Psittaciformes

Parrots

(Psittacidae)

Class Aves

Order Psittaciformes

Family Psittacidae

Number of families 1

Thumbnail description
Very small to large, often brightly colored birds with hooked bill and zygodactyl feet (two toes facing forward and two backward)

Size
3.2–39.4 in (8–100 cm); 0.02–6.6 lb (0.01–3 kg)

Number of genera, species
84 genera; 353 species

Habitat
Forests, woodlands, and savanna

Conservation status
Critically Endangered: 15 species; Endangered: 34 species; Vulnerable: 45 species; Lower risk: 30 species; 10 species extinct since 1600

Distribution
Mainly Southern Hemisphere and predominantly in tropical or subtropical regions, but north to latitude 34° north in eastern Afghanistan and south to latitude 55° south at Tierra del Fuego

Evolution and systematics

Parrots are an ancient group but significant gaps in their fossil history have raised questions about their evolution. The earliest fossil dates from the late Cretaceous, 70 million years ago (mya), and comes from Wyoming, but some doubt that the fragment found there is from a parrot. Dating from the early Miocene, some 25 mya, the fossil parrot Archaeopsittacus verreauxi found near Allier, France, and, with similarities to the modern gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus), seems the earliest record that can unquestionably be referred to as Psittaciformes. Confirming a widespread existence of parrots at this time is a northwestern Queensland, Australia, fossil indistinguishable from modern cockatoo (Cacatua) species. Another representative of a modern genus is Conuropsis fratercula from the upper Miocene, approximately 10–15 mya, and described from remains found in Nebraska. In 1998, G. Mayr and M. Daniels concluded that parrots appear to be a very ancient group possibly diverging from other birds in the Palaeocene, at least 60 mya.

The homogeneity of parrots has caused difficulties for systematists attempting to determine taxonomic arrangements. In 1900, D. Thompson followed the classification based entirely on external features and proposed almost 10 years earlier by T. Salvadori, who recognized seven families, one of which, Psittacidae, was divided into six subfamilies. For almost 70 years the work of these pioneers formed the basis for taxonomy of the Psittaciformes, though higher categories were downgraded to produce six or seven subfamilies in a single family. In 1975, a major essay detailing anatomical, morphological, and behavioral characters was presented by G. A. Smith, who recognized a single family divided into four subfamilies, with one subfamily, Platycercinae, being further divided into four tribes, and another, Loriinae, divided into five tribes. In a revised edition of his Parrots of the World, published in 1989, J. M. Forshaw redistributed Smith's tribes among three subfamilies—Loriinae (no tribes), Cacatuinae (three tribes), and Psittacinae (eight extant tribes)—and similar or variably modified arrangements were adopted by other workers until the advent of biochemical techniques. Peters Checklist lists 81 genera and 340 species, but by 2000, there emerged a general consensus, emanating principally from biochemical and chromosomal studies, that cockatoos are quite distinct from other parrots and should be separated at family level. The 353 species of parrots are generally placed in 84 genera, which, in turn, are grouped in nine or more tribes in three or up to five subfamilies and one or two families.

Physical characteristics

Parrots retain a strong structural homogeneity, but vary in size from the pygmy parrots of New Guinea—less than 3.5 in (9 cm) in length and weighing only 0.35 oz (10 g)—to the giant macaws of South America and the bulky kakapo (Strigops habroptilus) of New Zealand. Up to 40 in (100 cm) from bill to tail, the hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) is the largest parrot, while the kakapo, weighing up to 6.6 lb (3 kg), is the heaviest. Plumage color is variable, and, although most are brilliantly colored, with green, red, and yellow predominating, there are uniformly dull-colored species like the two Coracopsis parrots from Madagascar. Colors can be structural, pigmentary, or a combination of both. Blue and green are

structural colors, due principally to back-scattering of light from the texture of the feathers. Named after its discoverer, Danish ornithologist Jan Dyck, this Dyck-texture is not present in feathers of cockatoos, hence the absence of green and blue from their plumage. A capacity to produce abnormal or mutant plumages, particularly among neotropical species, is well-known in captive parrots. There are numerous color variants of domesticated budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) and cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). Only two species, the Papuan lory (Charmosyna papou) of New Guinea and the St. Vincent Amazon (Amazona guildingii) of the Lesser Antilles, have distinct morphs in wild populations. Sexual dichromatism is common in parrots from Australasia and Asia, but uncommon in African and neotropical species. Females of sexually dichromatic species normally are duller than males and lack some prominent markings. Two exceptions are the eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) from Australasia and Rüppell's parrot (Poicephalus rueppellii) from southwest Africa. So different are sexes of the eclectus parrot that for nearly a century the green males and red females were considered separate species. Juveniles generally resemble, or are duller than, females.

Apart from erectile headcrests of cockatoos, structural modifications in plumage are uncommon. Tails may be long, narrow, and pointed, broad and rounded, or short and squarish. Markedly elongated central tail feathers are found in the Papuan lory, while long central tail feathers of racket-tailed parrots are subterminally bare and tipped with flag-like spatules. Narrow, pointed wings usually are associated with swift, direct flight, and are prevalent in lories, while broad, rounded wings often denote slow, labored flight.

The unique and specialized bills of parrots enable the birds to crush seeds and nuts, which constitute the diet of many species. Minor modifications in bill shape are associated with different foraging techniques. An elongated, less-curved upper bill facilitates digging of roots and corms or the extraction of seeds from hard, woody fruits. Narrow, protruding bills are used for probing into blossoms when gathering pollen or nectar. The thick, fleshy tongue generally has a dense, horny epithelium towards the tip, but in nectar-feeding species it is tipped with brush-like papillae, an adaptation for gathering pollen and nectar. Both the hooked bill and zygodactyl feet are used when climbing amidst foliage, the former to grasp a branch as the bird steps higher, and the foot to hold a fruit while seeds are extracted.

Distribution

Parrots are distributed mainly in the Southern Hemisphere, and are most prevalent in tropical regions. Following extinction of the Carolina parakeet (Conuropsis carolinensis) in North America, the slaty-headed parakeet (Psittacula himalayana) is the most northerly species, reaching latitude 34° north in the Safed Koh area of northern Afghanistan. Occurring south to latitude 55° south in Tierra del Fuego, the Austral conure (Enicognathus ferrugineus) occupies the southernmost range, though the red-fronted parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae) formerly ranged farther south to Macquarie Island. The order is most strongly represented in South America and Australasia, but the marked diversity in Australasia has prompted speculation that parrots originated in the Old World, with dispersal being facilitated by inter-connections of the southern continents in the Cretaceous and early Tertiary, some 70–90 mya. Parrots occur in Asia, mainly on the Indian subcontinent, and in Africa, but representation in these regions is much less than what might be expected.

Habitat

Although found in a variety of habitats, parrots are most prevalent in lowland, tropical, or subtropical rainforest, where they seem to prefer forest margins or clearings. Species that inhabit open country also show a strong attachment to trees, especially along watercourses, and seldom are encountered far from cover. Parrots are less common at higher altitudes, and those that do occur there are absent from, or are rare in, neighboring lowlands. There are distinctive highland forms, including the highly inquisitive kea (Nestor notabilis), which commonly frolics in snow high up in the Southern Alps of New Zealand.

One of the few species confined to specialized habitats is the terrestrial ground parrot (Pezoporus wallicus), which occurs only in coastal and contiguous mountain heathlands in southern Australia, a very restricted habitat that is rapidly disappearing. Along the seaboard of southern Australia, the rock parrot (Neophema petrophila) frequents coastal sand-dunes and offshore islets, where it nests in rock crevices. Dependence on particular plants or vegetation communities, usually as sources of food or nest sites, can be evident in the dispersal of some species.

Behavior

Being predominantly green and living in the rainforest canopy, most parrots are difficult to observe, and often the only sighting is a momentary glimpse of a screeching flock in swift overhead flight. Species that inhabit open country or are plentiful near urban centers tend to be conspicuous, and there is more information on their habits, but as a group parrots are not well-known.

Vocalizations are used to maintain pair-bonds and to reinforce flock cohesion. The distinctly metallic call-notes typically are harsh and unmelodic, generally based on a simple syllable or combination of simple syllables. Variation comes primarily from the timing of repetition. Calling is prevalent in early morning and early evening, especially during flights from and to roosts. Daytime foraging or resting normally is undertaken in relative silence. Solitary species such as the kakapo and night parrot (Pezoporus occidentalis) tend to be less vocal than highly social species, who normally exhibit dueting within pairs. Although well-known in captive parrots, vocal mimicry rarely has been reported from the wild.

The flight of most parrots, especially small species, is swift and direct. In larger species flight is variable; macaws are fairly fast, their long tails streaming behind to give a distinctive flight silhouette, but the buoyant flight of black cockatoos is slow and labored. It has been estimated that galahs (Eolophus roseicapillus) can maintain for many minutes a flight speed of 44 mi (70 km) per hour, thereby covering long distances in a short time, and speeds of up to 50 mi (80 km) per hour probably are reached by migrating swift parrots (Lathamus discolor).

