Buddhism in Early Tang

Sources

Brilliant Center. The early Tang period (618-907) was a brilliant era in which Buddhist monasteries thrived. They became cultural centers for both laymen and adherents, and they fulfilled many important social roles. Scholarly monks—who specialized in such arts as poetry, painting, and calligraphy—studied Buddhist philosophy, practiced techniques of concentration, and debated points of doctrine with priests in monasteries or mountain hermitages. By the eighth century Buddhism was widely accepted and recognized as the dominant faith throughout the Tang empire. The principles of Buddhism were respected and its spiritual truths were unchallenged; the faith had a significant impact on the lives of all people and communities. Buddhism, the universal religion for most Asian people, not only formed an integral part of society and politics at that time, but the Chinese branch of the faith also became a sort of second home for Japanese and Korean adherents. Chinese Buddhism enjoyed a high reputation for its relics, traditions, sanctuaries, pilgrimage sites, and memorable masters.

Roots. Buddhism is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), a member of a royal house in what is now known as Nepal. He lived and taught during the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. He rejected his privileged life and wandered in search of spiritual enlightenment, allegedly achieving this state of mind after a long period of meditation when he was thirty-five years old. His doctrines (the Sutra) became popular, and after his death a faith built upon his teachings spread orally throughout India and Central Asia, eventually reaching China and other areas of Asia. In the first century B.C.E. the Sutras were recorded on palm leaves, known as the Tripitaka. Buddha taught that suffering was the normal state of man and was caused by unchecked desires. Only by controlling these desires, by following a prescribed series of actions, could one relieve this suffering. One had to know oneself;had to avoid thoughts of sensuality, ill will, or cruelty; had to eschew lies, slander, and frivolous conversation; had to be self-controlled and upright in one’s actions; had to avoid work that included trading in slaves, alcohol, poisons, weapons, and meats (all considered harmful occupations);

had to try to lead a good and helpful life; had to be aware of how one’s actions affected oneself and others; and had to develop through meditation a calm and concentrated mind. One’s past actions (karma) determined one’s future circumstances, especially in the process of rebirth (reincarnation) after one’s death.

Imperial Favors. Emperor Taizong tried not to alienate the Buddhists; however, like his predecessors, he took measures to keep the Buddhist establishment under his control. When Emperor Gaozong, who came to power in 649, attempted to restrict the number of monks, regulate the monasteries, and have monks pay obeisance to the state, the monks argued successfully that this policy went against their vows and that any emperor who forced them to do so would destroy his own chance for salvation and bring disaster to the empire. In the end the emperor gave up his reform plan. To legitimize her rule, Empress Wu, who assumed power in 684, turned mostly to Buddhism, declaring herself an incar-nation of Maitreya (Buddha of Love, or “future” Buddha, who was believed to be the last Buddha to come to Earth to teach) and ordering temples set up in every province to explain the Sutra, the Dayunjing. Adopting harsher policies than his predecessors, Emperor Xuanzong, who reigned until he was forced to abdicate in 756, refused to grant Buddhism any imperial favors in the construction of monasteries, mass ordination of monks, or involvement in ceremonies. He tried, however, to reinforce the connection between the monasteries and the imperial institution by calling on monks to celebrate the emperor’s birthday and to install images of Buddha in the likeness of the ruler.

Growth of Sects. Early in the Tang dynasty the Buddhist canon became more Chinese and several sects appeared. Their growth exemplified the inner vigor of the faith. Eight sects emerged between 581 and 755, but four enjoyed only temporary or limited success. The remaining sects had a significant impact on China. Outstanding Chinese monks, with sufficient self-confidence to make their own formulations of doctrine, expanded Buddhist teaching in new ways. The blossoming of a typically Chinese Buddhism inspired various novelties in the field of explaining the doctrines. Chinese Buddhist beliefs thereafter spread to Japan; contributions to the faith were imported to China from India and other countries, and a substantial number of new traditions enriched Buddhism.

Tiantai School. Taking its name from a sacred mountain in Zhejiang in southeastern China, the Tiantai school, founded by the monk Zhiyi, enjoyed the greatest official support under the Tang rulers. This school enlarged doctrinal and metaphysical Buddhist beliefs, combining elements of various doctrines and practices. An entirely Chinese endeavor, the school offered a doctrine of universal salvation through intellectual inquiry and sought to combine the scholarly traditions of the south with those of northern pietism and meditation. The complete truth for the Tiantai school, which was found in the Lotus Sutra (Lotus of the True Law), became extremely influential in east Asia and inspired many artistic representations. Tiantai doctrine contained three truths: that all phenomena were empty;7that people, however, existed temporarily; and that they were above emptiness and temporariness. These three truths all engaged and required each other.

Huayan School. The Huayan, or Flower Garden, School was generously supported by Empress Wu. Its third Patriarch, Fazang, categorized the various Buddhist sects into “vehicles” and claimed that the Huayan doctrine united all that was precious in each. This school taught the doctrine of emptiness and the interplay of all phenomena, but its contention that all phenomena arise at the same time in reciprocal causation was novel. Huayan Buddhists were more interested in doctrinal nuances than were the Tiantai Buddhists.

