Ancient Greece and Rome

Knights Templars , in medieval history, members of the military and religious order of the Poor Knights of Christ, called the Knights of the Temple of Solomon from their house in Jerusalem. Origins Like the Knights Hospitalers and the Teutonic Knights , the Templars were formed during the Crusades . They originally had a purely military function. Founded when Hugh de Payens and eight other knights joined together c.1118 to protect pilgrims, the order grew rapidly. St. Bernard of Clairvaux drew up its rules, and it was recognized at the Council of Troyes (1128) and confirmed by Pope Honorius III . Rise to Power The Templars received gifts of estates and money, and the organization soon became one of the most powerful in Europe. By combining monastic privilege with chivalrous adventure, they attracted many nobles. The order, organized under a grand master and general council, had its headquarters at Jerusalem. It was directly responsible only to the pope and thus was free from the control of the secular crusading leaders. As Crusaders the knights were important both in fighting the Muslims (notably at Gaza in 1244 and later at Damietta, during the Fifth Crusade) and in the internal struggles of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (see Jerusalem, Latin Kingdom of ). Although the Knights of the White Cross (the Hospitalers) were at first probably larger and richer, the Templars, who wore the red cross on a white ground, were greater warriors. In the later crusades the...

Augustus , 63 BC-AD 14, first Roman emperor, a grandson of the sister of Julius Caesar . Named at first Caius Octavius, he became on adoption by the Julian gens (44 BC) Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Octavian); Augustus was a title of honor granted (27 BC) by the senate. The Second Triumvirate When Octavius was a youth, Caesar took a great interest in his education and made him his heir without the boy's knowledge. Octavius was in Illyricum when Caesar was killed, and he promptly set out for Rome to avenge the dictator's death. Before he reached the city, he heard that he was Caesar's heir. At Rome, Antony was in control, and Octavian was recognized by Cicero and the senate as a leader against him. Antony went north to take Gaul and was defeated (43 BC) at Mutina (modern Modena). Octavian, now dominant in Rome, secured the consulship and made an alliance with Antony and Lepidus (d. 13 BC) as the Second Triumvirate. Having proscribed the enemies of the triumvirate, Octavian and Antony went east and defeated (42 BC) the army of Marcus Junius Brutus and Caius Cassius Longinus at Philippi. Octavian's forces then attacked Sextus Pompeius , who controlled Sicily and Sardinia, and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa defeated (36 BC) Pompeius at Mylae. Emperor Consolidation of Power While his enemies were being defeated abroad, Octavian also had been consolidating his power in Rome. He was helped by the growing impatience of Rome with Antony's intrigue with Cleopatra, and he...