Regular seasonal migration is known only from southeast Australia, where blue-winged (Neophema chrysostoma), orange-bellied (N. chrysogaster), and swift parrots cross the 187-mi-wide (300-km-wide) Bass Strait between breeding areas in Tasmania and mainland wintering sites. Altitudinal movements occur in some areas, but the extent to which highland sites are vacated is influenced by severity of winter conditions. Seasonal patterns have been identified in movements of some nomadic parrots.

Feeding ecology and diet

The diet of most parrots includes seeds and fruits procured in treetops or on the ground. These parrots are adept at dehusking seeds to extract nutritious kernels. With the thick tongue, a seed is held against the broad, ridged underside of the upper bill while the front cutting edge of the lower bill efficiently peels away the seed-coat. Use of a foot, usually the left one, to hold food up to the bill is prevalent among arboreal species, but less common or even absent in predominantly ground-feeding species.

Minor modifications in bill structure are associated with different feeding techniques. For example, elongated, less-curved upper bills of slender-billed (Cacatua tenuirostris) and Western corellas (C. pastinator) are used to dig up roots, bulbs, and corms, while the broad, blunt bill of the redtailed black cockatoo (C. banksii) is ideal for crushing seeds or hard nuts.

Apart from occasionally dropping to the ground a few viable seeds or undamaged fruits, parrots play no role as dispersal agents, and their feeding can significantly impact local levels of seed production. Field studies reveal that red-lored

Amazons (Amazona autumnalis) can destroy entire seed crops from poorly fruiting Stemmadenia trees or up to 33% of crops from heavily fruiting trees. A flock of 100 orange-chinned parakeets (Brotogeris jugularis) was estimated to have taken 15% of the seed crop of a fig tree during just one morning feeding session.

Because the arboreal lories and lorikeets feed on pollen, nectar, and soft fruits, their gizzards are weak and less muscular than those of seed-eating species. Constantly on the move in search of flowering trees or shrubs, these specialists use the protruding, sharply pointed bill and "brush-tipped" tongue to gather pollen and nectar. Rainbow lorikeets (Trichoglossus haematodus) probe into Eucalyptus flowers at a rate of 35 flowers per minute, and in two or three hours one can gather nectar from up to 5,000 flowers, sufficient to satisfy its daily needs. Pygmy parrots also are specialist feeders, using the stiffened, projecting shafts of their short tail feathers and their long, curved claws to move woodpecker-like up and down tree trunks or stout limbs, gleaning lichen from the surface.

Reproductive biology

Most parrot species appear to be monogamous and remain paired for long periods, perhaps for life. A notable exception is the kakapo, a flightless, lek-display species whose males take no part in incubation or care of the young. Pairs and family groups are discernible within flocks of gregarious parrots, with paired birds usually perching or foraging together and regularly indulging in mutual preening.

Our knowledge of the nesting habits of parrots is patchy, and much of the available information comes from captive birds. Breeding takes place when climatic conditions produce reliable food supplies for rearing young; in temperate regions this is during spring-summer months. In the tropics rainfall usually is key to the timing of breeding. In arid regions, where rainfall is highly irregular, availability of surface water, often originating from distant storms, can bring about a prompt onset of breeding. In southern Australia, budgerigars normally breed during spring-summer months, while in the north breeding occurs mainly in the early dry season, during autumn and winter, but in any district nesting may take place at other times in response to drought-breaking rains or a flow of surface water, and rapid sexual development, with males producing sperm within 60 days of fledging, enables the population to increase quickly in response to propitious conditions.

Available information suggests that courtship displays generally are simple, and even the most elaborate consist of a sequence of simple actions such as bowing, wing-drooping, wing-flicking, tail-wagging, foot-raising, or dilation of eye pupils. Prominently colored parts of the male plumage feature strongly in displays. Prior to copulation, there is considerable bodily contact: bill-nibbling, mutual preening, and courtship feeding. During this feeding, the male feeds regurgitated food to the female in the same manner as parents feed chicks. More spectacular "drumming" displays are undertaken by the palm cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus). These involve outstretching of wings, raising of the crest, and stomping of a foot. Unique is the highly specialized lek display by male kakapos. At bowl-like depressions, up to 12 of which are excavated and meticulously maintained by each male, the male emits loud "booms" from inflated thoracic air-sacs followed by a display featuring an opening of the wings and slight bowing of the head while moving backward.

Nests usually are in hollows in trees or holes in arboreal and terrestrial termitaria, occasionally in holes in earth-banks or in crevices among rocks. If in termitaria, the tunnel and nesting chamber are excavated by the birds, whereas in trees few parrots excavate fresh hollows; most use natural hollows or old cavities of other birds, such as woodpeckers or barbets. Crevices in walls or under eaves of buildings sometimes are used for nesting, especially by the rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri) in India. Keas, kakapos, and the burrowing parakeet (Cyanoliseus patagonus) from South America dig burrows in the ground or under rocks; some macaws and the scarlet-fronted parakeet (Aratinga wagleri) nest in fissures in cliff-faces; the rock parrot nests in crevices in rocks or in old burrows of seabirds; and a few Australasian species nest on the ground under or in grass tussocks. Unique are the often huge communal nests of twigs and dead branches built in trees by monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus), with each pair having its own nest chamber. Lining material normally is not brought to the nest cavity, the eggs being laid on decayed wood dust or crumbled earth that accumulates at the bottom. Some Agapornis lovebirds, Loriculus hanging parrots, and Neophema parakeets line their nests with grass, twigs, or leaves carried by the birds in the bill or thrust among the body feathers, particularly those of the rump.

Eggs are white, and usually one is laid every other day. Clutch sizes vary from one to three for large parrots, three to five for medium-sized species, and up to eight or more for some small parrots. It is difficult to ascertain when incubation begins. As a rule, it begins with or immediately after laying of the second egg. Generally the female alone incubates, and she is fed by the male, but there are many species in which males share incubation. Male lorikeets spend considerable time in the nest with females, but it is doubtful that they participate in incubation. Duration of incubation varies roughly in proportion to the size of the birds; for small parrots it is from 19–23 days; for large macaws it can be more than 30 days.

Newly hatched chicks are blind and naked or with sparse natal down, which is white in most species. Nestling cockatoos are well covered with down; pink in the galah, yellow in other species. Eyes open seven to 14 days after hatching, and in most species the natal white down is soon replaced by, or supplemented with, dense gray down, which gradually gives way to feathers. Newly hatched nestlings are closely brooded and fed by the female, who in turn is fed by the male. When chicks are about five to 10 days old the male assists by feeding them directly. Chicks develop slowly and remain in the nest for three to four weeks in the case of small parrots and up to three months in large macaws. In proportion to size, lories and lorikeets have a long nestling period. A disproportionately long nestling period of up to nine weeks has been recorded for the red-fan parrot (Deroptyus accipitrinus). A relatively short nestling period of 24 days has been recorded for the medium-sized ground parrot; their chicks can run from the nest at 18 days. After leaving the nest, young birds are fed by their parents for varying periods. Post-fledging independence is almost immediate in young budgerigars, while at the other extreme young Calyptorhynchus black cockatoos are fed by their parents for up to four months after leaving the nest. Young birds usually remain with their parents until near onset of the next breeding season, thus forming the family parties often observed.

Juveniles generally resemble females, or are duller than adults of both sexes. A distinctly juvenal plumage is present in some, including the crimson rosella (Platycercus elegans) from Australia and some Psittacula species. Juveniles usually have shorter tails than do adults; this is especially so in the Papuan lory and some Psittacula species, adults of which have elongated central tail feathers, and in Prioniturus racket-tailed parrots, where juveniles lack the central rackets. There is a striking difference between adults and juveniles of the vulturine parrot (Pionopsitta vulturina); in adults the bare head is sparsely covered with inconspicuous "bristles," but in juveniles

the head is well feathered. In general, where adults of a species have dark bills, those of juveniles generally are pale, but when adults have pale bills, those of juveniles are dark or have dark markings at the base of one or both bills. If the irides of adults are pale colored, such as orange, yellow, or white, those of juveniles usually are dark. The time taken for juveniles to attain adult plumage varies greatly; it may be within months of leaving the nest, or it may be up to three or four years and sometimes later. Some species acquire adult colors rapidly with the first complete molt, while for others it is a slow, imperceptible process. With certain species, including the red-cheeked parrot (Geoffroyus geoffroyi) and the plum-headed parakeet (Psittacula cyanocephala), the distinct juvenal plumage is replaced in young males by the plumage of adult females before they acquire adult male plumage.

Conservation status

In 2000 more than 90 of the approximately 350 species were in danger of extinction according to the IUCN, making parrots the most threatened of the major bird families. Habitat destruction and trapping for the live-bird trade were identified as the major threats. Another factor threatening these species was their restricted ranges. This was highlighted by the high proportion of island forms among the 18 parrot taxa listed in 1981 as having become extinct between 1600 and 1980.

