Tapirs

(Tapiridae)

Class Mammalia

Order Perissodactyla

Family Tapiridae

Thumbnail description
Large herbivores with tapered, muscular bodies; stocky, medium-sized neck; short head with flat sides, short proboscis, relatively small, deep-set eyes and round, mobile ears; short legs; tiny tail; feet with spade-like hoofs: four on front and three on rear; low-crowned teeth

Size
5.9–8.2 ft (1.8–2.5 m); 330–660 lb (150–300 kg)

Number of genera, species
1 genus; 4 species

Habitat
Rainforest, bushland, and paramo; lowlands and mountains

Conservation status
Endangered: 3; Vulnerable: 1

Distribution
Primarily tropical; southern Mexico, Central and South America, and Southeast Asia

Evolution and systematics

During the Tertiary period, the Ceratomorpha were a large group with many divergent forms. Today there are only a few survivors in the Tapiridae and Rhinocerotidae families. The various prehistorical tapir-like forms cannot be encompassed by one family alone and are considered members of the superfamily Tapiroidea.

Today it is known that the tapir, the rhinoceros, and the horse are related in the order Perissodactyla, whose members became the dominant herbivores in North America by the end of the Eocene. Among these surviving families, tapirs most adhere to the tropical moist forests and are considered the least altered from the root ancestors of the order. In relation to other Perissodactyls, their teeth are less specialized, their limbs have more digits and hooves, and they are shorter and more plump.

Tapirs are sometimes called "living fossils," survivors from past eras, as widely separated areas of past and present distribution indicate that they originated from ancient times. In the past, the Tapiridae and the Tapiroidea were much more widespread, with a more impressive variety of species. Numerous fossil discoveries trace tapiroid history and prove the existence of several long extinct families. For example, the Isectolophidae, belonging to the geologically oldest tapiroids, hails from the Eocene of North America and Asia. True Tapiridae in North America also date from the early Eocene. Together with the Lophiodontidae of Europe and the Helaletidae of North America and Asia, these tapiroids lived approximately 50 million years ago (mya) and resembled the ancient ancestors of all ungulates within the order Condylarthra, which date from the Cretaceous and were common during the Paleocene. Condylarths made a transition between insectivorous and herbivorous lifestyles.

Anatomical modifications encountered in tapir phylogeny affect mainly the skull. The set of teeth and the limbs have been transformed only very insignificantly. Early tapiroids lacked the movable extension of the upper lip and the nose that forms a true proboscis, like an elephant's trunk. This proboscis characterizes the true Tapiridae and is considered by paleontologists to be key to their evolutionary success. All animals with a proboscis, including elephants, have an especially large nasal cavity that reaches far to the back of their skulls. Among Perissodactyls, this nasal cavity occurs only in genuine Tapiridae and is first found in the family's oldest forms in the genus Protapirus, which lived in Europe during the Oligocene, approximately 40–25 mya. Similar forms in similar timeframes, probably of the same genus, have been found in North America. These genuine Tapiridae possibly derived from the Helaletidae during the early Eocene of North America. Fossils of the giant Megatapirus from the Sichuan province of China represent the only extinct tapir from the Old World Pleistocene. It developed temporarily in Asia at the same time that tapirs became extinct in Europe. It dwarfed in size today's tapirs, including the Malayan; its large size may have been an adaptation against large predators and cold. Tapirs disappeared from all but southernmost North America about 11,000 years ago,

coinciding with the extinction of many other large animal species and the arrival of ever-larger numbers of human hunters over a period of 6,000 years, as indicated by the number of hearths discovered.

In 1996, a DNA analysis of the four extant tapir species revealed three diverging lines. The Malayan tapir lineage diverged from the neotropical tapirs about 21–25 mya, while that of the Central American tapir diverged from the common ancestor of the two South American tapirs about 19–20 mya. A common ancestor of the lowland and the mountain tapirs probably immigrated to South America over the Isthmus of Panama upon its connection about 3 mya. The separation of these two species probably relates to the geologically abrupt rise of the Andes.

Physical characteristics

Slightly higher at the rump than at the shoulder, tapirs possess tapered muscular bodies that can easily wedge their way through jungle tangles. Possessing a thicker neck at maturity, the males in most cases are somewhat smaller than females. On a stocky medium-sized neck, the head is relatively short, with rather flat sides, and is slightly arched upward, with a short, movable trunk. The latter is actually an extendible proboscis, or muscular hydrostat, used in smelling, selective feeding, etc. The eyes are proportionately small. The ears are round and mobile. The rump is bulky and slightly flat at the sides. Relatively more slender than in rhinos, the legs are powerful, short, and graceful.

