BANGLADESH

People's Republic of Bangladesh

Gana-Prajatantri Bangladesh

CAPITAL: Dhaka (formerly Dacca)

FLAG: The national flag is a red circle against a dark-green background.

ANTHEM: Amar Sonar Bangla (My Golden Bengal).

MONETARY UNIT: The taka (t) of 100 poisha is a paper currency set on a par with the Indian rupee. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, and 50 poisha, and notes of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 taka. t1 = $0.01556 (or $1 = t64.26) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: Bangladesh adopted the metric system as of 1 July 1982. Customary numerical units include the lakh (equal to 100,000) and the crore (equal to 10 million).

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; National Mourning Day (Shaheel Day), 21 February; Independence Day, 26 March; May Day, 1 May; Victory Day, 16 December; Christmas, 25 December; Boxing Day, 26 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday, Jamat Wida, Shab-i-Bharat, 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', and Durga Puja.

TIME: 6 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in South Asia, Bangladesh, before it became an independent state, was the eastern province of Pakistan, known as East Bengal and, later, as East Pakistan. Bangladesh is slightly smaller than the state of Iowa with a total area of 144,000 sq km (55,598 sq mi), extending 767 km (477 mi) sse–nnw and 429 km (267 mi) ene–wsw. Bangladesh is bordered in the w, n, and e by India, on the se by Myanmar (Burma), and on the s by the Bay of Bengal, with a total boundary length of 4,246 km (2,638 mi). A border demarcation agreement was signed with Myanmar in May 1979. Demarcation of the marine boundary with India remained unresolved as of 2006. Bangladesh's capital city, Dhaka, is located near the center of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Bangladesh is a tropical country, situated mainly on the deltas of large rivers flowing from the Himalayas. The Brahmaputra River, known locally as the Jamuna, unites with part of the Ganges to form the Padma, which, after its juncture with a third large river, the Meghna, flows into the Bay of Bengal. Offshoots of the Ganges-Padma, including the Burishwar, Garai, Kobadak, and Madhumati, also flow south to the Bay of Bengal. No part of the delta area is more than 150 m (500 ft) above sea level, and most of it is but a meter or two (a few feet) above sea level. Its soil consists mostly of fertile alluvium, which is intensively farmed; mineral deposits are negligible. During the rainy season floodwater covers most of the land surface, damaging crops and injuring the economy. The northwestern section of the country, drained by the Tista (Teesta) River, is somewhat higher and less flat, but the only really hilly regions are in the east, notably in the Chittagong Hill Tracts to the southeast and the Sylhet District to the northeast. Near the Myanmar border in the extreme southeast is the Keokradong, which, at 1,230 m (4,034 ft), is the highest peak in Bangladesh.

CLIMATE

Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate. Annual rainfall is high, averaging from about 119 cm (47 in) up to 145 cm (57 in). There are three distinct seasons. The winter, which lasts from October through early March, is cool and dry, with temperature ranges from 5°c to 22°c (41°f to 72°f); total winter rainfall averages about 18 cm (7 in) in the east and less than 8 cm (3 in) in the northwest. Temperatures rise rapidly in March, and during the summer season—March through May—average about 32°c (90°f). Rainfall also increases during this period. However, nearly 80% of the annual rainfall falls from May to September, the monsoon season, when moisture-laden winds blow from the south and southeast. Temperatures drop somewhat, seldom exceeding 31°c (88°f), but humidity remains high.

In April through June and from October through November, tropical cyclones, accompanied by high seas and heavy flooding, are common. There were cyclones in May 1963, May and December 1965, October 1966, and most notably during the night of 12–13 November 1970, when a storm and resultant flooding killed more than 200,000 persons. A cyclone on 30 April 1991 left over 131,000 people dead and nine million homeless. Monsoon floods in 1974, 1980, and 1983 also devastated the country and caused many deaths, and a cyclonic storm on 24–25 May 1985 took more than 11,000 lives. The monsoon in August and September 1988 left three-fourths of the country flooded, 1,300 persons dead, and over three million people homeless, with damage to the country's infrastructure estimated at $1 billion.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Bangladesh has the plant and animal life typical of a tropical and riverine swamp. The landscape, which for most of the year is lush green, is dotted with palms and flowering trees. The large forest area of the Sunderbans in the southwest is the home of the endangered Bengal tiger; there are also cheetahs, leopards, crocodiles, elephants, spotted deer, monkeys, boars, bears, pheasants, and many varieties of birds and waterfowl.

ENVIRONMENT

Overpopulation has severely strained Bangladesh's limited natural resources. Nearly all arable land is already cultivated and forest land has been greatly reduced by agricultural expansion and by timber and firewood cutting. Between 1983 and 1993, forest and woodland declined by 12.5% to 1.9 million ha (4.7 million acres). As of 2000, about 10% of the total land area was forested.

Bangladesh's environmental problems have been complicated by natural disasters that add to the strain on an agricultural system which supports one of the world's most populous countries. Water supply is also a major problem because of population size, lack of purification procedures, and the spread of untreated contaminants into the usable water supply by flood waters. To ease these problems, the government has established drainage, irrigation, and flood protection systems, and has drilled thousands of tube wells to supply safe drinking water in villages. As of 2001, safe water was available to 100% of the population.

Despite passage of the Wildlife Preservation Act of 1973, wildlife continued to suffer from human encroachment. Only 0.8% of the country's total land area is protected. The Sunderbans is a natural UNESCO World Heritage Site and a Ramsar international wetland site. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 22 types of mammals, 23 species of birds, 20 types of reptiles, 8 species of fish, and 12 species of plants. Threatened species included the Asian elephant, pygmy hog, Sumatran rhinoceros, Bengal tiger, estuarine crocodile, gavial, and river terrapin.

POPULATION

The population of Bangladesh in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 144,233,000, which placed it at number 7 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 35% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 104 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.9%, a rate the government viewed as too high. In 2004–06, the government carried out a program aimed at reducing population growth. The projected population for the year 2025 was 189,971,000. The population density was 1,002 per sq km (2,594 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 23% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 3.45%. The capital city, Dhaka (formerly Dacca), had a population of 11,560,000 in that year. Other major towns are Holetown, Speightstown, and Oistins.

MIGRATION

Since 1947 there has been a regular interchange of population between India and what is now Bangladesh, with Hindus migrating to India and Muslims emigrating from India. There was also substantial migration between Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) and West Pakistan until the 1971 war. Before and during the war, an estimated 8 to 10 million Bengalis fled to India; most of these refugees returned after the independence of Bangladesh was firmly established.

In 1993, repatriation began of an estimated 56,000 Chakma refugees from the Indian state of Tripura to the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. They had fled unrest in this area. As of May 1997, 47,000 Chakma refugees still lived in northeastern India. In 1991–92 about 265,000 Rohingyas—Muslims from Myanmar—fled to Bangladesh to escape repression. Beginning in 1994, over 200,000 of these refugees returned home to Myanmar (Burma). However, as of 1999, around 22,000 Myanmar refugees still resided in southern Bangladesh in two camps. The United Nations urged the governments of both Bangladesh and Myanmar to accelerate the process. In 2004 the refugee population numbered around 5,500.

Bangladeshi long-term migration to industrialized countries in the West began in the 1950s to the United Kingdom, and in the 1960s to the United States. Labor migration to the Middle East and Southeast Asia began in the 1970s on short-term bases. As of 2004, the preferred Middle Eastern countries for labor migration were Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Kuwait. The flow of remittances to Bangladesh has increased dramatically. In 1976, us$24 million entered the country through official channels, by the first nine months of 2004, this sum had increased to us$2.35 billion. However, Bangladeshis sought asylum in fourteen countries, mainly South Africa, Cyprus, and France in 2004.

As of 2000, there were approximately 988,000 migrants living in Bangladesh. In 2003, there were 150,000 to 520,000 internally displaced persons (IDP) within the country. Estimated for 2005 the net migration rate was -0.69 per 1,000 population. The government viewed the emigration level as too low, and the immigration level as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Residents of Bangladesh are called Bangladeshis. About 98% of the people are of the ethnic group called Bengalis (or Banglas). About 12 tribes inhabiting the Chittagong Hill Tracts, collectively totaling less than one million people, are ethnically distinct from the Bengalis; their facial features and language are closer to the Burmese. The government's policy of resettling Bengalis in the region, which is much less densely populated than Bangladesh as a whole, led to racial and religious disturbances and a small-scale tribal insurgency in the early 1980s. About 250,000 of the national population consists of Biharis, non-Bengali Muslims who migrated from India to what was then East Pakistan after the partition of the subcontinent in 1947. In the coastal areas of Bangladesh, Arab, Portuguese, and Dutch settlers have gradually come to adopt the Bengali life style.

LANGUAGES

Bengali (Bangla), part of the Indo-European language family, is the official language of Bangladesh and is spoken by about 98% of the population. The successful move to make Bengali coequal with Urdu as an official language was a hallmark of Bengali nationalism in the early 1950s. Non-Bengali migrants from India still speak Urdu (and Hindi) today, and this language is widely understood in urban areas. A few tribal groups, notably the tribal peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, also speak distinct Tibeto-Burmese languages, akin to Burmese and Assamese. Among those speaking Bangla there are differences of dialect according to region. The people of Chittagong, Noakhali, and Sylhet are known for their distinctive dialects. Although today Bangla is the official language, English is also used for official and legal purposes and widely used in business.