Of particular concern is the widespread destruction of tropical forest, a habitat favored by many species. Alarming levels of clearing in the developing nations of Amazonia, southeast Asia, and central Africa, regions of strong endemism, are impacting local and regional populations. Protection of habitat in reserves seems inadequate to arrest declining numbers.

In Colombia, almost complete destruction of stands of wax palms (Ceroxylon quindiuense) has brought about near extinction of the yellow-eared parrot (Ognorhynchus icterotis), which is dependent on the palms for food and nesting sites. In the highlands of Mexico, a probable relative, the thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha), is similarly threatened by intensive felling of Pinus forest, and no longer can the species wander north into southern Arizona. The highly specialized, terrestrial ground parrot occurs only in coastal or near coastal heathlands in east and southwest Australia, but as these heath-lands are claimed for urban development or agriculture, local populations are extirpated.

Much recovery effort has been directed at island parrots, and results are encouraging. Economic benefits derived from ecotourism associated with the occurrence of spectacular Amazona parrots have been promoted successfully in the Lesser Antilles to outweigh short-term gains from logging or hunting. This has resulted in steady increases of four threatened endemic species. Beginning in 1968 and remaining operational at the time of writing (2001), an intensive effort to save the Puerto Rican Amazon (Amazona vittata) from extinction has been conducted under the sponsorship of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U. S. Forest Service, the World Wildlife Fund, and the Puerto Rican government. Captive breeding and protection of known nest-sites have improved the previously low fledging success rate. A similar program was initiated on Norfolk Island in 1983 by the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service to save the critically endangered Norfolk Island parakeet (Cyanoramphus cookii), the population of which at that time was estimated to be between 17 and 30 birds. This program has been successful, and in 2000 the population was estimated to exceed 100 birds. On Mauritius, the almost total loss of native forest, coupled with hunting and predation by introduced macaques, reduced numbers of the endemic Mauritius parakeet (Psittacula echo) to an estimated 10 birds in the 1980s. A recovery program involving captive breeding and protection of known nest-sites has resulted in a steady increase to an estimated 120–130 birds in 2001.

The plight of parrots is acknowledged in legislative protection afforded under international and national statutes. Since 1981, all species, except the cockatiel, the rose-ringed parakeet, and the budgerigar, have been listed on Appendices to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and the listing in 2001 of 38 species on Appendix I recognized that the endangered status of those species renders their involvement in commercial trade unacceptable. Although domestic legislation may afford additional protection to endangered species in range states, inadequate enforcement often undermines the effectiveness of that protection. In some instances, including the Endangered Species Act, protection is given to non-native endangered parrots through controls on trafficking.

Significance to humans

The popularity of parrots as pets is unequalled in any other group of birds, and one species, the budgerigar, ranks second to the goldfish as the world's most popular pet animal.

Damage to crops by parrots has been reported from some countries, but there has been little objective evaluation of the problem. Losses experienced by farmers locally can be severe, but studies undertaken in Australia have shown that this damage is not economically significant at the national level. It has been demonstrated repeatedly that shooting, trapping, or poisoning parrots are ineffective in reducing damage. Although it is unlikely that damage can be completely eliminated, levels can be reduced by modification of farming practices or by adopting protective measures based on sound ecological principles.

In some parts of their range, parrots are hunted for food or for their feathers, the latter being used as adornments in ceremonial or religious rituals. Tail feathers from large macaws are harvested by indigenous peoples in Central and South America, while in New Guinea there is widespread trading of the highly prized flight feathers from Pesquet's parrot and tail feathers from the Papuan lory. Also in New Guinea, persistent hunting of palm cockatoos for food has extirpated the birds from the environs of most larger towns and villages.

Species accounts

List of Species

Palm cockatoo

Probosciger aterrimus

subfamily

Cacatuinae

taxonomy

Psittacus aterrimus Gmelin, 1788, New Holland, Aru Islands, Indonesia. Four subspecies.

other common names

English: Great palm cockatoo, great black cockatoo, Goliath cockatoo, Goliath aratoo, Cape York cockatoo, black macaw; French: Microglosse noir; German: Arakakadu; Spanish: Cacatúa Enlutada.

physical characteristics

23.6 in (60 cm); 1.8–2.4 lb (910–1,200 g). Black plumage with red or pink cheeks from bill to eye; large head crest.

distribution

P. a. aterrimus: Aru Islands and Misool, western Papuan Islands, Indonesia. P. a. goliath: western Papuan Islands, except Misool, Indonesia, and central New Guinea. P. a. stenolophus: north New Guinea. P. a. macgillivrayi: south New Guinea and Cape York Peninsula, northernmost Australia.

habitat

Lowlands in rainforest, gallery forest, tall secondary growth, monsoon woodland, partly cleared lands and dense savanna woodland; favors rainforest margins adjoining Eucalyptus woodland.

behavior

Resident. Noisy, conspicuous when active in the morning and late afternoon, but quiet and secretive when resting in forest trees. Singly or in pairs while breeding, but small groups at other times; roosts singly, departing well after sunrise to join other birds at congregating tree, where much greeting is displayed. When alarmed or excited, bare facial patches become deeper red.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on seeds, nuts, fruits, berries, leaf buds, and probably insects and their larvae, procured mainly in trees, but will come to the ground; on Cape York Peninsula, favored foods are fruits of Pandanus and Parinari nonda.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Pairs advertise territory occupation from atop dead tree-trunk with spectacular "drumming" display featuring raising of crest, spreading of wings, and striking a hollow trunk with stout stick held in the foot while pirouetting slowly to the accompaniment of loud, whistling call-notes. Breeding recorded most months; nest in tree-hollow, bottom lined with layers of splintered twigs, forming platform for single egg; incubation by female 33 days; chick fed by both parents; fledging at 90 days.

conservation status

Listed on CITES Appendix I. Affected by logging and forest clearing in parts of New Guinea; hunted for food; widespread capture for live-bird trade.

significance to humans

In vicinity of towns and villages locally extirpated by hunting for food and trapping for live-bird trade; much in demand as aviary bird.

Sulphur-crested cockatoo

Cacatua galerita

subfamily

Cacatuinae

taxonomy

Psittacus galeritus Latham, 1790, New South Wales. Four subspecies.

other common names

English: Greater sulphur-crested cockatoo, white cockatoo; French: Grande Cocatoès à huppe jaune; German: Grosser Gelbhaubenkakadu; Spanish: Cacatúa Galerita.

physical characteristics

19.7 in (50 cm); 1.5–1.8 lb (750–900 g). White plumage, yellow crest on the head, blackish bill.

distribution

C. g. galerita: east and southeast Australia. C. g. fitzroyi: north Australia. C. g. triton: New Guinea and adjacent islands. C. g. eleonora: Aru Islands, Indonesia.

habitat

Lowlands and foothills; wide variety of forests and woodlands, also lightly timbered grasslands, plantations, and urban parks or gardens; favors forest margins and trees bordering watercourses, but rarely within closed forest.

behavior

Resident. Noisy, highly conspicuous; pairs or family parties in breeding season, at other times in flocks, sometimes comprising hundreds of birds. Wary; in open country "sentinel" birds sit in treetops to warn feeding flock of approaching danger; roosts communally, departing at sunrise to drink and fly to feeding grounds, often at some distance; shelters in trees during middle of day, resuming feeding in late afternoon and then drinking before returning to roost.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on the ground and in trees, taking seeds, nuts, fruits, blossoms, and insects and their larvae; will attack newly planted and ripening grain crops, but destroys seeds of serious weed pests.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Simple courtship display features raising of crest, head bobbing, and swishing of head from side-to-side in "figure 8" movement while uttering soft, chattering notes. In south, breeding is from August to January, and in north from May to September; nest is high up in a tree hollow, usually near water; clutch of two or three eggs incubated by both sexes for 27 days; chicks fed by both parents; fledging at about 70 days.

conservation status

Generally common; locally abundant in east Australia; in 1990s population estimated at more than 500,000. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Very popular cagebird; in New Guinea, yellow crest feathers used in ceremonial headdress. Can damage grain crops.

Cockatiel

Nymphicus hollandicus

subfamily

Cacatuinae

taxonomy

Psittacus hollandicus Kerr, 1792, New Holland-New South Wales. Monotypic.

other common names

English: Quarrion, cockatoo-parrot, crested parrot, weero; French: Calopsitte èlègante; German: Nymphensittich; Spanish: Cacatúa Ninfa.

physical characteristics

12.6 in (32 cm); 2.6–3.5 oz (75–100 g). Slender bird with long wings and tail. Gray plumage, raised yellow crest, orange cheeks, and white wing patch. Males have brighter markings than females.

distribution

Interior of mainland Australia.

habitat

Lowlands; most types of dry, open, lightly timbered country, including farmlands and parks or gardens; favors trees bordering watercourses, and avoids dense woodland or treeless plains.

behavior

Nomadic in north, migratory in south. Usually in small flocks, but large flocks at isolated waterholes; conspicuous in flight, showing diagnostic white wing patches; silhouette with backward swept wings; inconspicuous when feeding on the ground or perching lengthways on stout limb; roosts communally, departing at or before sunrise to assembly point in nearby tree and then to feeding area; shelters in trees during middle of day, resuming feeding in late afternoon and then drinking prior to returning to roost; more active on cool, overcast days.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds mainly on the ground, sometimes with other parrots, taking seeds of grasses and herbs; also takes berries and will attack grain crops.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; mated pairs or family groups probably basic social unit; breeding influenced by rainfall, but in south mainly from August to December and in north from April to September; nest in tree hollow usually near water, and two or more nests sometimes in same tree; clutch of four or five eggs incubated by both parents; fledging at 25–30 days.

conservation status

Generally common, locally abundant in north; in 1990s population estimated to exceed one million.

significance to humans

Very popular cagebird; domesticated with numerous color mutations well established in captivity.

