Literature: Sagas and Other Early Medieval Writings
Literature: Sagas and Other Early Medieval Writings
Celtic Literature and Illuminations. Celtic scholars had a great influence on ninth- and tenth-century philosophy and theology. Celtic literature and the decorative techniques used in their manuscripts also influenced European literature, particularly epics and other poetry. Although the stories and themes of this literature were rooted in the pre-Christian era, much of it was written down in the period after 814. In fact, one of the distinguishing characteristics of Celtic literature is its blend of pagan and Christian themes, especially the presence of divinity in nature and a sense of the supernatural. The Celtic hero is often visited by benign and malignant spirits and is susceptible to visions. The voyage across a long, deep sea or to another world is another Celtic motif that had a major influence on later medieval literature. Poems such as the Tain (first written down about 900), which recounts the battles and fall of the hero Cuchulain, include themes found in later heroic poetry such as Beowulf.
Old Norse and Germanic Legends. Legends from northern Europe also fused pagan and Christian themes, particularly the value of courage and the importance of a warrior ethos. The earliest Old Norse works are the eddas, which were written down in the tenth century, but seem to have been recited beginning in the seventh. In these legends the afterlife includes Valhalla, the upper world presided over by the chief god Odin and his maidens, the Valkyries, and a lower world guarded by the goddess Hel (the origin of the English word hell). Other gods include Thor (god of thunder), fertility gods, and gods of nature. One of the more influential eddas is the heroic cycle of the Vohunga Saga, which influenced Old English poetry such as Beowulf and Deor’s Lament and in German Nibelungenlied (written down circa 1190–1200). The many sagas in Old Norse literature are dramatic retellings of ostensibly historical events whose resolutions offer morals for their listeners. Because of their style and purpose, sagas set in their historical context are important for understanding of Norwegian and Icelandic societies in the early Middle Ages. The story of Sigurd and his relations with the woman warrior Brynhild, the Vohunga Saga is like a modern murder movie involving elaborate family relationships, lots of bloodshed, secret meetings, and vicious curses.
Early German Literature. As in Celtic and Old Norse literature, one of the most striking features of early German literature is the fusion of pagan and Christian themes—a sign of the transformations occurring in European society during the early Middle Ages. Indeed, the continued popularity of these works throughout the Middle Ages demonstrates the ongoing influence of pagan, Germanic values in what was ostensibly a Christian, Romanized Europe. Two of the most significant early German works are the epic poems Hildebrandslied and Nibelungenlied, designed to be chanted over a period of days or weeks as entertainment at large gatherings. The Hildebrandslied focuses on the problem of conflicting loyalties, a theme that had particular resonance for medieval nobles who owed feudal dues to several, sometimes opposing, lords. The Nibelungenlied has inspired generations of German authors and musicians, in particular the nineteenth-century German composer Richard Wagner. The Nibelungenlied was inspired by Old Norse legends such as the Vohunga Saga, and much of its plot is derived from that earlier work, with the names changed: Sigurd becomes Siegfried, and Brynhild becomes Brunhild. In the feudalized and Christianized Nibelungenlied, Siegfried is a model noble; courageous, determined, and prideful, he dies at the end of a hunt. Brunhild and her supporters are corrupt followers of the old way, the suggestion being that these ways are pagan. Even the Christian examples
have mixed cultural messages. Siegfried’s love, Kriemhild, is depicted as a devout Christian and a pious benefactor to the abbey of Lorsch. Despite her Christian commitment, however, she has a marked ability to nurse a wrong and to seek revenge, a quality valued highly in pagan Germanic culture.
Beowulf. The best-known Old English epic is Beowulf. Scholars remain uncertain about when it was first composed. Many believe that it developed over time, and was first written down at the end of the tenth century—establishing the form in which it came down to modern readers. Like most other northern European works from the early Middle Ages it blends both pre-Christian and Christian themes. The son of kings, Beowulf, as a young man, fights for whatever worthy lord will honor him and give him gifts, a respectable pattern of behavior in early medieval Germanic societies. He learns that the king of the Danes, Hrothgar, is being attacked by an invisible enemy that sneaks into his hall at night and decimates Hrothgar’s soldiers. Beowulf promises to kill this monster, Grendel, and a series of dramatic battles ensues, including one under water in which Beowulf eventually kills Grendel and his mother. In many ways Beowulf’s society, attitudes, and quest are products of pagan, Germanic ideals. A good king, Hrothgar, is a mighty gift giver rewarding his followers; Beowulf insists on single combat with the monsters in order to prove his courage; and Grendel and his mother are quite similar to other mythical sea monsters in northern literature. Yet, at the same time that Grendel and his mother are Norse sea monsters, they are also set within a Christian framework; both are described as descendants of Cain, the slayer of his brother Abel in the Bible. The second part of Beowulf deals with its hero, which occurs at the end of his victory over a fire-breathing dragon, another monster drawn from Norse legends. Although Beowulf is not the gentle and noble king of modern Christian kingship, his attitudes and actions fit medieval ideals of the Christian warrior-king. As such, his epic found favor in aristocratic society, and his behavior provided a model for noble behavior in the Middle Ages.
