The Changing American Workforce

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CHAPTER 2
THE CHANGING AMERICAN WORKFORCE

A WORKPLACE IN TRANSITION

Throughout most of the 1990s the rapid increase in the labor force (those working part- or full-time or unemployed but actively looking for a job) put a severe strain on the economic system to produce more jobs. At the same time, multinational companies shifted many tasks overseas, worldwide competition became more intense, and significant economic activity became international. American companies responded to these changes in many ways:

  • Greater use of technologically advanced machinery designed to replace human workers;
  • Greater pressure on workers to limit wage and benefit demands (especially for new entrants into the job market), or to "give back" already existing benefits;
  • Management programs designed to accomplish more per worker so that the economy could remain competitive with international economies (which often have considerably lower standards of living);
  • Employee reductions through layoffs or early retirement;
  • Increased attempts to become part of an international economy.

Downsizing the labor force to become more competitive in the international market became the management style of many companies in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Many companies laid off older workers to cut expenses. Many of these laid-off workers, however, returned to their firms as contract workers. Some began working for less money than they had earned when they were direct employees. Even if the firm pays the contract worker at the same rate, the companies do not have to pay for health or retirement benefits.

In 1997 and 1998 a booming economy led to the creation of hundreds of thousands of new jobs. This led to a tight labor market in which there was a demand for workers. Earlier in the decade, workers worried about losing their jobs and tended not to ask for raises. The changing economy, with many areas having a shortage of workers, changed some workers' outlooks on job possibilities and wage increases. College graduates at the end of the 1990s were finding jobs more easily than in the past, and many received signing bonuses.

At the same time the economy was producing many thousands of jobs, the U.S. Conference of Mayors, in its survey of thirteen cities, feared a shortage of low-skilled jobs. For example, in 1997 Detroit officials estimated that more than 93,000 people, including welfare recipients participating in workfare, would compete for a projected 18,447 jobs. The problem, however, was that most of the low-skilled jobs were in the suburbs, and many of the people in need of low-skill jobs were in the inner cities. Public transportation between the two places was not always available.

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), through the 1990s the average unemployment rate gradually declined from a decade-high 7.5 percent in 1992 to 4.0 percent in 2000 ("Employment status of the civilian noninstitutional population, 1940 to date," online, http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat1.pdf, accessed July 7, 2004). With a weakening economy in 2001, the average unemployment rate rose somewhat to 4.8 percent. The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States in New York City and Washington, D.C., further affected the weakening economy and unemployment rates. At mid-2002, the rate (unadjusted seasonally) stood at 5.9 percent. By June 2003 the unemployment rate had risen to 6.4 percent, the highest point since 1992, accounting for 9.4 million people who were receiving unemployment benefits and actively seeking work. In February 2004 the rate of unemployment was measured at 5.6 percent, based on 8.2 million individuals actively receiving unemployment benefits.

Goods-producing
YearTotalTotal privateTotal goods producingNatural resources and miningConstructionManufacturing
Annual averages
195449,09342,23518,5158252,68815,002
195550,74443,72219,2348282,88115,524
195652,47345,08719,7998593,08215,858
195752,95945,23519,6698643,00715,798
195851,42643,48018,3198012,86214,656
1959153,37445,18219,1637893,05015,325
196054,29645,83219,1827712,97315,438
196154,10545,39918,6477282,90815,011
196255,65946,65519,2037092,99715,498
196356,76447,42319,3856943,06015,631
196458,39148,68019,7336973,14815,888
196560,87450,68320,5956943,28416,617
196664,02053,11021,7406903,37117,680
196765,93154,40621,8826793,30517,897
196970,51258,18122,8936833,63718,573
197071,00658,31822,1796773,65417,848
197171,33558,32321,6026583,77017,174
197273,79860,33322,2996723,95717,669
197376,91263,05023,4506934,16718,589
197478,38964,08623,3647554,09518,514
197577,06962,25021,3188023,60816,909
197679,50264,50122,0258323,66217,531
197782,59367,33422,9728653,94018,167
197886,82671,01424,1569024,32218,932
197989,93273,86424,9971,0084,56219,426
198090,52874,15424,2631,0774,45418,733
198191,28975,10924,1181,1804,30418,634
198289,67773,69522,5501,1634,02417,363
198390,28074,26922,1109974,06517,048
198494,53078,37123,4351,0144,50117,920
198597,51180,97823,5859744,79317,819
198699,47482,63623,3188294,93717,552
1987102,08884,93223,4707715,09017,609
1988105,34587,80623,9097705,23317,906
1989108,01490,08724,0457505,30917,985
1990109,48791,07223,7237655,26317,695
1991108,37489,82922,5887394,78017,068
1992108,72689,94022,0956894,60816,799
1993110,84491,85522,2196664,77916,774
1994114,29195,01622,7746595,09517,021
1995117,29897,86623,1566415,27417,241
1996119,708100,16923,4106375,53617,237
1997122,776103,11323,8866545,81317,419
1998125,930106,02124,3546456,14917,560
1999128,993108,68624,4655986,54517,322
2000131,785110,99624,6495996,78717,263
2001131,826110,70723,8736066,82616,441
2002130,341108,82822,5575836,71615,259
2003p129,932108,35621,8175716,72214,524

SERVICE ECONOMY

The American economy has moved away from producing goods to providing services. From about 1970 to 2003, the service-producing sector has accounted for an increasing proportion of workers. In 1960 for every goods-producing worker, there were about 1.8 service-producing workers. By 1970 the ratio was one goods-producing worker to every 2.2 service-producing workers, and by 2003 it was nearly one to five. (See Table 2.1.)

From 1992 to 2001, construction was the only industry in the goods-producing area that consistently employed more workers each year. In 2002 this number dropped slightly, but the upward trend returned in 2003. The number of employees working in natural resources and mining has fallen significantly in the past two decades. In 2003 the number reported (571,000) was less than half of the fifty-year high for the industry, which was set in 1981 (1.2 million). The number of workers in manufacturing was roughly the same in 2000 as it was in 1970, but a significant decline can be seen since 2001. In 2003, manufacturing

Service-providing
YearTotal service-providingTrade, transportation, and utilitiesInformationFinancial activitiesProfessional and business servicesEducation and health servicesLeisure and hospitalityOther servicesGovernment
Annual averages
195430,57810,3571,6932,1183,1972,3853,0349366,858
195531,51010,6121,7352,2123,3202,4913,1409787,021
195632,67410,9211,7782,2993,4372,5933,2421,0187,386
195733,29010,9421,7802,3483,5042,6763,2671,0507,724
195833,10710,6561,6742,3863,4492,6953,2431,0587,946
1959134,21110,9601,7182,4543,5912,8223,3651,1078,192
196035,11411,1471,7282,5323,6942,9373,4601,1528,464
196135,45811,0401,6932,5903,7443,0303,4681,1888,706
196236,45511,2151,7232,6563,8853,1723,5571,2439,004
196337,37911,3671,7352,7313,9903,2883,6391,2889,341
196438,65811,6771,7662,8114,1373,4383,7721,3469,711
196540,27912,1391,8242,8784,3063,5873,9511,40410,191
196642,28012,6111,9082,9614,5173,7704,1271,47510,910
196744,04912,9501,9553,0874,7203,9864,2691,55811,525
196845,73113,3341,9913,2344,9184,1914,4531,63811,972
196947,61913,8532,0483,4045,1564,4284,6701,73112,330
197048,82714,1442,0413,5325,2674,5774,7891,78912,687
197149,73414,3182,0093,6515,3284,6754,9141,82713,012
197251,49914,7882,0563,7845,5234,8635,1211,90013,465
197353,46215,3492,1353,9205,7745,0925,3411,99013,862
197455,02515,6932,1604,0235,9745,3225,4712,07814,303
197555,75115,6062,0614,0476,0345,4975,5442,14414,820
197657,47716,1282,1114,1556,2875,7565,7942,24415,001
197759,62016,7652,1854,3486,5876,0526,0652,35915,258
197862,67017,6582,2874,5996,9726,4276,4112,50515,812
197964,93518,3032,3754,8437,3126,7676,6312,63716,068
198066,26518,4132,3615,0257,5447,0726,7212,75516,375
198167,17218,6042,3825,1637,7827,3576,8402,86516,180
198267,12718,4572,3175,2097,8487,5156,8742,92415,982
198368,17118,6682,2535,3348,0397,7667,0783,02116,011
198471,09519,6532,3985,5538,4648,1937,4893,18616,159
198573,92620,3792,4375,8158,8718,6577,8693,36616,533
198676,15620,7952,4456,1289,2119,0618,1563,52316,838
198778,61821,3022,5076,3859,6089,5158,4463,69917,156
198881,43621,9742,5856,50010,09010,0638,7783,90717,540
198983,96922,5102,6226,56210,55510,6169,0624,11617,927
199085,76422,6662,6886,61410,84810,9849,2884,26118,415
199185,78722,2812,6776,55810,71411,5069,2564,24918,545
199286,63122,1252,6416,54010,97011,8919,4374,24018,787
199388,62522,3782,6686,70911,49512,3039,7324,35018,989
199491,51723,1282,7386,86712,17412,80710,1004,42819,275
199594,14223,8342,8436,82712,84413,28910,5014,57219,432
199696,29924,2392,9406,96913,46213,68310,7774,69019,539
199798,89024,7003,0847,17814,33514,08711,0184,82519,664
1998101,57625,1863,2187,46215,14714,44611,2324,97619,909
1999104,52825,7713,4197,64815,95714,79811,5435,08720,307
2000107,13626,2253,6317,68716,66615,10911,8625,16820,790
2001107,95225,9833,6297,80716,47615,64512,0365,25821,118
2002107,78425,4973,3957,84715,97616,19911,9865,37221,513
2003p108,11525,2753,1987,97415,99816,5762,1255,39221,576
1Data include Alaska and Hawaii beginning in 1959. This inclusion resulted in an increase of 212,000 (0.4 percent) in the nonfarm total for the March 1959 benchmark month.
p = Preliminary Data
source: Adapted from "B-1. Employees on Nonfarm Payrolls by Major Industry Sector, 1954 to Date," in Historical Payroll Data, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, 2004 [Online] ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/suppl/empsit.ceseeb1.txt [accessed February 16, 2004]

employees (15.4 million) were at their lowest number in the preceding fifty years. In addition, the proportion of manufacturing jobs fell from 34 percent of all jobs in 1951 to just 11.7 percent in 2003. (See Table 2.1.)