Eastern rosella

Platycercus eximius

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus eximius Shaw, 1792, New South Wales. Three subspecies.

other common names

English: Rosella, rosella parrot, red rosella, common rosella, golden-mantled rosella; French: Perruche emnicolore; German: Rosellasittich; Spanish: Perico Multicolor.

physical characteristics

12 in (30 cm); 3.2–4.3 oz (90–122 g). Bright plumage with scale-like black marking on the back; red head.

distribution

P. e. eximius: southeastern Australia north to northeast New South Wales. P. e. elecica: northeast New South Wales and southeast Queensland. P. e. diemenensis: Tasmania.

habitat

Most types of open, lightly wooded country, including farmlands and orchards; favors trees bordering watercourses and has successfully colonized human-made habitats, especially golf courses, but avoids dense, closed forest.

behavior

Sedentary. Pairs or small groups familiar in or near urban centers, where often seen perched on telegraph wires or sitting on roadside fences; inconspicuous when feeding on the ground, but easily identified by characteristically undulating flight and

whistling call-notes; more active in cool or wet weather, at other times resting during middle of day.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds primarily on seeds procured on the ground, but also takes seeds, fruits, and blossoms in trees or shrubs, especially eucalypts and acacias; fond of cultivated fruits.

reproductive biology

Monogamous, mated pair being the basic social unit. Courtship display features "squaring" of shoulders and agitated sideways wagging of fanned tail to the accompaniment of chattering notes. Defends territory in immediate vicinity of nesting tree; nest in tree hollow, sometimes in crevice in wall of building; clutch of four or five eggs incubated by female for 19 days; chicks fed by both parents; fledging at 32 days.

conservation status

Abundant throughout most of its range; benefits from land-clearing and crop-growing; in 1990s population estimated to exceed 500,000 and stable or increasing.

significance to humans

Popular cagebird; can cause damage in orchards.

Budgerigar

Melopsittacus undulatus

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus undulatus Shaw, 1805, New Holland = south and west Australia. Monotypic.

other common names

English: Budgie, warbling grass-parakeet, lovebird, parakeet; French: Perruche ondulé; German: Wellensittich; Spanish: Periquito Común.

physical characteristics

7 in (18 cm): 0.8–1.1 oz (23–32 g). Small bird with light green and yellow plumage, darker wings, and bluish tail.

distribution

Interior of mainland Australia.

habitat

Wide variety of open habitats, from arid shrublands or lightly wooded grasslands and Atriplex (saltbush) plains to open forest and farmlands; favors eucalypts bordering ephemeral watercourses; capable of surviving long periods without water, but seldom found far from surface water.

behavior

Migrant in south, nomad in north, but everywhere numbers influenced by availability of surface water. Gregarious, flocks normally of 10–100 birds, sometimes much larger, even many thousands; swift, erratic flight of flocks with remarkable precision, all birds twisting and turning in perfect unison. Departs communal roost at sunrise, flying directly to feeding areas; peak feeding periods in the morning and afternoon, in interim comes to drink, some members of flock alighting on water and rising into the air by beating wings down against water surface. Displays pre-roosting aerobatics before returning at dusk to nighttime roost.

feeding ecology and diet

Specialist feeder dependent on small seeds of groundcover vegetation; all seeds taken on the ground or within reach from the ground.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeding influenced by availability of surface water; in south usually during spring-summer and in north during autumn-winter. Nest in tree hollow or hole in stump, fencepost, or log lying on the ground; often communal nesting, and two or more broods reared in succession; clutch of four to six, up to eight eggs incubated by female for 18 days; chicks fledge at about 30 days, and sexually mature within 60 days of leaving nest.

conservation status

Plentiful, though numbers fluctuate according to seasonal conditions; possibly most numerous Australian parrot, with estimated population more than five million.

significance to humans

Most popular cagebird worldwide; domesticated and numerous color mutations well established.

Rose-ringed parakeet

Psittacula krameri

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus krameri Scopoli, 1769, Senegal. Four subspecies.

other common names

English: Ring-necked parakeet, Indian ringneck parakeet; French: Perruche à collier; German: Halsbandsittich; Spanish: Cotorra de Kramer.

physical characteristics

15.7 in (40 cm); 4.1–4.9 oz (116–139 g). Green plumage, red bill, narrow red-and-black necklace, slender tail.

distribution

P. k. krameri: south Mauritania east to western Uganda and southern Sudan. P. k. parvirostris: eastern Sudan, Eritrea, and Ethiopia to northwest Somalia. P. k. borealis: northwest Pakistan

and north India east to central Myanmar and southeast China. P. k. manillensis: Sri Lanka and peninsular India. Feral populations originating from escaped cagebirds established elsewhere.

habitat

Lowlands and foothills. Deciduous woodland, secondary growth, and wide variety of open, lightly timbered habitats, including dry scrublands, semidesert savanna, and cultivated farmlands or plantations in and around urban centers; avoids interior of dense, evergreen forest, but present at margins; natural and feral populations have successfully colonized man-made habitats.

behavior

Sedentary, but local movements influenced by rainfall. Usually in small groups but very large flocks at concentrated food sources and at nocturnal roosts; noisy, fearless, and highly conspicuous because of constant screeching and squabbling; swift, direct flight, with backward-swept wings and long, pointed tail giving distinctive appearance.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet includes seeds, berries, fruits, blossoms, and nectar; fond of cultivated fruits and grain, raiding both standing crops and stockpiles at stores or railway sidings.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. In West Africa breeding is from December to April, and is from November to June in India and Sri Lanka. Preceding copulation, elaborate display from male features side-to-side swaying of upward stretching body, repeated raising of one foot, and arching of neck while dilating eye pupils, all to the accompaniment of low, twittering notes. Nest in tree hollow, often in old holes of woodpeckers, or in cavities in walls and under eaves of buildings; clutch of three to four eggs incubated by female for 22 days; young birds leave nest at approximately 30 days.

conservation status

Uncommon at extremities of range, but elsewhere plentiful and increasing; benefits from agriculture.

significance to humans

Very destructive in croplands and orchards; popular cagebird, with many color mutations established.

Eclectus parrot

Eclectus roratus

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus roratus P. L. S. Müller, 1776, Ambon. Nine subspecies.

other common names

English: Red-sided parrot, grand eclectus parrot, red-sided eclectus parrot; French: Grand Eclectus; German: Edelpapagei; Spanish: Loro Eceléctico.

physical characteristics

16.5 in (42 cm); 0.88–1.2 lb (440–600 g). Remarkable sexual dimorphism: males green with pale yellow bill; females red and blue with blackish bill.

distribution

E. r. roratus: south Moluccas, Indonesia. E. r. vosnaeri: north and central Moluccas, Indonesia. E. r. cornelia: Sumba Island, Indonesia. E. r. riedeli: Tanimbar Islands, Indonesia. E. r. aruensis: Aru Islands, Indonesia. E. r. biaki: Biak Island, Irian Jaya, Indonesia. E. r. polychloros: New Guinea and adjacent islands. E. r. solomonensis: Admiralty Islands and Bismarck Archipelago to Solomon Islands. E. r. macgillivrayi: Cape York Peninsula, northernmost Australia. E. r. 'westermani': known only from aviary specimens and possibly aberrant roratus.

habitat

Lowlands and foothills. Closely associated with tropical rain-forest and drier monsoon woodland, but visits variety of timbered habitats, including mangroves, secondary growth, plantations, and gardens.

behavior

Sedentary. Noisy and conspicuous in flight, but wary and secretive in forest canopy, keeping very much to treetops; when disturbed circles high overhead, screeching loudly; undertakes long-distance daily flights between communal nighttime roosts and feeding areas, always flying high above canopy, with males in front of females; usually in pairs or small parties, but larger groups may congregate to feed and at nighttime roosts.

feeding ecology and diet

Seeds, nuts, fruits, berries, and nectar procured in treetops; particularly fond of Ficus and Parinari fruits.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeding recorded most months, but peak possibly between August and January; nest in tree hollow high above ground, and up to four nests found in same tree; groups of up to eight birds of both sexes in attendance at some nests suggests cooperative breeding, with "helpers," probably offspring from previous years; clutch of two eggs incubated for 26 days; young birds leave nest at approximately 90 days.

conservation status

Generally common, but locally scarce where captured for live-bird trade. On Sumba Island, population of cornelia estimated at fewer than 2,000 birds. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Popular cagebird; often kept as pets by local villagers; reported raiding village gardens to take fruit.

