Creoles of Sierra Leone

PRONUNCIATION: CREE-uhls of see-AIR-a lee-OWN
LOCATION: Sierra Leone
POPULATION: 150,000–190,000
LANGUAGE: Krio
RELIGION: Christianity with remnants of traditional African religion

INTRODUCTION

The Creoles are a culturally distinct people of Sierra Leone. Their ancestors were liberated slaves from London, Nova Scotia, Jamaica, and parts of West Africa. They were brought as immigrants to the coast of Sierra Leone, where Britain established a haven for liberated slaves in 1787 and a colony in 1807. After passage of the Anti-Slavery Act in 1807, the British navy patrolled the West African coast, intercepted slave ships bound for the Americas, and released their captives in Freetown. From 1808 to 1863 thousands of liberated Africans came to Freetown, and by 1830 the crown colony had become home to more than 10,000 people, who by virtue of adoption and intermarriage became the Creoles.

By the late 1800s, the Creoles had become prosperous through trade and aspired to emulate the culture and manners of Victorian England. Trade grew between the Creoles and the peoples of the interior. In 1895, the British and French signed a treaty, establishing the current boundaries of present-day Sierra Leone, and the following year the British proclaimed the interior a protectorate.

In the 20th century, the racial stratification of the British Empire hurt the Creoles. Many were restricted to low-level civil service posts. Political reform in 1951 created new opportunities for the Creoles. In 1967, Dr. Siaka Stevens, a Creole and former Freetown mayor, was elected prime minister, a post he held until 1985, when violent strikes and demonstrations forced him to step down in favor of General Joseph Saidu Momoh, a Limbe. Overall, Creole political dominance diminished in the post-independence period as elections based on oneman one vote took root and new parties favored the numerically superior Temne and Mende peoples.

Momoh's rule ushered in twenty years of great political and social upheaval. The period was marked by four coups, brutal executions, and 11 years of rebellion and civil war fueled mainly by illegal diamond trading (1991-2002). Foreign troops and UN peacekeepers eventually restored peace and order, but not before thousands were killed and maimed, and more than two million people left homeless.

In 1999 the assault on Freetown by the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), and its campaign “operation no living thing” targeted the Creoles. Importantly, it made clear for all to see the dangers of long-term privilege and the horrific power of envy and discontent. By the end of 2005, most of the peace-keepers had left the country, and free and fair presidential elections occurred in 2007. As of the mid-2000s, a fresh urgency for balanced and equitable development throughout the country seemed to be prevailing.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The Creole homeland is a mountainous, narrow peninsula on the coast of West Africa, about 32 km (20 mi) long and 16 km (10 mi) wide. At its northern tip lies Freetown, the Sierra Leonean capital. The mountains towering above Freetown and its harbor inspired the Portuguese explorer Pedro de Cinta to name them “ Sierra Lyoa” (“Lion Mountains”), which later became Sierra Leone. The local African name was “Romaron”—“place of the mountain.” Town and location names such as Aberdeen Bay, Murray Town, Hill Station, Gloucester, Wellington, Hastings, York, and Kent testify to subsequent British influence.

The whole of Sierra Leone covers some 72,500 sq km (28,000 sq mi), roughly the size of South Carolina. The nation is bounded by Guinea to the north and east, and Liberia to the south. At 10° to 13° north latitude, Sierra Leone lies roughly at the same latitude as Panama.

The peninsula's mountain range is covered by tropical rain forests split by deep valleys and adorned with impressive waterfalls. White sand beaches line the Atlantic coast. During the rainy months, from May to November, monsoons dump as much as 15 cm (6 in) of rain in one hour. The mountains receive more than 500 cm (200 in) of rain annually.

All together, Sierra Leone is home to at least a dozen major ethnic groups, including the Koranko, the Mende, the Temne, the Fula (Peul), and the non-Muslim Vai. Groups that arrived before the end of the 18th century are known as “early settlers”; all others, including the Creoles, are the “later settlers.”

