Miniatures: Bikaner

An important branch of the Rajput maharajas of the Rathod clan, under Rao Bikar, established the state of Bikaner in 1478 in the semibarren Thar Desert in northwest Rajasthan. Bikaner remained prominent under the imperial Mughals through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and Bikaner painting, as well as other aspects of society, evinced a profound and sophisticated Mughal influence, to a greater extent than other schools of Rajput painting. Despite this impact, the Bikaner school lacked the liveliness and subtlety of the latter.

Royal archival day-to-day account diaries (bahis) and numerous inscriptions on Bikaner paintings make this one of the best documented of the Rajput schools. Inscriptions, mainly in the Marwari dialect but occasionally also in Persian script, reveal dates and artists' names and in some cases even the place of production and the occasions for which the works were commissioned. Evidently, there were interactions between visiting Muslim painters from neighboring Rajput states with local novices, who later adopted Islam and were called ustas. Political successes continued to draw more wealth, and painting flourished as well, attracting other Hindu and Jain painters.

Accomplished master artists, called gajdhars (or sutrdhars, "who hold a yardstick"), served as links between the patrons and their respective ateliers. In order to secure projects and their positions in court, they secured material, supervised the production of paintings, and disbursed stipends to other artists. They not only trained junior artists but also gave finishing individualized touches, which contributed to the style and trend of the traditional royal school.

Fewer than five hundred artists worked at the Bikaner court. They produced over fifteen thousand individual paintings and numerous illustrated manuscripts for the royal library, as well as zananas. Works were usually done on paper, but wood, hide, cloth, and ivory were also used. Surviving fine examples from the Bikaner Fort indicate that wall paintings, painted doors and furniture and even goddess statues (Ganvar mata, a form of Devī) were also painted by these artists. Modern postcard-size portraits of dignitaries as well as of Hindu divinities, especially Krishna with his flute, were produced as offerings to be presented on birthdays or after a death. Talented artists received high recognition and rewards, including money, land, and secure employment.

The paintings delved into popular subjects, connected either with royalty or religious events, inspired by contemporary issues and by other Rajput and Mughal courts. The paintings depicted royal activities (male and female durbār scenes, amorous scenes), hunting and war expeditions, Ragmala sets depicting the modes of music, Barahmasa sets illustrating the twelve months of the year, and Krishna-lila and other purely religious compositions, such as the acclaimed Vaikuntha Darsana (Vision of Vishnu's paradise).

Typical of the school were dwarfed human figures with large heads, awkwardly proportioned, appearing to float in the air. Rajputi-style trees were placed in a Mughal landscape, which was highly finished but less expressive than other Raput styles. The male figures in the painting were inspired by the shabihs of the maharajas, but the females were more similar to the prototypes that were first introduced in Bikaner by the visiting master painter Ustad Ali Raza of Delhi (fl. 1645–1665).

Beginning from Raja Rai Singh (r. 1571–1612) to the first quarter of the seventeenth century, with the help of imperial karkhana and visiting imperial artists, Bikaner royal karkhana started producing Mughalized and Popular Mughal style works. Maharaja Karan Singh (r. 1631–1669) and Anup Singh (r. 1669–1698), both great connoisseurs of art, gave Bikaner painting its distinct character, that is, an artistic combination of Mughal elegance with a forceful Deccani palette, resulting in an aesthetic visual Rajput adaptation. This style, initiated by Ali Raza in the second half of the seventeenth century, became a trendsetter for local masters such as Usta Ruknuddin (fl. 1650–1700), Nathhu (fl. 1650–1695), Isa (fl. 1680–1715), and Rashid (fl. 1675–1695). Out of eight, two lineages of promising painters, named after their founders—Umrani and Lalani—found long-lasting patronage. Usta Ruknuddin, from the Umrani house, and his son Ibrahim (fl. 1675–1700) supervised extensive production during Anup Singh's reign. Themes were executed in great length, and a major production of a Rasikpriya series was accomplished, in which local Bikaner style was more or less crystallized; it continued to influence Bikaner painters for centuries.

Some of the masterpieces of this period include the Vaikuntha Darshana (Abode of Vishnu, c. 1650, Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi) executed by the master painter Ali Raza; Ladies' Party (c. 1665), by Ruknuddin; and Lady Looking into a Mirror (1665) by Usta Natthu.

Influences of the Deccan and neighboring Rajput states of Jodhpur are evident in the works created during the period of Maharaha Sujan Singh (r. 1700–1736); here the approach was simple and direct. Following the existing trends, another set of Rasikpriya, under the supervision of painter Usta Nure (fl. 1646–1715), was produced. Human figures, trees, and architecture became slender and elongated, reminiscent of artistic trends during Aurangzeb's reign. Though some artists continued to prefer Ruknuddin's squarish faces, the majority followed Nure's preference for small oval faces. Until the third quarter of the century, human expressions remained lively, and landscape was well treated. However, compared to other Rajput schools, the compositions were less properly integrated.

The decline of the Mughals and political and matrimonial ties with Jaipur and Jodhpur witnessed another wave of pleasant interaction of local and neighboring artists during the reign of Maharaja Zorawar Singh (r. 1736–1745) and the first half of the reign of Maharaja Gaj Singh (r. 1746–1787). Jodhpuri influences dominated the prevalent conventional trends. Noteworthy, with its sinuous lines and delicate colors, is the portrait of Zorawar Singh Hunting (c. 1740, National Museum, New Delhi). Court master Usta Abu, son of Kasam, heavily inspired by Europeanized Mughal features, captured the grandeur of the court of Gaj Singh, who is said to have patronized over two hundred artists.

More artists arrived when further political and matrimonial ties with Jaipur were solicited during the period of Maharaja Surat Singh (r. 1827–1851). A new Bikaner hybrid style emerged with the coming together of the disintegrating Jaipur approach and the limping Bikaner style. Jaipur artists soon seized the prestige and landholdings of practicing painters such as Usta Abu, his son Ahmad (fl. 1804), and Ibrahim (fl. 1764). Crudely modeled figures, ornamental foliage and trees, and a preference for an unusal shade of acidic green characterize this new style. The technique seems to have been initiated by Usta Katiram of Jaipur (fl. 1815) and Gajdhar Sukharam and his son Balu (fl. 1754–1760).

The advent of the Company school of painting caused the further decline of the Bikaner school, as was the case throughout India. However, a small group of artists continued to work in the declining royal ateliers of Maharaja Sardar Singh (r. 1851–1872) and his successors.

Naval Krishna
Manu Krishna