Mineralogy and Geology

Sources

Natural Formations . Because they saw objects in nature as symbols of God’s mercy and majesty, Muslims examined soil, rocks, and minerals as one way of seeking an understanding of the relation between the earthly world of humans and the divine world of the angels and God. Muslims studied rock formations to unlock the mysteries of geological changes that had taken place on the surface of the earth: changes of land-masses into seas and seas into landmasses, or massive disruptions such as erupting volcanoes or earthquakes. The writings of the Ikhwan al-Safa (Brethren of Purity), a tenth-century brotherhood of mystical Muslim scholars, described fossils as petrified sea creatures in deserts that had once been covered by seas. (In western geological histories the mystery of the origin of fossils was not solved with confidence until the 1700s.) Muslim scientists also wrote about the ways in which sand and wind can alter rock formations. Describing how sedimentary rocks are formed, they divided them into three major categories. The first is rock such as sandstone, or shale, which is made of rock fragments from one place that are deposited in another, usually by flowing water. The second, such as rock salt, or gypsum, is formed by the combination of minerals and water. The third, which includes limestone, is formed from the remains (such as shells or skeletons) of living organisms. Perhaps the most remarkable geological discovery made by a Muslim scientist was al-Biruni’s eleventh-century identification of the Ganges Plain of India as a sedimentary deposit (which he viewed as evidence that it had once been under water). In his Tahqiq al-Hind (Facts About India, circa 1030), he wrote about discovering rocks in forms that were completely opposite from what one might expect: “if you see the soil of India with your own eyes and meditate on its nature, if you consider the rounded stones found in the earth however deeply you dig, stones that are huge near the mountains and where the rivers have violent currents, stones that are of smaller size at the greater distance from the mountains and where the streams flow more slowly, stones that appear pulverized in the shape of sand where the streams begin to stagnate near their mouths and near the sea—if you consider all this, you can scarcely help thinking that India was once a sea, which by degrees had been filled up by the alluvium (deposits) of the streams.”

Gems . Within Islam the study of mineralogy weaves together many different fields, including alchemy, chemistry, metallurgy, and medicine. Muslim scientists not only described the outward, physical properties of gems, but they also wrote down their thoughts about the “inner” characteristics of these stones. They believed that gemstones had powers that could be used to heal a person or change one’s psychological state. For this reason studies of minerals found their way into medical textbooks and works on philosophy or religion, as well as purely scientific writings. Al-Kindi (circa 801 - circa 866) wrote of the earliest Muslim texts on mineralogy. His Risalahfi anwa’ al-jawahir al-thaminah iva ghayriha (Treatise on Various Types of Stones and Jewels) laid the foundation for later studies in the field. Another of al-Kindi’s books discussed the properties of various metals, as well as the art of making swords. Ibn Sina (980-1037) wove mineralogy and metallurgy into the study of medicine, classifying metals and minerals in his Kitab al-shifa’ (Book of Healing) and expanding on the study in his Qanun fi’l-tibb (Canon of Medicine). In the eleventh century al-Biruni wrote his important Kitab al-jamahirfi ma’rifat al-jawahir (Book of the Multitude of Knowledge of Precious Stones), which treated mineralogy from the viewpoint of a scientist working in the field. During the late tenth and early eleventh centuries, studies were also done in the Maghrib region of northwest Africa and in Muslim Spain. In the Mahgrib, al-Majriti included a section about minerals in his Rawdat al-hada’iq wariyadal-haqa’iq (The Garden of Gardens and Meadow of Truth), which links the science of mineralogy with alchemy, philosophy, and the occult. Ibn al-’Arabi (1165-1240), the great Sufi philosopher of Spain, included a section on the mystical nature of gems in his book on how divine influence will restore the human kingdom through natural creation. After this time, most of the notable Muslim works on mineralogy were written in Persia, India, and Turkey.

Sources

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study (London: World of Islam Festival Publishing, 1976).

Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968).