LANGUAGE

Krio, a language distinct from West African pidgin, is the mother tongue of the Creoles, less than 15% of whom are literate in English. It is widely spoken throughout the country at markets and in the workplace where it is understood by as much as 95% of the population. However, it is only the first language of about 10% of the population. The fear that Krio is becoming polluted by English (which is popular among youth) has prompted a movement to teach it more systematically in the schools.

In addition to adapting many English words into its vocabulary, Krio incorporates syntactic, semantic, and phonologic elements of West African languages and bears similarities to Gullah and Jamaican Creole. But Krio also has been influenced by other European languages. For example, “sabi” is of Portuguese origin, and “boku” is of French origin. In its pure form, Krio is practically unintelligible to the outsider.

FOLKLORE

Creoles have inherited a diverse array of tales from their ancestors. Especially popular with children, they amuse and provide instruction in Creole morals, values, and traditions. Among the best loved are stories about the spider. Children delight in his cleverness and grow nervous when his tricks get him into trouble. The following is a typical spider tale:

Once the spider was fat. He loved eating, but detested work and had not planted or fished all season. One day the villagers were preparing a feast. From his forest web, he could smell the mouth-watering cooking. He knew that if he visited friends, they would feed him as was the custom. So he called his two sons and told both of them to tie a rope around his waist and set off in opposite directions for the two closest villages, each holding one end of the rope. They were to pull on the rope when the food was ready. But both villages began eating at the same time, and when the sons began pulling the rope, it grew tighter and tighter, squeezing the greedy spider. When the feasting was over and the sons came to look for him, they found a big head, a big body, and a very thin waist!

RELIGION

While most Sierra Leoneans (60%) subscribe to Islam, Creoles are deeply proud of their Christianity, which blends with remnants of traditional African religion (see Rites of Passage ). The early immigrants either brought their Christian faith with them or were schooled by missionaries. In 1827, the English Church Missionary Society established the first college in West Africa, Fourah Bay College (now the University College of Sierra Leone), to train missionaries. Samuel Ajai Crowther, a liberated African and the first pupil to attend the college, became the first African bishop of the Church of England in 1864. Presently, there are some 15 different faiths and more than 70 churches in Freetown.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Coups, dictatorial rule, war, and financially hard times have dampened enthusiasm for Independence Day and other secular holidays. However, Creoles celebrate Christmas and Easter with much feasting. Children receive new clothes and gifts of money from their parents and relatives on these occasions. One popular holiday in Freetown is the end of the Muslim Ramadan fast. On this night, young boys carry thin paper lanterns attached to wooden frames. The parade begins at 11:00 pm, and parties with singing and dancing are held throughout the night.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Despite their outwardly Western ways, Creoles practice certain African rituals in connection with rites of passage. One such ceremony is the awujoh feast. Of Yoruba origin, awujoh is held to win the protection of ancestral spirits for newborns and newlyweds and gain wisdom regarding death. Awujoh is believed to appease angry ancestors and attain their guidance when someone dies.

At death, the pillows and blankets of the deceased are stripped off the bed because they are associated with the death struggle. Pictures are turned toward the wall. At the wake, relatives and friends sing spirituals and church hymns. (Aku Creoles sing songs in Yoruba: “This world, this world, is not ours.”) People clap loudly to make sure the corpse is not merely in a trance. The next day the body is washed, placed in expensive shrouds, and laid on a bed for a final viewing. Then, it is placed in a coffin and taken to the church for the service and then to the cemetery for burial.

