Introduction to the Internet Age (1980–Present)

The Internet Age profoundly changed the way the U.S. government conducted its business. Computer systems were expanded to provide citizens with vital information and to archive documents. Many transactions, such as payment of Social Security benefits, became paperless and quick. Nearly all politicians developed personal sites on the World Wide Web and used e-mail to communicate instantly and personally with voters; constituents could file complaints—or send campaign contributions—just as easily. Political activists, from individuals to corporations and special-interest groups, maintained Web sites that offered their own perspective on the issues.

For all its technology, the Internet Age faced many of the same challenges of earlier eras. The Cold War, a decades-long struggle over ideology and hegemony with the Soviet Union, finally ended, largely because the Soviet Union collapsed. However, that conflict was soon replaced by a battle against terrorism, manifested horrifically on U.S. soil on September 11, 2001, when hijacked commercial airliners were turned into weapons that killed thousands. U.S. troops retaliated with war in Afghanistan and Iraq, but the “war on terror,” unlike previous conflicts, transcended geographical boundaries; the United States was opposed by clandestine paramilitary groups in many countries, rather than by national military entities. Fear of additional attacks in the United States lingered as the weight of security measures grew.

On the domestic front the economy evolved from a state of malaise in the 1980s to historic prosperity in the 1990s. The stock market bubbled—largely because of investors’ faith in Internet companies—and then burst for those investors whose expectations were too great. The years of prosperity were also challenged by the expense of the antiterrorism war, by the effects of an aging population, and by new, aggressive competition in world markets. A previously unknown disease, acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS, became a serial killer. As the epidemic grew, so did a kind of public hysteria. Both were subdued, though not eliminated, by medical discoveries. Hurricane Katrina devastated the Gulf Coast and crushed Americans’ illusions about the nation’s preparedness for disaster. Global warming became the leading environmental issue of the era, and attempts by the government to regulate innovative technologies led to lawsuits to protect free speech, a fundamental constitutional right.

The presidency was dominated by Republicans. The popular, charismatic Ronald Reagan (1911–2004) took office in 1981 and was succeeded in 1989 by his vice president, George H. W. Bush (1924–). Both presidents pushed conservative political agendas. The more liberal Bill Clinton (1946–), a Democrat, was shadowed by financial investigations and sexual scandals, culminating in his impeachment by the House of Representatives, but acquittal by the Senate. Despite the scandals, he remained highly popular with the public. The hotly contested presidential race of 2000 sent Republican George W. Bush (1946–), the son of the former president, to the White House. The election was one of only four in U.S. history that hinged on electoral-college votes rather than the popular vote. Its outcome was ultimately decided in the courts. The enthusiastic poll ratings of Bush’s first term plummeted in his second term as the public grew disillusioned with the lingering war in Iraq.

One political constant was fierce partisanship. Polarizing personalities and conflicting philosophies led to shutdown of the government on several occasions. Discontent with the two major parties focused new interest on third-party and independent candidates. The 2000 presidential election resulted in feelings of bitterness and suspicion. Not surprisingly, the intense partisanship of the era was fueled by a cacophony of voices emanating from many new communication outlets—from talk radio to opinion shows on TV to chat rooms and blogs on the Internet.