Kings and Kingdoms from 400 to 800 C.E

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Kings and Kingdoms from 400 to 800 c.e.

The institution of early Irish kingship stands rooted in a "tribal, rural, hierarchical, and familiar" society. Each basic tribal, territorial unit (tuath) had its king (rí) whose sacral, unitary functions had long since devolved upon the expert in law or brehon (brithem), the poet (file), and the historian (senchaide). These offices and the kingship were shared closely within kin-groups. Stemming from Indo-European antiquity, the rituals and poetic vision serving this institution endured until the Flight of the Earls in 1607 and the collapse of the old social order.

Sacral Kingship

The king was ritually wedded to the land. Early texts refer to the feis ("sleeping with") or wedding feast initiating a king's reign. In legend, sovereignty, personified as a woman, might become beautiful for the just king or unkempt and deadly for the unjust. Like Medb ("She who Intoxicates") of the Ulster Cycle, this figure dispensed rulership as ale (laith) to the ruler (flaith). Other preludes to kingship included donning of a royal cloak and standing upon or touching a potent stone. A king was to be free of any bodily blemish rendering him unfit to rule. Thus early sources show him accompanied by a battle-smiter, a substitute churl for legal actions against him, and other surrogates. His death, even wounding, in battle, spelled defeat. Beyond this were auspicious or inauspicious actions (buada, gessa) he was to perform or avoid. His good rule was the fulfillment of fír flatha (prince's truth); his ill rule or prince's falsehood (gáu flatha) was linked to economic failure and was a harbinger of his death.

Inauguration

Inauguration occurred at a central, sacred place (a summit or sacred tree) in an assembly. A thirteenth-century text depicts the Ó Conchobhair king standing on the mound of Carn Fraoich attended by the principal lords and ecclesiastics of Connacht, while the chief poet (ollam) Ó Maolchonaire gave him a rod and sang his praises and genealogy. Advice to the king for just rulership—"princes' instructions" (tecosca ríg)—would be uttered, followed by a proclamation affirming both the truths of kingship and the king embodying them. Later, bardic poetry mentions the king's gift of a horse to the poet, and a twelfth-century Irish Life of St. Maedóg notes the king's bestowal of his royal cloak upon a witness adopting the poet's role as royal bride. Annalistic texts describe the foray to neighboring territories that might follow such a ceremony, ensuring subordination by gift (tuarastal).

Dynastic Succession

All males within the derbfine ("certain kin"), or descendants of a common great-grandfather, were eligible for election to kingship as the "one looked-forward-to" or tánaise. The tánaise was well positioned to assume his new role before the demise of his predecessor, so that social necessities and maintenance of a robust, limited pool of aspirants counterbalanced an institution that otherwise led to segmentation of populations. The other term for heir-apparent, rígdomna ("makings of a king"), was used more loosely, and applied to a wider group of eligible persons.

Kingship and Law

Every person had an honor-price ("face-value," lóg nenech). For the king of a tuath this was seven cumals (female slaves) or twenty-one milchcows; for a comfortable farmer (bó-aire), five milchcows. Clients and dependents paid rent in food, stock, land, or goods in return for a grant of fief (rath). A king's free clients (soer-chéli) constituted his retinue (dám). The candidate for king had to be a prince's son of good legal standing, preferably born from his father's principal wife. His house was considered to be a sanctuary from violent pursuit of legal claims. The king presided at the fair or oenach ("union"), a festal gathering of the tuath where he and the free nobles (gráid Ḟéne / soer-nemed) might enact the occasional change in legal arrangements (rechtge fénechais).

High Kingship

Closely associated with the relationship of king (rí) to mesne king (ruire) and overking (rí ruirech) was the concept of a high king (ard-rí) of all Ireland (the island seen as a goddess Ériu, "Fat, Fertile [Land]") whose incumbent would celebrate the inaugural Feast of Tara (Feis Temro). There were indeed high kings in Ireland, many of whom were recognized by surrounding peoples or are so described in the sources—though never one that completely dominated the island. Besides being imposed on the annals during the eighth century by the Uí Néill interloper, Clann Cholmáin Móir, in a way favorable to themselves, the myth began its progress toward reality at the end of the eighth century with consolidation of territorial lordships that grew quickly during the Viking Age.