In 1945, at the conclusion of World War II, services industries accounted for 10 percent of nonfarm employment, compared with 38 percent for manufacturing. In 1982 services surpassed manufacturing as the largest employer among major industry groups. By 1996 the services industry accounted for 29 percent of nonfarm employment, and manufacturing, at 15 percent, was actually somewhat smaller than retail trade. (See Figure 2.1.) Note that a new industry classification system and new population controls were used for the data in this figure, so the numbers in it are not strictly comparable to the numbers in Table 2.1.) In 2003 the services industry accounted for 45.4 percent of nonfarm employment (See Table 2.1.)

Service-producing industries include jobs in transportation, wholesale and retail trade, services, finance, public service (government) and more. Within the service-producing industry, service industry jobs are found in legal services, hotels, health services, educational services, and social services, among others. However, all jobs within the service industry are not necessarily service occupations. For example, while hotels are part of the services industry within the service-producing sector, they not only employ workers who are in service occupations, but also secretaries, managers, and accountants whose occupations are not considered service occupations.

The largest category of service-providing jobs is found in the group of trade, transportation, and utilities occupations (23.4 percent in 2003). Federal, state, and local government jobs accounted for nearly 20 percent of the total service-providing jobs in 2003. About 21.6 million persons (about 9 percent of the nonfarm working population) worked in government positions in 2003. (See Table 2.1.)

Because average wages are higher in manufacturing than in services, some observers view the apparent shift in employment from goods-producing to service-providing as a change from "good" to "bad" jobs. In "The Services Industry in the 'Good'Versus 'Bad' Jobs Debate" (Monthly Labor Review, February 1998), Joseph R. Meisenheimer II found that many service industries equal or exceed manufacturing and other industries on measures of job quality, while some service industries could be viewed as less desirable by these measures.

Meisenheimer stresses the importance of examining more than just average pay when assessing the quality of jobs in each industry. Within each industry, there are jobs at a variety of different quality levels. The quality of service-industry jobs is especially diverse, encompassing many of the "best" jobs in the economy along with a substantial share of the "worst." Thus, employment shifts away from manufacturing and toward services do not necessarily signal deterioration in overall job quality in the United States, although, in many cases, they certainly can.

HOW LONG DO AMERICANS WORK?

Between 1990 and 1995 the United States stood out among all nations as a country with an advanced economy that had the longest work year. The average length of Japan's work year, however, declined during that time period. The United States has a long work year, due in part to a lack of legally mandated, employer-paid vacation time. Such paid vacation time is common in many countries in Europe.

In 2003 almost 76 percent of nonfarm American laborers were working full-time (thirty-five hours or more), while the remaining 24 percent were working part-time (less than thirty-five hours). The average worker labored thirty-nine hours per week (average hours of part-time and full-time), while the average full-time employee worked 42.9 hours per week. Women had a higher proportion of part-time workers (32 percent) among their population in the workforce than did men (17 percent). As a result, men worked an average of 41.7 hours per week, and women worked an average of 35.9 hours per week. (See Table 2.2.) Almost 18 percent of all nonfarm workers spent more than forty-nine hours a week on the job. More than one-third (36 percent) of agricultural workers labored more than forty-nine hours per week. (See Table 2.3.)

Studies vary in assessing Americans' work hours over time. A study in the BLS Monthly Labor Review, July 2000, indicates that data from the Current Employment Statistics (CES) program showed a long-term decline in the number of hours worked per week from 38.7 hours in 1964 to 34.5 hours in 1999, an 11 percent reduction over that period. Reflected in these figures is a large decrease in hours for certain industries, particularly retail.

Some occupations require more time than others. Transportation and material-moving workers labored 40.5 hours per week (43.9 hours for workers on full-time schedules). Executive, administrative, and managerial people averaged about 41.1 hours (44.1 hours a week for full-time). (See Table 2.2.)

2003
Worked 1 to 34 hoursAverage hours
For noneconomic reasons
Occupation and sexTotal at workTotalFor economic reasonsUsually work full timeUsually work part timeWorked 35 hours or moreTotal at workPersons who usually work full time
Total, 16 years and over132,26731,8694,7018,15419,014100,39839.042.9
Management, professional, and related occupations45,6628,9477673,0885,09236,71441.144.1
Management, business, and financial operations occupations19,2492,7872501,2071,33016,46143.745.6
Professional and related occupations26,4136,1605171,8813,76220,25339.342.9
Service occupations21,2528,0021,3801,0935,52913,25034.941.6
Sales and office occupations34,2749,5091,0922,0856,33224,76537.442.0
Sales and related occupations15,3964,3886097073,07211,00838.544.0
Office and administrative support occupations18,8785,1214831,3783,26013,75736.540.4
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations*13,7272,33373096563811,39440.742.2
Construction and extraction occupations7,8191,5005476213326,31939.941.3
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations4,8955861212791864,30942.043.1
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations17,3523,0787319231,42314,27440.542.8
Production occupations9,3751,3543335264958,02040.642.0
Transportation and material moving occupations7,9771,7243983989286,25440.543.9
Men, 16 years and over70,98112,2482,4613,9505,83758,73341.744.2
Management, professional, and related occupations22,9403,0283611,3221,34619,91244.246.1
Management, business, and financial operations occupations11,1881,18714857446510,00146.147.5
Professional and related occupations11,7521,8412127488819,91042.444.7
Service occupations9,1652,5945454481,6016,57037.742.8
Sales and office occupations12,5042,4223606011,46110,08241.144.5
Sales and related occupations7,9251,4162123198856,50942.645.9
Office and administrative support occupations4,5791,0061472825763,57338.641.9
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations*13,0952,16169791854610,93440.942.3
Construction and extraction occupations7,6141,4375336033016,17740.041.3
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations4,6895511182641694,13842.143.2
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations13,2772,04249866188311,23541.543.5
Production occupations6,4877461923322215,74241.742.7
Transportation and material moving occupations6,7901,2973063286625,49341.444.4
Women, 16 years and over61,28619,6212,2404,20413,17741,66535.941.0
Management, professional, and related occupations22,7225,9194071,7663,74616,80338.041.8
Management, business, and financial operations occupations8,0611,6001026338656,46040.242.9
Professional and related occupations14,6614,3183041,1332,88110,34336.841.2
Service occupations12,0875,4088356453,9286,67932.740.5
Sales and office occupations21,7707,0877321,4844,87114,68335.340.3
Sales and related occupations7,4712,9723973892,1874,49934.241.4
Office and administrative support occupations14,2994,1153351,0952,68410,18435.839.8
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance occupations*63217133479246037.541.1
Construction and extraction occupations2056314183114237.041.1
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations206353151717139.441.4
Production, transportation, and material moving occupations4,0751,0362332635403,03937.340.4
Production occupations2,8876091411932742,27938.140.4
Transportation and material moving occupations1,188427917026676135.340.7
*Includes farming, fishing, and forestry occupations, not shown separately.
source: "Table 23. Persons at Work by Occupation, Sex, and Usual Full- or Part-Time Status," in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, January 2004 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat23.pdf [accessed February 16, 2004]

According to another report, "Trends in the Hours of Work Since the Mid-1970s," that was published in the BLS Monthly Labor Review, April 1997, the average number of hours worked each week has changed little since the mid-1970s, but the proportion of people working very long work weeks has risen.

From 1976 to 1993 average hours at work increased only one hour, from forty-one to forty-two hours, for men, and two hours, from thirty-four to thirty-six hours, for women. These increases can be partially attributed to the changing age profile of the American workforce. Table 2.4 shows this calculation as if the age distribution of those at work had remained unchanged between 1976 and 1993. After removing the effect of age, as the table also reports, the work week for men was virtually unchanged and women's average weekly hours rose by only a single hour.

By 1993 baby boomers—those born between 1946 and 1964—had all moved into the middle working ages of twenty-five to fifty-four. Meanwhile, younger and older workers made up a declining share of the workforce.

2003
Thousands of personsPercent distribution
Hours of workAll industriesAgriculture and related industriesNonagricultural industriesAll industriesAgriculture and related industriesNonagricultural industries
Total, 16 years and over132,2672,170130,096100.0100.0100.0
1 to 34 hours31,86958331,28624.126.924.0
1 to 4 hours1,323481,2751.02.21.0
5 to 14 hours5,0301394,8913.86.43.8
15 to 29 hours15,80225815,54411.911.911.9
30 to 34 hours9,7151399,5767.36.47.4
35 hours and over100,3981,58798,81075.973.176.0
35 to 39 hours8,989998,8896.84.66.8
40 hours 54,60755554,05241.325.641.5
41 hours and over36,80293335,86927.843.027.6
41 to 48 hours12,99814812,8509.86.89.9
49 to 59 hours13,81626013,55710.412.010.4
60 hours and over9,9885259,4627.624.27.3
Average hours, total at work39.043.539.0
Average hours, persons who usually work full time42.949.442.7
source: "Table 19. Persons at Work in Agriculture and Related and in Nonagricultural Industries by Hours of Work," in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, January 2004 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat19.pdf [accessed February 16, 2004]

Workweeks typically are longer for workers age twenty-five to fifty-four, and part-time employment is more common among younger and older workers. This pattern continued in 1995, with men working 42.1 hours overall, but men in the twenty-five to fifty-four age category worked 44.1 hours. (See Table 2.5.)