Epics, Sagas, and Chansons de geste. Beowulf’is written in a literary form that gained great favor in the Middle Ages: the epic. Epics, sagas, and chansons de geste (songs of heroic deeds) are different names for similar works. All are long poems, in various rhyme schemes, that celebrate the deeds of legendary heroes; generally in medieval literature the terms epic and saga are commonly applied to northern European works such as Old Norse, German, and English poems of early Middle Ages, while chanson de geste is applied to a version of these poems that developed in France and western Germany during the eleventh and twelfth century. These songs (chansons) praised the deeds of secular and ecclesiastical heroes, saints, and soldiers. Examples of them may be found in most medieval European cultures, but probably die best-known medieval chanson de geste in the modern era is The Song of Roland, written in approximately 1100. Like other heroic stories, The Song of Roland is based on a supposedly historical event and person. In this case, the event was a 788 Muslim attack on Charlemagne’s baggage train, in which the leader of Charlemagne’s soldiers, Count Roland, was killed. By 1100 this obscure event had been transformed into an epic battle between thousands of evil Muslims and a small coterie of noble Christians, who are Charlemagne’s last defense. Like Beowulf, The Song of Roland celebrates the military culture of the noble class. Roland and his followers are the perfect nobles: loyal, brave, generous, and determined. The Song of Roland is also the product of a male-dominated warrior society. Women almost never appear in the poem, which rarely examines personal hopes, fears, and motivations. Unlike Beowulf, however, the poem is clearly Christian. In fact, one of the leading characters, and no mean warrior, is Archbishop Turpin, and Roland and his followers are clearly battling for both Charlemagne and Christianity. The Song of Roland was so popular that its characters were depicted in many medieval art forms, including sculpture, glass work, and manuscript illumination.
El Cid. Written slightly after The Song of Roland, The Poem of the Cid is probably the second most-influential medieval epic, and its title character, El Cid (the Lord, from the Arabic word sayyid), became the Spanish national hero, an example of Spanish Christian courage and determination during their reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Muslims. Like The Song of Roland, The Poem of the Cid is based on the supposed deeds of an historical figure. Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar (1043–1099), otherwise known as El Cid, was a mercenary soldier who fought for both Christians and Muslims. He ended his career as a knight and lord in the service of King Alfonso I of Castile, who rewarded El Cid well for his attacks against the same Muslims for whom he once fought. In the poem, El Cid’s loyalties are clearer than in real life; yet, his relationships with Muslims and Christians still show the complexity of social relationships in medieval Spain, where religion was not always the primary force in alliance formation. The Poem of the Cid exhibits many epic qualities, and in it El Cid is transformed into the model Christian lord, noble, vassal, and father. He is a great military hero, wields a special sword, and is absolutely loyal to his king even after he has been unjustly exiled. Obediently leaving his home and his family, he becomes a great warrior in the lands between the Moors and the Christians. This ability and his unswerving loyalty to his ruler cause Alfonso to forgive and reward him, and at the end of the epic El Cid is recognized as “the Lord,” the model nobleman. Yet, he is not the only model in this work. Unlike in Beowulf or The Song of Roland, in which women almost never appear, The Poem of the Cid presents El Cid’s wife in heroic terms as well. When El Cid is killed in the assault on Valencia, she dives into the fray and has him propped up on his horse to continue leading his troops even in death, an act that succeeds in frightening the enemy and ensuring a Spanish victory. In this sense El Cid and his family all represent the aspirations of medieval nobility.
Sources
Carol J. Clover, The Medieval Saga (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982).
Marion E. Gibbs and Sidney M. Johnson, Medieval German Literature: A Companion (New York: Garland, 1997).
Stephen A. Mitchell, Heroic Sagas and Ballads (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991).