The mourning period lasts one year. On the third, seventh, and fortieth day, awujoh feasts are held. The feast on the fortieth day marks the spirit's last day on earth. The family and guests eat a big meal. At a certain point, everyone is called to witness as portions of the meal, including beverages and kola nuts, are placed into a hole for the dead. The family and friends may talk into the hole to discuss their problems with the dead. They throw kola nuts on the ground to determine whether they have been heard and to see whether foul play was involved in the death. At the end of the year, the family holds another awujoh followed by the pull mohning day—the end of mourning. The mourners wear white, visit the cemetery, and then return home for refreshments.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

The Creoles are a sociable people, given to joking and teasing. Their gregarious nature is often expressed in gestures, such as hand slapping and handshaking. A common greeting in the morning is “Ow de body?” Historically Creoles have been united by their privileged social status, enjoying membership in many elite social clubs. In Sierra Leone, the Masons have traditionally been dominated by Creole men.

Traditional attitudes are still noticeable in Creole dating and marriage customs. For example, marriage is still viewed as a contract between two families. Therefore, parents or other family members seek out prospective mates for their kin from hardworking, well-to-do families. Dating ends when a mate has been chosen and the groom's parents set a “put stop” day, after which the girl can no longer entertain other beaus. “Put stop” has a scripted ceremony in which each family plays a part. Out of several possibilities, the groom's family indicates the young lady of its choice, who is always the last to enter the room. On the evening before the wedding, the groom's friends treat him to “bachelor's eve,” a rowdy last fling before marriage.

LIVING CONDITIONS

Creole families typically live in two-story wooden houses reminiscent of those found in the West Indies or Louisiana. Despite their dilapidated appearance, they have a distinctive air, with dormers, box windows, shutters, glass panes, and balconies. Several of them were burned or destroyed during the war, yet it is surprising how many of them have survived for over 200 years. The elite live in attractive neighborhoods like Hill Station, above Freetown. A large dam in the mountains once supplied reliable water and electricity, but in the aftermath of the war tanker trucks and pickups with makeshift tanks deliver water to the neighborhoods. People light their houses with kerosene lamps and cook on gas- or wood-fired stoves.

At rush hour, downtown Freetown is congested with Land-cruisers, Volkswagens, and Japanese cars. Broken-down cars are abandoned and left to rust in the “car cemeteries” of Freetown's back streets. Most people travel by taxi. Fares are negotiated before the ride, with the passenger usually offering half of what the driver demands. Pickup trucks (lorries) with wooden benches in the back provide rural transportation. These are efficient but overcrowded and carry rice bags, cassava, bushels of fruit, and chickens, as well as people, and sport a variety of colorful graffiti. Buses ply the main roads between provincial cities but are more expensive.

Freetown once had a reputation for being the “white man's grave” because of its endemic malaria. Large, deep drainage canals now carry off much of the monsoon rain, reducing the number of flies and mosquitoes. But social and physical infrastructure destroyed during the war will take many years to restore. Health care is still not available to many Sierra Leone-ans, the HIV/AIDS rate hovers around 7%, and life expectancy is 41 years. In 2007 Sierra Leone received the lowest Human Development Index (HDI) rating in the world, placing 177th out of 177 countries (measuring standard of living, health, and education).

FAMILY LIFE

Creoles live in exogamous nuclear families, but the extended family is important to them. Family members who do well are expected to help those who are less fortunate, assisting poorer relatives with school fees and business or job opportunities. Women typically shoulder the greatest domestic burdens, unless the family has hired helpers. In families with limited means, the women care for the children, clean house, do the marketing, cook meals, wash dishes and clothes, and carry wood and water.

CLOTHING

In the 19th century, Creoles wore European dress to imitate upper-class English manners and find acceptance in the higher ranks of society. Early settlers arrived dressed in European clothes, and the liberated slaves who came later were given English clothing. Woolen suits, bowler hats, stiff upright collars, white gloves, and cigars were the most obvious outward signs of a gentleman's acculturation. For her part, the civilized lady spent lavishly on the fashions of the day, usually imitating styles seen in magazines. Manual laborers acquired suits, which they wore on Sundays and holidays, and for weddings and funerals. In the fields, men wore pantaloons and vests, while at home women wore the traditional African wraparounds (lappa). Children often ran naked in the streets.

