Butonese

ETHNONYMS: Orang ("people") Buton, Orang Butung, Orang Butuni

Orientation

Identification. Before 1960 the people living in the sultanate of Buton were called Butonese. To this sultanate belonged the main islands of Buton (Butuni or Butung), Muna, and Kabaena, the Tukangbesi Islands and two regions on the southeastern part of the island of Sulawesi (Rumbia and Poleang). In 1960 the more-than-four-centuries-old sultanate was dissolved and the two already existing regencies (kabupaten ) were fully incorporated in the Indonesian nation. The kabupaten of Muna is in the northern parts of Muna and Buton, and the kabupaten of Buton comprises the other parts of the former sultanate. This means that it is difficult to designate exactly who the Butonese are. It depends on time and situation. Today, most of the people of Muna will not accept being called Butonese.

Location. The area of the former sultanate is located between 4° and 6° S and 122° and 125° E. The total area is 11,300 square kilometers. The islands are formed from raised coral reefs, and are rather mountainous. Clayey plains are especially found in north and east Muna, northeast Buton, and Rumbia. The easterly monsoon is from May to December and the westerly monsoon from December to April.

Demography. In 1878 the population of the sultanate of Buton was estimated at 100,000; in 1980, the population of both kabupaten together was estimated at 491,144 (316,759 in Buton, 174,385 in Muna). The population density was about 44 per square kilometer and the population must be growing at the rate of about 2 percent per year.

Linguistic Affiliation. The language situation is complicated. Two main groups of languages can be distinguished: the Bungku-Mori Group, which is closely related to the languages of southeast Sulawesi, is used on the island of Kabaena, in the north and northeast of Buton, and in the area of Rumbia/Poleang on the mainland of Sulawesi, and the Buton-Muna Group is used in the other part of the former sultanate. To the latter group belong four languages or subgroups of languages. The first is the Wolio language. Wolio is the language spoken in the center of the former sultanate by the nobility (kaomu ) and the second estate (walaka ), who lived mainly in the center (Kraton Wolio), and some villages in the neighborhood. It is still spoken in that area, including the present capital of the kabupaten, Baubau. The total number of Wolio speakers does not surpass 25,000. The second language of this group is the Muna language spoken on Muna and the northwest coast of Buton. The third is the subgroup of south (east) Buton, and the fourth is the subgroup of the languages of the Tukangbesi Islands. All these languages belong to the Indonesian Branch of Austronesian. Formerly only Wolio, for which Arabic characters were used, was a written language. It is falling into disuse as a written language because the schools now teach the national Indonesian language using roman characters.

History and Cultural Relations

According to their own tradition, migrants from Johore established the kingdom of Buton, probably in the beginning of the fifteenth century. The kings (raja) had relations with the Hindu kingdom Mojopahit on Java and probably were also Hindu. The sixth raja converted to Islam in 1540, and so became the first sultan. Under his reign the whole kingdom was formally converted to Islam. It is clear from western records that Buton lay at a strategic point on the route from Java and Makassar (South Sulawesi) to the Moluccas, the heart of Indonesian spice production. Especially in the first half of the seventeenth century it was difficult for Buton to maintain its independence in the power struggle between the two Indonesian sultanates of Makassar and Ternate (North Moluccas), in which the Dutch East India Company, VOC, also played an important role. In 1613 Buton entered into the first contract with the VOC, during a meeting between the fourth sultan, La Elangi, and the first Governor-General, Pieter Both. With this contract Buton sought support for its independence from Makassar and Ternate. Only after the sultanate of Makassar had been subjugated by the VOC in the years 1667-1669 did Buton become free from this power struggle. From then on Buton formed part of the territory administered under the Pax Neerlandica. During the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries the sultanate of Buton managed to remain an independent kingdom. The government of the Netherlands-Indies was not really powerful enough in the nineteenth century to intervene effectively. But this changed at the beginning of the twentieth century. A new contract was imposed in 1906, which stated that the government could interfere in the sultanate's internal matters. Although it was "self-governing," Buton was then definitely part of the colonial system. The foundations were laid for entirely new sociocultural and economic developments, especially in connection with government, education, health services, and the economy. It was one more step toward complete integration in the sociopolitical system of the Indies, and after 1949 in the state of Indonesia. This integration, or incorporation, culminated in 1960 with the dissolution of the sultanate a few months after the death of the last sultan.

