The Amish

ALTERNATE NAMES: Old Order Amish, Amish Mennonites, Plain People, Anabaptists
LOCATION: United States (majority in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana); Canada (Ontario)
POPULATION: 218,000
LANGUAGE: English (with outsiders); German dialect known as Pennsylvania Dutch [or Pennsylvania German] (with each other)
RELIGION: Amish (an Anabaptist Christian sect)

INTRODUCTION

The Amish are members of a Protestant religious sect that traces its roots back to the Anabaptist movement in 16th-century Europe. The Anabaptists (a word that means "rebaptizers") believed in adult baptism (instead of the prevailing practice of infant baptism) and promoted a literal interpretation of the teachings of Jesus. In seeking to pattern their daily lives around the teachings of scripture, they promoted a complete separation of church from the government, a move that led to the persecution and death of many Anabaptists in the 16th century. In 1536 Menno Simons, a Dutch Catholic priest, became the leader of a small group of Anabaptists who soon became known as Mennonites. In the late 17th century, followers of the Swiss Anabaptist cleric Jacob Ammann broke away to form their own church, whose members came to be called the Amish. To the basic Anabaptist doctrines of adult baptism and nonviolence, Ammann added the inclusion of ceremonial foot-washing in the communion service, the strict shunning of excommunicated church members, and the practice of dressing in plain clothing.

Responding to government persecution and economic hardship, the Amish, like other Anabaptist groups, began emigrating to other parts of the world, including America. They arrived in the United States in two stages. The first wave of Amish immigrants settled in Pennsylvania between 1727 and about 1790; the second migrated to Ohio, New York, Indiana, and Illinois between 1815 and 1865. The Amish who remained in Europe were eventually assimilated into Mennonite or mainstream Protestant congregations, leaving only those who had emigrated to preserve their religious tradition. In the New World, the Amish faced hardships, including pressure to fight in the American Revolution, but found the religious freedom they had sought. They have continued to practice their religion, succeeding at agricultural and, more recently, nonagri-cultural work while preserving their cultural roots across the generations.

Those communities that practice strict adherence to Amish precepts and customs are known as the Old Order Amish and are easily recognizable to outsiders by their somber, conservative clothing reminiscent of a previous century and by their use of horse-drawn buggies instead of automobiles. In their attempt to live lives of simplicity comparable to those of their ancestors, they also farm without tractors and make do at home without telephones, electricity, central heating, and other modern conveniences. Living in close-knit communities, they rely on each other and on their devotion to their religion to meet their needs and ensure the continuation of their way of life.

While the Amish strive to live in the world, but not of it, they have not been able to completely maintain a distance from the ever present media. Since the mid 20th century, many movies, books, and television shows have portrayed the Amish community in not always favorable terms, often without a full understanding of the customs and practices of the people. Often this unwanted publicity leads to discrimination against the Amish, as they may be portrayed as backward people who are defiant of local governments. The practices of shunning and rumspringa (a time when some Amish youth rebel against the practices of their community) are sometimes portrayed for their sensational value without offering a complete explanation of their purpose in strengthening the bonds of community. Occasionally, the public eye is shown a little bit of the great faith and commitment to love and forgiveness that are so central to the Amish faith.

In 2006, a non-Amish gunman in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, went into an Amish school and held 10 girls as hostages. He then murdered five and injured the others before killing himself. The immediate response from the families and friends of the Amish children was one of forgiveness and reconciliation, not only for the shooter, but for his family as well. The Amish and Mennonites are often thought of as being part of the same group. However, while both share a common heritage and many common beliefs and practices, they are properly defined as two separate groups and, since immigrating to North America, they have generally maintained separate settlements.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The Amish population in the United States and Ontario, Canada, was estimated at just over 218,000 in 2007. The three largest communities are located in Ohio (54,270), Pennsylvania (48,600), and Indiana (36,180), accounting for nearly 70% of the total Amish population. Both Ohio and Pennsylvania have over 300 Amish church districts and Indiana has more than 260. Some studies have shown that the Amish population doubles about every 20 years. In 1951 there were about 200 church districts in the U.S.; in 2007 there were about 1,615. From 2000 to 2007 the largest number of new settlements were found in Wisconsin. The Amish also live in other parts of the country and can be found as far west as Montana and as far south as Florida and Texas. Altogether, they are found in more than 27 states in the U.S. There are over 4,100 Amish in Ontario, Canada.