RELIGIONS

Nearly 88% of the people are Sunni Muslims, making Bangladesh one of the world's largest Muslim countries. About 10% of the population are Hindu; the remaining are mainly Buddhist or Christian, the latter being mostly Roman Catholics. There are small numbers of Shia Muslims, Sikhs, Baha'is, Ahmadis, and animists.

Islam was established as the state religion in 1988. Freedom of worship is provided for in the constitution; however, in practice there have been reports of social, political, and economic discrimination against non-Muslims.

TRANSPORTATION

The large number of rivers and the annual flooding hazard make it difficult to build and maintain adequate transportation facilities in Bangladesh. Railways and waterways are the chief means of transportation. The railways are managed by the government and reach most districts of the country. The Bangladesh Railway operated 2,706 km (1,683 mi) of narrow and broad gauge track in 2004. Of that total, narrow (1.000-m) gauge is the most prevalent at 1,822 km (1,133 mi), followed by broad gauge (1.676-m) at 884 km (550 mi). The quality of service has declined because of the expense of importing new equipment. Enlarging and improving the railway system is also costly, partly because of the number of bridges needed.

The country has two deepwater ports: Chittagong, serving the eastern sector, and Chalna, serving the west. There are five main river ports—Dhaka, Nārāyanganj, Chandpur, Barisal, and Khulna—and more than 1,500 smaller ports. The inland water system has 8,372 km (5,023 mi) of navigable waterways, including 2,575 km (1,600 mi) of main cargo routes. The oceangoing merchant fleet in 2005 consisted of 41 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, with a combined capacity of 319,897 GRT.

Road connections are inadequate, but conditions have improved significantly in recent years. There were 239,226 km (148,799 mi) of roadways in 2003, of which 22,726 km (14,135 mi) were paved. A large part of the highway system becomes submerged in the rainy season; bridges, ferries, embankments, and dikes are therefore necessary to the inland transportation system. Because of the diffixsculties of land travel, the number of motor vehicles remains relatively small. As of 2003, there were 31,700 passenger cars and 60,200 commercial vehicles that were registered.

Bangladesh had an estimated 16 airports in 2004. As of 2005, a total of 15 had paved runways. Zia International is the principal airport, located at Dhaka. Bangladesh Biman is the national airline. It has an extended network connecting major cities and operates international flights from Dhaka. In 2003, airlines carried 1.579 million domestic and international passengers.

HISTORY

In ancient times, the area now known as Bangladesh was the eastern portion of a huge river delta region called Bang, where the Ganges and Brahmaputra River systems empty into the Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean. The region became known as Bengal in more modern times, but recorded history of the region can be traced to the 4th century bc when it was home to an apparently flourishing riverain civilization. The oldest surviving remains of this civilization are the ruins of the city of Mahasthan, the ancient Pundranagar, which continued to flourish for more than 1,500 years, even though the region was conquered by the Hindu Maurya empire that reached its height under Emperor Asoka around 207 bc. From this time onward, the history of Bengal was part of the wider historical experience of the Indian subcontinent, and during most of India's classical Hindu period—ad 320 to ad 1000—Bengal was a loosely incorporated outpost of empires centered in the Gangetic plain.

Islam came to South Asia in the years following ad 800 but did not reach Bengal until Muslim invaders from the west secured a foothold there around ad 1200. In the 13th and 14th centuries, after successive waves of Turkish, Persian, and Afghan invaders, Islam began to take a firm hold in the area that is now Bangladesh. The region was annexed by the Mughal Empire in 1576 under Emperor Akbar and ruled by his successors into the 17th century. The fealty lesser Nawabs (or Nabobs) of the Bengal area paid to the Mughals ensured the political stability and economic prosperity of the region, which became known for its industries based on the weaving of silk and cotton cloth.

The arrival of the French and British East India Companies in the early 18th century coincided with Mughal decline, the death of Emperor Auranzeb, and an intense period of competition and conflict between Britain and France. By the middle of the 18th century, the British emerged supreme in what they created as the Bengal Presidency, establishing themselves in Calcutta and expanding with alacrity into all of what is now Bangladesh, as well as the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam and Orissa. From Calcutta, British traders and administrators successfully played off rivalries among the satraps of the late Mughal empire to gain control of most of the subcontinent in the years between the Battle of Plassey in 1756 and the assumption of the company's domain by the British Crown in 1859. Calcutta remained the seat of British power in the subcontinent and the center of British control over the Indian Empire until 1931 when the capital was moved to the new city of New Delhi, adjacent to the traditional seat of Mughal power in old Delhi.

Well-to-do Hindus in Bengal generally prospered under the British, apparently taking more easily to British ways and British law than the numerically dominant Muslims. The Muslim aristocracy of eastern Bengal—feudal barons under the Mughals—resisted British rule. By the turn of the 20th century, both communities had begun to develop a political-cum-cultural consciousness of their own in reaction to the Western culture brought by the British. They took offense at British efforts to impose western educational systems on local universities, reducing their independence. Hindus were further enraged by the British decision in 1905, in an effort to improve administration and to placate Muslims, to divide the overly large Bengal Presidency in two, with the Muslim-dominant area of eastern Bengal and Assam to be a separate province. The 1905 partition was the first acknowledgment of a sense of separateness among Muslims by the British and foreshadowed events of 42 years later when Bengal was divided between Muslim-majority and Hindu-majority districts to create East Pakistan.

The 1905 action resulted in increasing acts of violence. Th is lasted until it was undone six years later in favor of reuniting Bengal and instead separating out what would become the provinces of Orissa and Bihar. But the agitation provoked by the 1905 partition and the Hindu-Muslim enmities it left behind continued to provoke terrorist actions against British rule until nonviolence emerged as a mode of political struggle, under the leadership of Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi of the Indian National Congress.

British reforms in 1909 and 1919 expanded local self-rule in their Indian domains, but the pace fell short of the pace of demands put forth by the rising tide of nationalists espoused by the Indian National Congress, which in 1929 committed itself to the goal of complete independence. As the struggle gained momentum, differences between Hindus and Muslims widened. While the majority Hindu community saw a single Indian polity committed to secularism and diversity as the goal of the independence movement, Muslims came to fear that their community would be a permanent electoral minority, an anxiety they saw borne out in the 1937 elections held under British auspices. To look after their unique cultural interests, they formed the All-India Muslim League, and under the Muslim League leadership, sentiment began to coalesce around the "two nation" theory propounded earlier by the poet Iqbal, a belief that South Asian Muslims and Hindus were and should be two separate nations, i.e. that Muslims required the creation of an independent nation of their own—Pakistan—in which they would predominate. In 1940, the Muslim League adopted this as its goal, under the leadership of Mohammad Ali Jinnah, a Mumbai (formerly Bombay) attorney who resisted all efforts at compromise through all the difficult days leading up to the grant of independence in 1947.

In language, culture, ethnic background, population density, political experience, and economic potential, East and West Pakistan were totally disparate. The primary bond was Islam. Pakistan's early years as a nation were dominated by unsuccessful attempts—punctuated by bouts of authoritarian rule—to create a national polity that would somehow bridge these differences. Larger in population and in economic importance than the west wing, the Bengali east wing chafed under national policies effectively dominated by the leadership residing in the west wing. When its influence was further reduced under repeated bouts of martial law and by the reconstruction of West Pakistan as a single province, demands for autonomy in the east began to mount. Th is demand proved more than the fragile sense of Islamic nationhood could sustain. The new state of Pakistan, made up of Muslim-majority districts in both eastern and western reaches of formerly British India, was at best an unwieldy creation. It cut across long-established lines of trade and communication, divided families, provoked a mass movement of millions of refugees caught on the "wrong" side of the partition markers, and forced the creation of a new but divided polity. Pakistan consisted of two distinct territories, separated by 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of secular but predominantly Hindu India. West Pakistan, with a population of 34 million, consisted mainly of the former provinces of Baluchistan, Sindh, the Northwest Frontier, and (partially) Punjab (which, like Bengal, was also partitioned). East Pakistan, its 42 million people including nearly 9 million Hindus, encompassed the eastern half of Bengal province as shaped in 1912, plus the Sylhet District of Assam.

Nationhood

After a round of martial law in Pakistan in 1969, national elections were scheduled for 1970. But when the popular verdict in those elections—even in the national assembly—supported greater autonomy for East Pakistan than the West Pakistan-dominated national leadership was prepared to accord, the results were set aside.

Subsequent civil unrest escalated quickly to civil war in East Pakistan. Swamped with a million refugees from the fighting, India intervened militarily in December 1971, tipping the scales in favor of the rebels and facilitating the creation of Bangladesh in 1972. Sheikh Mujibur (Mujib) Rahman, leader of the Awami League and of the fight for autonomy, was released from prison in West Pakistan (which became the Islamic Republic of Pakistan) and became prime minister of the new nation of Bangladesh.

The 1971 civil war undid much of the limited progress East Pakistan had made in recovering from the 1947 partition. Mujib faced a task for which his administrative and political experience was lacking. He fought and won a massive victory at the polls in 1973, but two years later, he suspended the political process and took power into his own hands. Bangla opinion turned against Mujib, coalescing two main opposition groups that otherwise shared little in common besides their opposition to Mujib and to Indian influence: they were the ultra conservative Islamic groups, led by the Jamaati-Islami, and the radical left, led by Maoists, who opposed both Indian and Soviet influence.