Settlements

At the beginning of the twentieth century appoximately 50 percent of the settlements counted less than 500 inhabitants, 35 percent between 500 and 1,000, and 15 percent more than 1,000 inhabitants. The residence pattern was either very concentrated or very dispersed. Both types were the result of the threat of attacks of pirates who ravaged the islands of the sultanate. Many villages, especially on the east coast of Buton and on the Tukangbesi Islands, were strongholds with thick and high stone walls around the settlement. Even a village like Rongi, in the center of the southern part of Buton and 30 kilometers from the coast, was a real stronghold. Villagers unable to build a fortress on a hill lived in a very dispersed way so as not to attract the attention of pirates, or to make it difficult for pirates to surprise a whole village. The colonial government and the Indonesian government tried to consolidate and concentrate the villages. In 1980 50 percent of the villages in the kabupaten of Buton had between 1,000 and 2,000 inhabitants, 32 percent less than 1,000, and 18 percent more than 2,000 inhabitants. In the kabupaten of Muna the percentages were respectively 63, 17, and 20. Baubau, the capital of Buton, had 17,879 inhabitants and Raha, the capital of Muna, 13,593 inhabitants. The houses in the villages on the islands are raised off the ground about 1.5 meters and are often sturdily built with balks and planks, a few windows, and a roof of small planks, atap (sago palm leaves), or corrugated iron.

Economy

Subsistence and Commercial Activities . The main subsistence crops are maize, tubers, and dry (ladang ) rice. Which is the real staple crop depends on the area. In Rongi maize is the main crop and rice the second. On the Tukangbesi Islands tubers are the main crop and maize the second. When there is a surplus these crops are also sold, but the main cash crops are tobacco, peanuts, and, recently, cashew nuts. In the villages on the coasts, fishing plays an important role. Surpluses are sold at markets. From time immemorial the Buton people have been renowned as the seafarers of the Eastern Archipelago. They were traders and transporters, using their praus with a carrying capacity of up to about 50 tons. The slave trade was very important for Buton in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. At the beginning of this century the total number of praus in the sultanate was estimated at 300. In 1981 the island of WangiWangi, one of the Tukangbesi Islands, had 220 sailing praus registered, 150 of which were still in use. A decline in use of sailing praus was paralleled by the increase in motorized sailboats, of which 37 were registered on that island, with a capacity varying between 10 and 20 tons. Because of mobility in Butonese society and the lack of economic opportunities in the area, many Butonese migrate to other parts of Indonesia, especially to the Moluccas. This is in part seasonal migration for the gathering of cloves on the Moluccan islands.

Industrial Arts. Most villages along the coasts have parttime specialists as boat builders. All villages have part-time specialists as performers of rituals, addressing such things as agriculture, house building, and curing of illnesses. Around the capital, Baubau, near the old center (kraton ) of the sultanate, some industrial arts involving, for instance, brass, pottery, and silver, still exist. In all villages, women weave silk or cotton sarongs, although this activity is declining. Peddlers, small stores, and markets are found throughout the Buton area. Present in the capitals Baubau and Raha are shops for all kinds of consumer goods, and bigger markets than those found in the villages.

Division of Labor. Seagoing was and is the work of men, as was governing the sultanate. Work in the fields is mainly the task of the men, but women assist when there is much work. Pottery and weaving are women's work, brass and silver manufacturing is men's work. Blacksmiths and boat builders are men. Preparing meals and most of the work within the household is done by women. They also keep the money that is earned by men and are involved in all the decisions about spending household money.

Land Tenure. Traditionally, rights to the land around the villages belonged to the community, and formally to the sultan. Every household had the right to use a part of this land, which was distributed by the village council. When the land was abandoned for a long time, it again became fully communal land. In accordance with present Indonesian law, land tenure rests with the individual. Most Butonese still have rights to land; only the descendants of former slaves, who became free after 1906, may still be landless.