Gray parrot

Psittacus erithacus

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus erithacus Linnaeus, 1758, Ghana. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: African gray parrot; French: Perroquet jaco; German: Graupapagei; Spanish: Loro Yaco.

physical characteristics

13 in (33 cm); 08–0.81 lb (402–407 g). Stocky, gray bird with short, red tail.

distribution

P. e. erithacus: Ivory Coast east to Congo River basin. P. e. timneh: Sierra Leone to Ivory Coast.

habitat

Lowlands and foothills. Primarily moist evergreen forest and tall secondary growth, but commonly visits gallery woodland, mangroves, plantations, and gardens.

behavior

Sedentary, but local numbers influenced by food availability. Noisy and highly conspicuous at communal nighttime roosts, where they gather in large numbers; pairs or small groups leave roost at sunrise, flying high above treetops and calling loudly; feeds in canopy during morning and afternoon, resting at midday, but wary and difficult to approach; return flights to roost may continue after nightfall; daily flights follow regular routes.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds arboreally, taking seeds, nuts, fruits, and berries; favors pulp of fruits from cultivated oil palms (Elaeis guineensis); reports of damage to maize crops unconfirmed.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeding season varies geographically from November to April in West Africa to between July and December in Congo River basin and June–July in East Africa. Nest in tree hollow high above ground; clutch of two or three, rarely four, eggs incubated by female; incubation periods of 21 and 30 days recorded in captivity, and young birds left nest nearly 10 weeks after hatching.

conservation status

Generally common and locally abundant, but deforestation and capture for live-bird trade have caused dramatic declines in some districts, notably in Sierra Leone and Ghana. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Very popular cage bird with reputation as best "talker;" second most heavily traded parrot species in 1980s, when average annual exports exceeded 47,000 birds.

Hyacinth macaw

Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus hyacinthinus Latham, 1790, Brazil. Monotypic.

other common names

English: Hyacinthine macaw; French: Ara hyacinthe; German: Hyazinthara; Spanish: Guacamayo Jacinto.

physical characteristics

39 in (100 cm); weight not recorded. Largest and probably most spectacular of all parrots. Deep blue plumage, yellow eye patch and chin, long tapering tail.

distribution

North Brazil to east Bolivia and extreme north Paraguay.

habitat

Lightly to moderately wooded country where palm food trees are present; favors gallery woodland traversing semi-open lands, especially seasonally inundated grasslands of the Pantanal; occurs also at margins of moist, lowland forest and in low, dry scrublands or cerrado with scattered clumps of Mauritia palms.

behavior

At extremities of range seasonal movements influenced by fruiting of palms, but elsewhere largely sedentary. Usually in groups of six to 12, and mated pairs or parents with offspring readily discernible, but singly or in pairs during breeding season. Noisy and conspicuous, especially in flight, and when disturbed rises up from treetops to circle overhead while screaming loudly; rests quietly in uppermost branches during heat of the day, paired birds sitting together and allopreening frequently; long-distance flights between nighttime roosts and feeding areas at great height, pairs normally traveling together, one beside and slightly behind its mate, and long, streamer-like tail giving distinctive appearance.

feeding ecology and diet

Principally fruits of palms, procured in trees or on the ground underneath; takes palm seeds from cattle droppings or seeds remaining after pulp has been eaten by foraging mammals. Ficus and other fruits sometimes eaten, and recorded taking of Pomacea snails from shallow ponds.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeding recorded from July to December. In northern Brazil nests commonly in crevices in cliff-faces, but elsewhere in tree hollows, often in dead palm stumps; clutch of two or rarely three eggs, but normally only one chick reared; in captivity incubation by female lasted 28–30 days; young bird fledged at approximately three months.

conservation status

Endangered and listed on CITES Appendix I. Alarming declines caused by capture of adults and removal of nestlings for live-bird trade, exacerbated by land clearance and hunting for food or feathers. In early 1990s total population estimated at fewer than 3,000.

significance to humans

Very much in demand as aviary bird; also hunted for food and feathers.

Scarlet macaw

Ara macao

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus macao Linnaeus, 1758, South America. Two subspecies.

other common names

French: Ara rouge; German: Arakanga; Spanish: Gaucamayo Macao.

physical characteristics

33 in (85 cm); 2.1–2.2 lb (1,060–1,123 g). Brilliant plumage with red, blue, green, and yellow. Bare face patch, yellow wing patch, and long, red tapering tail.

distribution

A. m. macao: northeast Bolivia and central Brazil north to Guianas, north Colombia, Panama, and Costa Rica. A. m. cyanoptera: southeast Mexico to Nicaragua.

habitat

Lowlands, on dry ground in evergreen forest and dense gallery woodland traversing savanna, giving way in swampy areas to blue and yellow macaw (Ara ararauna); favors riverine forest or woodland, and often visits mangroves or remnant large trees in clearings and cultivation; in parts of Central America occurs in deciduous or Pinus forest.

behavior

Among the most spectacular of the neotropical birds, brilliant colors and loud calls making them highly conspicuous, especially in flight. Generally in pairs, family parties or small flocks of up to about 20 birds; the strong pair-bonds evident as paired birds fly together, their wings almost touching; daily morning and evening flights along regular routes between nighttime roosts and scattered feeding areas. Can be tame where not molested, but normally extremely wary and at slightest sign of danger rises high into the air while screeching loudly.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds arboreally, taking mainly seeds, nuts, fruits, berries, and flowers, with large, rather soft fruits favored. In Brazil, important foods are Lecythis fruits, and fruits of juvia Bertholletia excelsa and Syagrus palms. With other parrots congregates at clay-licks on exposed banks; purpose unknown, but suggestion that consuming mineralized clays may alleviate effects of toxic alkaloids in unripe fruit.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; pair-bond probably lifelong. Breeding season variable over extensive range, but in north nesting recorded in March–April and in south from October–March; nest in hollow in large tree high above ground; reuse of nests in successive years; one clutch of one or two, rarely up to four eggs, but normally only one or two chicks fledge. In captivity, incubation lasts 24–28 days; young birds leave the nest at approximately 14 weeks.

conservation status

Remains common only in remote areas away from human habitation. Deforestation and capture of birds for live-bird trade have extirpated populations in much of Central America, where total population of cyanoptera estimated at about 4,000 in late 1990s; elsewhere declining in accessible localities, but good numbers survive in some national parks and reserves. Listed on CITES Appendix I.

significance to humans

Probably best known of neotropical parrots, and often depicted in travel brochures. Highly prized as aviary bird and as household pet, so nestlings persistently taken; also hunted in some regions for food and for feathers.

Brown-throated parakeet

Aratinga pertinax

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus pertinax Linnaeus, 1758, Curaçao. Fourteen subspecies.

other common names

English: Brown-throated conure, St. Thomas conure; French: Conure cuivrée; German: Braunwangensittich; Spanish: Aratinga Pertinaz.

physical characteristics

10 in (25 cm); 2.6–3.6 oz (75–102 g). Polytypic species with much geographical variation in extent of yellow on face and brown on throat.

distribution

A. p. pertinax: Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles; successfully introduced to St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. A. p. xanthogenia: Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles. A. p. arubensis: Aruba, Netherlands Antilles. A. p. aeruginosa: north Colombia and northwest Venezuela. A. p. griseipecta: Sinú River valley, northeast Colombia. A. p. lehmanni: east Colombia and possibly westernmost Venezuela. A. p. tortugensis: Tortuga Island, Venezuela. A. p. margaritensis: Margarita Island, Venezuela. A. p. venezuelae: much of Venezuela. A. p. chrysophrys: southeast Venezuela and neighboring northern Brazil. A. p. surinama: Guianas and neighboring northeast Venezuela. A. p. chrysogenys: Rio Negro region, and possibly on Rio Solimões, northwest Brazil. A. p. paraensis: Rio Tapajós and Rio Cururu, north-central Brazil. A. p. ocularis: Panama.

habitat

Lowlands and less commonly foothills; principally natural savannas and deciduous woodlands, but present in wide variety of open habitats from arid scrublands to plantations and cultivation; avoids dense forest, so distribution patchy.

behavior

Sedentary, though local wandering and some seasonal movements in search of food. Generally in pairs or small parties, but large flocks attracted to concentrated food source; noisy, especially during swift, erratic flight with constant direction change; often calls from conspicuous perch atop emergent leafless branch of dead or deciduous tree; in late evening flies about, screeching almost incessantly before retreating to nighttime roost; tame where not persecuted, often present in or around towns and villages.

feeding ecology and diet

Seeds, nuts, fruits, berries, flowers, and probably insect larvae taken in trees and bushes; at study site in Venezuela up to 70% of food plants was taken from human cultivation; causes damage to maize crops and in orchards.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeding season variable throughout extensive range, and nesting recorded in almost all months, possibly influenced by rainfall. Nest normally in hole excavated by birds in arboreal termitarium, but also in holes in trees, in crevices in rocks or wall of buildings, and in burrows excavated in earth banks; four or five nest-holes excavated in same decayed tree trunk; clutch of two to seven, usually four to five eggs; in captivity incubation of 23 days, probably only by female; young birds vacated nest about 40 days after hatching.

conservation status

Generally common, locally abundant; often most numerous parrot in district. Probably benefits from landclearing and cultivation, so range may be expanding. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Considered pest in orchards and croplands, so locally persecuted; not popular as cagebird.