On 15 August 1975, a group of young military officers seized power, killing Mujib and many of his family members and imposing martial law. A countercoup three months later produced a new military government with Gen. Ziaur Rahman at its head. In 1978, with limited political activity permitted, he was elected president and lifted martial law. In February 1979, he restored parliamentary government after elections gave his new party, the Bangladesh National Party (BNP) a two-thirds majority in the National Assembly.

Zia's assassination during an abortive military coup in May 1981 set back the progress he had made. He was succeeded in power by his vice president, Abdus Sattar, who was deposed the following March by his army chief, Gen. Hussain Mohammad Ershad. Declaring martial law, Ershad became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA), suspended the 1972 constitution, and banned political parties.

Ershad gained support by cracking down on corruption and opening up the economy to foreign collaboration. In 1983, he assumed the presidency, and by January 1986, he had restored full political activity in which his own party, the Jatiya (People's) Party took a prominent part. He retired from the army and was elected president without opposition in October 1986, but in July 1987, mounting opposition to his often dictatorial rule among the united opposition parties led him again to declare a state of emergency, dissolve the assembly, and schedule new elections for March 1988. His Jatiya Party triumphed in those elections, due mainly to the refusal of the opposition parties to participate. At the end of 1990, in the face of widespread demonstrations and some Hindu-Muslim violence, his opposition had grown so strong that Ershad was forced to resign the presidency, turning the government over to Supreme Court Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed, the unanimous choice of the opposition parties.

An interim government scheduled elections for February 1991, and the result—in what has been described as the fairest polling ever held in the country—was the election of an assembly in which the BNP, headed by Begum Khaleda Ziaur Rahman, Zia's widow, held a plurality. However, the BNP lost popular support by March 1994, when opposition parties walked out of Parliament and boycotted the government, claiming the BNP had rigged a regional election. The main opposition groups—the Awami League (AL), Jatiya Party, and the Jamaat-e-Islami—continued the protest for two years, boycotting February 1996 elections swept by the BNP. Amid further charges of vote-rigging, Khaleda Zia resigned, the BNP dissolved Parliament, and a caretaker government conducted new elections in June 1996. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina Wajed, daughter of the Sheikh Mujid, gained control of Parliament in the elections, contested by all parties and monitored by international observers. Although initially dependent on the support of the Jatiya Party to form a government, by late September the Awami League held an absolute majority of seats in the legislature.

Prime Minister Sheik Hasina had no easier time ruling Bangladesh than her predecessor. Her government faced continuing protests, strikes, and often violent demonstrations organized by the BNP and other opposition parties. Targets for such actions included the government's historic agreement with India in December 1996 over sharing the waters of the River Ganges, higher taxes imposed by the government in July 1997, and problems of law and order in the country. During September 1997, Islamic militants took to the streets demanding the arrest and execution of controversial Bangladeshi author Taslima Nasreen. November 1998 saw a general strike organized by the BNP over alleged government repression and clashes between police and protesters over alleged electoral fraud. Tensions were heightened by the conviction and death sentences passed on several people involved in the assassination of Sheikh Hasina's father, Sheikh Mujib.

In August 1998, Bangladesh also saw some of the worst flooding in the country's history. Over 1,000 people died and flood waters covered some 60% of the country. Loss of crops raised the specter of widespread famine, and the total damage to the country's economy and infrastructure was estimated at over us$2 billion.

Among the AL government's achievements, however, were the Ganges water-sharing treaty, the December 1997 accord that ended the tribal insurgency in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in southeastern Bangladesh, and a restructuring of local government to increase grassroots involvement in politics. On the international stage, Bangladesh was elected to serve a two-year term on the Security Council of the United Nations, effective 1 January 2000.

In December 2000, Bangladesh expelled a Pakistani diplomat for stating that the number of dead in the 1971 war was 26,000, whereas Bangladesh holds that nearly three million were killed. Bangladesh wanted Pakistan to apologize for the alleged genocide it says Pakistani forces were guilty of during the 1971 war. In July 2002, Pakistan's president Gen. Pervez Musharraf visited Dhaka, and made an apology for excesses committed in Bangladesh's war for independence.

A series of bombings beset Bangladesh during 2001, in April, June, and September. In total, 155 people were killed and more than 2,500 were injured in violence leading up to the October 2001 parliamentary elections. In July, Prime Minister Hasina stepped down, handing power over to a caretaker authority that supervised the upcoming elections; she became the first prime minister in the country's history to complete a full five-year term. Former prime minister Khaleda Zia won a landslide victory on 1 October 2001, campaigning against lawlessness and corruption, in an election in which 75% of the registered voters went to the polls. The Awami League boycotted Parliament, protesting alleged rigging of elections and the persecution of religious minorities.

In March 2002, the government enacted tough laws to combat the use of corrosive acid to disfigure and sometimes kill individuals, mostly women. The death penalty was set as the maximum sentence in some cases. In 2001, 338 acid attacks were carried out in Bangladesh, 90% of them against women. Most of the acid victims have had sulphuric or hydrochloric acid splashed on their faces.

In June 2002, the Awami League ended its boycott of Parliament, and attended for the first time since losing in the October 2001 elections. Also in June 2002, President Badruddoza Chowdhury resigned, after being criticized for not visiting the grave of the BNP's founder, Ziaur Rahman. That October, Prime Minister Zia called out the army to contain terrorist attacks throughout the country in the absence of adequate logistic support from the police. The army was also directed to curb crime and corruption. As many as 44 people died in custody in the drive lasting from 16 October 2002 to 9 January 2003. Zia granted immunity to the armed forces for their actions during that period, a decision that was highly criticized by the opposition Awami League.

Bangladesh's history of political violence continued through 2004. In 2002, bomb explosions in four cinemas killed 17 people and injured 300 among families celebrating the end of Ramadan. The government arrested 39 members of the Awami League in connection with the explosions. Two years later, in August 2004, a bomb exploded at a rally being held in the capital city of Dhaka by the Awami League. The blast, believed to be an assassination attempt against Hasina, killed 12 people and wounded more than 100 others.

The majority of Bangladesh's 141 million people are Muslim, and the country like many other Muslim-majority countries in Asia saw an increase in Islamic militant activity following the attacks on the World Trade Center in the United States on 11 September 2001. Although the nation remains officially secular, calls to adopt Islamic law have grown since 2001. In 2002 and 2003, editions of the newsmagazine Newsweek were banned in Bangladesh because they contained articles that the government deemed offensive to Muslims. The threat of militant violence continued to grow throughout 2005. On 17 August of that year, about 100 small bombs exploded across the country, mainly at government offices, bus and train stations, and in public markets. Two people were killed and at least 125 others were wounded in the blasts. Leaflets from the Islamic group, Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen, were found at many of the bomb sites, calling for Islamic rule in Bangladesh.

GOVERNMENT

Bangladesh inherited the provincial government under which first the Dominion, then Republic, of Pakistan was governed, a parliamentary system based on the Westminster model with a unicameral legislature. Following this model, the constitution of December 1972 established a unitary, democratic republic, with an indirectly elected president as nominal head of state and a prime minister as head of government and chief executive. The prime minister and his government are responsible to a unicameral legislature—the Tatija Sangsad—elected no less frequently than every five years and composed of 300 members. (A constitutional amendment reserving 30 additional parliamentary seats for indirect election of women expired in May 2001.) The constitution incorporated four basic principles of state policy: nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy. With considerable controversy, because of its impact on the nearly 17% of the population which is non-Muslim, Islam replaced secularism as a state principle by constitutional amendment in 1977.

The constitution was amended in 1975, at the initiative of Prime Minister Mujibur Rahman, to abrogate most guarantees of civil liberties, to establish a one-party polity, and to make the presidency, rather than the prime ministership, the chief executive of the government. Mujib's assassination later that year, and the countercoup that occurred three months later resulted in a four-year suspension of the constitution by Bangladesh's martial law ruler, Gen. Ziaur Rahman.

Rahman himself was assassinated in 1981, and in the turmoil that ensued, Gen. H. M. Ershad seized power. Ershad declared himself president in 1982, and held office until 1990, when increasing antigovernment protests and violence resulted in his resignation. He was later jailed on corruption charges. The interim government then conducted what most observers regard as the most free and fair elections ever held in Bangladesh, in 1991.

Begum Khaleda Ziair Rahman, widow of General Rahman and the head of his Bangladesh Nationalist Party, became the first woman to hold the position of prime minister in Bangladesh following the elections in 1991. Among her first acts, she reversed from her former position in favor of retaining a strong presidential system to restore the parliamentary system of 1972 and to return to the prime ministership the powers removed by Mujib in 1975. She led the campaign with strong Awami League support, which resulted in overwhelming parliamentary approval of a constitutional amendment. Kahleda Zia was forced to step down in March 1996, after two years of political turmoil following an opposition boycott of Parliament and elections. The opposition AL, which claimed the BNP had rigged two elections, was swept into power in the internationally monitored elections of June 1996. Sheikh Hasina Wajed then formed a coalition majority in Parliament with the Jatiya Party. By September 1996, with several victories in by-elections, the Awami League controlled an absolute majority of seats in Parliament. The government was thus unaffected by the Jatiya Party's withdrawal from the coalition in March 1997.