Concerning the forelegs, the first digit is missing. In all four feet, the third digit is extremely strong, carrying the main weight, as is typical in all Perissodactyls. The second and fourth digits gradate to a lesser size; and the fifth digit is very short, touching down only on soft surfaces such as mud or sand. Though similar to the forefeet, the hind feet differ in being three-toed, with the third and central digit the strongest and longest. The spade-shaped hooves, sharing calloused, yet quite sensitive, sole balls, are relatively stronger than the homologues in rhinoceros. There is a bald callosity at the forearm that corresponds to a horse's "chestnut" (a vestige of the first inside digit). The teeth are those of a more generalized herbivore and are not specialized for the grazing of grass as is the case with the hypsodont dentition of equids.

Fur is short in three of the extant, mainly lowland-dwelling species, but long and woolly in the mountain tapir. Coat color varies from reddish brown to whitish gray to coal black to black-and-white two-tone. In the Central American and lowland tapirs, a short mane protects vital nervous centers. Newborn tapirs always have horizontal stripes and dots of a yellow-white color for about one year.

Distribution

In South America, tapirs occur in the Amazon and Orinoco basins, northern Andes, northern Caribbean coast, also northern Argentina, the northwestern Pacific coast, and the western slope of the Andes. In Central America, they occur from southern Mexico to Panama. In Southeast Asia, they are found in parts of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Sumatra.

Habitat

All but the mountain tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) inhabit lowland rainforest, and lower to mid-and occasionally high-montane moist forests. Mid to high cloud forests and treeless paramo are inhabited by mountain tapirs. Lowland tapirs occupy drier scrub, woodlands, and grasslands at lower elevations in southern South America. All tapirs swim in rivers and lakes and require mineral procurement sites. Females often require secluded forests during parturition and raising of young.

Behavior

At first glance, a tapir's movements do not seem so similar to those of its relatives, the rhinoceros and the horse. In a slow walk, it usually keeps its head lowered, though it may bob it up and down. In a trot, it lifts its head and moves its legs in an elastic manner. The amazingly fast gallop, during which all four feet may leave the ground, is seen in flight, playing, or when it is extremely excited. The first instinct when approached by an enemy is to remain still and to rely on its camouflage to avoid detection. Some hunters consider tapirs to be deaf for this reason, but this is far from being the case, given all tapirs' acute sense of hearing. Tapirs can climb remarkably well, regardless of their bulk. Even quite steep slopes may not present obstacles. Individuals have been observed to climb slopes of 70°. Tapirs climb or jump vertical fences or walls 9.8 ft (3 m) or more, rising on their hind legs, or springing down then leaping up, and in both cases grappling with their forefeet. In zoos, they are able to squeeze themselves through unbelievably narrow gaps and between bars, and to slip out under lower bars with their backs arched. This nimbleness is of advantage in the wild when they wander through jungles of bamboo and reed, tortuous shrubbery, trees, and roots, often thus eluding their enemies.

Getting up and lying down is similar in tapirs and rhinoceros. These two movements are very instructive phylogenetically. Tapirs do not support themselves on their wrists, as do horses, but in the process of lying down they briefly assume a sitting position. Female tapirs often give birth as well as suckle young while laying down on their sides.

Tapirs are very shy and retiring animals who rely greatly on concealment for safety and prefer to stay in the vicinity of water, where bathing helps to regulate their body temperature. They are excellent swimmers and cross even wide streams without great effort, including the Amazon River. In order to feed on aquatic plants or to escape when pursued, they can dive quite well, remaining several minutes or more under water without breathing. In the presence of an enemy, a tapir may clandestinely take air with the tip of its proboscis barely emerged above water and where sealable nostrils are located. Similar to the hippopotamus, tapirs can walk on the bottom of streams and lakes for brief periods. During the hottest time of the day, they frequently extend their daily baths. Not only does this cool them off, it also protects them from biting insects.

In order to remove dandruff, hair, or insects, tapirs scrub themselves on objects, or scratch their chests and front legs with their hind feet. Coatis have also been observed gleaning ticks from the Central American tapir (Tapirus bairdii). While lying down and resting, they sometimes lick their front legs. They also protect the surface of their body against insect bites by rolling in the mud; the dry mud remains as a thin protective film on the skin. This may also serve in predator avoidance by disguising their scent, as has been observed in the mountain tapir in Colombia's Ucumari Regional Park.

Being genuine forest animals, tapirs have an excellent sense of smell. Their eyesight, on the other hand, is less acute, but this shortsighted vision still serves in orientation, feeding, etc. The trunk, whose tip is equipped with hair-like, tactile bristles, plays an important role in exploring a new area. The trunk is also used during courtship.