Many employees are working longer hours by skipping or shortening their lunch breaks. The National Restaurant Association reported (in "What's for Lunch? A Survey of Full-Time Employees," 2002) that 40.6 percent of the surveyed workers said they did not leave the office for a lunch break. Forty-five percent reported they had less time for lunch than they ever had. Many workers say they stay on the job to get things done because they fear being downsized. Fewer workers often mean those remaining have to do more.

Who Is Working the Longer Work Weeks?

The growth in the share of workers reporting very long work weeks is often attributed to a shift in employment toward high-hour occupations, such as managers, professionals, and certain sales workers (See Figure 2.2.) This may reflect the considerable responsibilities associated with many of these types of jobs. In addition, employers are often not required by law to pay overtime premiums to workers in these occupations, as they must for most hourly paid workers.

The changes in number of hours worked varies in different employment sectors. For example, between 1964 and 1999, mining, construction, and manufacturing jobs increased in the number of hours worked weekly. The service-producing industries, including transportation, all decreased the number of hours worked. Retail trade had a dramatic decrease in hours worked weekly. (See Table 2.6.)

In 1997 many trade organizations reported that their members were working a lot of overtime because of economic expansion. Professional Secretaries International (Kansas City, Missouri) found that the proportion of its 27,000 members putting in forty to forty-four hours per week rose from 64.7 percent in 1992 to 68.4 percent in 1997. According to the National Restaurant Association, its members increased their average hours from 51.2 in 1992 to 56 hours in 1997. The BLS reported that the weekly hours for temporaries rose from 27.1 in 1982 to 32.3 in 1997. Manufacturing jobs reached a high of 41.7 hours worked per week in 1999. The figure for mining jobs was even higher, at 43.8 hours per week. (See Table 2.6.)

Part-Time Work

People work part-time for various reasons. In 2003 nearly 15 percent of part-time workers took part-time work due to economic conditions. These economic reasons, usually caused by employers' circumstances, included slack work, material shortages, or the availability of only part-time work. Most workers (86.3 percent) who usually worked part-time did so for noneconomic reasons. They did not want to work full-time or were unavailable, perhaps because they were going to school, were taking care of children, or had other family or personal obligations. (See Table 2.7.)

Average hoursAge-adjusted hours
197619931993
Men, 16 years and older41.042.041.2
Women, 16 years and older34.036.035.0
source: "Average Workweek," in "How Long Is the Workweek?" in Issues in Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, 1997 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/opub/ils/pdf/opbils09.pdf [accessed April 7, 2004]

MULTIPLE JOBS

In 2002 and 2003, 5.3 percent of workers held multiple jobs. The proportion of women holding more than one job (5.6 percent) was slightly higher than that of men (5.1 percent). Single women (6.4 percent) and widowed, divorced, and separated women (6.7 percent) were most likely to have more than one job in 2003. Married women (4.8 percent), single men (4.6 percent), and divorced, widowed, or separated men (4.6 percent) were the least likely. (See Table 2.8.)

CONTINGENT WORKERS AND ALTERNATIVE WORK ARRANGEMENTS

According to the BLS, even though most formal studies have found no change in workers' overall job tenure, media reports and personal experience of corporate down-sizing, production streamlining, and the increasing use of temporary workers have caused many workers to question employers' commitment to long-term, stable employment relationships. There is also a growing sense that employers, in their attempts to reduce costs, have increased their use of "employment intermediaries," such as temporary help services and contract companies, and are relying more on alternative staffing arrangements, such as on-call workers and independent contractors/freelancers. Permanent workers sometimes fear they will be replaced by these alternatives.

Workers may take employment in a nonstandard arrangement, such as working for a temporary agency, for a number of reasons, including inability to find a permanent job, wanting to work fewer hours when they have a young child at home, or wanting to learn about a number of different jobs or fields. In addition, some nonstandard work arrangements, such as consulting or contracting, may provide workers with relatively more flexible and lucrative employment opportunities.

Contingent Workers

The BLS defines contingent work as any job in which an individual does not have an explicit or implicit contract

Average hours
CharacteristicTotal at workTotal at workPersons who usually work full time
Age and sex
Total, 16 years and older107,65639.243.0
16 to 24 years17,28232.641.3
25 to 54 years78,68241.043.3
55 years and older11,69236.742.3
Men, 16 years and older57,36242.144.5
16 to 24 years8,98934.742.3
25 to 54 years42,12444.144.9
55 years and older6,25039.643.7
Women, 16 years and older50,29435.840.8
16 to 24 years8,29330.440.0
25 to 54 years36,55837.441.0
55 years and older5,44233.340.3
Race and Hispanic origin
White, 16 years and older90,99739.343.2
Men49,11442.444.8
Women41,88335.640.9
Black, 16 years and older12,16238.341.2
Men5,82640.042.3
Women6,33636.740.1
Hispanic origin, 16 years and older9,64538.541.5
Men5,68840.542.4
Women3,95635.639.9
source: Philip L. Rones, Randy E. Ilg, and Jennifer M. Gardner, "Table 1. Nonagricultural Wage and Salary Workers at Work and Their Annual Average Hours by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, 1995 Annual Averages," in "Trends in the Hours of Work since the Mid-1970s," Monthly Labor Review, vol. 120, no. 4, April 1997 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1997/04/art1full.pdf [accessed April 7, 2004]

for long-term employment. This includes independent contractors, on-call workers, and those working for temporary help services. The February 1995 Current Population Survey estimated that between 2.7 and six million workers (2.2 to 4.9 percent of total employment) were in contingent positions. In February 2001 BLS data indicated few differences since the benchmark survey in 1995.

The reason the estimates ran from 2.2 percent to 4.9 percent of total employment is due to alternative definitions. For "Contingent Work in the Late 1990s" (Monthly Labor Review, March 2001), Steven Hipple used three different methods for estimating contingency rates. Estimate 1, the narrowest estimate, included wage and salary workers who had held their jobs for one year or less and expected to be employed for an additional year or less. Estimate 2, the middle estimate, added the self-employed and independent contractors. Estimate 3, the broadest estimate, dropped the time limit on wage and salary workers and included any worker who believed his or her job was temporary. (See Table 2.9.)

Contingent workers were more likely to be in professional specialties; administrative support; service; and

Average weekly hoursProduction/nonsupervisory workers
ChangeChange
Industry19641999LevelPercent19641999LevelPercent
Total private38.734.5−4.2−10.940,56088,91148,351119.2
Goods producing
Mining41.943.81.94.5497402−95−19.1
Construction37.239.11.95.12,6374,9532,31687.8
Manufacturing40.741.71.02.512,78112,739−42−.3
Service producing
Transportation and public utilities41.138.7−2.4−5.83,4905,6602,17062.2
Wholesale trade40.738.3−2.4−5.92,8325,5382,70695.6
Retail trade37.029.0−8.0−21.68,03720,04612,009149.4
Finance, insurance, and real estate37.336.2−1.1−2.92,3465,5463,200136.4
Services36.132.6−3.5−9.77,93934,02726,088328.6
Note: Levels of production/nonsupervisory workers are in thousands.
source: Katie Kirkland, "Table 1. Average Weekly Hours and Employment of Production/Nonsupervisory Workers by Major Industry Division, 1964–1999," in "On the Decline in Average Weekly Hours Worked," in Monthly Labor Review, vol. 123, no. 7, July 2000 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2000/07/art3full.pdf [accessed April 7, 2004]

farming, forestry, and fishing; and less likely to be in executive, administrative, and managerial; technical; or sales occupations. (See Table 2.9.) It might seem surprising that contingent workers appear to be overrepresented in professional specialty occupations. However, this category includes teachers, who had an above average rate of contingency.

Colleges and universities use many adjunct or temporary teachers with short-term contracts. College and university instructors have, according to a 2001 BLS report, the highest contingency rate (29 percent) of all workers in the professional specialty category. Other professionals with high rates of contingency are physicians (12.3 percent), biological and life scientists (11.8 percent), and photographers (9.1 percent). Those with the highest rates of contingency in the administrative support category include library clerks (24.1 percent), interviewers (19.2 percent), general office clerks (14 percent), and receptionists (8.9 percent).

In February 2001 the BLS reported that between 51.7 percent and 55.4 percent of all contingent workers were employed in the category of services. Between 11.6 percent and 14.1 percent were in retail trade occupations. The ranges vary based on the application of alternative definitions of "contingent workers," as described above. (See Table 2.10.)

CONTINGENT WORKER CHARACTERISTICS.

Black and Hispanic laborers were more likely to be contingent workers, whereas whites were more likely to be noncontingent workers. Those laborers between the ages of twenty and twenty-four years were more than twice as likely to be contingent workers as noncontingent workers. BLS data covering trends in contingent worker characteristics between 1995 and 1999 suggest that contingent workers were also more likely to be enrolled in school but not have a high school diploma than noncontingent workers. (See Table 2.11.) The data also demonstrate that contingent workers are more likely to be employed full-time (51 percent to 58 percent) than part-time (49 percent to 41 percent). (See Table 2.12.)

Alternative Work Arrangements

Employees in alternative work arrangements are individuals whose place, time, and quantity of work are potentially unpredictable or individuals whose employment is arranged through an employment intermediary. By 1999 these included workers such as independent contractors (6.3 percent of total employed), on-call workers (1.5 percent), workers paid by temporary help firms (0.9 percent), and workers whose services are provided through contract firms (0.6 percent). (See Table 2.13.)