Parliamentary elections held 1 October 2001 resulted in a return of Kahleda Zia to power. The BNP took 201 seats, the AL held 62, Jamaat-e-Islami held 18, and the Ershad faction of the Jatiya Party took 14 seats. The majority BNP government aligned with three of the smaller parties, Jamaat-e-Islami, Islami Oikya Jote, and the Naziur faction of the Jatiya Party. Elections were scheduled to be held in 2007. The Jamaat-e-Islami party is sympathetic to Osama bin Laden, a position that was controversial, especially after the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States attributed to him. Zia attempted to quell domestic and international unease resulting from this position, asserting that Bangladesh would not become a fundamentalist Islamic state. However, her three coalition partners advocated replacing Bangladesh's secular laws with Islamic law, or Shariah.

POLITICAL PARTIES

From 1947 through the end of 1971, East Pakistan—now Bangladesh—was governed as a single province, one of the two wings of Pakistan. In all, there were more than 30 political parties operating in the east wing, most of the them small, fractious, and with few elected members. The major parties at that time operated on the all-Pakistan level as well, and included the moderate Pakistan Muslim League (PML), a national movement that became the party of independence and the ruling party of Pakistan; the moderate socialist Awami (Freedom) League (AL), a spin-off from the Muslim League and the advocate of Bengali autonomy, with the bulk of its support in the east wing; the ultraconservative Islamic Jamaat-e-Islami (JI), grounded in Sunni Islamic orthodoxy (in Pakistan as in India) and initially opposed to the 1947 partition; and the leftist peasants and workers party, the Krishak Sramik Party (KSP) of Fazlul Haq. The Communist Party of Pakistan (CPP) was banned in 1952 and remained illegal until its east wing component became the Bangladesh Communist Party (BCP) after 1971.

The PML governed East Pakistan from 1947, but in elections in 1954, the Awami League and the Krishak Sramik, supported in a United Front by the Jamaat, ousted the Muslim League from office. After four years of political instability, however, the two parties were displaced by the central government under "Governor's Rule," and the emergency provisions of the 1935 Government of India Act, then Pakistan's constitution. When the East Pakistan government was restored in August 1955, the KSP ruled in its own right until displaced by an AL government headed by Maulana Bhashani in 1956. Loss of Hindu support in 1958 cost the AL its majority in 1958, but "Governor's Rule" was again imposed, the provision having been carried over into the 1956 Pakistan Constitution. Martial law was imposed in Pakistan in 1965 and in elections held thereafter, under a limited political franchise, the Muslim League, now a shadow of its former self and the vehicle for General Ayub Khan's entry into elective politics, came to power briefly. Imposition of martial law in 1969 suspended political activity again until the scheduling of elections in 1970 restored political activity.

By 1970, the moderate-to-left populist Pakistan People's Party (PPP) of Zulfikar Bhutto, and the Awami League of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, now advocating far-reaching autonomy for East Bengal, had become the dominant political forces, respectively, in West and East Pakistan. Elections confirmed this position, with the AL winning 167 of East Pakistan's 169 seats in the National Assembly and absolute control in East Pakistan. The AL was the only constituent in the Bangla Government-in-Exile in 1971, with leftist parties in support and Islamic parties in opposition. After independence, the Islamic party leaders were jailed, their parties having been banned, and in 1973, Mujib's Awami League elected 293 members of the 300-elective seats in the Assembly.

In January 1975, with his power slipping, President Mujib amended the constitution to create a one-party state, renaming his party the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BKSAL). After the coup later in 1975, the BKSAL was disbanded and disappeared. When Ziaur Rahman lifted the ban on political parties in 1978, his presidential bid was supported by a newly formed Nationalist Front, dominated by his Bangladesh National Party (BNP), which won 207 of the assembly's 300 elective seats. All political activity was banned anew in March 1982 when Gen. Ershad seized power, but as he settled into power, Ershad supported the formation of the Jatiya (People's) Party, which became his vehicle for ending martial law and transforming his regime into a parliamentary government. In elections marked by violence and discredited by extensive fraud, Ershad's Jatiya Party won more than 200 of the 300 elective seats at stake. The Awami League, now under the leadership of Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed, took 76 seats as the leading opposition party. Begum Khaleda Zia's BNP, heading an alliance of seven parties, boycotted the elections and gained considerable respect by this action. The BNP, the AL, and all other parties boycotted Ershad's 1988 election as well, discrediting the result that gave the Jatiya a two-thirds majority and fueling the fires of discontent that led to Ershad's resignation on 4 December 1990. Ershad was arrested on corruption charges eight days later by the interim government, convicted, and imprisoned on corruption charges.

A BNP plurality in the elections on 27 February 1991 enabled Begum Khaleda Zia to form a government with the support of 28 of the appointive members of the assembly and of the JI, which won 18 seats. The leader of the opposition is Sheikh Hasina Wajed of the Awami League (AL), which won 88 seats to claim the second ranking position in the assembly. However, Khaleda Zia resigned and Parliament was dissolved in March 1996 amid vote-rigging charges and a two-year government boycott by opposition parties. June 1996 elections brought Sheikh Hasina and the AL to a majority role in the new Parliament. The AL won 140 seats to the BNP's 116. New Prime Minister Hasina formed a cooperative government with the Jatiya Party, which won 32 seats. Although the Jatiya Party withdrew from the coalition in March 1997, the Awami League had by then acquired an absolute majority in the legislature and continued as the party in power.

From 1997 to 2001, the main opposition party, the BNP, hindered the work of the Jatiya Sangsad (Parliament) by repeatedly boycotting its proceedings. One such boycott—over issues ranging from restoration of a floating footbridge to Ziaur Rahman's tomb to the dropping of criminal charges against BNP members of parliament—lasted for six months (August 1997–March 1998). Outside Parliament, the BNP continued to support public anti-government demonstrations, and organized a three-day general strike (hartal ) in November 1998 to protest alleged government repression. A month later, the opposition strengthened its position when the BNP and the Jamaat-e-Islami decided to accept Ershad and his Jatiya Party into the antigovernment movement.

After October 2001 parliamentary elections swept Khaleda Zia's BNP to power, ousting the Awami League of Hasina Wajed, concern was raised over the political stance of one of Zia's coalition partners, the Jamaat-e-Islami party, which voices support for Osama bin Laden. Zia's three coalition partners in the government formed in 2001, JamaateIslami, Islami Oikya Jote, and the Naziur faction of the Jatiya Party, are all Islamic parties advocating a return to Islamic law, or Shariah. Zia, however, granted the US-led military coalition the use of Bangladesh air space and other help for its attacks on bin Laden and his al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan in 2001–02, approving of the US-led war on terrorism. Hasina's Awami League supports secularism. Khaleda Zia's term extended through 2007.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

As a unitary state, the key administrative unit in Bangladesh is the region (also popularly referred to as the district), of which there are 21 in all. For administrative convenience, regions are grouped into (and report through) six divisions (Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi, and Sylhet), under a senior civil servant with the title of division commander (formerly commissioner).

As of 1985, regions or districts were subdivided into zilas; in urban areas, these were further broken down into municipalities, wards, mohallas, and thanas, while in rural areas, the breakdown was into upazilas (subdistricts), unions, mouzas, and villages. Under that system, each region or district was under the charge of a senior civil servant with the title of deputy commissioner; they are appointed by the national government and are vested with broad powers to collect revenues and taxes, assist in development activities, and maintain law and order.

In 1997, Bangladesh reorganized its local government structure in rural areas. New legislation created a fourtier local government system: gram (village), union (collection of villages), upazila (sub-district), and zila (district) councils. The purpose of this reorganization was to democratize government at the grassroots level in a process that, in theory at least, is nonpartisan. Elections for union parishads (councils) held in December 1997 created widespread interest, with particularly high levels of participation from women, both as candidates as well as voters. Other legislation made the upazila level the most important tier in local government, giving the upazila council power to collect revenue, prepare its own budget and hire its own employees. The restructuring of local government in Bangladesh is an ongoing process aimed at increasing popular participation in the governmental process.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The judicial system, modeled after the British system, is similar to that of neighboring countries. Besides the 1972 constitution, the fundamental law of the land, there are codes of civil and criminal laws. The civil law incorporates certain Islamic and Hindu religious principles relating to marriage, inheritance, and other social matters.

The constitution provides for an impartial and independent judiciary. After the 1982 coup, the constitution was suspended, martial law courts were established throughout the country, and Lieut. Gen Ershad assumed the power to appoint judges. The constitution was reinstated in November 1986.

The judicial system consists of a Low Court and a Supreme Court, both of which hear civil and criminal cases. The Low Court consists of administrative courts (magistrate courts) and session judges. The Supreme Court also has two divisions, a High Court which hears original cases and reviews decisions of the Low Court, and an Appellate Court which hears appeals from the High Court. The upper-level courts have exercised independent judgment, recently ruling against the government on a number of occasions in criminal, civil, and even political trials. The trials are public. There is a right to counsel and right to appeal. There is also a system of bail. An overwhelming backlog of cases remained the major problem of the court system.