All species of tapir share similar habits. Most are predominantly nocturnal in activity, though favoring the crepuscular, dawn and dusk periods, as do many animals. However, the mountain tapir is equally active both day and night. Tapirs are relatively unsocial, cautious creatures of the forest that usually avoid open territory, especially during daylight, and often depend on water for escape when threatened. They frequently use lakes, rivers, and streams to travel to separate areas within their home range, which may vary from a few to over a dozen square miles (kilometers). All tapirs are true amphibians, being excellent swimmers and waders, as well as walkers, runners, and climbers.

In more densely settled areas, lowland tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) become strictly nocturnal in activity. Under these circumstances, one hardly ever sees them unless they are routed out of their hiding places by dogs.

Well-established tapirs remain fairly close to one central locality and adhere to regular paths. These may eventually become tunnels in the vegetation. In a frightened state, a tapir generally clings to its path. When pursued by a predator or

suddenly confronted by hunters, it can dash with considerable speed through the forest or scrub with its head lowered. Its impetus may create a new path through the densest vegetation. In some cases, it can, thus, brush off a predator clinging to its back. Tapirs also thus manage to extract leeches. A tapir may also loosen the deadly grip of a predator by submerging under water.

Tapir paths often connect animal resting areas in dense forest with river banks or other clearings where more abundant food plants may be obtained. Major trails may also indicate migratory routes between higher, more open elevations, which are occupied during the dry season, and more densely forested lower elevations sites occupied during the wet season.

Tapir territories are frequently marked by urinated and rubbed signposts and dung piles. These discourage fellow males, but males welcome females more readily into their home ranges. A female's urine conveys general fitness, serving both to warn competitive males and to advertise to reproductive females. Social interaction occurs at salt licks and stream banks and is more common during the dry season and at full moons. Here, contesting for mates occurs between males and may entail dramatic fights, including rearing up and gnashing. After pairing, a couple engages in rambunctious courtship displays. These involve a characteristic head-to-tail juxtaposition, nipping at the feet, and a carousel-like whirling. Grunting and squealing sounds may be emitted during this process. A pregnant female has a gestation of around 13 months and secludes herself in a safe and thickly vegetated area before and after parturition.

Although considered unsociable loners, tapirs are harmoniously in tune with the other species. Except during the mating season and for mother with young, an adult tapir in the wild is usually alone. However, for this very reason, it may relate more to other species that form its ecological community. It is rare to see more than three animals together. Maintaining them in pairs or even in family groups the year round, as is usual in zoological gardens, is quite atypical. Yet, even in relatively small enclosures, tapirs get along well with one another. Serious squabbles occur rarely. There also seems to be no rank order within the group.

Orienting themselves more by smell than visually, tapirs' visible expressions are relatively few. Also with their ears and mouths, they transmit signals. The ears can be moved forward or backward to detect sounds and as an expression of mood. The white-fringed ears and lips of the mountain tapir provide a gestalt pattern clearly recognizable by conspecifics, either in the dark forest shadows or at night. When two tapirs meet, their white-rimmed ears point forward. When sniffed at or enraged, their ears point backward. A type of facial expression is seen in the dramatic flehmen (lip-curling), often after they have sniffed or licked the urine or feces of a conspecific. The tapir then rolls its tongue inside its open mouth and around the trunk several times, thus activating the Jacobson's organ located in the upper palate.

Only occasionally do tapirs demonstrate a threatening gesture. Then their rarely used weapons are exhibited as they pull their lips apart to expose their teeth. Though these teeth are not too frightening in appearance, if a threatening tapir does attack with them, it can seriously injure an opponent. Instances are known where seemingly harmless tapirs suddenly went wild and attacked everything within their reach with their teeth. They occasionally must use these against their natural enemies, the large cats, etc., but they usually manage to escape these through flight. Shrill whistles may also issue from adults as a means of warning a mate or young of an intruder or as issued by a juvenile as a cry for help. Clicking sounds are also known to communicate location among tapirs.

Feeding ecology and diet

Tapirs feed to a large degree on leaves, fresh sprouts, and small branches, plucking and biting them from bushes and low trees with their proboscis and teeth. In addition, they eat many varieties of fruits, fallen on the ground or on a plant, grasses, and aquatic plants. They feed in a way that is widely dispersed and low impacting to the plant community as a whole. On mountains, they are observed to zigzag across long slopes, only selecting a little from each plant they visit. In folivorous tapirs, the proboscis is especially well developed for harvesting leaves. It is easily moved in all directions and may be stretched out or contracted.

When tapirs are not able to reach a favorite food, they will rise on their hind legs while planting their front feet firmly against natural objects. Thus, mountain tapirs feed from high leaves and fruits of trees and even push these over. Malayan tapirs snap off the trunks of saplings up to 4.6 ft (1.4 m) in height in order to procure favored tender leaves and sprouts. By lowering trees, bushes, and saplings, this tapir makes food accessible for the sambar, the barking deer, and two species of chevrotains. The mountain tapir similarly benefits sympatric herbivores, including white-tailed and red brocket deer and the diminutive pudu. There have been reports that tapirs there occasionally eat fish. Stranded fish are reported to be eaten by lowland tapirs, according to people who live in the Amazon.