Today, pop fashions—jeans, T-shirts, and sneakers—are very much de rigueur for young people. However, the older set still dresses conservatively in European suits and dresses. On Sunday mornings, the Anglican and Catholic elites of Freetown turn out in their Sunday finery at the Regent Church service high above the capital. For every day, women wear simpler Western dresses, skirts and blouses, or the lappa with an African blouse.

FOOD

Creoles typically eat three meals a day, the largest enjoyed in the morning or near midday. The staple noonday meal is foofoo, a dough-like paste made of cassava tubers pounded into flour. Foo-foo is always eaten with a “palaver sauce” or “plassas,” which is a spicy dish consisting of leafy greens embellished with tripe, fish, beef, salt pork, and chicken. Red palm oil heated to a near boil forms the base of the sauce. Foo-foo and sauce must be eaten with the fingers of the right hand. A West African specialty, jollof rice, is also popular. This is a one-pot meal, most likely of Wolof origin. Other favorites include rice with various sauces, rice bread, and salad. Unless they are teetotalers, Creoles enjoy alcoholic drinks such as beer, gin, and palm wine. Fruit juices are made from pineapples, mangoes, and oranges.

EDUCATION

In the 19th century, the European notion of “bringing civilization to the heathen” provided a rationale to educate Creoles and hold them up as models for their pagan brethren. Indeed, the British made more public funds available per capita in Sierra Leone than in Britain itself in the early part of the century. Since a proper education assured upward mobility, Creoles sent their children to Fourah Bay College or to a British university. Now the University of Sierra Leone, Fourah Bay College, founded by missionaries in 1827, was once the “Athens of West Africa.” Based on this educational privilege, Creoles supplied the colony with lawyers, doctors, clergy, upper-level civil servants, and businessmen.

In the 20th century, schooling in Sierra Leone became universal. In 1987, tuition fees were abolished for government-funded primary and secondary schools making schooling more accessible than before. However, the war forced many schools outside Freetown to close. Though Creole children—by virtue of living in Freetown—fared better than most during the war, they also suffered school closures, teacher shortages, and substandard facilities. Sierra Leone lags behind much of the world with a literacy rate of 35% and a combined school enrollment of 45%.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

In the late 1800s, the Creole upper class was far more concerned with literary societies, public lectures, piano recitals, and dignity balls than with African drumming and dancing. They thought that Gumbay and Shakee-shakee dances were unseemly and unfit for civilized people. Creole attitudes toward indigenous dance have changed, and Creoles participate in Sierra Leone's internationally famous National Dance Troupe, which has members from all ethnic groups. In 1992, the troupe included sixty singers, dancers, and musicians.

The Creoles are still known for their intellectual and literary contributions. Creole educators, theologians, authors, dramatists, and poets have pioneered a burgeoning literature in the Krio language. The following stanza from a poem by Th omas Decker offers a glimpse into this body of work:

“Slip Gud”

    Slip gud, o, bedi-gial!
    opin yai lilibit
    en luk mi wan minit
    bifo you slip.
    Sleep well, my “baby-girl!
    Open your eyes a little bit
    Look, just for one minute
    Ere you fall asleep.

WORK

Creoles are found in all occupations and vocations. They farm, fish, trade, teach, and sell artwork and handicrafts. Many have left manual jobs for office work and other status jobs, only to find that these do not pay enough to support large families. Both men and women operate small businesses, such as food stands and restaurants. A growing number of Creoles have found employment in start-up non-governmental organizations (NGOs) many of which provide social and civil rights services in post-conflict Sierra Leone.

SPORTS

The favorite Sierra Leonean sport is soccer, called football in West Africa. Schools of all sizes have teams, and in even the smallest villages, games are played every evening. Although children may play without soccer shoes, they usually have uniforms. Though inspiring, the Leone Stars—the national team—have never qualified for World Cup finals.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Creoles enjoy going to movies, watching television, listening to the radio, and following soccer. Radio Sierra Leone was established in 1934 and is the oldest broadcasting service in English-speaking West Africa. Now transistor radios with shortwave and FM capabilities are found in even the smallest villages. With the growth of satellite television, the number of channels and the service area have expanded dramatically from Freetown to the hinterlands. Programs from the United States and England are very popular.