LANGUAGE

The Amish speak English with outsiders and a German dialect among themselves. Their language is a combination of their native German and the English that they learned upon their arrival in North America. It is known as Pennsylvania Dutch. In this case, the word "Dutch" does not refer to the Netherlands, but rather comes from the German word Deutsch, which means "German." A sample of Pennsylvania Dutch words:

Pennsylvania Dutch is the language used at worship services and most members read from a German Bible. However, most Amish read and write in English. English is the primary language of instruction in the schools. A small number of Amish speak Bernese Swiss German; they are known as Swiss Amish.

The Amish refer to all non-Amish as English. They sometimes refer to themselves as Plain People.

FOLKLORE

The Amish do not believe in any non-Christian folktales, myths, or legends. However, many have retained a body of beliefs about folk healing, derived from both German and rural American traditions. Home remedies, including teas, tonics, salves, and poultices, are passed on from one family to another and between generations. In addition, some Amish subscribe to a somewhat controversial type of faith healing called sympathy "curing," or "powwowing," which relies on charms, amulets, and physical treatments. The following is a typical powwowing charm, said to cure a person who has worms. The following words are repeated silently while the healer circles the patient three times:

You are a little worm, not entirely grown.
You plague me in marrow and bone.
You may be white, black, or red,
In a quarter of an hour, you will be dead.

RELIGION

The Amish are Christians who believe in the direct influence of the Holy Spirit on the heart of the believer. For them, the Bible (Luther's German Bible) is of primary importance since they consider its text to be the direct word of God. The Amish faith is also shaped by two other texts: Martyrs Mirror and the Ausbund. Martyrs Mirror, first published in 1660, is a collection of stories concerning those who have been persecuted and martyred for their faith. The Ausbund is a hymnal of lyrics written by persecuted Anabaptists in the 16th century. The Amish profess the 18 articles of Dordrecht Confession, written in 1632, as a central creed. Individuals will study these tenets and accept them as their own confession of faith at their baptism.

The Amish adhere to the Anabaptist tenets of nonviolence and believer baptism. Their most distinctive belief, however, is that of a strict separation between church and government. The German word gelassenheit (gay-la-sen-hite), meaning "yielding oneself to a higher authority," is a primary principle of Amish life and religion. Believing that the laws of man are often at odds with the teachings of scripture, they choose to live by faith, apart from the common society, embracing the teachings of scripture as a guide for daily living, rather than conforming to local customs.

The Ordnung (meaning "order") is the set of scripturally-based practices and principles by which the Amish pattern their daily lives. The Ordnung is primarily a collection of oral traditions and beliefs passed down through the generations. While many practices are common to all Amish communities, the Ordnung generally differs somewhat from one community to the next, based on the local customs and interpretations of scripture.

There are four primary groups of Amish. The Old Order Amish are the most conservative in their strict adherence to traditional practices of plain dress, rural life and occupation, and separation for worldly customs. The Amish Mennonites and Beachy Amish split from the Old Order Amish and have fewer restrictions in practice. For instance, the Amish Mennonites and Beachy Amish may use electricity in their homes and drive automobiles, while the Old Order Amish travel by horse and buggy and rely on other fuels such as wood and kerosene for power. The New Order Amish separated from the Old Order in the mid 1960s. They also tend to use horse and buggy for transportation, however, many groups allow the use of electricity and telephones within the home and modern tractors may be used instead of the horse-drawn plows of the Old Order Amish.

Settlements that are geographically close to one another may form a single church district. Each district is headed by a bishop, two or three ministers, and a deacon, all of whom are chosen by a process known as "the lot." Only men may serve in these leadership positions and all men may be eligible for selection as a leader. No special theological training is required. The bishop presides over the sacraments of the church (such as baptism, weddings, and funerals). Bishops and ministers may preach at worship services. Deacons serve as coordinators for charity within the congregation.

Regarding church buildings as a sign of worldliness, the Old Order and New Order Amish hold their three-hour long Sunday worship services in the homes of church members without adornments such as candles, flowers, or musical instruments.
In many areas, services might take place every other Sunday, allowing for one bishop to serve two congregations. Services include singing from the Ausbund, prayer, scripture reading, and messages offered by the presiding bishop and one or two presiding ministers. Beachy Amish, and Amish Mennonites have adopted practices of holding weekly services in a meetinghouse. Special communion services open to the entire district are held twice a year, in the spring and fall.