Shared with other Perissodactyls, the post-gastric, or caecal, digestive system of tapirs allows it to feed on coarse leaves and other vegetation without expending as much metabolic energy as would a ruminant digester. This system also allows it to pass many of the seeds it consumes intact and capable of germination. This relates to the important role mobile tapirs play as seed dispersers; their decomposing feces give a nutritional advantage to these seeds and help to build humus-rich soils. Tapirs' trailing and foraging patterns also serve to open up clear areas for new forest to grow.

Reproductive biology

Tapirs tend to be monogamous during any given breeding season, but may change mating partners over the course of their individual lifetimes. Some tapir populations pair up and breed during the dry season. In zoological gardens, female tapirs become pubescent at the age of three to four years. The gestation period is around 13 months; only one young is usually born, though twins do rarely appear. Generally, female tapirs seem to come into heat every 50–80 days. Heat normally lasts two days, but can last much longer.

Before copulation, male and female are highly excited, frequently uttering short, wheezing sounds or shrill, piercing whistles, and spraying large quantities of urine. Usually a female ready for mating will be pursued by the male, although it has been noted that a Malayan female tapir may, in the beginning, pursue the male. The animals walk toward, and stand parallel to, each other, but face in opposite directions so as to smell each other's anal region. From this position, frequent circling may develop. The male tries to push with his head under the female's underside or to snap at her hind legs. The female, in turn, snaps at the male's hind legs. Simultaneously, each animal tries to get its hind legs out of the other's reach, while the partner follows with the head. This whirling behavior is exhibited only during the early phases of courtship and, phylogenetically, may have been derived from primitive fighting positions, which still occur in horses. After copulation, which may be repeated several times in short succession, the female may become aggressive and ward the male off by biting.

Conservation status

All four tapir species are listed as Endangered or Vulnerable by the IUCN. Throughout their occupied habitats in South and Central America and Southeast Asia, forested land is being steadily cleared and cultivated, and the number of tapirs is decreasing steadily. People kill them for their skin, meat, and for medicinal uses. Indigenous South Americans use poisoned arrows and occasionally chase them with dogs, a technique commonly employed by mestizo (a person of mixed blood) and white hunters. When pursued, the animals often plunge into the water where they can be killed from a boat with spears and knives. The lowland tapir is very susceptible

to over-hunting, which is increasing alarmingly as civilization encroaches upon its remaining rainforest redoubts. Many of the original, shifting indigenous populations did not pose a real threat to tapir survival, and some even prohibited the killing of tapirs for religious reasons, as did Muslims in Southeast Asia. Often Caucasian or mestizo settlers kill these harmless vegetarians just for sport. In many villages, one can find young pet tapirs whose mothers have been killed. They become as tame as dogs, can be petted, and even let children ride on their backs. However, as adults, they frequently turn wild during the mating season and can do great damage in effecting their escape from captivity. For this and other reasons, tapirs are not well suited for domestication. They are best preserved in those sufficiently vast wilderness stretches that will support truly viable populations of 1,000 or more inter-breeding adults. A viable population area of 725,000 acres (293,500 ha) has been recommended for the mountain tapir. Key to conserving all species of tapirs is fervently dedicated public education, coupled with the implementation of ecologically compatible lifestyles in place of ones inherently destructive of tropical habitats. In 1997, an action plan for each of the four surviving tapirs was published by the World Conservation Union, Species Survival Commission, Tapir Specialist Group.

Significance to humans

Already known to the Mayans for centuries, the Central American tapir served as their model for a human figure with a trunk, as is found on several of their temples. One of their distinctive glyphs is called the "laughing nose." The first explorers to America, Columbus, Pinzon, and Cabral, probably did not encounter tapirs. However, toward the end of the year 1500, an animal was described as, "the size of an ox, of the color of cattle, which had an elephant's trunk and hooves like a horse, but which was neither cattle, nor elephant, nor horse." Although initially oblivious as to which order it belonged, later explorers soon became familiar with the lowland tapir, whose name "tapir" derives from the word tapyra of the Brazilian Tupi language. Although the Malayan tapir had already been mentioned in old Chinese text, the Europeans, strangely enough, learned about this species much later than the lowland tapir. The mountain tapir was discovered to European culture in 1829 by French naturalist, X. Roulin, who first observed it in the high, frigid Páramo de Sumapaz, south of Bogota, Colombia. Some indigenous South American cultures (e.g., Calima) venerated tapirs, and they figured in their religious conceptions. In the northwestern part of the continent, indigenous people believed that tapirs gave the inhabitants of the world a needed impetus to dance to creation's music. In this connection, the steppe-dwelling Andean tapir could well be regarded as a master of balance.