Recreational opportunities abound in and around Freetown. On weekends, especially Sundays, the beaches at Aberdeen are filled with soccer players, swimmers, joggers and casual strollers who come to see the fisherman bring in their catches, or who simply enjoy people-watching. Kabobs and cold drinks can be found in the many beach cabanas, seaside restaurants, and informal refreshment stands.

A favorite pastime for girls is hair braiding, which can take an entire weekend. Boys enjoy checkers and other games, while adults like to exchange visits with their friends. One of the regular forms of entertainment both in Freetown and in rural areas is the central market. In the villages of Kent, Sussex, and York, there is a designated market day every week. People come from miles around not only to buy and sell, but to dress up and exchange the latest news and gossip, with the added stimulation of fresh palm wine or beer.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

In the 19th century, the Creole elites favored “high-brow” hobbies, such as reading, playing instruments, and writing poetry, over crafts and folk art. Nowadays, small-scale arts and crafts centers flourish in Freetown, catering mainly to foreign tourists. Miranda Burney Nicol (Olayinka) and Phoebe Ageh Jones are two artists whose works have been distributed internationally. Cloth dyeing (batik) is a traditional craft that has recently been revived.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

The Creoles' problems are inseparable from those of other Sierra Leoneans. There are few jobs for school graduates and dropouts alike, which has increased the number of beggars and hawkers. The weak economy has encouraged other social problems like prostitution. Families that have taken in relatives must deal with the added stress that comes from belt-tightening and overcrowding. In Freetown, relentless migration from the provinces has increased congestion, pollution, and crime. Basic services barely function, and the government, businesses, and civil society need to do a much better job of controlling corruption. There is a genuine concern about the effects of almost a generation that has largely missed formal education.

While these problems seem daunting, the country is now in an intensive rebuilding phase, as is its neighbor to the south and east, Liberia. If handled properly, the next decade could present Creoles and their neighbors new opportunities to put the past behind and to find a common way forward. Young Creoles and their friends face a difficult future, but they also represent a generation with new ideas and potential solutions to old problems.

GENDER ISSUES

Creole women are the backbone of their families and of society. They manage the household and rear the children; many work outside the home. Virtually all Creole girls receive at least primary formal schooling, and the vast majority complete secondary school and beyond. The first Creole girl graduated from Fourah Bay College in 1938. The Church Mission Society founded the Annie Walsh Memorial School for girls in 1849, and many of its graduates in turn founded schools of their own. Hannah Benka-Coker has had a statue erected in her honor at the Freetown Secondary School for girls.

As a result of educational opportunity, many Creole women became influential in the women's movement in the early 1900s that culminated in the right to vote (for women of status) in 1930. Constance Horton, later Mrs. Cummings-Jones, became the first woman elected to a municipal council in Africa in 1938. Having been active in church associations, Creole women used their organizing skills to advocate for women's rights in the 1950s. Subsequently, many of them attained high positions in their respective professions. For example, Mrs. Constance Cummings-John was mayor of Freetown in 1966. In 2008 the executive directors of the Sierra Leone NGO association and of the Center for Good Governance were Creole women.

Nonetheless, Creoles and Sierra Leonean women face gender discrimination in the workplace. They also face inheritance laws and property rights laws that favor men over women. Rape and domestic violence are not uncommon, but are surrounded by a culture of silence. Although it is difficult to know how many of the victims are Creole, it is safe to assume that Creoles are affected. The Ministry of Social Welfare, Gender and Children's Affairs is poorly funded, relies mainly on donor assistance, and has few programs to support efforts to further the rights and progress of women in Sierra Leone.

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—by R. Groelsema