Painted parrot

Pyrrhura picta

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus picta P. L. S. Müller, 1776, Cayenne. Nine subspecies.

other common names

English: Painted conure; French: Conure versicolore; German: Rotzügelsittich; Spanish: Cotorra Pintada.

physical characteristics

8.7 in (22 cm); 1.9–2.5 oz (54–70 g). Polytypic species with strong geographical variation in plumage patterns of head and breast.

distribution

P. p. picta: Venezuela through Guianas to Amapá, north Brazil. P. p. amazonum: north-central Brazil, north of Amazon River. P. p. microtera: north-central Brazil, south of Amazon River. P. p. lucianii: northwest Brazil and southeast Ecuador to northeast Peru and north Bolivia. P. p. roseifrons: east of range of lucianii in west Brazil and east Peru. P. p. subandina: Sinú River valley, northwest Colombia; probably separate species. P. p. caeruleiceps: western slopes of East Andes, north Colombia; possibly separate species. P. p. pantchenkoi: Sierra de Perijá, Colombia-Venezuela border. P. p. eisenmanni: Azuero Peninsula, Panama; possibly separate species.

habitat

Lowlands and foothills. Closely associated with moist, evergreen forest, though occurring also in dense savanna woodland, cloud forest, and partly cleared areas; favors lower stages in interior of forest rather than margins or secondary growth.

behavior

Sedentary, but some local altitudinal movements. Pairs, family parties, or flocks of up to 20 birds; inconspicuous while foraging in lower to upper stages of forest; in dry season bathes regularly at favored watering places; emits shrill "eek" call-notes while in swift, direct flight; where sympatric, gives way to larger crimson-bellied parakeet (Pyrrhura perlata); nighttime roosting in tree hollows.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds arboreally, taking seeds, nuts, fruits, berries, flowers, and possibly insect larvae; also seen taking algae from surface of deep pools; comes to the ground to take mineralized clay.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeding season varies geographically throughout extensive range, but mainly January to June in north and June to September in south. Nest in tree hollow; in captivity, clutch of four or five eggs.

conservation status

Generally common, but locally scarce and declining because of deforestation; subandina possibly extremely rare. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Some localized trapping for live-bird trade.

Monk parakeet

Myiopsitta monachus

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus monachus Boddaert, 1783, Uruguay. Four subspecies.

other common names

English: Quaker parrot, gray-breasted parakeet; French: Conure veuve; German: Mönchsittich; Spanish: Cotorra Argentina.

physical characteristics

11.4 in (29 cm); 4.5–4.9 oz (127–140 g). Small to medium-sized bird with mostly green plumage and gray or dull white face, cheeks, and throat. Long, green tail feathers; pale orange or yellow bill.

distribution

M. m. monachus: southeast Brazil to Uruguay and northeast Argentina. M. m. calita: western Argentina. M. m. cotorra: northwest Argentina and south Bolivia to Paraguay and south Brazil. M. m. luchsi: central Bolivia; probably separate species. Feral population in many locations, including North America and Europe.

habitat

In central Bolivia, in riverine vegetation in arid scrublands near cliff-faces in intermontane valleys (M. m. luchsi); elsewhere, dry semi-open lowlands in savanna woodland, gallery forest, dry Acacia scrublands, palm groves, pasturelands or cultivation, and urban parks or gardens; often prevalent near human habitation.

behavior

Sedentary, but some localized, seasonal movements at fringes of range. Noisy and highly gregarious; flocks of 10–100 or more always in the vicinity of conspicuous communal nests serving as foci for daily activities. Wary when away from shelter; "sentinel" birds sit atop nearby trees to warn feeding flock of approaching danger, and when disturbed all rise into the air, screeching loudly; intruder at nest is watched intently and in silence for some time before birds rise into the air and circle overhead to the accompaniment of loud screeching; swift flight usually low to the ground; daytime resting and nighttime roosting in nests throughout the year.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet mainly seeds of grasses and herbs, also nuts, fruits, berries, leaf buds, blossoms, and insect larvae; seeds of thistles important during breeding season; seeds of Celtis tala and palm nuts also favored; fond of cultivated grain and fruits.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeding season October–March. Nest unique among parrots: large, bulky structure of dry twigs placed in topmost branches of tree, especially introduced eucalypti, or sometimes in transmission tower, pylon, windmill, or under roof of building. Single compartment nests occupied by solitary pairs, but mostly large, communal nests with multiple compartments for many pairs, and probably added to over many years. In central Bolivia, nests of M. mluchsi are not communal, but often immediately adjacent to each other, and placed in crevices in cliff-faces. Average clutch seven eggs, but sometimes up to 11 eggs; in captivity incubation lasts 24 days and nestling period about six weeks.

conservation status

Generally common, locally abundant; benefiting from planting of introduced eucalypts on treeless grasslands; expanding range and increasing numbers. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Widely persecuted as serious pest in orchards and croplands. Exported in large numbers for live-bird market, but potential as pest in importing countries.

Yellow-crowned Amazon

Amazona ochrocephala

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus ochrocephalus Gmelin, 1788, Venezuela. Ten subspecies.

other common names

English: Yellow-crowned parrot, yellow-headed Amazon, yellow-naped Amazon; French: Amazone à front jaune; German: Gelbscheitelamazone; Spanish: Amazona Real.

physical characteristics

13.8 in (35 cm); 08–1.1 lb (405–561 g). Stocky, short-tailed species with strong geographical variation; northern birds have entirely yellow head; southern birds have yellow forehead and nape. Juveniles entirely green.

distribution

A. o. ochrocephala: east Colombia through Venezuela to Guianas, Trinidad, and Pará, north-central Brazil. A. o. xantholaema:

Marajó Island, Amazon River, north Brazil. A. o. nattereri: south Colombia, east Ecuador and east Peru to north Bolivia and west Brazil. A. o. panamanensis: northwest Colombia to west Panama. A. o. auropalliata: northwest Costa Rica to south Mexico. A. o. parvipes: northeast Honduras and north Nicaragua. A. o. caribaea: Bay Islands, Honduras. A. o. belizensis: Belize. A. o. oratrix: Pacific and Caribbean lowlands of Mexico; introduced to Florida and California. A. o. tresmariae: Tres Marías Islands, west Mexico.

habitat

Lowlands; variety of wooded habitats, including tropical forest and deciduous woodland, gallery forest in open country, tall scrubland, riverine secondary growth, mangroves, Pinus woodland, stands of Mauritia palms, remnant woodlots in cultivation, and suburban parks or gardens; in Amazon River basin prefers seasonally inundated forest.

behavior

Sedentary, though some local movements with changing food supplies. Large flocks may congregate at nighttime roosts, but during the day small parties of up to 10 usually seen feeding in treetops; quiet while feeding but when disturbed, do not call until well away from tree; strong flier, flying quite high on long-distance flights to and from nighttime roosts; paired birds remain close together and readily discernible within flocks; associates with other parrots at clay-licks on exposed banks.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds arboreally, taking seeds, nuts, fruits, berries, blossoms, and probably leaf buds; uses foot to hold fruit while extracting seeds with bill; fond of maize and cultivated fruits.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeding recorded mainly December–May. Nest in tree hollow, often in dead branch or decayed palm stump, also in hole excavated in arboreal termitarium; hollow prepared mostly by female for up to one month before egg-laying; clutch of two to four eggs incubated for 25–26 days by female, male remaining near nest entrance; sitting female fed by male; in captivity, young birds left nest two months after hatching.

conservation status

Generally common, though locally scarce; yellow-headed subspecies (A. o. oratrix and A. o. belizensis) threatened by capture for live-bird trade and by deforestation; in 1990s population of endangered oratrix estimated at below 7,000. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Reputation as excellent "talker," so popular as pet in all parts of range; yellow-headed subspecies also in strong demand for international trade. Reported to cause damage to maize crops and in orchards.