Though the mountain tapir has a thinner skin than the other three extant species (probably due to the fact that it sprouts thick fur), all four extant tapirs possess a rather coarse, leathery skin. They are all frequently hunted in their native countries; people tan their skins and cut them into long straps

for reins, whips, sandals, etc. People eat their flesh and use their hooves, snouts, and other parts as folk remedies. Placing a monetary value on their dead bodies as well as for captive tapirs for zoos greatly increases their chances of extinction, and mounting evidence of international trade in tapirs, such as has recently come to light in northern Peru, is a call to conservation action to organizations such as the IUCN and CITES.

Species accounts

List of Species

Lowland tapir

Tapirus terrestris

taxonomy

Tapirus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758), Brazil. Six subspecies.

other common names

English: South American tapir, Amazonian tapir, Brazilian tapir, bush cow; French: Tapir d'Amerique du Sud, tapir commun; German: Flachlandtapir; Spanish: Tapir de tierra baja, danta, gran bestia.

physical characteristics

Head and body length: 6–7 ft (1.8–2.2 m); tail length: 2–4 in (5–10 cm); shoulder height: 2.5–3.5 ft (77–110 cm); weight: 396–660 lb (180–300 kg). Tan to black or reddish coloring. Undersides and legs typically dark; cheeks, throat, and ear edges lighter in color. Black mane from forehead to midback. Tall crest on head. Young are dark brown and have white spots and stripes.

distribution

East of Andes from northern Venezuela and Colombia to southern Brazil and northern Argentina. Also crosses eastern Andes of Colombia and Venezuela to inhabit Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region and has been reported from the Colombian side of the Darien near Panama.

habitat

Lowland rainforest and montane cloud forest from sea level to about 4,265–4,920 ft (1,300-1,500 m) in Ecuador; 5,575 ft (1,700 m) or more in other locations.

behavior

Congregate around mineral seeps where they interact socially. They use trails to link major habitat components and are generally solitary. They emit loud squealing sounds when alarmed, and often stand still to avoid detection. They are excellent swimmers.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats many species of trees, bushes, and herbs, successfully disperses the seeds of many of these (particularly documented in palms) and, in general, opens up clearings important for forest renewal. Also eats aquatic plants and may walk on river bottoms, which produces beneficial mutualistic effects.

reproductive biology

Gestation of 385–412 days. Generally single birth, occasionally twins. In captivity may possibly reproduce every 15 months. Estrous lasts two or three days. Monogamous through breeding season.

conservation status

Upgraded to Vulnerable from Extinction. Dire threats include wholesale forest destruction and indiscriminate hunting concomitant with rampant colonization and petroleum and mineral exploitation. Studies indicate that a lowland tapir population begins to decline after 20% of its numbers has been eliminated through hunting, and that mining pollution and obliteration of traditional salt licks have a devastating effect upon them.

significance to humans

Figures in native religions as an animal with magical powers. Important for maintenance of biodiversity as a seed disperser and opener of clearings. Hunted for its meat, leather, and medicinal parts. Ecotourist attraction.

Central American tapir

Tapirus bairdii

taxonomy

Tapirus bairdii (Gill, 1865), Panama.

other common names

English: Baird's tapir, mountain cow; French: Tapir de Baird, tapir d'Amerique Central; German: Baird-Tapir, Mittel amerikanischer Tapir; Spanish: Tapir de Baird, tapir de America Central, danta, anteburro, macho de monte.

physical characteristics

Head and body length: 6.5–6.7 ft (198–202 cm); tail length: 3–5 in (7–13 cm); shoulder height: about 4 ft (1.22 m); weight: 330–660 lb (150–300 kg). Dark brown coloring. Young are reddish-brown with white streaks and spots. Throat and cheeks light grayish-yellow; dark spot situated below and behind the eye. Edges of the ears are white. No head crest.

distribution

Yucatan Peninsula and Chiapas in southern Mexico; through all nations of Central America, except El Salvador where it is exterminated. South along Pacific coastal forests and swamps at least to mid elevations of western Andes, in Colombia to northern Ecuador.

habitat

Mainly inhabits lowland forests and swamps, but may ascend to mountainous mid elevations, and even has been reported above the tree line. It occupies a wide variety of habitats from sea level to over 6,560 ft (2,000 m) with reports as high as 11,800 ft (3,600 m). These include lowland forest, deciduous forest, montane cloud forest, swamp, marsh, mangrove, and alpine grassland. Requires plentiful water.

behavior

This largely solitary, nocturnal tapir evinces a beautiful ecological harmony by rotating usage of portions of its annual home range. It can walk under water and has been observed completely submerged for 15 minutes. A high whistle is used to locate fellow tapirs when far apart.