The government, with the help of the World Bank, has under-taken an ambitious project to reform the judicial system. Changes include the creation of "Legal Aid Committees" to provide assistance to the poor, as well as the establishing of Metropolitan Courts of Sessions in Dhaka and Chittagong. In March 2001, the World Bank announced the approval of a us$30.6 million credit to assist Bangladesh in making its judicial system more efficient and accountable. A permanent Law Commission has been created to reform and update existing laws, and the government is committed to establishing a Human Rights Commission as well as an Office of the Ombudsman.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, Bangladesh had 125,500 active military personnel, of which the Army had 110,000, the Navy 9,000, and the Air Force 6,500. Paramilitary forces of border guards, armed police, and security guards totaled 126,200. The Army's primary weapons systems included 180 main battle tanks, more than 40 light tanks, over 180 armored personnel carriers, and over 190 artiullery pieces. Major naval units included 5 frigates, 33 patrol/coastal vessels, and 4 mine warfare ships. The Air Force's main weapons include 29 fighters and 34 fighter ground attack aircraft. Bangladesh was attempting to improve naval command primarily to combat piracy. The military budget in 2005 was $785 million.

Bangladesh participated in 11 UN peacekeeping missions.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Bangladesh joined the United Nations on 17 September 1974; it belongs to ESCAP and several nonregional specialized agencies. The country holds membership in the Asian Development Bank, the Colombo Plan, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), and G-77. The nation became a member of the WTO on 1 January 1995. In 1985, Bangladesh became one of seven constituent members of the SAARC, under which it is a signatory to the South Asia Preferential Trade Agreement.

Soon after independence, Bangladesh signed a friendship treaty with India, but relations between the two nations are often strained. In 1997, Bangladesh signed an agreement with India on sharing water from the Ganges River. Pakistan recognized Bangladesh in February 1974, and the two have developed good relations, their past differences notwithstanding.

Generally, Bangladesh follows a nonaligned foreign policy by but the late 1990s was seeking closer relations with other Islamic states, ASEAN, and China. Bangladesh has offered assistance to UN efforts in Kosovo (est. 1999), the Western Sahara (est. 1991), Ethiopia and Eritrea (est. 2000), Sierra Leone (est. 1999), East Timor (est. 2002), Georgia (est. 1993), Côte d'Ivoire (est. 2004), and DROC (est. 1999). Bangladesh also continued a healthy relationship with the United States, with which it had bilateral trade agreements. In 1995, the country's trade exporters association signed an agreement with the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the International Labor Organization (ILO) under which industry's rampant use of child labor would be eliminated.

In environmental cooperation, Bangladesh is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Bangladesh lies along a river delta and has gained interest from foreign investors in recent years because of its large potential natural gas reserves. However, with the highest population density of any country except city-states like Singapore, its cultivated land is overcrowded, undercapitalized, and dominated by subsistence farmers. Over 60% of the country's total land area is cultivated. Although half of the nation's gross domestic product comes from the services sector, about 63% of the economically active population subsists on agriculture. Growth rates have not been high enough to eliminate substantial poverty; it is estimated that 45% of the population lived below the poverty line in 2004. Nevertheless, signs of modest improvement in the economy have been evident during the past decade, with growth occurring at a steady 5.2% rate over the past several years. Despite this improvement, Bangladesh's reliance on agriculture makes its economy extremely vulnerable to cyclones, floods, and droughts. Changes in world commodity prices also have a strong effect on the country's economic condition. Agriculture accounts for 20.5% of the country's GDP, with services comprising 52.8% and industry 26.7%.

The prospect of return to elected government in 1990 helped produce an upsurge in growth in 1989/90 of 6.6%, but in 1990/91 the combined effects of the Gulf War, domestic political disturbances, and a devastating cyclone resulted in a drop in the GDP's growth rate to 3.4%. Pursuit of further stabilization and structural adjustment measures by the government in 1991 allowed Bangladesh to weather these crises, strengthen its revenue base, bring inflation to a record low of 1.4% in 1993, and maintain a good balance of payments position. However, political instability and a lack of continued economic reforms pushed inflation to 5.2% in 1995. Sluggish development investments, limited growth in manufacturing, and bureaucratic inefficiency persisted. The election of the Awami League government helped calm the political situation, and the economy responded. GDP grew 4.7% in 1996, while inflation eased to 5.04%.

In 1997, the government's delay in instituting reforms threatened to slow economic advances. Inflation rose to 7%, while GDP slowed to 4%. Although the Awami League promoted the exploration, distribution and manufacture of oil and gas in Bangladesh in the late 1990s, exploration has been delayed by political squabbles over how foreign companies would participate. The economy grew strongly during 1998, with real growth reaching 5.4%. Growth slowed to 4.9% in 1999, and to 3.4% in 2000. The global economic slowdown, and the after-effects of the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, combined with continuing internal political turmoil initially brought economic growth almost to a halt in Bangladesh, with an estimated growth rate of 1.6%. Although Bangladesh's growth rate improved to 5.2% in the early 2000s, severe flooding in 2004 damaged crops and infrastructure, illustrating once again the country's vulnerability to natural disasters. As of 2005, Bangladesh experienced an inflation rate of 6%, and its public debt comprised 46.1% of its GDP. Although the country received $30 billion in foreign aid and loans since 1971, nearly half of its people continue to live below the poverty line. Both the IMF and World Bank predicted that Bangladesh would not be able to ease poverty significantly until annual growth reached 7–8%.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Bangladesh's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $299.9 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $2,100. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.2%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 6.7%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 20.5% of GDP, industry 26.7%, and services 52.8%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $3.191 billion or about $23 per capita and accounted for approximately 6.1% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $1,393 million or about $10 per capita and accounted for approximately 2.5% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Bangladesh totaled $39.68 billion or about $288 per capita based on a GDP of $51.9 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2.9%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 49% of household consumption was spent on food, 18% on fuel, 8% on health care, and 9% on education. It was estimated that in 2004 about 45% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The labor force in 2005 was estimated at 66.6 million workers. In the Fiscal Year 1995/96 (the latest year for which data was available), 11% of the civilian labor force was employed in the industrial sector, with agriculture accounting for 63%, and service employees 26%. Statistics are unreliable because of a large, informal, unreported market. The unemployment rate in 2005 was estimated at 2.5%, and included those who would be considered "under-employed." Also, Bangladesh is an extensive exporter of labor to Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Qatar, and Oman.

Although 1.8 million out of the 5 million workers in the formal sector of the economy were unionized, most of which were tied to political parties and represented only a small fraction of the economically active population. Strikes are a common form of workers protest. There are industrial tribunals to settle labor disputes. The government can impose labor settlements through arbitration, as well as by declaring a strike illegal. Unions have become progressively more aggressive in asserting themselves, especially on the political scene. Civil service and security forces personnel are banned from joining unions. In addition, teachers in both the private and public sectors are prohibited from forming a trade union.

Bangladesh has no national minimum wage. Instead, wages are set by the National Pay and Wages Commission and may not be disputed. In the private sector, wages are set by industry, and collective bargaining rarely occurs due to high unemployment and workers' concerns over job security. By law, government employees, as well as workers in nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), banks and other office workers are subject to a 40 hour work week, with Fridays and Saturdays off. However, the legal workweek for factory workers is 48 hours, with up to 12 hours of overtime and one day off mandated. This law is rarely enforced, especially in the garment industry. Children under the age of 14 are prohibited by law to work in factories but may work (under restricted hours) in other industries. But such restrictions are rarely enforced and children work in every sector of the economy. In 2003, the government estimated that 3.2 million children between the ages 5–14 were engaged in all types of employment activities, many that were harmful to their well-being. By law, every child is required to attend school up to the age of 10 or through the fifth grade. However, there is no effective way of enforcing this regulation.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture accounted for 23% of GDP and engaged 53% of the economically active population in 2003. Most of the farmers own no more than a few acres of land, and their holdings are badly fragmented. The land is fertile, but yields are low because of a lack of capital for input.

Rice dominates the production of about 60% of all cropped land in Bangladesh. Of the varieties grown, aman rice, which can be raised in inundated land and saline soil, occupies nearly 60% of the total land under rice. Aus rice, which cannot be grown in flooded fields, is raised mostly in higher areas of Bangladesh. Boro rice is grown in the winter, mainly in the swamps and marshy areas, but government-supported irrigation projects have encouraged its extension to other areas. To meet the challenge of the food shortages, the government of Bangladesh and international aid programs introduced a high-yielding variety of rice called IRRI with considerable success. Total rice production in 2004 was 37,910,000 tons. Before November 1992, the government artificially inflated rice prices by buying over one million tons per harvest. With subsidies gone, the subsequent fall in rice prices reflected an adjustment of the market after 20 years of prices propped up by government sales and purchases.

Jute is the main cash crop of Bangladesh, which produces about one-quarter of the total jute supply of the world. Grown in most parts of the country, jute is harvested from July to September. Its strong fibers are used to produce carpets, burlap bags, mats, upholstery, and other products. Jute is also used to manufacture textiles for clothes. The combined total export of jute and jute products represents about 13–15% of Bangladesh's annual export earnings. Although Bangladesh is the world leader in exports of jute, its prominence in the economy has slipped since the 1970s. The diminished role is due to mismanagement of the nationalized jute industry, labor strikes, and a drop in the worldwide use of jute for packing. In 2004, 800,000 tons of jute were produced (28% of world production).