As a community-based faith, maintaining strict church discipline is considered to be an important principle in strengthening both the spiritual and social bonds of the community. Minor offenses against church rules typically result in a rebuke or temporary ban, while serious infractions such as adultery or refusal to submit to church authority may result in excommunication and in "shunning" by the entire community. The practices involved in shunning and excommunication may differ from one congregation to the other; however, the overall purpose is not to condemn or cast out a member but to give them an opportunity to mend their ways, confess, repent, and return to the church. Only baptized members of the church are subject to the laws of church discipline.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

The major Christian holidays that are important to the Amish include Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost, although the manner and degree of observance vary from one community to another. Every wedding is a holiday in itself, involving not only the day on which the service actually occurs (always a Tuesday or Thursday) but also the day of communal preparation that precedes it. Christmas is the most important holiday, although Christmas trees and Santa Claus do not form part of the festivities (children may, however, receive modest presents, such as a simple toy or nuts and candy). The extended family holds a festive meal on Christmas Day. Good Friday is observed as a day of fasting. Some Amish observe Christmas and Easter for two days in the European manner. Thanksgiving is celebrated without all the festivities usually associated with it by non-Amish Americans. For the Amish, Thanksgiving is a quiet day for visiting friends and relatives.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Baptism is viewed as the most important rite of passage within the community. Most individuals choose to be baptized, between the ages of 18 and 22. At the time of their baptism, they are expected to make the profession of faith and a vow that marks the beginning of their lifelong commitment to the teachings of scripture and adherence to the Ordnung.

In some communities, the decision to be baptized is proceeded by a period known as rumspringa. Beginning at about age 16 and sometimes extending to the age of about 22, many young men (primarily) and women may participate in "worldly" activities such as wearing English style clothing, going to movies, buying and driving cars, going to bars and nightclubs, and even spending time in the English world with English acquaintances. The purpose of rumspringa is to show the youth that their decision as to whether or not they will be baptized into the church and the community is a personal choice, not a dictate. Once a member takes their baptismal vow, he or she is expected to follow all of the practices of the church and is subject to church discipline, including shunning and excommunication. Individuals who choose not to be baptized may leave the community without formal sanctions from the church.

Weddings are large public affairs in which the entire community participates; for this reason they are usually held in the fall (particularly in November), when the agricultural workload is light and everyone can be involved. Weddings are typically held on a Tuesday or Thursday, a schedule that allows for one full day of cooking and other preparations, one day for the wedding party, and one day for clean up. Weekend weddings would conflict with the Sunday Sabbath day of rest. The wedding itself involves a church ceremony followed by an elaborate communal meal, usually at the bride's home. The bride typically wears a blue dress that she has made herself and a white apron. This dress will serve as a Sunday worship dress. The groom will wear a black suit. The couple's parents provide substantial gifts, such as farm equipment or livestock, to help the couple start out on their own. The newlyweds may live with the bride's parents until they have a home set–up for themselves. During the weeks following the wedding, the couple will spend weekends visiting the homes of relatives, at which time they often receive wedding gifts of practical household items.

Although death is treated with solemnity, it is accepted as a matter of course. Funerals usually take place on the third day after death. The deceased is typically dressed in white and buried in a coffin made to traditional specifications by an Amish carpenter. A woman may be buried with the same white apron that she wore at her wedding.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Since the Amish tend to marry within their own communities, many Amish people have the same family names—among a population of over 200,000 there are only about 126 surnames altogether. The most common names in Indiana and Ohio are Miller and Yoder; in Pennsylvania, they are Stoltzfus and King. Given the small number of surnames, it is common to find Amish persons who share exactly the same first and last names, a problem dealt with by the widespread use of nicknames within the Amish community.

Most social interaction between members of the community takes place in private homes. Husbands and wives do not display affection in public, since it would be considered immodest. Young men and women often meet together for a Sunday evening singing. It is often through this fellowship gathering that young couples meet and begin a courtship. The young man may drive or walk the young woman to and from the singing and might then spend some time at her home as the two get to know one another. When they decide to marry, the woman's father will announce or "publish" the engagement during a Sunday worship service and announce the date of the wedding.

While the Amish do interact with their English neighbors from time to time, this is usually in a public business setting, such as at shops or restaurants. The Amish do not serve in the military, vote, or recognize the authority of any worldly government. The Amish suspicion of government and authority is a holdover from the mistreatment they received long ago from the governments of their European homelands. As much as possible, the Amish reject worldly things and material goods. Within their church congregations, they strive to maintain

strong discipline, as well as honesty and love for all, inspired by the example set by the earliest Christians.