Some of the alternative arrangements have been in existence for decades; however, there is a lack of data analyzing the number of workers in these arrangements. The ranks of independent contractors include construction workers and farmhands whose working situations did not change much in the twentieth century. Similarly, on-call workers such as substitute teachers, registered nurses, and performance artists did not see much change in the manner of obtaining work. However, temporary help agencies can only trace their widespread existence in the United States to shortly after World War II, and there is evidence that providing employees to fulfill the administrative or business needs of other companies is a spreading phenomenon.

2003
All industriesNonagricultural industries
Reason for working less than 35 hoursTotalUsually work full timeUsually work part timeTotalUsually work full timeUsually work part time
Total, 16 years and over31,8699,84122,02831,2869,65321,633
Economic reasons4,7011,6873,0134,5961,6212,975
Slack work or business conditions3,1181,4341,6843,0521,3881,664
Could only find part-time work1,2791,2791,2641,264
Seasonal work1691195114710147
Job started or ended during week134134132132
Noneconomic reasons27,1698,15419,01426,6908,03118,658
Child-care problems7427366973773665
Other family or personal obligations5,7157264,9895,6177144,902
Health or medical limitations753753734734
In school or training6,109956,0146,049945,955
Retired or Social Security limit on earnings1,9511,9511,8541,854
Vacation or personal day3,4563,4563,4193,419
Holiday, legal or religious731731724724
Weather-related curtailment470470440440
All other reasons7,2412,6034,6387,1172,5684,549
Average hours:
Economic reasons23.024.022.523.024.022.5
Other reasons21.425.319.721.425.419.7
source: "20. Persons at Work 1 to 34 Hours in All and in Nonagricultural Industries by Reason for Working Less than 35 Hours and Usual Full- or Part-Time Status," in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, January 2004 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat20.pdf [accessed February 16, 2004]

By 2001 the BLS found that approximately 12.5 million persons, or 9.3 percent of the workforce, fell into at least one of four categories. The largest category was independent contractors, with 8.5 million, followed by on-call workers (two million), temporary help agency workers (1.6 million), and contract company employees (633,000). (See Table 2.14 and Table 2.15 for selected characteristics of workers in alternative work arrangements.) According to a February 2001 news release from the BLS ("The Employment Situation, January 2001"), independent contractors numbered 8.6 million (6.4 percent of the workforce) in early 2001. Other alternative work arrangement categories similarly remained at 1999 levels.

TEMPORARY WORKFORCE.

In its 1997 survey, the National Association of Temporary and Staffing Services (NATSS) found that many of those who enter the workforce for the first time see temporary work as an "entry level transitional form of employment." One-fifth (21 percent) of those who became temporary employees had been students prior to their employment.

The survey asked the respondents why they became temporary workers. Three-quarters (74 percent) saw working as a temporary employee as "a way to get full-time work," and 73 percent wanted additional income. Two-thirds (64 percent) wanted to improve skills and have flexible work time. Only one-fifth (19 percent) worked at temporary jobs because they could not work full-time.

NATSS projects an increase in hiring temporary workers in industrial, construction, technical, and professional worker categories as businesses reduce staff. According to the U.S. Census Bureau (Service Annual Survey: 1997, Washington, DC, 1999), in 1993 office support temporary workers accounted for 37 percent ($10.7 billion) of total receipts for temporary help agencies. By 1997 office support receipts were 35 percent ($18.0 billion) of the total revenue, the biggest proportion of the receipts to the temporary agencies. Industrial and construction temporary employees brought in 19 percent ($8.0 billion) of the total revenue in 1993; by 1997 they were 24 percent ($12.3 billion). The temporary employment of technical and professional workers increased as well. Total revenues more than doubled from $6.7 billion in 1993 to $15.5 billion in 1997.

The hiring of temporary workers has steadily increased in the overall job market. Temporary jobs accounted for about 0.5 percent of all jobs in 1983. That rose to nearly 3 percent of jobs in 1999, according to the BLS data. Following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, observers noted a reduction in the size of the temporary workforce. Then, as in prior years, size and growth in the temporary workforce were seen as indicators of economic growth or stagnation. Since 2003 the temporary workforce has been increasing once again. A BLS report in February 2004 noted that 215,000

Both sexesMenWomen
NumberRate1NumberRate1NumberRate1
Characteristic200220032002200320022003200220032002200320022003
Age
Total, 16 years and over27,2917,3155.35.33,7343,7165.15.13,5573,5995.65.6
16 to 19 years2862804.54.71141073.63.71711735.45.7
20 years and over7,0067,0355.45.33,6203,6085.25.13,3863,4275.65.6
20 to 24 years7407785.55.83353504.85.04054286.46.7
25 years and over6,2666,2575.45.33,2853,2585.25.12,9812,9995.55.4
25 to 54 years5,3755,2665.65.42,8152,7425.45.32,5602,5255.75.6
55 years and over8919914.54.74705174.34.64214744.64.8
55 to 64 years7528374.85.03944304.74.93584074.95.2
65 years and over1391543.23.376873.13.463673.43.3
Race and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
White36,2706,2735.55.53,2333,1905.25.23,0373,0835.85.9
Black or African American37096454.84.43433284.94.83663174.64.0
Asian32421963.93.4118963.53.11241004.33.7
Hispanic or Latino ethnicity5795543.53.23473253.53.12322293.43.3
Marital status
Married, spouse present3,9984,0675.15.12,3622,3985.45.41,6361,6694.84.8
Widowed, divorced, or separated1,3131,2706.15.84524105.14.68618606.76.6
Single (never married)1,9801,9785.45.49209074.64.61,0601,0706.46.4
Full- or part-time status
Primary job full time, secondary job part time3,9373,8252,2352,1641,7011,661
Primary and secondary jobs both part time1,5901,6514935101,0971,141
Primary and secondary jobs both full time2762731861879086
Hours vary on primary or secondary job1,4491,523801831647692
1Multiple jobholders as a percent of all employed persons in specified group.
2Includes a small number of persons who work part time on their primary job and full time on their secondary jobs(s), not shown separately.
3Beginning in 2003, persons who selected this race group only; persons who selected more than one race group are not included. Prior to 2003, persons who reported more than one race group were included in the group they identified as the main race.
Note: Estimates for the above race groups (white, black or African American, and Asian) do not sum to totals because data are not presented for all races. In addition, persons whose ethnicity is identified as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race and, therefore, are classified by ethnicity as well as by race.
source: "36. Multiple Jobholders by Selected Demographic and Economic Characteristics," in Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, January 2004 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat36.pdf [accessed February 16, 2004]

temporary jobs had been added to the U.S. employment market between April 2003 and January 2004.

AT-HOME WORK

Between 1960 and 1980 the number of Americans working at home steadily declined, largely reflecting a drop in the number of family farmers who gave up farming. In addition, many professionals, such as doctors and lawyers, left their home offices and joined group practices or larger firms in office buildings. This trend was reversed by 1990 according to data from the U.S. census of that year, which showed a dramatic increase in the number of people who worked at home, up 56 percent from 1980 to 3.4 million people in 1990. In 1992 the U.S. Census Bureau reported that of 17.3 million small business in the United States, 49.5 percent were home based. (See Table 2.16.)

In 1985, 16.9 percent of 106.8 million workers surveyed reported that they performed at least some of their employment tasks at home. In 1997 this percentage remained fairly steady, at 17.8 percent. There is no differentiation in these figures between those who work exclusively (or primarily) at home, and those who work elsewhere but also perform work tasks from home. The American Housing Survey of 1999 reported that of 118 million workers surveyed, 3.28 million (2.7 percent) reported "home" as their usual place of work. (See Table 2.16.)

Work at Home As Part of Primary Job

In May 2001 the BLS reported that more than nineteen million persons did some work at home as part of their primary job. While the number of persons reporting they worked at home is approximately the same as it was in 1991, there was a sharp increase in the number of persons who were paid for working at home. In 2001, 3.4 million wage and salary workers—about 2.6 percent of all wage and salary workers—were paid for the work they did at home. In 1991 only 1.9 million wage and salary workers—1.9 percent of the total—were doing work at home for pay.

More than half (52 percent) of those working at home were wage and salary workers who were not paid expressly for their time. About 17.4 percent, however, were wage