Marriage and Family

Marriage. Polygynous marriages occurred especially among the kaomu and the walaka. The sultan, in particular, had many wives, for reasons of state integration. Most marriages today are monogamous even though Islamic law allows polygyny. Although parents are much involved in the arrangement of the marriage, freedom of partner choice was always a part of Buton culture. Cousins in the first, second, third, and sometimes fourth degree are distinguished by special kinship terms. In most villages marriages with the first cousin are forbidden, except for the nobility. In some villages marriages to second or third cousins are preferred, in order to keep possessions within the family. After marriage the man stays in the house of his bride's parents until he can build his own house.

Domestic Unit. The nuclear family is the usual domestic unit, forming a household in which it cooks and eats meals around the same hearth. After a wedding the newlywed couple often lives with the bride's parents. Old people, especially widows, often live in the household of one of the children, usually one of the daughters. Orphans usually live in the household of near kin. If a widow lives in her own house, one or more grandchildren often live with her.

Inheritance. Property is usually divided equally among the surviving children. Some goods, however, such as the keris (a ceremonial knife), are inherited only by men, and others only by women. The house is usually inherited by the child who stayed with the parents, after marriage, to care for them; usually this is the youngest daughter. In the kraton, more elaborate rules of inheritance existed than in the villages.

Socialization. Infants are now raised by both parents. Because Buton society was divided into four classes, the children of each class were socialized according to the norms of those classes. The girls of the kaomu and the walaka had to stay in seclusion between first menstruation and marriage; no men were allowed to see them. After World War II this custom disappeared. As in all of Indonesia, the opportunities for education are the same for both sexes.

Sociopolitical Organization

The former sultanate of Buton is now divided into two kabupaten, which form a regular part of the province of Sulawesi Tenggara.

Social Organization. In the former sultanate four classes were distinguished: 1) the kaomu, from whom the sultan was chosen and for whom certain positions were reserved; 2) the walaka, who also belonged to the ruling elite: the representatives of the walaka chose the sultan; 3) the papara, the inhabitants of the villages, living in rather autonomous communities; and 4) the batua, slaves, usually working for the kaomu or the walaka. After 1906 the slaves became free, but only slowly has their position improved. During and after the struggle for independence (1945-1949) the distinction between the different classes was no longer as socially and politically acceptable, but informally it continued to play a role, especially with marriages. Clearly distinct socioeconomic classes are not (yet) present in Butonese society. Thanks to the widespread education system, considerable social mobility exists.

Political Organization. The former sultanate included four small vassal states (barata ) which had their own ruler and council (sarana ) but which had to pay tribute to the sultan and to support him in conflicts. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the influence of the Buton state in the internal affairs of the principality of Muna was very weak. In the area that fell directly under the sultan and the sarana Wolio (the council of the state Wolio, or Buton), the people were organized in villages (kadie' ) that were more or less autonomous regarding internal affairs; each had its own sarana, which operated under the supervision of one of the members of the sarana Wolio. The kadie' had to support the sultan and the sarana Wolio with contributions of money, food, and manpower, according to written regulations. With the incorporation of the sultanate into the state of Indonesia the whole society is now organized according to general state laws. The two kabupaten are divided into several subdistricts (kecamatan ). The head of the subdistrict (camat ) is an appointed official. The head of the regency (bupati ) is chosen by the council of the kabupaten and appointed by the government. The subdistricts are divided into villages (desa ), with a chosen village head (lurah ), recognized by the government. In several villages in the Buton area an official of the office of the subdistrict was appointed as village head. In some villages the traditional village council (sarana kadie' ) is still functioning alongside and in cooperation with the "modern" village administration, as was the case in 1981 in the village Rongi. In other villages the traditional organization has completely disappeared. The present villages consist of one or more former kadie'. The Indonesian government provides a wide range of services including school, police, courts, health services, tax collection, and registration of vital information.

Social Control. Informal social control is still strong in the villages within the context of kinship relations, traditional village organizations (if still existing), and the religious organizations.

Conflict. Warfare with neighboring states ended after the Pax Neerlandica was established in the second half of the seventeenth century. In the past, internal conflicts might arise from disputes over succession to the position of sultan, or over the misbehavior of the sultan or high office holders. Sultans could be dismissed by the representatives of the walaka (the siolimbona ), who also had the right to choose the sultan. Since the incorporation into the colonial state in 1906, conflicts were suppressed first by the colonial power and then by the state of Indonesia.