LIVING CONDITIONS

Since the Amish practice of separation from the outside world rules out college attendance, there are no Amish physicians. While some may find doctors they trust outside their own communities, many Amish also consult with folk healers and other providers of alternative medicine, including chiropractors. While there is no specific Biblical citation against the use of modern medical practices, most Amish choose to forego more high-tech procedures and medications as a way to express faith in healing from God. Some Amish people resist preventive health care measures such as immunization. Most women give birth at home with the aid of a midwife.

Amish homes tend to be large and simple, with little decoration other than quilts and china. Furnishings must be spare enough to allow room for religious services, which rotate from one home to another instead of being held in a church. Area rugs are preferred over wall-to-wall carpeting, which is considered overly extravagant. In the winter, individual rooms are typically heated with a kerosene heater or wood stove rather than central heating. The use of electricity and other services provided by public utilities is generally forbidden.

A strong sense of community and mutual aid is present in every Amish community. Members of the community freely offer their financial and other physical resources to one another in times of need. The Amish typically do not accept government-sponsored welfare or social security and do not purchase health or life insurance. Instead, the needs of families and individuals are provided for by extended family or by the community at large through special funds set up for this purpose. Amish communities are also supportive of each other in a greater reach as well. If one settlement suffers from floods, tornados, or other natural disasters, members of other settlements will travel, sometimes at great lengths, to assist in rebuilding.

The main means of transportation for the Amish is the horse-drawn buggy or wagon. They do not use motor vehicles. Some may refuse even to ride bicycles, although Amish children are generally allowed to ride scooters.

FAMILY LIFE

The Amish are strongly committed to marrying within their own communities—and remaining married to their original partners—since the perpetuation of their way of life depends primarily on producing new generations rather than increasing their numbers through conversion of people from outside their communities. The centrality of the family in Amish life can be seen in the fact that the Amish measure the population of their communities by the number of families rather than the number of individuals. Their families are typically large. The average number of children in an Amish family is about seven and one-fourth of the Amish have ten or more children. Divorce is not permitted.

Family roles are clearly defined. The husband is considered to be the head of the household, as both the spiritual leader and primary breadwinner. Women serve as the primary care-givers for children while maintaining the home. Husbands and wives do not display affection in public. While strict obedience is expected of Amish children, attitudes toward children are generally loving and affectionate. Amish children begin helping their parents with farm work or other domestic chores at an early age. Older children are expected to help care for and set an example for their younger siblings. It is not unusual for the family home to contain three generations. The elderly often live in small apartments attached to or on the same property of the home of one of their adult children. Adult brothers may maintain farms or businesses in cooperation with each other. Adult sisters may maintain a relationship with one another through special "sister's day," held once a month or so at the home of one of the women as a means to combine both social and work activities, such as canning vegetables together or sewing a quilt.

An Amish person who is excommunicated by the church and shunned by the community is also shunned by his or her spouse and family as well. While the particular practices involved in shunning differ from one community to another, the shunned individual is not necessarily expected to leave the family home. In some communities, the one who is shunned is not permitted to participate in some social activities with other family or community members and is not permitted to sit at the same dinner table as the others. The period of shunning is meant to lead a person to confess their wrong doing, repent, and reaffirm their vow to the church and the community.

CLOTHING

The plain style of dress adopted by the Amish is part of the reason that they have become known as the Plain People. The practice of dressing in plain clothes is related more closely to the concepts of community than to any religious belief. Humility and obedience are of far greater importance to the Amish community than pride and individualism. By dressing plainly and in similar fashion, the community embraces a sense of oneness and of separateness from the world.

Colors and styles of clothing may vary from one community to the next, but there are many similarities. The Amish fasten all their clothing by means of old-fashioned hooks and eyes or buttons, rather than zippers or Velcro. Most clothing is made at home with fabric purchased at a local store that specifically carries the types of fabrics acceptable for use. Amish women wear solid color dresses with long sleeves and full skirts. Some groups may allow short-sleeves for women, especially in summer months. Although they do not use patterned fabrics, their clothes can be colorful. Besides the neutral black, gray, and brown, dresses may also be green, blue maroon, or purple, among other colors. Women typically wear aprons and shawls. Women's clothing is fastened with straight pins or snaps. Women and girls almost always wear a bonnet or prayer covering. The styles of these head coverings may differ by community and, within each community, the color and style of the bonnets may have special significance. For instance, young, single women might wear black bonnets while married women wear white. A community might have one style of bonnet for children and youth and another style to show that one has been baptized. Women never use makeup or perfume, nor do they wear jewelry of any kind, including wedding rings, since wearing such items might lead to prideful attitudes. Women wear their hair in braids or in a bun.