Contingency rates1
Estimate 1Estimate 2Estimate 3
Occupation and industry199519971999199519971999199519971999
Occupation
Total, 16 years and older2.21.91.92.82.42.34.94.44.3
Managerial and professional specialty1.71.41.52.11.71.84.84.24.4
Executive, administrative, and managerial.8.7.51.11.0.82.72.22.0
Professional specialty2.62.02.43.12.42.76.86.06.7
Technical, sales, and administrative support2.12.12.12.52.62.64.44.34.3
Technicians and related support1.31.82.01.92.72.54.24.74.4
Sales occupations1.21.11.21.61.51.72.62.12.4
Administrative support, including clerical3.13.02.93.43.53.35.86.05.8
Service occupations3.02.32.34.13.23.15.85.04.7
Precision, production, craft, and repair2.31.81.42.92.31.84.64.13.3
Operators, fabricators, and laborers2.72.22.03.13.02.45.44.44.0
Farming, forestry, and fishing2.22.02.93.23.03.35.65.97.3
Industry
Total, 16 years and older2.21.91.92.82.42.34.94.44.3
Agriculture2.41.62.63.32.63.25.05.26.1
Mining1.01.1.71.01.8.72.64.02.6
Construction4.53.72.35.74.72.98.47.25.2
Manufacturing1.3.8.81.61.11.03.12.12.2
Durable goods1.3.7.91.61.01.13.42.02.4
Nondurable goods1.31.0.61.51.1.92.82.32.0
Transportation1.1.7.61.11.41.02.32.71.7
Communications and public utilities1.4.61.61.61.01.64.02.32.7
Wholesale trade.7.81.11.01.31.52.32.12.8
Retail trade1.61.51.62.01.71.83.02.62.7
Finance, insurance, and real estate.71.1.6.81.31.02.02.11.9
Services3.42.82.94.33.73.67.56.76.9
Private household8.26.18.811.99.811.817.915.716.8
Business, auto, and repair services5.33.83.27.35.84.79.68.07.5
Personal services3.62.53.63.93.34.35.65.76.2
Entertainment and recreation services4.33.63.95.34.04.38.26.85.7
Professional services2.72.42.63.33.03.16.76.36.6
Hospitals.81.11.0.81.21.02.23.83.7
Health services, excluding hospitals1.21.0.71.51.3.92.72.41.7
Educational services5.34.65.05.54.85.112.311.411.6
Social services2.31.62.15.64.55.27.86.27.3
Other professional services1.11.71.52.12.42.04.23.64.1
Public administration1.21.21.21.21.21.43.64.23.1
1Contingency rates are calculated by dividing the number of contingent workers in a specified worker group by total employment for the same worker group. Estimate 1 above is calculated using the narrowest definition of contingent work; estimate 3 uses the broadest definition.
source: Steven Hipple, "Table 3. Contingency Rates by Occupation and Industry, February 1995–99," in "Contingent Work in the Late 1990s," Monthly Labor Review, vol. 124, no. 3, March 2001

and salary workers who were paid for the hours they put in at home. Virtually all the remainder were self-employed workers. (See Table 2.17.)

Of the 3.4 million wage and salary workers doing paid work at home, more than 80 percent were in white-collar occupations. Nearly a million of these workers were in professional specialty occupations, while 880,000 were executives and managers. A large number of paid home workers were in sales and administrative occupations. Almost half (47.1 percent) of those doing paid work at home were in the services industry. More than half a million in manufacturing were paid for work at home. (See Table 2.18.)

The BLS went on to report that about 11.1 million workers were simply "taking work home from the office" (wage and salary workers who were not being officially compensated for the work they did at home). As with those who were paid, persons not paid for the work they did at home were overwhelmingly employed in white-collar occupations. Teachers were especially likely to do unpaid work at home: 2.8 million teachers reported doing so in 1997.

From an industry perspective, half (51.5 percent) of the unpaid home laborers worked in services (6.1 million), followed by manufacturing (1.5 million). About 6.5 million of self-employed persons did some work at home in May 1997, more than half of all the self-employed who

Contingent workers
CharacteristicEstimate 1Estimate 2Estimate 3Noncontingent workers
Occupation
Total, 16 years and over (thousands)2,2952,9635,369129,236
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0
Executive, administrative, and managerial6.28.29.115.4
Professional specialty15.214.220.016.0
Technicians and related support2.32.52.43.4
Sales occupations8.78.76.512.3
Administrative support, including clerical19.417.817.214.0
Services17.918.016.513.0
Precision production, craft, and repair12.212.811.410.9
Operators, fabricators, and laborers15.114.113.013.0
Farming, forestry, and fishing3.03.64.01.9
Industry
Total, 16 years and over (thousands)2,2952,9635,369129,236
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0
Agriculture2.53.23.62.0
Mining1.2.1.4
Construction12.412.19.96.3
Manufacturing6.96.87.515.0
Transportation and public utilities2.94.13.77.3
Wholesale trade1.91.61.94.0
Retail trade14.113.711.616.6
Finance, insurance, and real estate3.63.22.87.1
Services51.752.155.436.7
Public administration3.83.03.64.6
Note: Noncontingent workers are those who do not fall into any estimate of "contingent" workers.
Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
source: "Table 4. Employed Contingent and Noncontingent Workers by Occupation and Industry, February 2001," in Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangements, February 2001, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/conemp.t04.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]

were at work during the survey reference week. More than 4.1 million of the self-employed indicated that they were working in home-based businesses.

Telecommuting

As of 2002 the BLS has figures for workers who are paid for work done at home, but does not currently track numbers specifically for telecommuting workers. However, there is a trend in some work sectors for employees to work one or more days per month at home, during regular work hours, communicating with the office through the Internet, fax, and telephone. The fall 2000 Occupational Outlook Quarterly, published by the BLS, notes certain types of jobs that work well for telecommuting. Service industries have by far the most telecommuters, particularly in the professional specialties. Executive and managerial, sales, and clerical support positions also have telecommuters.

FLEXIBLE SCHEDULES

In May 2001 about 29 percent of full-time wage and salary workers had flexible work schedules that allowed them to vary the time they began or ended work. The increase in flexible work schedules was widespread across demographic groups, occupations, and industries. Whites (30.0 percent) were more likely to work flexible schedules than blacks (21.2 percent) or Hispanics (19.8 percent). (See Table 2.19.) Parents (29.8 percent) were somewhat more likely than workers with no children under eighteen (28.2 percent) to work a flexible schedule.

In 2001 about 45.5 percent of executives, administrators, and managers and 40.7 percent of sales workers were able to vary their work hours. However, fewer than one-quarter of those employed in administrative support roles or as service workers had such flexibility. Operators, fabricators, and laborers, as well as workers in precision production, craft, and repair, were also less likely to have flexible work schedules. (See Table 2.20.)

Among private-sector employees, the proportion of workers with flexible schedules was much higher in service-producing industries (33.3 percent) than in goods-producing industries (23.1 percent). In the public sector, flexible schedules were more common among federal government employees (34.4 percent) than workers in state (29.7 percent) or local (14 percent) government, which includes public elementary and secondary schools. (See Table 2.20.)

Contingent workers1
Estimate 1Estimate 2Estimate 3Noncontingent workers2
Characteristic199519971999199519971999199519971999199519971999
Age and sex
Total, 16 years and older (thousands)2,7392,3852,4443,4223,0963,0386,0345,5745,641117,174121,168125,853
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
16 to 19 years16.619.220.915.216.017.810.712.413.24.34.44.7
20 to 24 years25.023.923.522.221.022.119.817.919.89.69.09.0
25 to 34 years26.023.723.127.524.424.726.324.824.426.125.023.5
35 to 44 years18.517.515.619.820.617.521.020.918.828.028.228.1
45 to 54 years8.28.311.09.510.811.812.613.613.219.821.021.8
55 to 64 years3.85.33.93.75.43.95.97.36.49.49.610.1
65 years and older1.82.11.92.11.92.13.73.14.12.82.92.8
Men49.349.546.949.448.446.649.649.348.754.053.853.5
Women50.750.553.150.651.653.450.450.751.346.046.246.5
Race and Hispanic origin
White80.079.580.980.180.680.580.981.980.285.685.384.5
Black13.913.311.813.613.012.713.311.112.210.510.611.1
Hispanic origin13.612.213.812.912.813.611.312.413.28.39.410.0
Country of birth and U.S. citizenship status
U.S. born87.587.685.287.387.185.386.885.384.091.089.489.0
Foreign born12.512.414.812.713.014.713.214.716.09.010.611.0
U.S. citizen1.63.23.01.73.73.12.23.93.93.24.24.4
Not a U.S. citizen10.99.111.811.09.211.711.010.712.15.86.46.6
Full- or part-time status
Full-time workers52.953.548.453.654.852.057.157.555.981.882.283.0
Part-time workers47.146.651.646.445.248.042.942.544.118.217.817.0
School enrollment
Total, 16 to 24 years (thousands)1,1421,0291,0861,2791,1431,2121,8411,6901,86316,21516,29917,261
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Enrolled55.361.463.853.757.762.158.163.765.938.440.041.4
Not enrolled44.738.636.246.342.337.941.936.334.161.660.058.6
Educational attainment
Total, 25 to 64 years (thousands)1,5471,3081,3112,0701,8931,7623,9683,7103,54697,633101,397105,043
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Less than a high school diploma14.010.012.713.611.012.612.010.411.99.69.69.1
High school graduates, no college27.927.927.827.528.528.527.326.825.832.432.831.4
Some college, no degree22.821.919.123.320.218.519.618.817.019.918.919.3
Associate degree8.410.77.78.010.18.07.98.26.99.19.19.2
College graduates27.029.432.627.730.132.433.235.838.528.929.531.0
Advanced degree9.410.511.610.09.311.414.914.716.09.910.010.3
1Contingent workers are defined as individuals who do not perceive themselves as having an explicit or implicit contract with their employers for ongoing employment. Estimate 1 is calculated using the narrowest definition of contingent work; estimate 3 uses the broadest definition.
2Noncontingent workers are those who do not meet the criteria for any of the three definitions of contingent work.
Note: Detail for the above race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals because data for the "other races" group are not presented and Hispanics are included in both the white and black population groups. Detail for other characteristics may not sum to totals due to rounding.
source: Steven Hipple, "Table 1. Contingent and Noncontingent Workers by Selected Characteristics, February 1995–99," in "Contingent Work in the Late 1990s," Monthly Labor Review, vol. 124, no. 3, March 2001

SHIFT SCHEDULES

According to the BLS, in May 2001, among full-time wage and salary workers, more than 85 percent were on regular daytime schedules. Many of the alternative schedules that were in effect included evening shifts, employer-arranged irregular schedules, night shifts, and rotating shifts.

Shift work was most common among workers in service-oriented occupations, such as protective service (which includes police, firefighters, and guards) and food service, and among those employed as operators, fabricators, and laborers. It was lowest for managers and professionals and those in administrative support occupations.