The Pentarchy: The North and the South

Two other potent ideas influencing early Irish history were Ireland's division into Coíceda, "Fifths," and the concept of two halves, north and south. Thus the Doirse earthwork, sectioning off Ulster from Connacht, Leinster, Munster, and Meath, was a human construct supplementing topographical, economic, and strategic barriers between these areas. Likewise, the Escir Riata, running from Clonmacnoise to Clonard, was in Uí Néill ideology said to have been built, by agreement of ancient progenitors of the dominant northern and southern peoples, to divide "Conn's Half" from "Mug's Half," the "Head's Half" from the "Slave's Half."

Early Population Groups

The social structure, like the office of kingship, was fragile yet enduring, locally based upon the aggregation and dissolution of small units. The system excluded lineage segments falling outside of the kin-group by limiting the dynastic pool. Thus, between 400 c.e. and 800 c.e. new kingdoms grew or old ones became established more firmly. Early tribal nomenclature reveals the importance of ritual and religious (even totemic) associations, for example: dál ("share of"); -raige ("-people"); corco ("offspring of"); and the ethnographic suffix –ne. Thus: Dál mBuinne ("Buinne's Share"); Osraige ("Deer People"); Corco Duibne ("Offspring of Duibne"); and Luigne ("Lug's People"). Such names, and the formula MAQI MUCOI ("Son of the Seed of"), date from the fourth and fifth centuries as inscriptions on memorial stones for kings of southern Irish populations and for their expatriate relations in West Britain. These usages were waning swiftly in the fifth century. At the same time a linguistic, ethnographic shift took place that emphasized the blood ties unifying even larger social groups: clann ("progeny of"); cenél ("kindred of"); uí ("descendants of"). In the earliest sources such new relationships are a fact; the earlier tribal groups are already, or nearly, subordinated, or migrating to border, coastal, or mountain regions. Tribal histories, sagas, and annals rationalized such changes by retrospective and propagandistic genealogical fictions. Thus the Déisi were expelled, the Aithechtuatha ("Vassal Peoples") revolted and were subjugated, and the "Additional Peoples" (Fortuatha) of Leinster relocated to borderlands. The Gailenga, Delbna, and Luigne spread out in pockets across the island. The Érainn inhabited Munster, and the Airgialla ("Eastern Hostages") encircled Ulster, according to legend by agreement with the dominant Uí Néill, though perhaps driven there or simply emerging. Of all of these earlier populations, only the Osraige (Ossory), Airgialla (Oriel) and Déis Becc of Thomond were to be future political players—a branch of Dál Riata having migrated early in the sixth century to form a new kingdom in Scotland.

Development of Kingdoms

The strongest early populations of Leinster (Laigin) were Dál Messin Corb of Naas in Kildare, Uí Garrchon bordering Meath, Dál Cormaic by Kileen Cormac to the south, and Uí Gabla of Leix. The Uí Néill drove the northern Laigin out of the midlands early in the sixth century. Against this, archaic regal genealogies and praise-poems attest the rise of Uí Dúnlainge in north Leinster (Laigin Tuathgabair) and of Uí Chennselaig in the south (Laigin Desgabair) during the later fifth century. Within this overlordship the Uí Fáilgi inhabited Offaly and west Kildare, Uí Briúin of Cualu the northeast coast, and Uí Máil the Wicklow highlands. The Loíges held sway between Slieve Bloom and the Barrow. Amongst other peoples were the Wexford Fothairt Chairn and Uí Bairrche of the Blackstairs range and Bargy. The Osraige in Kilkenny and Carlow played off allegiances between Leinster and Munster. Powerful Uí Dúnlainge kings, such as Faelán mac Colmáin in the early seventh century, dominated Leinster until the eleventh, when Uí Chennselaig revived. In 738 the Uí Néill routed the Leinster kings at Ballyshannon, and peace ensued later in the 700s.