The men normally wear ordinary solid colored shirts, often blue or white, with full-cut pants called "broadfalls." The broadfalls are so named because instead of having a zipper in front, they have a wide flap that folds down when necessary and is fastened up at the sides. Broadfalls are always held up by suspenders, never belts, and they do not have creases or cuffs. Suit coats are straight-cut, black or navy blue, and without collars or lapels. Men typically wear broad-rimmed black felt hats. Straw hats are worn by some groups, particularly in summer. Boys and single men stay clean-shaven until they get married, at that time, they grow beards, but never mustaches. Men and women wear boots, sneakers, or any other plain, comfortable footwear. In the summer, many go barefoot.

FOOD

Amish meals are typically prepared in old-fashioned country kitchens, on a gas or wood stove, since the Amish do not use electricity. Women will generally can their own fruits and vegetables. Meals tend to be plain and filling, of the meat and potatoes type of meal, and entirely homemade. Very few processed or prepared foods are purchased by Amish families. Even so, the Amish do enjoy some unique and tasty dishes. Dandelion salad with bacon-fat dressing is a favorite. Another is Snitz un Knepp , dried apple slices cooked in sugar water with dumplings like doughnuts and served as a stew. Snitz pie is a pie made from dried apples. Chow-chow is an assortment of pickled vegetables. A tasty snack is cup cheese, a creamy smooth cheese that is best when spread on bread or crackers. Lebanon bologna is a type of cold sausage and red beet eggs are pickled in beets and vinegar and sometimes eaten straight from the jar. Cream of celery soup is a particular favorite for many Amish weddings. In Amish families, the main meal is served in the evening during the part of the year when school is in session. When summer comes, the main meal is served at noon, with soup and sandwiches for supper.

EDUCATION

Most Amish communities have their own schools, where children of all ages learn together in one- or two-room schoolhouses with no restrooms and no hot water. In some rural communities, Amish children will attend public schools. Amish young people complete school only up to the eighth grade. After that, they are expected to become full-time workers on the family farms or businesses, although they sometimes continue their schooling one-half day each week, perfecting their skills as needed. The Amish do not believe it is necessary for their young people to attend high school or pursue an education at the college level. They do not value education for its own sake or feel that education makes one a better person. The standard curriculum includes reading (in basic German and in English), basic arithmetic, spelling and grammar (primarily in English), and some history and geography. Topics in science, independent thinking, or critical analysis are not considered appropriate or necessary. As for life skills, Amish boys learn farming from watching and helping their fathers, while Amish girls learn to be good homemakers by imitating their mothers. Teachers in Amish schools are not required to have attended college. Instead, young Amish people, usually women, whohave distinguished themselves as students simply remain in the school, assuming the role of teacher to the younger children. Within the school, older children will serve as tutors to the younger children.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Although artistic expression does not play an important role in the plain and simple lifestyle of the Amish, they do enjoy singing religious songs—mostly hymns sung a cappella as part of their religious services, at weddings, and Sunday singing sessions for young adults. The Amish also entertain their young children with sing-alongs and nursery songs. There are several Amish publications, including two newspapers, Die Botschaft ("The Message") and the Budget, which consists largely of news about the various Amish communities. There is also a magazine for Amish teachers, Blackboard Bulletin, a monthly called The Diary: Of the Old Order Churches, and a publication called Family Life.

WORK

Traditionally, most Amish people are farmers, with family farms small enough to be run without the aid of mechanization, including tractors. More concerned with subsistence than with high profit margins, these Amish farmers raise livestock in modest numbers along with a variety of crops. Since about the 1960s, however, some farms have become more specialized, such as dairy farms or chicken farms and tend to be more fully mechanized, with items such as mechanical milkers and large cooling tanks. Many Amish have begun working at nonfarm jobs within their surrounding English communities. Amish men might find work at commercial construction companies or start their own businesses in furniture and cabinet making. The Amish community in Pennsylvania's Lancaster County is home to over 1,000 such businesses, including furniture makers, construction contractors, and quilt shops. Relying on long hours and quality workmanship, Amish entrepreneurs are thriving, with a failure rate much lower than the average for small businesses. Some single women or married women whose children are grown might find part-time jobs at local shops or restaurants. Women may also make quilts for sale at local shops or offer their own canned and baked goods for sale at farmer's markets, bakeries, restaurants, and general stores.