Although tea is the second most important agricultural export, it accounted for only 11% of agricultural export earnings in 2004. Most tea plantations are in the Sylhet Region and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Much of the tea is consumed domestically; total production in 2004 was 55,600 tons.

The agricultural economy, though disrupted by the 1971 war, largely recovered and grew by an average 2.7% annually during the 1980s and by an annual average of 2.9% during 1990–2000. However, in 2003 agricultural production was down 2.1% from 1999–2001. Agricultural exports accounted for 1.7% of total exports in 2004. Frequent monsoons and cyclones keep the economy vulnerable. Crop output (in tons) in 2004 included sugarcane, 6,484,000; wheat, 1,253,000; potatoes, 3,908,000; sweet potatoes, 320,000; tobacco, 40,000; and barley, 1,000. Fruit production in 2004 included 700,000 tons of bananas, 243,000 tons of mangoes, and 155,000 tons of pineapples. Coconut productions totaled 89,000 tons that year; lentils, 122,000 tons.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

The livestock sector has made significant progress during the 1990s, rising from 1% to 10% of GDP. Livestock provide most of Bangladesh's draft power, rural transportation, manure, and fuel, in addition to meat, milk, eggs, hides, and skins. Buffalo milk is an important item of consumption, especially in the form of clarified butterfat. Small dairy farms (with 5–20 crossbred cows) have been growing fast in recent years. Entrepreneurs are encouraged by high liquid milk prices as well as government incentives under which the farmers receive cash to purchase dairy cows. There are over 20,000 small dairies; total milk production in 2004 was 2.17 million tons. There were about 24.5 million head of cattle, 850,000 buffaloes, 34.5 million goats, 1.26 million sheep, and 140 million chickens in 2004.

Much of the cattle stock is smuggled from India because of the reduced local availability of cows and bulls, especially during the midyear Muslim holiday of Eid Ul Azha, when cattle are sacrificed throughout the country. The cattle brought in from India may account for up to 30% of beef production. The scarcity of cattle in recent years is the result of lack of vaccines and fodder, natural disasters, and an absence of farmer incentives.

FISHING

Fish is a staple food of Bangladesh and the main source of protein. There are hundreds of varieties, including carp, salmon, pomfret, shrimp, catfish, and many local varieties. Dried fish is considered a delicacy in many parts of the country. About 999,000 tons of fish (76% from inland waters) were produced in 2003. While much of the fish is consumed domestically, Bangladesh exports a sizable quantity of freshwater fish to India and other neighboring countries, and freshwater shrimp and lobster are exported to a number of countries. Exports of fish products in 2003 amounted to $322.9 million. It is also a major source of frogs' legs, which are "farmed" commercially. Fishermen's cooperatives foster the use of modern fishcatching trawlers in the Bay of Bengal, and the government has established a fisheries corporation to stimulate production of freshwater fish for export.

FORESTRY

Bangladesh has an estimated 1,300,000 hectares (3,200,000 acres) of forests, covering some 10.2% of land area. In recent years, the pressure of population has led to enormous deforestation. The government controlled Forest Industries Development Corp. supervises the development and exploitation of forest resources. Roundwood production in 2003 came to 28 million cu m (1 billion cu ft). Over 98% of timber cut is used for firewood.

The main forest zone is the Sunderbans area in the southwest, consisting mostly of mangrove forests. Two principal species dominate the Sunderban forests: sundari trees, which grow about 15–18 m (50–60 ft) high and are of tough timber, and gewa trees, a softer wood used for making newsprint. Teak and bamboo are grown in the central forests.

MINING

Aside from its large identified natural gas reserves, Bangladesh had few mineral resources. The Bay of Bengal area was being explored for oil, and in some offshore areas, drilling was being conducted by international companies. Bangladesh had reserves of good-quality coal in the northern districts, but extraction has been difficult since many deposits were located at a depth of more than 900 m. Production estimates of mineral commodities in Bangladesh in 2004 included hydraulic cement, 5,000,000 metric tons; marine salt, 350,000 metric tons; and limestone (mined in the Sylhet and Chittagong regions), 36,000 metric tons.

ENERGY AND POWER

A substantial portion of Bangladesh's electrical supply is met by the country's only hydroelectric plant, at Kaptai, which has a capacity of 230 MW; the rest of the country's power is produced by burning coal, gas, and oil. Except for a few private installations on the tea plantations and a few other industries, the power and energy sector is controlled by a government-managed corporation. In 2003, electricity generation was estimated at 17.4 billion kWh, of which 94% came from fossil fuels and 6% from hydropower. In 2002, consumption of electricity totaled 15.353 billion kWh. Total capacity in 2003 is estimated at 3.6 gigawatts (GW). As of August 2005, it was reported that only about 20% of the population had access to electricity (25% urban and 10% rural). In addition, the power supply is erratic, and blackouts are a chronic problem, as are delays in new plant construction.

In July 1997, Bangladesh contracted with four international power and refining companies for four new power plants with a combined capacity of 1,600 MW. The new plants were expected to double the country's electricity to 4,000 MW over five years. A large-capacity, gas-fired 360 MW plant at Haripur became operational in April 2001, and a second, similar plant was scheduled for completion at Meghnaghat in late 2002. In 2000 the United States agreed to provide technical assistance for construction of the planned Rooppur nuclear plant.

Bangladesh's major energy resource is natural gas. However, there is some question as to how large the nation's natural gas reserves are. According to British Petroleum (BP), proven reserves at the end of 2004 stood at 0.44 trillion cu m (15.4 trillion cu ft), but estimates from the Oil and Gas Journal, place those reserves at 10.6 trillion cu ft as of 1 January 2005. According to estimates by the US Geological Survey, Bangladesh's "undiscovered reserves" have been placed at 32.1 trillion cu ft. Natural gas production in 2004 has been put at 13.2 billion cu m, according to BP. With 20 natural gas fields throughout the country, the government controls the gas industry but began accepting private exploration bids in 1991. Foreign companies active in the country's natural gas sector include Shell and Unocal. More than four-fifths of Bangladesh's natural gas is used to produce power and fertilizer.

Bangladesh's proven oil reserves are reported to be modest and, as of 1 January 2005, were estimated at 56 million barrels. In 2004, production of oil was estimated at 6,725 barrels per day, of which crude oil accounted for 6,000 barrels per day. The country has one oil refinery, located at Chittagong, with a capacity of 33,000 barrels per day. In 1991 Chinese consultants confirmed the existence of 300 million tons of good quality coal at the Boropukuria coal field in northern Diajpur District.

INDUSTRY

Bangladesh came into existence after a violent fight for independence in 1971 from Pakistan, following initial partition from India when British colonial rulers pulled out of the subcontinent in 1947. Efforts to develop an industrial base faltered in the country's early years of independence when Bangladesh attempted to stimulate economic growth by nationalizing most of its industries. That statist model led to much inefficiency and stagnation, and beginning in the mid-1970s, Bangladesh started to shift its strategy toward one of encouraging a move toward a market economy. The country remained committed to developing such an economy, and has made steps in that direction. However, many of its key industries—including banking and jute production—were still government controlled. Public control of industry, coupled with the country's persistent population growth and limited capital, has led to inefficiency and a resistance to developing its richest resources.

Bangladesh developed policies to encourage private enterprise and investment through the mid-1980s. However, many stated objectives were not carried out partly because political problems preoccupied governmental leaders. As a result, Bangladesh has had difficulty achieving its major industrial goals. Privatization of industry has occurred at a slow pace, partly because of worker unrest as well as a dysfunctional banking system. However, some progress was seen on 30 June 2002 when the government succeeded in closing down its Adamjee Jute Mill, one of its largest and most expensive public enterprises. In the meantime, a global economic crisis that followed the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States hit Bangladesh's garment industry particularly hard. Readymade garments comprise Bangladesh's primary export. The growth of these exports, 18% annually before September 2001, slowed to 8%.

The garment industry, however, remained one with strong potential for Bangladesh. About 1.8 million jobs—mostly for women—have been created in the industry since the 1990s. The country also has drawn praise for its efforts to end child labor in its garment factories, eliminating such exploitative work by 2001.

Bangladesh has seen growth in steel, sugar, tea, leather goods, newsprint, pharmaceutical, and fertilizer production. A challenge is diversifying its export base. Garments accounted for about 75% of the country's exports in 2005, though it also exports leather, shrimp, pharmaceuticals, ceramics and its historic cash crop, jute. With a goal of expanding exports in mind, the country has made strides in its effort to establish export processing zones and was encouraging entrepreneurs to set up similar establishments.

Continued efforts to privatize industry are likely to determine whether Bangladesh will be able to compete in a global economy in the 21st century. Although progress has been made, the public sector still employed about one-third of the formal labor force and made up about 40% of the country's hard industrial assets. A lack of a privately run industrial base meant that Bangladesh was likely to continue to rely on weaker sectors such as agriculture; as of August 2005, manufacturing accounted for only 16% of the GDP.