Contingent workers
CharacteristicTotal employedEstimate 1Estimate 2Estimate 3Noncontingent workers
Age and sex
Total, 16 years and over134,6052,2952,9635,369129,236
16 to 19 years6,5974164435986,000
20 to 24 years13,256126471,04212,217
25 to 34 years30,0795316951,21128,868
35 to 44 years36,7403305461,08535,655
45 to 54 years29,94624239784629,101
55 to 64 years13,95511516939013,565
65 years and over4,02948681993,830
Men, 16 years and over71,3761,1561,4682,68668,690
16 to 19 years3,3201701852463,074
20 to 24 years6,7783173205316,247
25 to 34 years16,23532038166015,575
35 to 44 years19,66815026153819,131
45 to 54 years15,56711420042515,142
55 to 64 years7,44957821857,264
65 years and over2,35829391002,258
Women, 16 years and over63,2291,1391,4962,68360,546
16 to 19 years3,2772472583512,926
20 to 24 years6,4812953275115,970
25 to 34 years13,84421131455013,293
35 to 44 years17,07118028554716,524
45 to 54 years14,37912819742013,959
55 to 64 years6,50658872056,302
65 years and over1,6711928981,572
Race and Hispanic origin
White112,9761,8662,4194,380108,596
Black15,18231640072214,460
Hispanic origin14,63843850390913,730
Full- or part-time status
Full-time workers110,5701,1711,6013,124107,446
Part-time workers24,0351,1241,3632,24521,789
Note: Noncontingent workers are those who do not fall into any estimate of "contingent" workers. Detail for the above race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals because data for the "other races" group are not presented and Hispanics are included in both the white and black population groups. Detail for other characteristics may not sum to totals due to rounding.
source: "Table 1. Employed Contingent and Noncontingent Workers by Selected Characteristics, February 2001," in Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangements, February 2001, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/conemp.t01.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]

WORKER DISPLACEMENT

Displaced workers are persons twenty years and older who lost or left jobs because their plant or company closed or moved, there was insufficient work for them to do, or their position or shift was abolished. According to the BLS's Worker Displacement During the Late 1990s, August 2000, a total of 3.3 million workers were displaced between January 1997 and December 1999 from jobs they had held for at least three years.

Of the nearly four million workers displaced between January 1999 and December 2001, 63.6 percent were reemployed and 21.2 percent were unemployed. Table 2.21 shows the reemployment rate highest for workers twenty to twenty-four, with 68.7 percent working again. The reemployment rates for older workers age fifty-five to sixty-four and sixty-five and older were 50.9 percent and 19.8 percent, respectively. There were 65.2 percent of men working in a new job, compared with 61.6 percent of women. Among those not reemployed at the time of the survey, women were slightly less likely (19.3 percent) than men (22.8 percent) to be unemployed. The proportion of displaced women who left the labor force (19.1 percent) was higher than that of men (12 percent); leaving the workforce means that a worker is no longer actively seeking work or receiving unemployment benefits. (See Table 2.21.) These reemployment figures reveal that significantly more displaced workers in 2001 had difficulty becoming reemployed than did workers surveyed by the BLS between January 1997 and December 1999.

Industry and Occupation

Manufacturing continued to account for the largest proportion of displacements in 2001 (33 percent). Approximately 65.4 percent of these losses occurred among workers

Alternative arrangementFebruary 1995February 1997February 1999
Independent contractors
Workers identified as independent contractors, independent consultants, or freelance workers, whether they were self-employed or wage and salary workers6.76.76.3
On-call workers
Workers called to work only as needed, although they can be scheduled to work for several days or weeks in a row1.71.61.5
Temporary help agency workers
Workers paid by a temporary help agency, whether or not their job actually was temporary1.01.0.9
Contract company workers
Workers employed by a company that provides them or their services to others under contract and who are usually assigned to only one customer and usually work at the customer's worksite.5.6.6
source: Marisa DiNatale, "Exhibit 1. Workers in Alternative Arrangements as a Percent of Total Employment, February 1995, 1997, and 1999," in "Characteristics of and Preferences for Alternative Work Arrangements, 1999," Monthly Labor Review, vol. 124, no. 3, March 2001

in the durable goods manufacturing industries. These industries tend to be among those most affected by cyclical changes in economic conditions. About 55.7 percent of workers displaced from manufacturing were reemployed at the time of the survey; the reemployment rate in 1999 was nearly 73 percent. In 2001, 70.3 percent of the workers displaced from the services industries were reemployed, as were 62 percent of the workers displaced from construction. (See Table 2.22.)

Managerial and professional specialty employees (30.2 percent of all displaced workers) and technical, sales, and administrative support (28.5 percent) accounted for nearly 59 percent of the displaced workers by occupation. More than two-thirds (68.2 percent) of the managerial and professional specialty group and 67.1 percent of the technical, sales, and administrative support force were employed at the time of the survey, spanning displacement between 1999 and 2001. However, only 49.4 percent of the machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors were working again. In fact 20 percent of this occupation had left the labor force. (See Table 2.23.)

JOB SECURITY

The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM; 1996 Job Security and Layoffs Survey, Alexandria, VA, August 1996), surveyed its members on the issues of layoffs and job security. About 65 percent of the businesses responding reported that their employees felt very secure, secure, or somewhat secure. Smaller firms were more likely to report secure employees than were larger firms.

Firms that had not had layoffs since 1994 were also more likely to report that their employees felt secure (86 percent) than did firms who had laid off workers since that time (47 percent). Companies planning future layoffs reported that 61 percent of their employees felt very insecure, insecure, or somewhat insecure, while only 9 percent of firms who did not plan layoffs reported such insecurity among their workforce. The SHRM report concluded that the majority of survey respondents thought their employees felt secure in their jobs. About one-third believed their employees felt insecure and agreed that the employees' views were justified.

Almost half of all the responding companies (49 percent) reported that employees felt more insecure since January 1, 1994. Only 14 percent reported that employees felt more secure, while 37 percent reported no change. Again larger firms reported more feelings of insecurity than did smaller companies.

Following the terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001, the BLS reported significant disruptions to local economies and an increase in layoffs, particularly in the last quarter of that year. (See Table 2.24.) The rate of layoffs tapered off by the first quarter of 2002 to lower than 2001 levels. Beyond the initial effects of layoffs directly related to the tragedies, certain job sectors continue to suffer. The travel industry, particularly the airlines and hotels, have experienced greatly reduced business, due in part to a reluctance among Americans to travel overseas.

A weakening economy in 2001 and 2002 also resulted in numerous mass layoffs (a mass layoff is considered to be a layoff of 50 or more employees). The BLS reported more mass layoffs in May 2002 than in any May since 1995, when the data were first gathered. More than 180,000 workers were laid off in May 2002. After remaining steady throughout the remainder of 2002, layoffs spiked somewhat during the fourth quarter. Steady levels in 2003 were interrupted by a slight increase during April, May, and June. Preliminary data for 2003 suggested that fourth quarter layoffs (October, November, and December) were the lowest for that time of year since 1999.

The accounting scandals involving huge corporations, beginning with Enron in October 2001, and resulting in layoffs, have also shaken the confidence of many in the stability of the American economy and job security. However, due to the corporate scandals' negative impact on investors' confidence in the stock market and the threatened U.S. economy, lawmakers decided to take action. On July 30, 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law a corporate fraud bill consisting of new corporate reporting and disclosure rules, plus increased penalties for fraud.