SPORTS

The Amish play as hard as they work. Although they do not participate in organized community or professional sports, they often play games of softball or volleyball. In season, hunting is a popular pastime among Amish men and Amish boys enjoy hiking. The country life of the Amish provides many opportunities for outdoor recreation. In the summer, everyone enjoys fishing, swimming, and all kinds of games; while in the winter, sledding and skating on frozen ponds provide plenty of excitement.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Amish children usually play with homemade rather than store-bought toys. Teenage girls enjoy playing clapping games called "botching," played by two people seated opposite each other in chairs. Families often spend leisure time attending weekly auctions and visiting relatives and other members of the community. In the fall, the many weddings that take place typically occupy much of a family's leisure time. Sunday evening singings are a popular activity for young men and women. Some Amish will travel to different areas of the country for family reunions or simply to visit other Amish communities. Some families might vacation by travelling to historic sites or national parks. Some Amish communities may even charter buses to travel to distant locations.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

The Amish women are known for their quilts, which are all hand-stitched with distinctive styles. Quilt making is an important communal activity as well as a form of artistic expression. In addition, it has taken on increasing economic significance as Amish women have begun selling quilts to the general public in greater numbers. Amish quilts are also exhibited in museums and other public places, both in the United States and in other countries throughout the world. Amish made furniture and cabinetry has also become popular in the general commercial market. Personal photography and other types of representational art are not generally used among the Amish, in part because of a religious belief against creating graven images, but also because photos and other images of individuals might lead to expressions of pride rather than humility.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

A primary problem for the Amish and similar groups is the struggle to maintain their traditional ways in the face of the temptations of the modern world that surrounds them. The Amish are very much in the world, if not of it, and they see quite clearly the advantages that modern technology can provide. An Amish farmer toiling behind a horse-drawn plow can look up and watch his neighbor do his plowing with a tractor in a fraction of the time. An Amish family travelling in a horse-drawn buggy may worry about their safety on roads with fast cars and semi-trucks. The temptations of the English world are even more evident to the young people. Like teenagers everywhere, many Amish young people engage in typical forms of mischief. Usually, though, they return to the old ways as they grow older.

The strict beliefs and practices of the Amish mean that problems such as alcoholism and addiction, homelessness, or domestic violence are very rare. If such issues arise, they are usually quickly and strictly dealt with by church officials and those who are in need of assistance are offered such.

The Amish have sometimes faced difficulties with government authorities over issues of health care, education, and child labor, since they do not accept standard government regulations in these matters. The Old Order Amish Steering Committee, organized in the late 1960s, serves as a representative body through which the Amish may most easily deal with specific issues that arise. Most cases are settled amicably as most issues fall under a protection of religious freedom.

The Amish are sometimes discriminated against as being a backward and uneducated people. Their separation from the world is sometimes interpreted as hostility or general defiance against government. However, the Amish believe it is important to show respect for local government and government officials. They will accept the rules and regulations of the government as long as they do not come in conflict with their religious convictions. The Amish do contribute to society by paying state and federal income tax, sales and real estate taxes, and in many cases, public school taxes. The Amish are exempt from Social Security taxes because they consider it to be a form of insurance. In return, they do not accept Social Security or other government-subsidized welfare benefits. The Amish are permitted to vote, but most do not, unless there is a particular local issue that affects their community.

GENDER ISSUES

The roles of men and women are clearly defined along very traditional lines. It is very rare for men or women to remain single. The husband is the head of the household as a spiritual leader and as the primary financial support for the family. The wife is the primary caregiver for the children and is primarily responsible for maintaining the home. Women may perform some tasks on the farm, such as milking or care of livestock. Husband and wife might make joint decisions concerning the household and on matters of discipline for children. However, the amount of input that the wife has in such decisions may depend on the attitude of her husband. Mothers with young children generally do not work outside of the home and farm. Single women or mothers with grown children might work part-time in local shops or restaurants. Some single or older women may be permitted to own and operate a business, such as a quilt shop, bakery, or greenhouse, but only when this is allowed within the Ordnung and if the woman's husband (or father in the case of single women) approves. Only men are permitted to be leaders in the church and community.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Igou, Brad, comp. The Amish in Their Own Words. Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1999.

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—reviewed by K. Ellicott