Red-breasted pygmy parrot

Micropsitta bruijnii

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Nasiterna bruijnii Salvadori, 1875, Arfak Peninsula, New Guinea. Four subspecies.

other common names

English: Rose-breasted pygmy parrot, mountain pygmy parrot; French: Micropsitte de Bruijn; German: Rotbrust-Spechtpapagai; Spanish: Microloro Pechirrojo.

physical characteristics

3.5 in (9 cm); 0.42–0.56 oz (12–16 g). One of the smallest parrots. Mostly green plumage with orange-red breasts; blue-purple neck; short tail feathers.

distribution

M. b. bruijni: mountains of mainland New Guinea. M. b. pilata: Buru and Seram, south Moluccas, Indonesia. M. b. necopinata: New Britain and New Ireland, Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. M. b. rosea: Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, and Guadalcanal and Kolambangara, Solomon Islands. Undescribed yellow-crowned form recorded from Ok Tedi Mountains, mainland New Guinea.

habitat

Mountains and foothills; most upland forests, including cloud forest and moss forest; also forest margins, riparian vegetation, and occasionally coffee plantations.

behavior

Possible nomad or altitudinal migrant. Easily overlooked because of diminutive size, and often detected only by shrill "tsee … tsee" calls; pairs or small parties climb about woodpecker-like on surface of tree trunk or sloping limb with stiffened tail propped against surface for support; individuals keep close together; often leaps surprising distances between branches; swift flight slightly undulating and with audible wing-beats; may roost at night in hole excavated in decayed stump.

feeding ecology and diet

Diet poorly known; observed eating fungus, lichen, and moss from surfaces of tree trunks and limbs; also seen feeding on fruits and possibly flowers.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeding recorded from December–April, but little studied; only Micropsitta species excavate nesting hole in decayed tree or stump, other species excavate in arboreal termitaria.

conservation status

Generally uncommon or sporadically dispersed, but locally common. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

None known.

Kea

Nestor notabilis

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Nestor notabilis Gould, 1856, South Island, New Zealand. Monotypic.

other common names

French: Nestor Kéa; German: Kea; Spanish: Kea.

physical characteristics

15 in (38 cm); 1.2–1.9 lb (600–960 g). Large bird with dull brown plumage; long, pointed bill.

distribution

South Island, New Zealand.

habitat

Mountains; steep-sided wooded valleys and Nothofagus forest bordering subalpine scrublands, seasonally visiting scrublands and alpine grasslands; occurs commonly in and around human habitation, notably at ski lodges, tourist hotels, and camping grounds.

behavior

Resident, with local altitudinal movements for seasonally available foods; juveniles more mobile than adults; strong fliers, noisy, conspicuous flocks often circling high above mountain valleys, especially in strong winds preceding storm. Tame and highly inquisitive around human habitation, sometimes causing damage to parked cars and tents or cabins when searching for food scraps; attracted to refuse tips and rubbish receptacles, often spilling contents; playful, enjoying rolling in snow or bathing in recently thawed puddles; in summer, regularly active at night.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages in trees or shrubs and on the ground; varied diet includes leaf buds, roots, berries, fruits, seeds, blossoms, nectar, and insects. Favored foods include Podocarpus and Coprosma fruits and nectar from mountain flax Phormium colensoi; comes to sheep carcasses or drying skins to feed on fat or decaying flesh and to extract marrow from bones; possibly attacks defenseless, weak, or sick sheep; regularly scavenges for food scraps in refuse tips or rubbish receptacles.

reproductive biology

Breeds mainly July–December, but recorded at other times. Monogamous and apparently at times polygynous; solitary pairs faithful to traditional nest-sites established over number of years and reused annually; also record of one dominant male attached to up to four females. Breeding birds seldom move far from nest-site throughout the year, but not strongly territorial. Nest in crevice under rocks, among roots or trees, or in log lying on the ground; clutch two to four eggs incubated by female for 21–28 days; chicks leave nest some 13 weeks after hatching.

conservation status

Vulnerable. Formerly persecuted because of alleged killing of sheep, causing decline in numbers and fragmentation of population; now fully protected. In 1990s estimates of total population highly variable, between 1,000 and 5,000 or up to 15,000, with concentrations around human habitation possibly giving false counts. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

For more than a century persecuted as killer of sheep and, despite little supporting evidence, bounty paid to farmers; almost 7,000 birds killed in three years, 1943–46. Now fully protected and, although responsible for damage to vehicles and property, birds popular with tourists because of tameness.

Pesquet's parrot

Psittrichas fulgidus

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Banksianus fulgidus Lesson, 1830, New Guinea. Monotypic.

other common names

English: Vulturine parrot, bare-headed parrot; French: Psittrichas de Pesquet; German: Borstenkopf; Spanish: Loro Aguileño.

physical characteristics

18 in (46 cm); 1.4–1.6 lb (690–800 g). Large bird with grayish black plumage, red underside, bare face, and very broad tail.

distribution

Mountains of mainland New Guinea.

habitat

Foothills and lower montane forests, occasionally in adjacent lowland forest; also tall secondary growth near watercourse.

behavior

Resident. Singly, in pairs, or small flocks seen in flight or sitting in topmost branches of tall trees; when not feeding retreats to rest in tallest trees, sometimes sitting for hours in rain or sunshine atop emergent dead limbs protruding well above surrounding canopy; does not climb, but jumps from branch to branch with jerky motion and flicking of tail. Noisy and conspicuous in flight, call-notes being heard from afar; shallow wingbeats interspersed with gliding characteristic of flight, and distinctive appearance from short tail, broad wings, and outstretched slender neck; regular flights at dusk to nighttime roosts.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds arboreally, taking soft fruits, particularly figs; also blossoms and probably nectar; seen feeding on large Freycinetia flowers. Base of bill becomes caked with fruit pulp, suggesting bare face may have evolved to prevent matting of feathers.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Fledged juveniles recorded in December, adults in breeding condition April–May, laying female observed in February. Nest in cavity excavated by birds in dead tree at 39 ft (12 m) above ground; egg-laying to fledging exceeded 76 days. In captivity, courtship feeding prior to laying of two eggs; incubation by female for 31 days.

conservation status

Vulnerable. Fairly common in remote areas, but scarce or absent in accessible districts because of persistent hunting; one of the first birds to disappear following local introduction of firearms; also threatened by deforestation. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Hunted intensely for food and feathers; skins highly prized and widely used as "bride price."

Philippine hanging parrot

Loriculus philippensis

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus philippensis P. L. S. Müller, 1776, Luzon, Philippine Islands. Eight subspecies.

other common names

English: Colasisi; French: Coryllis des Philippines; German: Philippinenpapeichen; Spanish: Loriculo Filipino.

physical characteristics

5.5 in (14 cm); 1.1–1.4 oz (32–40 g). Polytypic species with geographical variation in head patterns and colors of soft parts.

distribution

L. p. philippensis: Luzon and adjacent islands, Philippines. L. p. mindorensis: Mindoro, Philippines. L. p. regulus: Tablas, Ticao, Masbate, Panay, Guimaras, Negros, and probably Romblon, Philippines. L. p. chrysonotus: Cebu, Philippines. L. p. siquijorensis: Siquijor, Philippines. L. p. apicalis: Mindanao and adjacent islands, Philippines. L. p. dohertyi: Basilan, Philippines. L. p. bonapartei: Sulu Archipelago, Philippines.

habitat

Lowlands and foothills. Primarily lowland forest, but occurs in most wooded habitats, including secondary growth, high bushes, plantations, orchards, and remnant woodlots in cultivation.

behavior

Resident; local wandering for food. Singly, in pairs, or infrequently in small flocks feeding in middle-to-upper stages of forest or in flowering bushes; difficult to detect amidst foliage, but constant calling betrays presence; associates with other fruit-eating birds in mixed foraging assemblages; shy when disturbed in forest, but bold when feeding in flowering coconut palms; swift flight characteristically undulating.

feeding ecology and diet

Fine, protruding bill and "brush-tipped" tongue used to gather nectar and pollen from flowers; also feeds on soft fruits and seeds; takes fermenting coconut nectar harvested by villagers, sometimes becoming intoxicated.

reproductive biology

Little known; breeding recorded March–May; nest in hole in dead tree at 39 ft (12 m) height. In captivity, clutch of three eggs incubated by female for 20 days; chicks left nest approximately five weeks after hatching.

conservation status

Common throughout parts of range, but four subspecies (mindorensis, bournsi, regulus, and dohertyi), with combined population estimated in 1990s at probably less than 5,000, threatened by deforestation and capture for live-bird market; another two subspecies (chrysonotus and siquijorensis) almost extinct because of habitat loss. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Very popular cagebird; commonly traded between islands.