The Eóganachta of Munster (Mumu) held together various allied or subordinate populations: Éle and Múscraige of Tipperary and Cork, Uí Liatháin in the southeast, Corco Loígde of the Laune and Maine watersheds, Ciarraige in Kerry, Corco Óche of Limerick, Corco Baiscind, Alltraige, and Corco Modruad in Clare, Déis Becc in Thomond, Déisi of Waterford, and the Uí Fidgente northwards. The Eóganacht of Caisil commanded the Plain of Femin and routes to the north. Origin legends, and mutual, formalized relationships between the Eóganacht Caisil and their neighbors, emphasize the peaceful acquisition of Cashel as both regal seat and bishopric. Munster was an early center for literacy and for traffic with the Mediterranean and West Britain. The Eóganacht of Áine and of Airthir Cliach, in Limerick and Tipperary, neighbored the Cashel branch, challenging it during the eighth century. The southeastern Eóganacht Glendamnach (Glanworth) were ascendant in the seventh century, submerging the Fir Maige—their powerful king Cathal mac Finguine (742) a claimant to the high kingship. The southern Eóganacht of Raithliú were excluded from kingship by 590, and the kings of Loch Léin in the seventh century. By 800 the Eóganacht Caisil ruled the overkings of Munster.

In County Down, the Ulaid continued as the Dál Fiatach; they were predominant in Ulster in 600 and were variously aligned with or hostile to the Dál Riata of Antrim and the Dál nAraide between Belfast Lough and the Mournes. In 563 Dál nAraide and Dál Riata were defeated by the Uí Néill at Móin Dairi Lóthair. The Uí Néill again routed Dál nAraide at Dún Ceithirnn in 629. Together with their expatriate Argyll branch, Dál Riata, who had allied with the Uí Néill in 575 at Druimm Cett, joined themselves with Dál nAraide to strike at the Uí Néill and were routed at Mag Rath, Co. Down, in 637 by the "King of Ireland," Domnall mac Aedo mic Ainmire. Dál Riata and Dál nAraide contracted, and Dál Fiatach moved west of the Bann. By the eighth century, Ulster was no longer a major political force.

In Connacht were the minor population groups: Irrus Domnainn of County Mayo; Conmaicne and Delbna of Lough Mask and Connemara; Luigni, Gailenga, Grecraige of Lough Gara; Ciarraige of Roscommon; and Calraige of Drumlease. The Uí Maine inhabited an area along Lough Derg in East Galway. Connacht's foremost peoples were the Uí Ailello; the Uí Ḟiachrach—Muaide (in Mayo) and Aidne (southeast of Galway); and the Uí Briúin—Aí of central Connacht, Seola, south near Carnfree, and Bréifne. The latter expanded later during the 700s due to pressure from Uí Briúin Aí, by 734 they drove a wedge between the Northern and Southern Uí Néill. The Uí Briúin Seola dominated the homeland, consolidating their power between 700 and 723 and ousting the Uí Ailello in 764. By 766 Uí Briúin Bréifne had defeated Uí Briúin Seola. The Uí Ḟiachrach entered the Uí Néill ancestry in the high kings Nath Í and Ailill Molt.

The rise and hegemony of the Uí Néill in the north and midlands attended Ulaid's demise in the mid-fifth century and reached its apogee by the mid-ninth century. Pushed out of Connacht, the Uí Néill spread—eastwards from Mag nÍtha, southwards to defeat the Laigin between the mid-fifth and sixth centuries, and northwards to Glen Gaimin. The Cenél Conaill settled Tirconnell, and Cenél nEogain expanded southwards to Meath and, after the Battle of Cloitech in 789, moved into Derry, Tyrone, and Fermanagh to exclude Cenél Conaill from overlordship permanently. The southern Uí Néill split between Aed Sláine, Colmáin Mór, and smaller branches during the mid-sixth century—the first at Skreen east and south of the Boyne; the second settled around Lochs Owel and Ennell in Westmeath by the seventh century. Two lordships of Brega, north of the Boyne at Knowth, and south at Lagore, worked to Clann Cholmáin Móir's advantage, and when, after 724 and into the mid-tenth century, the northern branch monopolized the Brega lordship, Clann Cholmáin Móir dominated the midlands—by 770–797 suppressing Síl nAedo Sláine. Cenél Cairpre inhabited Tethba by Granard south of Lough Sheelin and north of the Inny. Cenél Fiachach settled by the sacred center of Uisnech, Cenél Loegaire west of Tara, and Cenél nArdgaile southwards, bordering the Uí Ḟaílge of Leinster. Several subpeoples (fo-thuatha) lay within Uí Néill territories: the Déis of Tara; west of these, the Fir Thulae; southwest, the Cenél Fiachach; Conaille in Muirthemne between Airthir and the sea; Gailenga; Luigne; and Ciannachta.