A new potential source of industrial growth lies in Bangladesh's oil and natural gas reserves. Bangladesh produces about 6,725 barrels of oil per day and its proven reserves are estimated at 56 million. Although Bangladesh has encouraged foreign oil companies to do business in the country, exploration has proven to be difficult and disagreements over the licensing of foreign oil holdings has stalled growth in this sector. In terms of natural gas, proven reserves are estimated between 10 trillion and 15 trillion cubic feet. Bangladesh is seen as having potential to become a major gas producer and the commodity could become a valuable export. However, many in Bangladesh feel that the reserves should be used to meet domestic needs first, and leaders within its major political parties have agreed only to consider exporting natural gas if the reserves can satisfy 50 years of domestic demand.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Bangladesh lacks the trained personnel necessary for intensive technological development. The Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (founded in 1962) does, however, train some technicians. Other institutions offering scientific and technical education include the Bangladesh Agricultural University in Mymensingh, the University of Chittagong, the University of Dhaka, Jahangirnagar University in Dhaka, Khulna University, and the University of Rajshahi. In the period 1990–01, there were only 51 scientists and 32 technicians engaged in research and development per million people. In 2002, high technology exports totaled $10 million.

The Bangladesh Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and headquartered in Dhaka, operates seven research institutes, and the Bangladesh Atomic Energy commission, founded in 1973, and also in Dhaka, operates two others. The Geological Society of Bangladesh, founded in 1972 at Dhaka, is a government organization under the Ministry of Energy and Natural resources. Leading professional groups are the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences, the Bangladesh Medical Association, and the Zoological Society of Bangladesh, all headquartered in Dhaka.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Most commodities produced in Bangladesh are consumed inside the country. Normally, the farmers or fishermen sell to wholesalers and they in turn sell to distributors and retailers. Industrial commodities for domestic consumption are distributed through the same procedure. The middlemen in the distribution process have often benefited from excessive profits, creating hardships for farmers and consumers. To meet this situation, the government has introduced mechanisms by means of which farmers can sell directly to cooperative agencies acting on behalf of buyers. The government has also set up fair-price shops for consumers. Much domestic trade in rural areas is conducted in the marketplaces, where farmers sell directly to consumers. Bangladesh's government promotes foreign investment into the country's infrastructure, and about 60% of the domestic development budget comes from foreign aid.

Foreign products are imported by large commercial concerns located in the capital city of Dhaka or in the ports, and are then distributed through wholesalers and retailers. Normal business hours are between 9 am and 5 pm, Sunday through Thursday, but most retail stores are open until 8 pm. Many private businesses are open on Saturday as well. Limited advertising is done through the newspapers, movie houses, handbills, and television.

Most Bangladeshis earn their living from agriculture so many of the domestic commodities that are traded are farm products. The nation's 2004 budget contained a $100 million subsidy for the agriculture sector, in recognition of the importance of farming for its people. Rice and jute are the primary crops, with wheat and vegetables gaining more importance. Tea is grown in the northeast. Because of Bangladesh's fertile soil and ample water, rice can be grown and harvested three times a year in many areas.

FOREIGN TRADE

Since independence, Bangladesh has had a negative trade balance. Imports steadily ran more than double the value of exports between 1971 and 1991. With a surge in export growth since 1991, the trade deficit has improved; imports exceeded exports by about 56% in 1996, and by 62% in 1997 as opposed to more than 120% in 1989/90. Trade relations with the United States remained excellent. As a result of successful export promotion measures undertaken by the government during the 1980s, exports of readymade-garments and knitwear are now Bangladesh's leading earner of foreign exchange.

The garment and textile industry garners the highest percentage of Bangladesh's export commodities, including undergarments, women's and men's outerwear, leather, hats, and yarn (85%). At the mouth of the Ganges, fish and crustaceans are also harvested and exported (5.6%).

Bangladesh belongs to the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). It joined the other SAARC members—Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—in agreeing in 2004 to create a South Asian Free Trade Area by 2006.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Like many poorer countries, Bangladesh has encouraged its growing cadre of workers in the Middle East and elsewhere overseas to remit earnings back to the country. As a result of these private transfers, the country has been able to offset its trade deficit to some degree. Since the end of the 1990s, the level of worker remittances has increased at an average rate of 12.6%. As of November 2004, such remittances totaled $3 billion a year.

However, large amounts of foreign aid and heavy short-term borrowing are needed to handle the balance-of-payments problem. In FY 1991/92, the infusion of $1.59 billion in foreign aid and transfers helped lessen a negative balance of payments. In 1995, the trade deficit widened and there was a stagnation in the growth of remittances from overseas workers. The rising trade deficit, coupled with a decline in international aid disbursements due to political turmoil, caused foreign exchange reserves to drop from a peak of $3.4 billion in April 1995 to $2.1 billion by the end of 1996, and $1.7 billion by 1999. The reserves stabilized at between $2.2 billion and $2.5 billion after 2002, and were reported at $3.24 billion as of May 2005.

During the 1990s, the manufacturing sector revived, due to export growth led by garments and knitwear. Although the garment industry suffered the effects of a post-9/11 economic slowdown, it remained a solid contributor to Bangladesh's export base. Bilateral quota systems with developed country markets, whose quota regimes limited the exports of many competing Asian suppliers, were a factor in the growth of garment exports starting from 1994. Other factors contributing to the success of the garment industry

in Bangladesh include few governmental regulations, the provision of customs-bonded warehouses for imported cloth, and financial arrangements allowing foreign banks to finance raw materials inventories. Nevertheless, Bangladesh must diversify its export base in order to remain competitive globally.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2005 the purchasing power parity of Bangladesh's exports was $9.372 billion while imports totaled $12.97 billion resulting in a trade deficit of $3.6 billion. Despite the lingering deficit, the International Monetary Fund's Executive Board in 2005 praised Bangladesh's efforts to moderate inflation and increase its foreign reserves. The board recommends that the nation continue with economic reforms, diversification of exports and efforts to fight poverty.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Central banking is conducted by the Bangladesh Bank, which has its head office in Dhaka. It is responsible for the circulation of money, supervision of commercial banks, and control of credit and foreign exchange. There are 4 commercial government-owned banks, 6 development financial institutions, 27 domestic private banks, and 12 foreign bank branches operating in Bangladesh. The four major banks are all state-owned: Sonali Bank, Janata Bank, Agrani Bank, and Rupali Bank. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $4.3 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $16.9 billion. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 6%.

Trade on the Dhaka Stock Exchange (DSE) was dormant until 1993. The fourth quarter of 1996 was marked by feverish activity on the DSE, and on the smaller Chittagong Stock Exchange (CSE). In September, October, and the first two weeks of November, records were broken daily as share prices soared. Prices soon bore little relation to the current profitability or future prospects of the companies concerned. Up to 300,000 first-time buyers joined in the bonanza, driving the limited number of stocks traded-210-to a peak on 16 November, 1996, when the all-share index reached 3,627, up from around 1,000 in June. By 4 November, market capitalization had reached an unsustainable $6 billion, equivalent to some 20% of the country's GDP. The government began to cool down the market by selling off state-owned enterprises. In late December, the central bank announced that T2 billion ($47 million) would be available to the state-run Investment Corporation of Bangladesh to buy shares and give some support to the market, but the market crashed despite these preventative measures. In 1997, 37 stock brokers were charged with market manipulation in the DSE boom and crash of 1996. As of 2004, there were 250 companies listed on the DSE. Market capitalization as of December 2004 stood at $3.317 billion, with the DSE up 103.7% from the previous year at 1,971.3.

INSURANCE

The Ministry of Finance and Planning is the insurance regulatory body. Premiums are mainly in commercial or industrial fields. Life insurance remained limited to city dwellers and middle-class professionals. In 2003, direct life insurance premiums written totaled $194 million. All direct premiums written that same year totaled $297 million. The country's top life insurer that same year was American Life with gross life premiums written of $60.6 million. The top nonlife insurer had gross nonlife premiums written of $14.1 million in 2003.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The fiscal year runs from June to July. In 1993, Bangladesh successfully completed a three-year IMF structural adjustment program. This program resulted in growth in the money supply of 11% in 1993, 15% in 1994, and 16% in 1995. In addition, government spending was curbed by a decline in subsides to money-losing parastatals and the value added tax (VAT) continued to generate higher than predicted revenues for the government, with collections up 18% over 1994. In 1996, the government reported that exports were up, GDP grew by 4.4%, and tax revenues climbed 9% to $3.1 billion. Encouraged by the good news, the government proposed a 1997 budget that would reduce domestic taxes, further cut import duties, and provide special incentives for foreign investors. The government stressed, however, a continuing need for foreign aid. International aid disbursements in 1996 totaled $1.5 billion, down from $1.7 billion in 1995. Almost half of government revenues come from foreign aid. In 1999, primarily because of flooding, foreign aid increased by 19% from $1.3 billion in 1998. The global economic downturn of the first few years of the new millenium has had devastating effects on Bangladesh's economy. Exports had been growing 18% a year prior to the recession; they are now growing only 8% a year. The World Bank and the IMF predicted that GDP growth would fall well short of the 7–8% they believed would be necessary for the country to lift itself out of poverty.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Bangladesh's central government took in revenues of approximately $5.9 billion and had expenditures of $8.5 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$2.6 billion. Public

debt in 2005 amounted to 46.1% of GDP. Total external debt was $21.25 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2003, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were t336,680 million and expenditures were t340,329 million. The value of revenues was us$5,790 million and expenditures us$5,846 million, based on an official exchange rate for 2003 of us$1 = t58.150 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 28.3%; defense, 10.1%; public order and safety, 5.7%; economic affairs, 18.5%; environmental protection, 0.1%; housing and community amenities, 7.7%; health, 6.7%; recreation, culture, and religion, 1.4%; education, 17.9%; and social protection, 3.5%.