feeding ecology and diet

Prefers browsing in flood plains, palm swamps, tree-fall gaps, and secondary lowland forests. Browses sparingly on selected plants, moving in zig-zag fashion. It relies more on fallen fruit during the dry season. Important seed disperser for native trees, etc.

reproductive biology

Gestation period: 390–410 days. One, or rarely two, offspring. Sexual maturity occurs around two years of age. Inter-birth intervals are 18 months or more in captive females. Neonates may be hidden for brief periods while the mother is away feeding between nursing bouts. When a young reaches 10 days of age, it closely follows its mother. Association of mother with its young lasts up to two years. Monogamous through breeding season.

conservation status

Upgraded to Endangered status. Most countries where it occurs list it as Endangered. Primarily habitat destruction threatens the survival of this species, but localized hunting is also a very serious menace, and a single hunter can have a devastating effect upon a population. Studies indicate that if forest settlements were spaced so as to allow more than 950 ft (290 m) of intact forest between farms, any tapir population could avoid becoming overly fragmented and entering into decline.

significance to humans

Figures in Mayan and other tribal religious beliefs. Traditionally, its meat and leather have been used, as well as parts, e.g., hoofs and snout, for folk medicine. This species aids economically important, native trees to reproduce by helping to disperse their seeds. Is also a major attraction for ecotourists.

Mountain tapir

Tapirus pinchaque

taxonomy

Tapirus pinchaque (Roulin, 1829), Páramo de Sumapaz, Colombia.

other common names

English: Andean tapir, woolly tapir, Roulin's tapir; French: Tapir pinchaque, tapir de Roulin, tapir des Andes, le pinchaque;

German: Bergtapir, Wolltapir; Spanish: Danta de montaña, danta de Páramo, danta lanuda, danta cordillerana, danta negra, tapir de altura, gran bestia, bestia negra, pinchaque.

physical characteristics

Head and body length: 6 ft (1.8 m); tail length: 2–4 in (5–10 cm); shoulder height: 30–32 in (75–80 cm); weight: 330–550 lb (150–250 kg). Coal black to dark reddish-brown coloring. Cheeks may be lighter. Young have white stripes and spots. Lips and edges of ears are white.

distribution

Lives from the northern Andes of Peru, including the Cordillera de Lagunillas and del Condor, through the eastern Andes of Ecuador and parts of western Andes in the north; thence, further north into Colombia in fragmented populations from the eastern, central, and, perhaps, the western Andes, to mid Colombia. Formerly occurred further north along both the central and eastern Andes of Colombia and was much more common in Ecuador and Peru as well as western Venezuela, particularly in the area of El Tama National Park near San Cristobal. Particularly the eastern flank of the eastern Andes is this endangered species' most important redoubt. Inhabit and are integral to the highland watersheds serving much of Amazonia and are associated with a global hot spot of biodiversity along the eastern Andes.

habitat

Montane cloud forest and paramo, and scrub ecotone from 4,920 to 15,420 ft (1,500–4,700 m) elevation, more common from 6,560 to 14,735 ft (2,000–4,500 m) elevation.

behavior

More difficult to keep in captivity than other tapirs. Its tracks may be found up to the snow line. Adult home ranges of 1,360–2,175 acres (550–880 ha), divided between cloud forest and treeless paramo. The mountain tapir is especially active during crepuscular hours and is active half of the time during the night and half of the time during daylight hours. Shows increased nocturnal activity during the full moon.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats many different trees, shrubs, herbs, fern fronds, and horsetails, and also seeks out nitrogen-fixers, e.g., lupins and (Gunnera spp.). A highly significant correlation between frequency of seed germination from feces and dietary frequency indicates a mutualistic coevolution of the mountain tapir with the northern Andean flora.

reproductive biology

Gestation is 390–400 days. One, rarely two, offspring, weighing 9–13 lb (4–6 kg) at birth. Young may stay with mother between one and two years. Monogamous through breeding season.

conservation status

Remains Endangered with extinction. Estimated 2,500 mountain tapirs for the nation of Colombia. In captivity, they are very susceptible to disease, displaying little ability to adjust to lowlands. Global warming imposes a grave threat to them as cold-adapted, montane ecosystems are increasingly displaced. The mountain tapir is the most endangered of all tapir species due to its small numbers, its restricted global distribution, and the human onslaught against its remaining habitats and populations. It is the inhospitable cold and rain and the steepness of terrain that most preserve the mountain tapirs.

significance to humans

Hunted for meat, furry hide, and leather, and for parts such as hoofs and snout, which are used in folk medicine. Significant in Amerindian religious concepts. Important seed disperser for economically valuable trees and bushes and for maintaining bio-diversity and well-functioning of Andean ecosystems vital as watersheds.