Workers with alternative arrangements
CharacteristicTotal employedIndependent contractorsOn-call workersTemporary help agency workersWorkers provided by contract firmsWorkers with traditional arrangements
Age and sex
Total, 16 years and over134,6058,5852,0891,169633121,917
16 to 19 years6,5971042024176,217
20 to 24 years13,2592353092206912,356
25 to 34 years30,0791,31435531014827,905
35 to 44 years36,7402,48653829118333,194
45 to 54 years29,9462,41037416515126,824
55 to 64 years13,9551,3571911244812,227
65 years and over4,02967911918283,193
Men, 16 years and over71,3765,5371,10948044763,656
16 to 19 years3,32061821573,139
20 to 24 years6,77812017882576,289
25 to 34 years16,23577624513011514,935
35 to 44 years19,6681,63225115413817,461
45 to 54 years15,5671,545180517613,704
55 to 64 years7,4499119842396,353
65 years and over2,358491767151,775
Women, 16 years and over63,2293,04898168918758,261
16 to 19 years3,2774312126-3,079
20 to 24 years6,481115131138126,067
25 to 34 years13,8445381111803212,971
35 to 44 years17,0718542871384515,733
45 to 54 years14,3798641941147513,120
55 to 64 years6,506446938295,873
65 years and over1,6711884311131,418
Race and Hispanic origin
White112,9767,5801,747800487102,170
Black15,1826002772979413,897
Hispanic origin14,6386162322056613,424
Full- or part-time status
Full-time workers110,5706,4521,100925568101,386
Part-time workers24,0352,1339892446520,530
Note: Workers with traditional arrangements are those who do not fall into any of the "alternative arrangements" categories. Detail may not add to totals because the total employed includes day laborers (an alternative arrangement, not shown separately) and a small number of workers who were both "on call" and "provided by contract firms." Detail for the above race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals because data for the "other races" group are not presented and Hispanics are included in both the white and black population groups. Detail for other characteristics may not sum to totals due to rounding.
source: "Table 5. Employed Workers with Alternative and Traditional Work Arrangements by Selected Characteristics, February 2001," in Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangements, February 2001, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/conemp.t05.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]
Workers with alternative arrangements
CharacteristicIndependent contractorsOn-call workersTemporary help agency workersWorkers provided by contract firmsWorkers with traditional arrangements
School enrollment
Total, 16 to 24 years (thousands)3395122617618,574
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Enrolled25.748.928.228.142.6
Not enrolled74.351.171.871.957.4
Less than a high school diploma12.16.814.27.210.5
High school graduates, no college31.317.732.339.324.4
Less than a bachelor's degree20.616.515.415.414.4
College graduates10.310.19.910.18.2
Educational attainment
Total, 25 to 64 years (thousands)7,5671,459890530100,150
Percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Less than a high school diploma8.58.214.79.08.8
High school graduates, no college29.728.729.425.830.6
Less than a bachelor's degree27.135.036.523.528.6
College graduates34.728.119.441.732.0
Note: Workers with traditional arrangements are those who do not fall into any of the "alternative arrangements" categories. Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.
source: "Table 7. Employed Workers with Alternative and Traditional Work Arrangements by School Enrollment and Educational Attainment, February 2001," in Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangements, February 2001, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, 2001 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/conemp.t07.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]
Decennial census1American housing survey2Characteristics of business owners3Survey of income and program participation4Current population survey5
YearWorkersWork at homeWorkersWork at homeSmall businessesHome-based businessesWorkersWork at homeWorkersWork at home
196064,6564,663
197076,8522,685
198096,6172,178
198210,5845,493
1985106,87818,082
198712,0936,156
1990115,0703,406
1991109,12619,967
199217,2538,557
1993103,7413,139
1995107,9592,963125,92510,886
1997116,4693,611132,6929,260120,96021,478
1999118,0413,288
–Data not collected.
1The Decennial Census defines workers as those age 16 and over who were employed and at work in the previous week. This population includes those in the military and those innoninstitutional group quarters. Individuals working at home are those who reported "work at home" on a question about how they "usually" commute to work.
2The American Housing Survey defines workers as those age 14 and over who were employed and at work in the previous week. This population includes those in the military who live in private homes and only allows up to four workers in each household. Individuals working at home are those who reported "work at home" on a question about how they "usually" commute to work.
3The Characteristics of Business Owners supplement to the Economic Census defines small businesses as those who filed taxes under forms 1040, Schedule C (individual proprietorships); 1065 (partnerships); or 1120S (subchapter S corporations). Home-based businesses are those that the respondent operated out of their residence.
4The Survey of Income and Program Participation defines workers as those age 16 and over and, in the data presented here, were employed during the 4th month of the reference period. Individuals working at home worked at least 1 full day at home during a "typical" week of that month.
5The Current Population Survey defines workers as those with a job (and "at work" for 1991 and 1997) during the week including the 12th day of the interview month (May, in the case of the data presented here). Individuals working at home performed at least some of the tasks for their job at home.
source: "Table 1. Home-Based Worker Estimates: 1960–2000," in Home-Based Workers in the United States: 1997, U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Information Office, Washington, DC, 2001 [Online] http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/p70-78.pdf [accessed February 16, 2004]
Persons who usually worked at home2
Percent distribution by class of worker3
Wage and salary
CharacteristicTotal employed1TotalPercent of total employedTotalPaid work at homeUnpaid work at homeSelf-employed4
Total, 16 years and over131,80319,75915.0100.017.452.029.7
Men69,65910,29114.8100.016.050.532.6
Women62,1449,46815.2100.018.953.726.5
Occupation
Managerial and professional specialty42,44212,62829.8100.014.262.822.4
Executive, administrative, and managerial20,4845,26225.7100.016.752.530.0
Professional specialty21,9587,36633.5100.012.570.117.0
Technical, sales, and administrative support38,2034,66912.2100.024.740.233.9
Technicians and related support4,3923056.9100.036.048.414.3
Sales occupations15,6363,13320.0100.020.340.338.9
Administrative support, including clerical18,1741,2316.8100.033.437.825.8
Service occupations18,1899725.3100.024.118.455.1
Precision production, craft, and repair14,7371,0507.1100.015.719.464.4
Operators, fabricators, and laborers17,5533812.2100.019.424.349.3
Farming, forestry, and fishing678598.7100.0(5)(5)(5)
Industry
Mining5906511.1100.0(5)(5)(5)
Construction9,1531,13412.4100.011.620.565.2
Manufacturing19,4661,8069.3100.028.754.915.7
Transportation and public utilities10,0728988.9100.022.849.426.0
Wholesale trade5,2071,00919.4100.024.447.925.6
Retail trade21,9631,5297.0100.012.836.449.8
Finance, insurance, and real estate8,6931,81020.8100.018.848.233.0
Services50,37410,92621.7100.014.857.227.1
Public administration6,2855819.2100.029.669.8-
Race and Hispanic origin
White110,10917,94716.3100.017.551.630.0
Black15,1161,1527.6100.014.957.926.0
Hispanic origin13,9469376.7100.020.449.228.4
1Includes persons who did not provide information on work at home.
2Persons who usually work at home are defined as those who work at home at least once per week as part of their primary job.
3Unpaid family workers and wage and salary workers who did not report pay status are included in total but not shown separately.
4Includes both the incorporated and unincorporated self-employed.
5Data not shown where the base is less than 75,000.
Note: Data refer to employed persons in nonagricultural industries. Detail for the above race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals because data for the "other races" group are not presented and Hispanics are included in both the white and black population groups. Dash represents zero.
source: "Table 1. Job-Related Work at Home on Primary Job by Sex, Occupation, Industry, Race, Hispanic Origin, Class of Worker, Pay Status, May 2001," Work at Home, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, March 2002 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/homey.t01.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]
Percent distribution by hours worked home2
8 hours or more
CharacteristicPaid work at home1TotalHours varyLess than 8 hoursTotal35 hours or moreMean weekly hours usually worked at home
Total, 16 years and over3,436100.027.424.547.615.718.0
Men1,642100.030.923.345.114.817.8
Women1,794100.024.225.749.916.518.1
Occupation
Managerial and professional specialty1,798100.028.024.147.413.917.0
Executive, administrative, and managerial880100.025.824.349.312.916.8
Professional specialty918100.030.123.945.614.917.2
Technical, sales, and administrative support1,155100.027.322.150.316.719.1
Technicians and related support110100.040.224.635.321.221.3
Sales occupations635100.027.818.953.013.018.5
Administrative support, including clerical411100.023.326.550.321.019.5
Service occupations234100.025.619.654.733.126.9
Precision production, craft, and repair165100.029.147.222.12.77.8
Operators, fabricators, and laborers74100.0(3)(3)(3)(3)(3)
Farming, forestry, and fishing10100.0(3)(3)(3)(3)
Industry
Mining9100.0(3)(3)(3)(3)(3)
Construction131100.031.836.531.75.113.2
Manufacturing518100.027.021.551.212.516.7
Transportation and public utilities205100.014.129.754.825.319.1
Wholesale trade247100.028.115.056.012.917.8
Retail trade196100.023.732.543.910.314.2
Finance, insurance, and real estate.340100.030.724.045.39.515.1
Services1,618100.028.024.347.519.019.9
Public administration172100.033.727.137.712.815.7
Race and Hispanic origin
White3,138100.027.224.448.015.017.7
Black172100.029.722.148.128.923.2
Hispanic origin191100.032.315.951.827.623.2
1Includes persons who worked at home at least once per week but did not report the number of hours usually worked.
2Persons who did not report the number of hours worked are included in total but not shown separately.
3Data not shown where the base is less than 75,000.
Note: Data refer to employed persons in nonagricultural industries who reported that they usually work at home at least once per week as part of their primary job and exclude the incorporated and unincorporated self-employed. Detail for the above race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals because data for the "other races" group are not presented and Hispanics are included in both the white and black population groups.
source: "Table 3. Hours of Paid Job-Related Work at Home on Primary Job among Wage and Salary Workers by Selected Characteristics, May 2001," Work at Home, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, March 2002 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/homey.t03.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]
Percent with flexible schedulesPercent with alternate shifts
CharacteristicMay 1985May 1991May 1997May 2001May 1985May 1991May 1997May 2001
Sex
Total, 16 years and over12.415.027.628.816.018.016.914.5
Men13.115.428.630.017.920.419.216.4
Women11.314.526.227.413.214.813.712.1
Race and Hispanic origin
White12.815.428.630.015.517.216.213.6
Black9.112.020.121.220.023.321.019.7
Hispanic origin8.910.618.219.815.519.216.214.8
