure consciousness. In the classification of the eighteen elements, it includes the six consciousnesses, plus the mind element. It is the consciousness aggregate and also the internal mind faculty. The third category is the forty-six thought-concomitants, which are factors associated with thought. Not all adherents of the Sarv?stiv?da school agreed with the existence of these factors. For example, Dharmatr?ta (second century c.e.), a D?r???ntika (probably a Sautr?ntika who followed the long vinaya), says that these factors are only subdivisions of volition, and he denies their separate existence. Buddhadeva (first century c.e.) says that they are none other than thought itself. But the Ko?a enumerates forty-six thought-concomitants.

Ten mental factors accompany every thought; these are the factors "of large extent" (mah?bh?mika), that is, basic or general. They are:

1. Feeling (vedan?)
2. Notion (sa?jñ?)
3. Volition (cetan?)
4. Contact (spar?a)
5. Attention (manask?ra)
6. Desire (chanda)
7. Inclination or aspiration (adhimok?a)
8. Mindfulness (sm?ti)
9. Concentration (sam?dhi)
10. Comprehension (mati, prajñ?)

Ten factors accompany every wholesome thought; these are the wholesome factors of large extent (ku?alamah?bh?mika). They are:

1. Faith (?raddh?)
2. Diligence (apram?da)
3. Repose (pra?rabdhi)
4. Equanimity (upek?a)
5. Shame, with reference to oneself (hr?)
6. Aversion, with reference to other people's bad actions (apatr?pya)
7. Noncovetousness (alobha)
8. Nonmalevolence (adve?a)
9. Nonviolence (ahi?s?)
10. Strenuousness (v?rya)

Six factors accompany every defiled thought; these are the defiled factors of large extent (kle?amah?bh?mika). They are:

1. Confusion (moha)
2. Negligence (apram?da)
3. Mental dullness (kaus?dya)
4. Nonbelief (??raddhya)
5. Sloth (sty?na)
6. Frivolity (auddhatya)

Two factors accompany every unwholesome thought; these are called unwholesome factors of large extent (aku?alamah?bh?mika). They are:

1. Shamelessness (?hr?kya)
2. Lack of modesty (anapatr?pya)

Ten defiled factors of limited extent (upakle?apar?ttabh?mika), which may occur at various times, are:

1. Anger (krodha)
2. Hypocrisy (mrak?a)
3. Stinginess (m?tsarya)
4. Envy (?r?ya)
5. Ill-motivated rivalry (prad?sa)
6. The causing of harm (vihi?s?)
7. Enmity (upan?ha)
8. Deceit (m?y?)
9. Trickery (???hya)
10. Arrogance (mada)

Eight undetermined (aniyata) factors have variant moral implications and may accompany either a wholesome, unwholesome, or indeterminate thought. They are:

1. Initial thought (vitarka)
2. Discursive thought (vic?ra)
3. Drowsiness (middha)
4. Remorse (kauk?tya)
5. Greed (r?ga)
6. Hatred (pratigha)
7. Pride (m?na)
8. Doubt (vicikits?) about the teaching

Fourteen factors are neither material nor mental and are dissociated from thought (cittaviprayukta). They are:

1. Acquisition (pr?pti), a force that controls the collection of elements in an individual life-continuum, which links an acquired object with its owner
2. Dispossession (apr?pti), which separates an acquired object from its owner
3. Homogeneity (sabh?gat?)
4. Nonperception (?sa?jñika), a force that leads one to the attainment of nonperception
5. Attainment of nonperception (asa?jñisam?patti), which is produced by the effort to enter trance after having stopped perceptions
6. Attainment of cessation (of notions and feeling, nirodhasam?patti), the highest state of trance
7. Life force (j?vitendriya)
8. Birth or origination (j?ti)
9. Duration (sthiti)
10. Old age or decay (jar?)
11. Impermanence or extinction (anityat?)

The last three factors are the characteristics of a conditioned factor:

1. Force imparting meaning to letters (vyañjanak?ya)
2. Force imparting meaning to words (n?mak?ya)
3. Force imparting meaning to phrases (p?dak?ya)

Finally, there are three unformed factors. They are:

1. Space (?k??a)
2. Extinction through discernment (pratisa?khyanirodha), namely through comprehension of the truths and separation from impure factors
3. Extinction not through discernment (apratisa?khy?nirodha), owing to a lack of a productive cause

Some Sautr?ntikas asserted that these factors are not real. They count forty-three factors. All factors exist in all three time periods of past, present, future. This belief explains the term Sarv?stiv?da, which means "the teaching that all exists." The Mah???sakas, who split from the Sarv?stiv?da, supported the Sarv?stiv?da in this thesis.