Malayan tapir

Tapirus indicus

subfamily

Ceratomorpha

taxonomy

Tapirus indicus Desmarest, 1819, Malay Peninsula, Malaysia.

other common names

English: Asiatic tapir, Asian tapir, saddleback tapir, Indian tapir; French: Tapir des Indes; German: Schabrackentapir; Spanish: Tapir de Malasia.

physical characteristics

Head and body length: 6–10 ft (185–250 cm); tail length: 2–4 in (5–10 cm); shoulder height: 35–41 in (90–105 cm); weight: 550–825 lb (250–375 kg). This sole Old World tapir species is considerably larger than the American tapirs. The short, smooth, and slick coat is strikingly colored with the rear half above the legs being white, while the rest of the coat is black, except for white ear fringes.

distribution

Its range has been greatly reduced in Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, and Sumatra. Current populations suffer from extreme fragmentation and are found in southern Vietnam, southern Cambodia, parts of southern Myanmar, the Tak Province in Thailand, and through all the states of the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra south of the Toba highlands, a faunal boundary for many species on the island. In the Pliocene, tapirs very similar to the Malayan lived in India and Myanmar.

habitat

Forests of lowland, swamp, montane, and hill types from sea level to about 6,560 ft (2,000 m) elevation. In parts of Indonesia, they dwell in the lowlands during the dry season and occupy mountains during the wet season. They need streams, lakes, swamps, and other habitat types with abundant water. Virgin swamps and lowland forests with well-drained soils support highest population levels.

behavior

Nocturnally active. Rests in thick vegetation during the day. Excellent swimmer, as well as mountain climber. Produces shrill whistles when alarmed, or to placate young. Seeks salt licks avidly. Follows paths of its own creation, often with head down, sniffing. The male marks his path with urine, indicating possible territoriality. Average straight-line distance traveled by a male in a day was 0.20 mi (0.32 km).

feeding ecology and diet

A selective browser, it favors tender leaves and branchlets of certain trees, bushes, and succulents. It eats club moss, Selaginella willdenonii, and a variety of fruits. Disperses its feeding

over a wide area. In a Thailand study, it preferred 39 plant species of which 86.5% were consumed as leaves, 8.1% as fruit, and 5.4% as twigs with leaves. Evidence exists for considerable successful seed dispersal through feces.

reproductive biology

Gestation: 390–407 days. Earliest age for mating was three years for males and average 2.8 for females in a zoo. Monogamous through breeding season. One, rarely two, offspring produced generally every two years. As with the other three tapir species, a young Malayan tapir has horizontal stripes and dots on its coat as part of an ancient "hider" strategy for survival. Yet young tapirs also strongly exhibit the "follower" strategy. In southern Sumatra, a crude density of 0.3 (undisturbed swamp) to 0.44 (lowland forest with well-drained soils) tapirs per square kilometer was estimated.

conservation status

Upgraded to Endangered. Its forest habitat is quickly being eliminated. Additionally, although Asian countries have laws protecting the species, it is often killed by market suppliers and its meat sold under the name of mu-nam. Its survival status should be monitored by measuring browse usage of its favorite dietary plants.

significance to humans

Hunted in non-Muslim areas of southeastern Asia for meat and other products. Frequently tracked down and killed after it invades crops. Illegally traded for parts and live individuals. A fair number of these large tapirs live in the zoos and can reach up to 29 years. Wherever they occur, they act as important seed dispersers, as their post-gastric digestive system does not degrade seeds as much as a ruminant's digestive system. Tapirs act as forest architects. Their influence is both ancient and evolving and is known and felt at their grazing centers, on their trails and wallows they fashion, at their sites of social congregation, dung depots, etc.

Resources

Books

Alvarez del Toro, M. Los Mamiferos de Chiapas. Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Chiapas, 1977.

Blouch, R. A. Current Status of the Sumatran Rhino and Other Large Mammals in Southern Sumatra. Bogor, Indonesia: WWF Indonesia Programme, 1984.

Brooks, D. M, R. E. Bodmer, and S. Matola, eds. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan: Tapirs. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK: IUCN/SSC Tapir Specialist Group, 1997.

Gade, D. W. Nature and Culture in the Andes. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1999.

Lee, A. R. Management Guidelines for Welfare of Zoo Animals: Tapirs (Tapirus spp.). London: The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland, 1993.

Leigh, E. G., A. S. Rand, and D. M. Windsor, eds. The Ecology of a Tropical Forest: Seasonal Rhythms and Long-Term Changes. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1982.

Mares, M. A., and D. J. Schmidly, eds. Latin American Mammalogy: History, Biodiversity, and Conservation. Norman, OK, and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.