Rosy-faced lovebird

Agapornis roseicollis

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus roseicollis Vieillot, 1818, Goodhouse, Cape Province. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: Peach-faced lovebird; French: Inséparable rosegorge; German: Rosenköpfchen; Spanish: Inseparable de Namibia.

physical characteristics

6 in (15 cm); 1.6–2.2 oz (46–63 g). Small bird with mostly green plumage; peach-colored face, forehead, and chin.

distribution

A. r. roseicollis: Namibia and northern Cape Province, Republic of South Africa. A. r. catumbella: southwest Angola.

habitat

Lowlands and foothills; in dry open country frequents woodlands, scrubby hillsides, and vegetation bordering watercourses;

also cultivation, gardens, and urban parklands; dependent on surface water.

behavior

Resident, wanders locally with changing water availability. Noisy, gregarious, and conspicuous; usually in small flocks, but sometimes flocks of hundreds where food is abundant. In flight, flock twists and turns with remarkable speed and dexterity, showing reddish foreparts on approach and blue rumps when going away; daytime resting and nighttime roosting often in nests of weavers; regular evening flights to drinking pools before going to roost.

feeding ecology and diet

Principally seeds gathered from the ground or taken from standing plants; also flowers, buds, and leaf shoots; fond of cultivated grain, especially maize and sunflower seeds.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeds colonially, mainly from February–April, but also July in north; cup-shaped nest of grass twigs or leaves placed in rock crevice or sometimes in wall of buildings or underneath bridges, but commonly in communal nests of weavers without addition of new material; nest-building material carried to site by female tucked under rump feathers; four to six eggs incubated by female for about 23 days; young birds fledge at approximately six weeks.

conservation status

Generally common, locally plentiful; declines in some populations due to heavy trapping for live-bird trade. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

Very popular cagebird worldwide; many color mutations well established in captivity. Causes damage to grain crops.

Rainbow lorikeet

Trichoglossus haematodus

subfamily

Psittacinae

taxonomy

Psittacus haematod (sic.) Linnaeus, 1771, Ambon. Twenty-two subspecies.

other common names

English: Rainbow lory, coconut lory; French: Loriquet à tête bleue; German: Allfarblori; Spanish: Lori Arcoiris.

physical characteristics

10 in (26 cm); 3.5–5.8 oz (100–167 g). Brightly colored bird with red, yellow, and green plumage; long, tapering tail. Polytypic species with geographical variation in colors of head and breast.

distribution

T. h. haematodus: south Moluccas, west Papuan Islands, and northwest New Guinea, Indonesia. T. h. mitchelli: Bali and Lombok, Indonesia. T. h. foresteni: Sumbawa, Indonesia. T. h. djampeanus: Tanahjampea, Indonesia. T. h. stresemanni: Kalaotoa, Indonesia. T. h. fortis: Sumba, Indonesia. T. h. weberi: Flores, Indonesia. T. h. capistratus: Timor. T. h. flavotectus: Wetar and Romang, Indonesia. T. h. rosenbergii: Biak Island, Irian

Jaya, Indonesia. T. h. intermedius: north New Guinea. T. h. imicropteryx: east New Guinea. T. h. caeruleiceps: south New Guinea. T. h. nigrogularis: Aru and east Kai Islands, Indonesia. T. h. brooki: Spirit Island, in Aru Islands, Indonesia. T. h. massena: Karkar Island, Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. T. h. flavicans: New Hanover and Admiralty Islands, Papua New Guinea. T. h. nesophilus: Ninigo and Hermit Islands, Papua New Guinea. T. h. deplanchii: New Caledonia and Loyalty Islands. T. h. septentrionalis: Cape York Peninsula, north Australia. T. h. moluccanus: east Australia; introduced to southwest Australia. T. h. rubritorquis: north Australia.

habitat

Lowlands to mid-montane elevations. Wide variety of wooded habitats wherever flowering plants are available, ranging from mangroves and coastal heathlands to savanna woodland, gallery forest, secondary growth, and rainforest; colonizes man-made habitats, especially coconut plantations, orchards, and suburban gardens; prefers edges or clearings rather than interior of closed rainforest; tolerates depauperate scrubland or plantations on quite small atolls.

behavior

Resident, though pronounced local movements in response to flowering of food plants causes marked fluctuations in numbers. In pairs or flocks of few birds to hundreds depending on food availability; noisy and active, constantly flying back and forth through or above canopy and clambering amidst foliage to get at flowers or fruits; screeching call-notes always betray presence; often in company of other fruit-eating birds; becomes tame in household gardens or at feeders; very swift, direct flight.

feeding ecology and diet

Compressed, pointed bill and "brush-tipped" tongue used to extract pollen and nectar from flowers; also fruits, berries, seeds, leaf buds, and insect larvae; in Australia, feeds principally on Eucalyptus and Banksia flowers; fond of cultivated fruits and unripe "milky" grain; readily comes to garden feeders to take fruit, seed, or artificial nectar mixes.

reproductive biology

Monogamous, paired birds staying together and readily discernible within flocks. Breeding season variable in different parts of range, but nesting recorded most months. Courtship display features wing-fluttering to show colorful underwings, side-to-side swaying with neck arched forward and eye pupils dilated; nest in tree-hollow; at times two or more nests in same tree, but hollow entrances defended; nesting on ground recorded from Admiralty Islands, Papua New Guinea; clutch of two to three eggs incubated by female for about 25 days; young birds fledge at about eight weeks.

conservation status

Generally common, locally plentiful; in some districts most common parrot; in Australia, benefits from cultivation of native flowering plants in gardens, and numbers increasing. Listed on CITES Appendix II.

significance to humans

In Australia, popular visitor to garden feeders, and major attraction at tourist parks where hundreds come to feed from trays held by visitors. In some regions hunted for food and feathers, latter used in ceremonial headdresses.

Resources

Books

Arndt, T. Lexicon of Parrots. Bretten: Arndt-Verlag, 1996.

Beissinger, S. R., and N. F. R. Snyder, eds. New World Parrots in Crisis: Solutions from Conservation Biology. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 4, Sandgrouse to Cuckoos. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 1997.

Forshaw, J. M. Parrots of the World. 3rd ed. Melbourne: Lansdowne Edicions, 1989.

Juniper, A. T., and M. Parr. Parrots: A Guide to the Parrots of the World. Robertsbridge: Pica Press, 1997.

Low, R. Cockatoos in Aviculture. London: Blandford, 1993.

Low, R. Endangered Parrots. Revised ed. London: Blandford, 1994.

Low, R. Hancock House Encyclopedia of the Lories. Surrey: Hancock House, 1998.

Low, R. Parrots: Their Care and Breeding. 3rd ed. London: Blandford, 1992.

Rowley, I. Behavioural Ecology of the Galah Eolophus roseicapillus in the Wheatbelt of Western Australia. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty and Sons, 1990.

Snyder, N. F. R., J. W. Wiley, and C. B. Kepler. The Parrots of Luguillo: Natural History and Conservation of the Puerto Rican Parrot. Los Angeles: Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology, 1987.

Snyder, N., P. McGowan, J. Gilardi, and A. Grajal, eds. Parrots: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000–2004. Gland: IUCN, 2000.

Periodicals

Adams, M., P. R. Baverstock, D. A. Saunders, R. Schodde, and G. T. Smith. "Biochemical Systematics of the Australian Cockatoos (Psittaciformes: Cacatuinae)." Australian Journal of Zoology 32 (1984): 363–77.

Brown, D. M., and C. A. Toft. "Molecular Systematics and Biogeography of the Cockatoos (Psittaciformes, Cacatuidae)." Auk 116 (1999): 141–157.

Christidis, L., R. Schodde, D. D. Shaw, and S. E. Haynes. "Relationships Among the Australo-Papuan Parrots, Lorikeets and Cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes) Protein Evidence." Condor 93 (1991): 302–317.

Christidis, L., D. D. Shaw, and R. Schodde. "Chromosomal Evidence in Parrots, Lorikeets and Cockatoos." Hereditas 114 (1991): 47–56.

Emison, W. B., C. M. Beardsell, and I. D. Temby. "The Biology and Status of the Long-Billed Corella in Australia." Proceedings of the Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology 5 (1994): 211–247.

Halse, S. A. "Parrot Damage in Apple Orchards in South-Western Australia—A Review." CALM Tech. Report (1986): 1–75.

Homberger, D. G. "The Evolutionary History of Parrots and Cockatoos: A Model for Evolution in the Australasian Avifauna." Acta XX Congressus International Internationalis Ornithologici (1991): 398–403.

Joseph, L. "A Review of the Conservation Status of Australian Parrots in 1987." Biological Conservation 46 (1988): 256–80.

Mayr, G., and M. Daniels. "Eocene Parrots from Messel (Hessen, Germany) and the London Clay of Walton-onthe-Naze (Essex, England)." Senckenbergiana Lethaea 78 (1998): 157–77.

Smith, G. A. "Systematics of Parrots." Ibis 117 (1975): 18–68.

Organizations

Association for Parrot Conservation. Centro de Calidad Ambiental ITESM Sucursal de Correos J., C.P. 64849, Monterrey, N.L. Mexico.

Birds Australia Parrot Association, Birds Australia. 415 Riversdale Road, Hawthorn East, Victoria 3123 Australia. Phone: +61 3 9882 2622. Fax: +61 3 9882 2677. E-mail: mail@birdsaustralia.com.au. Website: <http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au>

Loro Parque Fundación. Loro Parque S.A. 38400 Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife, Canary Islands Spain.

Research Centre for African Parrot Conservation Zoology and Entomology Department. Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3201 Natal Republic of South Africa.

World Parrot Trust. Glanmor House, Hayle, Cornwall TR27 4HB United Kingdom. Web site: <http://www.worldparrottrust.org>

Joseph M. Forshaw