Ostriches

(Struthionidae)

Class Aves

Order Struthioniformes

Suborder Struthiones

Family Struthionidae

Thumbnail description
Very large flightless birds with large, loose-feathered wings, two toes, and black-and-white (male) or gray-brown (female) plumage

Size
5.7–9.0 ft (175–275 cm); 139–345 lb (63–157 kg)

Number of genera, species
1 genus; 1 species

Habitat
Open woodlands, savanna, arid shrubland, desert, and grasslands

Conservation status
Secure: 1 species

Distribution
Africa, excluding tropical forest belt adjacent to the equator

Evolution and systematics

The ostrich (Struthio camelus) belongs to the group of large, flightless birds known as ratites. Ratites have in common a distinctive palate and the lack of a bony keel to the sternum (breastbone), to which the powerful musculature required for flight would be attached.

Ratites were once thought to have a southern origin in the ancient continent of Gondwana, but recent fossil evidence discovered in North America and Europe shows that flying ratites inhabited the Northern Hemisphere in the Paleocene and Eocene, 40–70 million years ago. The current Southern Hemisphere distribution of ratites was likely due to the spread of flying ancestors from the north.

The ostrich is the only living representative of suborder Struthiones, family Struthionidae. Eight extinct species all belonged to the same genus. Fossil bones and egg shells show that ostrich ancestors probably originated in the Eocene (40–55 million years ago) in the Asiatic steppes as small flightless birds. In the lower Pliocene (about 12 million years ago) they developed into gigantic forms that were distributed as far as Mongolia and, later, South Africa. The present-day ostrich is somewhat smaller and originated as a new species in the Pleistocene (one to two million years ago); some of its early remains were found at home sites of prehistoric humans.

Physical characteristics

A large bird, cursorial with long legs and neck. At 5.7–9 ft (1.8–2.8 m) and 139–345 lb (63–157 kg), the ostrich is the largest living bird. Males are larger than females. The head and about two-thirds of the neck are sparsely covered with short, hair-like, degenerated feathers, making the bird appear nude. The skin is variably colored, depending on the sub-species. The legs are particularly strong and long. The tarsus in sexually mature males has red horn plates; in sexually mature females they are black. The foot has two toes: a large, strongly clawed third toe and a weaker, generally clawless fourth (outside) toe. The first and second toes are absent. The feathers have no secondary shaft or aftershaft. There are 50–60 tail feathers. The wing has 16 primaries, four alular, and 20–23 secondary feathers. Wing feathers and rectrices have changed to decorative plumes.

The penis-like copulatory organ is retractable and can be as long as 8 in (20 cm). Food passes through three stomach segments; the gut can be as long as 46 ft (14 m). The rectum is especially expanded, and the caecae—cul-de-sac-like structures at the lower end of the gastrointestinal tract—are about 28 in (70 cm) long. Urine is concentrated in the large cloaca but, in contrast to all other living birds, is secreted separately from the feces. Unlike other birds, ostriches have pubic bones that are fused toward the rear and support the gut. The wishbone is absent, and palate formation is different from that of other ratites. Sphenoid and palatal bones are unconnected.

Distribution

The ostrich formerly occupied Africa north and south of the Sahara, east Africa, Africa south of the rainforest belt, and much of Asia Minor. Its distribution has now shrunk to Africa south of the Sahara and parts of east Africa, but most existing populations are in game parks.

Habitat

The ostrich is an open-country bird. In northern Africa it lives in the dry beds of watercourses in broad valley bottoms and in desert-savanna plains, rarely above 300 ft (100m). In eastern Africa it is in savanna; in southern Africa it is in open grassland with some shrubs. In southwest Africa its habitat is semidesert or true desert, with patches of open, stunted woodland.

Behavior

An ostrich population often becomes a mixed society of flocks, families, and individuals of all age groups whose composition changes with the season. In a series of ostrich sightings in east Africa, 49% of the sightings were of single birds, 35% were of two birds together, and 16% were of groups of three to five birds. In rainless periods, when wandering, in common grazing grounds, and at watering places, they form peaceful aggregations of hundreds of birds, but individual flocks remain recognizable. Social contacts between birds of different groups are initiated when one bird approaches another in a submissive posture, with head lowered and tail down. Often a family of one herd adopts the chicks or young of another. Single cocks may join together and form "schools" of half-grown ostriches, which then wander about for days or weeks. For communal sand baths, each flock seeks out a sandy depression.