Note: Data are tabulated for all employed persons. Estimates for years prior to 2001 may differ slightly from those previously published, which were tabulated only for persons at work. Data exclude the incorporated and unincorporated self-employed.
source: "Table A. Flexible Schedules and Shift Work of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, May, Selected Years, 1985–2001," in Workers on Flexible and Shift Schedules in 2001, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, April 2002 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/flex.nr0.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]
Both sexesMenWomen
With flexible schedulesWith flexible schedulesWith flexible schedules
Occupation and industryTotal1NumberPercent of totalTotal1NumberPercent of totalTotal1NumberPercent of total
Total, 16 years and over99,63128,72428.856,06616,79230.043,56611,93127.4
Occupation
Managerial and professional specialty32,96013,32640.416,7857,95447.416,1755,37233.2
Executive, administrative, and managerial16,2797,40445.58,7484,27748.97,5313,12841.5
Professional specialty16,6815,92235.58,0373,67845.88,6442,24426.0
Mathematical and computer scientists1,9301,13458.71,30877058.962336458.4
Natural scientists46124152.428915453.41728750.7
Teachers, college and university66139559.838625165.127514452.3
Technical, sales, and administrative support27,6078,61731.210,4933,84036.617,1134,77727.9
Technicians and related support3,7571,18131.41,86368336.71,89449826.3
Sales occupations9,8524,01140.75,4242,40444.34,4281,60736.3
Sales workers, retail and personal services3,14690128.61,34641931.11,80048226.8
Administrative support, including clerical13,9973,42624.53,20675323.510,7912,67224.8
Service occupations12,3822,57220.86,4631,28319.95,9191,28921.8
Private household37713235.053(2)37112934.8
Protective service2,14434316.01,77329116.43715214.0
Service, except private household and protective8,2071,75521.43,32469821.04,8831,05721.6
Food service3,03669622.91,51736724.21,51833021.7
Health service1,82930416.62224520.51,60825816.1
Cleaning and building service2,15132615.21,28719415.086413315.4
Personal service1,19242936.02999331.189333637.7
Precision production, craft, and repair12,0612,20918.311,0002,02618.41,06118317.3
Mechanics and repairers4,13382720.03,93779220.11953517.9
Construction trades4,33375517.44,23272617.210129(2)
Other precision production, craft, and repair3,59662817.52,83050818.076611915.6
Operators, fabricators, and laborers14,6211,99913.711,3241,68914.93,2973109.4
Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors6,2206149.93,99445711.42,2271577.1
Transportation and material moving4,73594620.04,38086719.83557922.2
Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers3,66743912.02,95136512.47167410.3
Farming, forestry, and fishing1,65334220.71,36029121.42935117.5
Industry
Private sector83,01524,98730.148,42314,92730.834,59210,06129.1
Goods-producing industries26,0216,01423.119,6264,58523.46,3951,42922.3
Agriculture1,54334322.21,19424920.83499426.9
Mining53912122.547010121.56920(2)
Construction6,1331,38622.65,5901,20521.654318133.3
Manufacturing17,8054,16323.412,3723,03024.55,4331,13320.9
Durable goods11,1712,74324.68,1792,07825.42,99266622.3
Nondurable goods6,6351,42021.44,19395322.72,44146819.2
Service-producing industries56,99518,97433.328,79710,34235.928,1978,63230.6
Transportation and public utilities6,9612,06829.75,0691,44428.51,89262433.0
Wholesale trade4,3191,52835.43,1231,12135.91,19640734.0
Retail trade13,0383,98930.67,0422,15430.65,9951,83530.6
Eating and drinking places3,4361,04530.41,83054629.81,6054991.1
Finance, insurance, and real estate6,6452,68740.42,6141,28749.24,0311,40034.7
Services26,0318,70133.410,9494,33539.615,0824,36628.9
Private households41614935.814 7(2)40214235.4
Business, automobile, and repair6,6462,47337.24,3441,64037.82,30183336.2
Personal, except private household1,95460931.282324429.61,13036532.3
Entertainment and recreation1,21548940.276230339.745318641.1
Professional services15,7774,97031.54,9842,13242.810,7942,83826.3
Forestry and fisheries2411(2)2210(2)21(2)
Government16,6163,73622.57,6421,86524.48,9741,87120.8
Federal3,1401,07934.41,81758432.11,32449537.4
State4,8681,44729.72,12566931.52,74377928.4
Local8,6081,20914.03,70161316.64,90759712.2
1Includes persons who did not provide information on flexible schedules.
2Percent not shown where base is less than 75,000.
Note: Data relate to the sole or principal job of full-time wage and salary workers and exclude all self-employed persons, regardless of whether or not their businesses were incorporated.
source: "Table 2. Flexible Schedules: Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers by Sex, Occupation, and Industry, May 2001," in Workers on Flexible and Shift Schedules in 2001, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, April 2002 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/flex.t02.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]
Percent distribution by employment status
Age, sex, race, and Hispanic origin1Total (thousands)TotalEmployedUnemployedNot in the labor force
Total
Total, 20 years and over3,969100.063.621.215.2
20 to 24 years132100.068.715.415.8
25 to 54 years3,117100.067.521.710.8
55 to 64 years593100.050.920.328.8
65 years and over127100.019.820.759.5
Men
Total, 20 years and over2,186100.065.222.812.0
20 to 24 years55100.0(2)(2)(2)
25 to 54 years1,740100.069.022.98.1
55 to 64 years326100.055.022.722.3
65 years and over65100.0222
Women
Total, 20 years and over1,783100.061.619.319.1
20 to 24 years77100.065.817.916.3
25 to 54 years1,377100.065.720.214.2
55 to 64 years266100.045.817.336.8
65 years and over62100.0222
White
Total, 20 years and over3,351100.064.720.814.5
Men1,861100.066.223.210.5
Women1,491100.062.817.819.4
Black
Total, 20 years and over474100.057.722.320.0
Men238100.060.717.721.6
Women236100.054.627.018.4
Hispanic origin
Total, 20 years and over335100.055.031.014.0
Men158100.055.031.413.6
Women177100.055.030.614.4
1Data refer to persons who had 3 or more years of tenure on a job they had lost or left between January 1999 and December 2001 because of plant or company closings or moves, insufficient work, or the abolishment of their positions or shifts.
2Data not shown where base is less than 75,000.
Note: Detail for the above race and Hispanic-origin groups will not sum to totals because data for the "other races" group are not presented and Hispanics are included in both the white and black population groups.
source: "Table 1. Displaced Workers by Age, Sex, Race, Hispanic Origin, and Employment Status in January 2002," in Worker Displacement, 1999–2001, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, 2002 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/disp.t01.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]
Percent distribution by employment status
Industry and class of worker of lost job1Total (thousands)TotalEmployedUnemployedNot in the labor force
Total, 20 years and over23,969100.063.621.215.2
Agricultural wage and salary workers45100.0333
Nonagricultural wage and salary workers3,886100.063.921.015.1
Private wage and salary workers3,769100.063.721.414.9
Mining35100.0333
Construction256100.062.033.34.7
Manufacturing1,318100.055.725.518.8
Durable goods862100.052.927.819.3
Lumber and wood products49100.0333
Furniture and fixtures20100.0333
Stone, clay, and glass products24100.0333
Primary metal industries40100.0333
Fabricated metal products79100.051.418.929.6
Machinery, except electrical204100.068.524.47.1
Electrical machinery238100.040.831.927.3
Transportation equipment111100.056.029.914.2
Automobiles59100.0333
Other transportation equipment53100.0333
Professional and photographic equipment49100.0333
Other durable goods industries47100.0333
Nondurable goods456100.060.921.217.9
Food and kindred products62100.0333
Textile mill products72100.0333
Apparel and other finished textile products74100.0333
Paper and allied products23100.0333
Printing and publishing108100.074.818.17.1
Chemical and allied products64100.0333
Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products30100.0333
Other nondurable goods industries24100.0333
Transportation and public utilities295100.061.623.614.8
Transportation173100.067.223.69.2
Communications and other public utilities122100.053.623.722.7
Wholesale and retail trade723100.068.417.314.3
Wholesale trade227100.074.618.96.6
Retail trade495100.065.616.617.8
Finance, insurance, and real estate284100.071.216.612.3
Services858100.070.316.413.3
Professional services411100.073.29.417.4
Other service industries447100.067.722.79.6
Government workers117100.071.17.521.3
1Data refer to persons who had 3 or more years of tenure on a job they had lost or left between January 1999 and December 2001 because of plant or company closings or moves, insufficient work, or the abolishment of their positions or shifts.
2Total includes a small number of unpaid family workers and persons who did not report industry or class of worker.
3Data not shown where base is less than 75,000.
source: "Table 4. Displaced Workers by Industry and Class of Worker of Lost Job and Employment Status in January 2002," in Worker Displacement, 1999–2001, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, 2002 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/disp.t04.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]
Percent distribution by employment status
Occupation of lost job1Total (thousands)Not in the labor forceEmployedUnemployedlabor force
Total, 20 years and over23,969100.063.621.215.2
Managerial and professional specialty1,200100.068.218.513.3
Executive, administrative, and managerial751100.070.917.111.9
Professional specialty449100.063.620.815.6
Technical, sales, and administrative support1,133100.067.117.715.2
Technicians and related support136100.063.518.418.2
Sales occupations446100.071.213.815.0
Administrative support, including clerical551100.064.720.714.6
Service occupations229100.062.517.220.2
Precision production, craft, and repair571100.063.723.712.5
Mechanics and repairers140100.082.19.38.6
Construction trades152100.062.632.25.2
Other precision production, craft, and repair279100.055.126.418.5
Operators, fabricators, and laborers745100.053.029.117.9
Machine operators, assemblers, and inspectors458100.049.430.620.0
Transportation and material moving occupations171100.062.025.712.3
Handlers, equipment cleaners, helpers, and laborers116100.053.927.918.1
Farming, forestry, and fishing37100.0333
1Data refer to persons who had 3 or more years of tenure on a job they had lost or left between January 1999 and December 2001 because of plant or company closings or moves, insufficient work, or the abolishment of their positions or shifts.
2Total includes a small number who did not report occupation.
3Data not shown where base is less than 75,000.
source: "Table 5. Displaced Workers by Occupation of Lost Job and Employment Status in January 2002," in Worker Displacement, 1999–2001, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, 2002 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/disp.t05.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]
PeriodLayoff eventsSeparationsInitial claimants
1999
January–March1,509277,780252,122
April–June1,444294,968242,464
July–September1,097241,725189,973
October–December1,625334,794287,685
2000
January–March1,330254,646221,368
April–June1,271258,608231,471
July–September1,014230,103189,250
October–December2,005427,070376,611
2001
January–March1,765342,954340,210
April–June2,072481,886401,269
July–September1,815384,403371,541
October–December2,697542,125502,502
2002
January–March1,750334,017316,489
April–June1,905432,869353,017
July–September1,383310,351284,629
October–Decemberr2,257469,739421,646
2003
January–Marchr1,700334,605334,117
April–Juner2,131457,836418,702
July–Septemberr1,458300,901269,323
October–Decemberp1,956359,085272,807
p =preliminary.r =revised.
source: "Table A. Selected Measures of Extended Mass Layoff Activity," in Extended Mass Layoffs Summary, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC, 2004 [Online] http://www.bls.gov/news.release/mslo.nr0.htm [accessed February 16, 2004]

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