Prothero, D. R., and R. M. Schoch. The Evolution of Perissodactyls. New York and Oxford: Clarendon Press and Oxford University Press: 1989.

Robinson, J. G., and K. H. Redford. Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.

Periodicals

Agenbroad, L. D., and W. R. Downs. "A Robust Tapir from Northern Arizona." Journal Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science 19 (1984): 91–99.

Ashley, M. V., J. E. Norman, and L. Stross. "Phylogenetic Analysis of the Perissodactylan Family Tapiridae Using Mitochondrial Cytochrome C Oxidase (COII) Sequence." Journal of Mammalian Evolution 3 (1996): 315–326.

Bodmer, R. E. "Fruit Patch Size and Frugivory in the Lowland Tapir (Tapirus terrestris)." Journal of Zoology 222 (1990): 121–128.

Bodmer, R. E., T. G. Fang, L. Moya-I., and R. Gill. "Managing Wildlife to Conserve Amazonian Rainforests: Population Biology and Economic Considerations of Game Hunting." Biological Conservation 67 (1993): 1–7.

Cohn, J. P. "On the Tapir's Tapering Trail." Americas 52 (2000): 40–47.

Downer, C. C. "The Mountain Tapir, Endangered "Flagship" Species of the High Andes." Oryx 30, no. 1 (1996): 45–58.

——. "Observations on the Diet and Habitat of the Mountain Tapir (Tapirus pinchaque)." Journal of Zoology 254(2001): 279–291.

Flesher, K., and E. Ley. "A Frontier Model For Landscape Ecology: The Tapir in Honduras." Environmental and Ecological Statistics 3, no. 2 (1996): 119–125.

Fragoso, J. M. V. "Tapir-Generated Seed Shadows: Scale-Dependent Patchiness in the Amazon Rain Forest." Journal of Ecology 85 (1997): 519–529.

Fragoso, J. M. V., and J. M. Huffman. "Seed-Dispersal and Seedling Recruitment Patterns by the Last Neotropical Megafaunal Element in Amazonia, the Tapir." Journal of Tropical Ecology 16, no. 3 (2000): 369–385.

Henry, O., F. Feer, and D. Sabatier. "Diet of the Lowland Tapir (Tapirus terrestris L.) In French Guiana." Biotropica 32, no. 2 (2000): 364–368.

Holbrook, L. T. "The Phylogeny and Classification of Tapiromorph Perissodactyls (Mammalia)." Cladistics 15(1999): 331–350.

Hunsaker, D., and T. Hahn. "Vocalization of the South American Tapir (T. terrestris)." Animal Behavior (1965): 69–74.

Lizcano, D. J., and J. Cavelier. "Daily and Seasonal Activity of the Mountain Tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) in the Central Andes of Colombia." Journal of Zoology 252 (2000): 429–435.

Lizcano, D. J., V. Pizarro, J. Cavelier, and J. Carmona. "Geographic Distribution and Population Size of the Mountain Tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) in Colombia." Journal of Biogeography 29 (2002): 7–15.

Novaro, A. J., K. H. Redford, and R. E. Bodmer. "Effect of Hunting in Source-Sink Systems in the Neotropics." Conservation Biology 14 (3) (2000): 713–721.

Overall, K. L. "Coatis, Tapirs and Ticks: A Case of Mammalian Interspecific Grooming." Biotropica 12 (2)(1980): 158.

Rodriguez, M., F. Olmos, and M. Galetti. "Seed Dispersal by Tapir in Southeastern Brazil." Mammalia 57 (1993): 460–461.

Santiopillai, C., and W. Sukohadi-Ramono. "The Status and Conservation of the Malayan Tapir in Sumatra, Indonesia." Tigerpaper 17, no. 4 (1990): 6–11.

Schauenberg, Paul. "Contribution a l'etude du Tapir pinchaque, Tapirus pinchaque, Roulin, 1829." Revue Suisse de Zoologie 76, no. 1 (1969): 211–256.

Terwilliger, V. J. "Natural History of Baird's Tapir on Barro Colorado Island, Panama Canal Zone." Biotropica 10, no. 3(1978): 211–220.

Organizations

Andean Tapir Fund. P.O. Box 456, Minden, NV 89423 United States. E-mail: ccdowner@yahoo.com Web site: <http://www.dexlen.com/Tapir/andean_tapir.html>

IUCN Species Survival Commission, Tapir Specialist Group. E-mail: epmedici@uol.com.br Web site: <http://www.tapirback.com/tapirgal/iucn-ssc/tsg>

Tapir Preservation Fund. P.O. Box 118, Astoria, OR 97103 United States. Phone: (503) 325-3179; (503) 338-8646. Fax: (503) 325-3179. E-mail: tapir@tapirback.com Web site: <http://www.tapirback.com>

Craig C. Downer, PhD