The ostrich is diurnal but may sometimes be active on moonlit nights. It loafs and roosts by squatting on the ground, and is most active early and late in the day. Its normal walking pace is 2.5 mph (4km/hr), but when running in alarm it can reach speeds of 45 mph (70 km/hr). It is very vigilant when feeding, continually raising its head to look around. It feeds more frequently in small flocks than in large ones. The territorial call of the male ostrich is a roar, far-carrying and

resembling the roar of a lion. A soft "booh" is used as a contact call and hisses are given in threat displays.

Feeding ecology and diet

The ostrich grazes on green grass and browses on shrubs, succulents, and seeds. A few animals are taken, particularly when swarms of insects, such as the plague locust, are active.

Reproductive biology

Males are polygynous, taking more than one mate at a time. In the initial phase of courtship, the cock displays by alternating wing beats in front of the flock to attract or separate out the chosen hens. He chases yearlings away with the help of his major hen. Then the birds move together to the breeding territory, an area of 1–6 mi² (2–14 km²).

During the courtship of a specific hen, the cock always drives her away from the others. Both move to a remote spot and graze, while their behavior becomes increasingly synchronized. The feeding evidently becomes secondary and evolves into a ritual that further synchronizes the partners' behavior. The smallest disruption in their movements leads promptly to a premature end of the preliminary display. When the courtship continues undisturbed, the cock excitedly and alternately flaps the right and left wings. Both birds then slow their steps and each begins to poke its bill into the ground on a sandy spot and pull out grasses. The cock then throws himself to the ground and stirs up the sand with tremendous wing beats; this seems to be a symbolic hollowing of a nest bowl. Simultaneously, he turns and winds his head in a rapid spiral motion. He continually repeats his muted courtship song while the hen circles in front of or around him in submissive posture, dragging her wings. Suddenly the cock jumps up, the hen drops to the ground and, beating his wings, the cock mounts for copulation.

The breeding season varies regionally, often correlating with the rainy season. The first female to lay in a nest becomes the major hen of the male that owns the nest; she dominates other hens, minor hens, that may also lay in it. As the time of incubation approaches the major hen discards some of the eggs of minor hens, so that the clutch is kept to a size that a bird can incubate effectively. The male incubates by night and the female by day. The clutch of wild birds averages 13 eggs and takes, on average, 42 days to hatch. Both parents care for the chicks, but as they grow, broods may amalgamate, and finally the young from one region gather into an immature flock. Breeding success is low, of the order of one chick per incubated nest, the eggs and chicks being subject to attacks from many predators, hyenas, jackals, and vultures.

Conservation status

The ostrich has declined greatly in abundance and distribution in the last 200 years. Most surviving birds are in game parks or on farms. Only in remote desert regions do truly wild birds persist, but farms and game parks ensure the preservation of the species.

Significance to humans

The ostrich has inspired human thought, religion, and art since ancient times, as indicated by 5,000-year-old records from Mesopotamia and Egypt. For today's Kalahari bushman, its egg is still a valuable vessel in which he keeps scarce water, and from the shells he makes beautiful jewelry for his wife and children. Ostriches are also farmed for feathers, meat, eggs, and leather.

Resources

Books

Bertram, B. C. R. "The Ostrich Communal Nesting System." In Monographs in Behavior and Ecology, edited by J. R. Krebs and T. H. Clutton-Brock. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1990.

Davies, S. J. J. F. Ratites and Tinamous. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliot, and J. Sargatal, eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 1, Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 1992.

Periodicals

Bertram, B. C. R. "Ostriches Recognize Their Own Eggs and Discard Others." Nature 279 (1979): 233–4.

Bolwig, N. "Agonistic and Sexual Behavior of the African Ostrich (Struthio camelus)." Condor 75 (1973): 100–5.

Sauer, E. G. F., and E. M. Sauer. "The Behavior and Ecology of the South African Ostrich." Living Bird Supplement 5(1966): 45–75.

Organizations

BirdLife South Africa. P. O. Box 515, Randburg, 2125 South Africa. Phone: +27-11-7895188. Web site: <http://www.birdlife.org.za>

S. J. J. F. Davies, ScD