Religion and Expressive Culture

Religious Beliefs. Islam is dominant in this area, although in the southern part of Muna there lives a small number of Christians (Roman Catholics), and in the regions (kecamatan) of Rumbia and Poleang, among the roughly 40,000 inhabitants Protestant Christianity is dominant. Because of the way Islam was adopted by and disseminated from the center to the villages, the knowledge of Islam in the villages is rather limited. It was the policy of the elite to spread the religious knowledge to the villages in a limited way, so as to keep them dependent. In the center itself Islam was accepted in the form of mysticism, or Sufism, which flowered in the beginning of the seventeenth century in Aceh, and from there apparently influenced Buton. Probably Sufism was rather in accordance with the Hinduistic beliefs that preceded Islam here. One remarkable feature of this Sufism in the center of the sultanate Wolio was a belief in reincarnation, which still exists in the present Buton, especially in the center. In the villages the belief in reincarnation was not very strong and was considered to be an official part of Islam as disseminated from the center, according to J. W. Schoorl. Nowadays a more orthodox form of Islam is disseminated throughout Indonesia, via instruction in the state schools by official teachers, and by the provision of sermons (chotbah ) to all the villages for reading during the Friday service.

Various supernatural beings play a role in village life, including guardian spirits of houses, praus, and villages; harvest beings; possession spirits who cause illness; and helpful spirits who provide guidance. The spirits of deceased kin, the arwah, still play an important role in the life of the Butonese. They can help their still-living relatives, but can also cause illnesses when they are disturbed by the behavior of these relatives.

Religious Practitioners. In the former sultanate, the religious council (sarana agama or sarana hukumu ) was in charge of all religious matters as far as they were associated with Islam. The council had its seat in the central mosque (mesydid agung ) in the kraton of Wolio. This council still existed in 1981 but in a limited form, and its main function, the close cooperation with the center of power, the sultan, and the sarana of Wolio, for the well-being of the sultanate, was lost after 1960. In former times there was also an integration of Islam and traditional adat. So four of the twelve moji (or modin —those who call for prayer) were called bisa and had the special task, accomplished through inner strength obtained by asceticism (beramal ), to safeguard the kingdom against natural disasters and attacks by enemies. In this work they cooperated closely with the sultan, who had the same task. The mosque in the capital Baubau is now the official center of Islam in the kabupaten of Buton. Officials and most of the Islamic people living in Baubau attend Friday prayers and the Islamic ceremonies in this mosque. In the Muslim villages there are village mosques (the langgar ), and the religious officials needed to organize the Friday prayers and some of the ceremonies, insofar as they are known in the villages. In Rongi there still was a religious council (the satana agama ). In addition to Islam, there are the traditional beliefs in supernatural beings and forces; several types of people with special knowledge of this supernatural world play a role in Buton society as mediators between those beings and the common people in cases of illness and uncertainty.

Ceremonies. In the Muslim towns and villages the main Muslim holidays are celebrated, although in the villages knowledge of these ceremonies is less than complete. In the center, most of the ceremonies contain elements of traditional Butonese religion. In the capitals and the Christian villages, the Christian feasts and ceremonies are held in the way that is usual in Indonesian churches.

Arts. With the dissolution of the sultanate, most of the court arts disappeared. Today, some efforts are being made to revive the old court dances. Butonese culture was not rich in traditional forms of art.

Medicine. Traditional healers (pande' or bisa in Rongi) still play an important role, especially in villages that are isolated from the capitals of the subdistricts (kecamatan), where at present there are clinics (puskesmas ) with modern medical personnel. The traditional healers usually find supernatural causes for the illnesses and prescribe prayers, offerings, or other rituals to neutralize these causes. The Butonese had an extensive knowledge of medicinal herbs and leaves.

Death and Afterlife. For Muslims, funerals follow Muslim rites mixed with some traditional elements. On the one hand the Butonese Muslim knows and more or less believes Muslim teachings about the last day (hari kiamat ) and the weighing of the good and the bad, going to heaven and hell. On the other hand there is still a strong belief in reincarnation, and many Butonese can tell into which child a grandfather, grandmother, or other deceased relative has returned.