A general classification of all factors could be: (1) impure (s?srava) factors, chiefly influenced by ignorance, and (2) pure (an?srava) factors, tending toward appeasement under the influence of wisdom.

Therav?da dhamma theory

The Therav?da dhamma theory is outlined in the school's Abhidhammapitaka, primarily in the Dhammasa?ga?i (Enumeration of Dhammas) and in the Dh?tukath? (Discussion of Elements). The ethical classification of dhammas as wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral (avy?kata) is central. The last category has four divisions:

1. Resultant consciousness or thinking (vip?kacitta)
2. Functional consciousness (kriy?citta)
3. Matter
4. The unconditioned factor nibb?na (nirvana)

Some factors are not found in the traditional threefold classification. For example, matter contains the faculty "femininity" (itthindriya). The final Therav?da dhamma theory is found in manuals dating from the fifth century on. Knowing that they belong to the Sthavirav?da group, it is not surprising that there is Sarv?stiv?da (Sautr?ntika) influence. Buddhadatta, a fifth-century contemporary of Skandhila, makes a fourfold classification in his Abhidhamm?vat?ra (Introduction to Scholasticism): form, thought, mentals, nibb?na. Buddhaghosa, in the fifth century, defines factors as "those which maintain their own specific nature," while Buddhadatta says factors possess specific and general characteristics. Therav?da typically uses a classification of 170 factors and four categories, but there are other classifications, such as eighty-one conditioned factors (matter 28, thought 1, mental 52) and one unconditioned factor, nibb?na.

Analysis of dharmas in the Madhyamaka school

The Mah?s??ghika school, rival of the Sarv?stiv?da ever since the first schism, multiplied the number of unconditioned factors, even adding dependent origination itself to the list. One Mah?s??ghika subschool, the Prajñaptiv?da, taught that conditioned factors are only denominations (prajñapti) and the twelve bases are the products of the aggregates, the only real entities. Another subschool, the Lokottarav?da, held that only the unconditioned factors are real. The ideas of the Mah?y?na Madhyamaka school may have started within the Mah?s??ghika milieu in northwestern India, in opposition to the dominant Sarv?stiv?da school. The Madhyamaka school itself was organized in southern India (?ndhra) around 200 c.e., at the same time that the Vaibh??ikas were organizing in Kashmir to the north. The Madhyamaka school rejected the reality of any factor and claimed that all conceptual thinking was empty (??nya). The real is devoid of thought-construction (vikalpa) and can be realized only through nondual wisdom (prajñ?). N?g?rjuna (ca. second century c.e.) interpreted the law of dependent origination to mean relativity or ???NYAT? (emptiness). According to N?g?rjuna, nothing is real when taken separately. He was not interested in delineating the number of factors or in constructing any classification schemata, but he was interested in the inherent nature of factors (dharmat?). Existence is only valid from a conventional (sa?v?ti) point of view, but it is not valid when viewed from the standpoint of absolute (param?rtha) truth.

Vijñ?nav?da dharma theory

The Vijñ?nav?da or Yog?c?ra school agrees with Madhyamaka that all is empty, but posits that consciousness is real. Vijñ?nav?da postulates a kind of subconscious, called the storehouse consciousness (?layavijn?na). Phenomenal existence is the illusory projection of that storehouse consciousness. Every factor stored in the ?layavijñ?na is a seed (b?ja), a Sautr?ntika term. One should do away with tainted seeds and develop untainted seeds. The school also distinguishes a consciousness called mind (manas), which clings to the idea of self. In East Asia this school is called the Faxiang school (Sanskrit, dharm?k?ra) or "characteristics of dharmas." Dharma here refers to the hundred factors this school distinguishes, elaborating on the Sarv?stiv?da classification. What became the East Asian variety of Yog?c?ra was first taught in N?land? by Dharmap?la (439–507) and taken to China by Xuanzang in 645. It claims that the specific nature of a factor is distinct from its specific mode. Their one hundred factors are:

1. Eight thought factors, namely the eight consciousnesses
2. Fifty-one associated mental factors (5 universal, 5 limited, 11 wholesome, 6 defiled, 20 secondary defilements, and 4 indeterminate)
3. Eleven matter factors
4. Twenty-four dissociated factors
5. Six unconditioned factors

Most important is the eighth consciousness, the storehouse consciousness, which stores the seeds of all potential manifestations.

See also:?gama/Nik?ya; An?tman/?tman (No-Self/Self); Buddhahood and Buddha Bodies; Consciousness, Theories of; Cosmology; Psychology; Sarv?stiv?da and M?lasarv?stiv?da

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Charles Willemen