Pure Land School. The Jingtu, or Pure Land, sect— which derived its name from a concept of a Western paradise (Western Pure Land) or “Ultimate Bliss”—followed the sutras of Amituofo (Buddha of Infinite Light). The Pure Land movement started in the Jiangxi hills, some three hundred miles up the Yangzi River. Claiming that salvation came through faith rather than through good works, this school maintained that the believer could reach a state of grace by the frequent repetition of Amituofo’s name. In other words, if this special practice was done with wholehearted sincerity, the believer would gain rebirth in the Pure Land. Drawing from a long Mahayana tradition (a branch of Buddhism that sought a broader faith by accepting gradations of a Buddha’s life), this school emphasized faith as the means for gaining rebirth in paradise. The philosophy of salvation by faith was often coupled with the idea that this path was the appropriate means to achieve spirituality during a corrupt age. Many Chinese were attracted to this sect. The faith also inspired the Japanese master, Shinran, who emphasized practice more than doctrine.

Chanism. The Meditation School, known as Chan, was created by an Indian master who arrived at the court of the Northern Wei in 520. He stressed the significance of contemplation; his teaching later included elements of Daoism (a mystical philosophy founded in the sixth century B.C.E. in which one worked in harmony with nature). In the eighth century Chan Buddhism was divided into two major schools founded by chief disciples of Hongren, the fifth Chinese Patriarch. Shenxiu (who died in 706) founded the northern school, while Huineng (who died in 713) organized the southern school. Believing in gradual enlightenment, the northern branch of Chan emphasized sitting in silent meditation. Accepting the notion of sudden enlightenment, the southern branch emphasized instinct rather than intellect. Huineng, a semibarbarian Cantonese monk, stressed also contemplation. Meditation was seen as the way for one to pierce through the world of illusion and to obtain enlightenment. This school recognized that the nature of Buddha was within oneself. Meditation was only one of many practices adopted by other schools. The Chan school rejected all other techniques, such as the performance of meritorious deeds or the study of scriptures. Hostile to all systems, dogmas, scriptures, and rites, Huineng held that illumination came in a sudden flash, although only after long probing. The southern school soon surpassed the northern branch in popularity. Huineng was later recognized as the sixth Patriarch, the true successor of Hongren. All the later influential groups in Chanism arose from the disciples of Huineng.

Pilgrimages. The greatest pilgrims and translators in Chinese Buddhist history lived during the Tang dynasty. The two most famous pilgrims of the seventh century were Xuan Zang and Yi Jing. Leaving China secretly in 629, Xuan Zang traveled overland to India to gather Buddhist manuscripts; he returned to Chang’an in 645. Yi Jing boarded a merchant ship in 671 to travel to India. He left in 685 and returned by sea to China in 695. Empress Wu welcomed him. He later published two famous historical books, one dealing with the kingdoms of Buddhism in India and Southeast Asia, and the other including information on Chinese pilgrims who traveled to Buddhist coun-tries in the seventh century. When the Central Asian routes were closed because of the invasion of Tibetans and Arabs, the number of Buddhist communities in China decreased. In addition, because of the great persecution of 842-845 there was a decline of pilgrimages to India. The Tang government organized a big pilgrimage in 966, how-ever, in which more than 150 monks participated; only a small number of them reached India, after traveling by a route that stopped at major Central Asian oases, and few were able to return to China in 976.

Japanese Pilgrim. Many Japanese monks traveled to China to study with the great masters of the law and to visit the most famous Buddhist centers and holy sites. Ennin was one of these religious students, and he arrived during the great oppression of the Buddhist faith (842-845). Ennin was not the first Japanese monk to seek religious instruction in China, but his diary provides important information on Sino-Japanese relations and the type of contacts that could be made at this time. As a result of his travels and learning, Ennin’s work caused significant development of Buddhism in Japan.

Social Roles. Buddhism played a considerable role in Tang society. In the countryside, Buddhist temples performed important economic functions: they operated mills and oil presses; maintained vaults for the safe deposit of valuables; and managed other banking services, such as serving as pawnbrokers. Some temples provided medical care and entertainment; others invested most of their wealth in art;and still others owned large amounts of land cultivated by their servants. Monks also profited from their close relation-ships with wealthy nobles who sought to evade taxation by registering their land under the name of a temple.

Tantrism. In Tang times an obscure form of Buddhism known as Tantrism was introduced into China and came to have a great influence in the country. Based on magic and mysticism, Tantrism was best known in a purified form as being connected with symbolical speculations. It prevailed noticeably in India after the middle of the seventh century, then spread to Ceylon and Southeast Asia, and finally into China and Tibet. Chinese translations of Tantric texts increased in the eighth century after two Indian masters— Subhakarasimha and Vajrabodhi—arrived in China in 716 and 719, respectively. Particularly important was the work of the famous master and translator, Bukong (Amoghavajra), after he returned to China following a five-year visit to his homeland. Born in Ceylon, Bukong spent his youth in China. From 756 until his death in 774 Bukong translated many Tantric texts while he lived in Chang’an, and he gained enormous influence within the Tang government. Tantrism, the last contribution of Indian Buddhism to China, brought about great changes that set the Tang world onto new paths and resulted in the decline of the large monastic communities.

Sources

Kenneth K. S. Chen, Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1964).

Chen, The Chinese Transformation of Buddhism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973).

Arthur F. Wright, Buddhism in Chinese History (Stanford, Cal.: Stanford University Press, 1959).

Erik Zurcher, The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China (Leiden, the Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1959).