TAXATION

The principal direct taxes are personal income taxes and corporate income taxes, and a value-added tax (VAT) of 15% levied on all-important consumer goods. The top income tax rate for individuals is 25%. For the 2004/05 tax year (1 July 2004–30 June 2005) the top corporate rate was 45%. However, publicly traded companies registered in Bangladesh are charged a lower rate of 30%. Banks, financial institutions and insurance companies are charged the 45% rate. All other companies are taxed at the 37.5% rate. Effective 1 July 2002, the VAT rate on computer hardware and software was reduced to 7.5%, and certain agricultural equipment and electricity supplied to the agricultural sector was exempted from VAT altogether. VAT on the transfer of land is also to be abolished. Essential agricultural implements and irrigation pumps had previously been excluded from certain taxes.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Although it has made significant reforms in the past few years, Bangladesh remains one of the most restrictive trade regimes in Asia and gets a major portion of its current revenue from import duties and excise taxes. As of 2005, customs duties on imports ranged from 7.5–30%, although supplementary duties can push import duties much higher. There is also a 2.5% infrastructure development surcharge on nearly all imports. Customs procedures are lengthy and burdensome and Bangladesh's list of prohibited imports is lengthy.

There are three export processing zones: one in Chittagong; one in Dakha; and one in Gazipur; three more are under construction in Comilla, Issardi, and Mongla. Bangladesh is a member of the South Asia Preferential Trade Agreement (SAPTA).

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Bangladesh nationalized most industries in 1972 and set up nine corporations to oversee them. That statist policy proved inefficient and in the mid-1980s, the Bangladesh government began relaxing its policy toward foreign investment and announced a program granting tax holidays to new foreign investors. More recently, government industrial policies have liberalized conditions for foreign investment much further—100% foreign equity is now allowed on investments anywhere in the country, and many regulations discriminating between foreign and domestic investors have been abolished. Foreign direct investment (FDI) began flowing into the country, though it was curtailed sharply in 2000 and 2001 when Bangladesh failed to carry out structural economic reforms.

The US State Department reported that total foreign direct investment in Bangladesh totaled $712 million in the period 1999–2003. Foreign investment averaged about $7 million annually in 1990–96 before rising sharply in 1997–2000 to $196.8 million annually. Most of the increase was due to investments in Bangladesh's oil and natural gas reserves and other aspects of its energy sector. Annual investment dropped to $78 million in 2001 and to $52 million in 2002. However, foreign investment rebounded, with a total of $120.7 million invested in 2003. The largest foreign investors in Bangladesh are the United States, Norway, Malaysia, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The major objectives of planned development have been increased national income, rural development, self-sufficiency in food, and increased industrial production. However, political turmoil and constant natural disasters have consistently derailed Bangladesh's economic goals. Bangladesh's first five-year plan (1973–78) aimed to increase economic growth by 5.5% annually, but actual growth averaged only 4% per year. A special two-year plan (1978–80), stressing rural development, also fell short of its projected growth target, as did the second five-year plan (1980–85), which targeted 7.2% annual growth. The third five-year plan (1985–90) had a 5.4% annual growth target though only 3.8% was actually achieved.

In 1991, a new economic program was initiated that included financial sector reform and liberalization measures to encourage investment. This structural adjustment program was developed through the International Monetary Fund, which mandated a series of economic reforms. However, political turmoil from 1994 to 1996 preoccupied the government and hobbled the program. Growth slowed during this period but was renewed in the late 1990s until the global economic crisis that followed the 11 September 2001 attacks on the United States all but halted new economic growth.

The post-9/11 economic slowdown exacerbated a serious drop in foreign direct investment in 2000 and 2001 that had resulted from Bangladesh's failure to implement the IMF-mandated reforms. A new government, led by Khaleda Zia, came into power in 2001 on a pledge of returning to the earlier economic liberalization policies. The IMF approved a $490 million plan in June 2003 to support economic reforms through the end of 2006. At about the same time, the World Bank approved $536 million in interest-free loans.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A system of pensions exists for public employees only, and there is a limited work injury and unemployment insurance system. These programs are financed entirely by employer contributions and cover only small percentage of the population. Sickness and maternity benefits are offered on a very limited basis.

Although the constitution prohibits discrimination, women and minority groups are confronted with social and economic disadvantages. Violence against women remained widespread. In 2004 reports continued of women being tortured and killed over dowry disputes. Rapes are seriously underreported due to the social disgrace to the victims. Acid attacks to women remained a problem.

Because of widespread poverty, children are forced to work at a very young age, and are frequently abused and subjected to dangerous working conditions. More than half of all children suffer from malnutrition. There is a huge problem of trafficking of both women and children. Some estimates place the number of child laborers as high as 10 million, including an estimated 29,000 child prostitutes. There are an estimated 400,000 homeless children, of which approximately 150,000 have no knowledge of their parents.

Although the government is secular, discrimination against minority religions leads to conflict and violence. The government's human rights record is poor, with many fundamental human rights restricted. As of 2004, disappearance, kidnapping, torture, and violent suppression of demonstrators were carried out regularly. Prison conditions are inhumane.

HEALTH

Malaria, tuberculosis, and other serious diseases remain endemic and public health problems are aggravated by widespread malnutrition and periodic natural disasters. Between 1995 and 2000, the prevalence of malnutrition in children under five years old decreased from 84% to 55%. In 2000, 97% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 53 % had adequate sanitation, up from 78% and 35%, respectively, in 1980. Because the lack of vitamin A plays a role in blindness and malnutrition, in 1993 the government of Bangladesh introduced a national system to distribute vitamin A capsules to children.

In the mid-1990s, only 45% of the population had access to health services. In 2004, there were estimated 23 physicians, 13 nurses, and 11 midwives per 100,000 people.

The average life expectancy in 2005 was 62.08 years. The government pays the majority of vaccination costs, which has helped increase participation. As of 1999, estimated immunization rates for children under one year of age were 71% for measles and 72% for diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. The infant mortality rate was 62.6 per 1,000 live births in 2005. It was estimated that 54% of married women (ages 15–49) used contraception. Maternal deaths were estimated at 440 per 100,000 live births in 200, down from 850 in 1990.

A new strain of cholera was reported late in 1992. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.20 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 13,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 650 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Housing has long been a vital concern in Bangladesh. The government maintains an urban housing program but does not have any housing development program for villages. The House Building Finance Corp. lends money for private as well as public housing. Dhaka and Chittagong urban development is conducted under the guidance of town planning authorities, which develops land and allocates it for private dwelling and commercial purposes.

As of the 2001 census, there were about 25.36 million house-holds with the average household contained 4.8 persons, down from 5.5 people in 1991. Over 76% of the population live in rural areas. Bamboo is still an important building material, used often for interior dividing walls, pillars, or crossbars on roofs. In rural areas, cane, jute, wood, mud bricks, and corrugated iron sheets are primary building materials for homes. Some rural villages still feature thatched huts. Traditional dwellings are typically separate homes, with some styles featuring an inner courtyard and/or rooms on elevated platforms. Row houses have been built in urban areas.

Since 1996, the government has launched a number of programs focusing on poverty and homelessness. The Asrayon ("shelter") program provided group housing and agricultural plots on government land for about 50,000 families according to a 2002 estimate. The Gahrey Phera ("return home") program helped displaced rural families return to their villages. The Grihayan Tahabil (Housing Fund) was established through the Bangladesh Bank as a way to provide loans to nongovernment organization that endeavor to build shelters for the urban poor.

EDUCATION

Education is compulsory for students between the ages of 6 and 11, although rural girls are exempted from this law. Primary education covers five years. Secondary education is divided into three two-year cycles of junior (three years), upper (two years), and higher (two years) secondary programs. After their junior level, students may choose to attend a vocational training school for two years, followed by a higher technical course of two years, instead of following the general education track. There is also a Madrasah system (Islamic education) which is required to support national curricula. Most educational institutions are supported by the government either fully or partially. The language of instruction is Bangla.

Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 84% of age-eligible students; 82% for boys and 86% for girls. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 44% of age-eligible students; 42% for boys and 47% for girls. It was estimated that about 73.3% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 56:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 34:1.

The principal administrative bodies for education are the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Science and Technology, and the Association of Universities of Bangladesh. As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 2.4% of GDP.

There are 17 public universities and 10 medical colleges, and 10 teacher-training colleges. There are several polytechnical schools offering three-year courses in a variety of technical and engineering fields. Technical Training Centers offer certificate and diploma course. The Bangladesh Open University offers degree and non-degree continuing education programs. Research institutions include the Bangla Academy (which sponsors translations of scientific and literary works into Bangla), the Asiatic Society, and the National Institute of Public Administration's Institute of Law and International Affairs. In 2003, about 6% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 41.1%, with 50.3% for males and 31.4% for females.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The largest library in Bangladesh is Dhaka University Library (1921; with 5.5 million volumes). It houses the university's collection and that of the former Public Library of East Pakistan. The National Library of Bangladesh, also in Dhaka, holds 200,000 books and 200,000 serials available in Bengali, English, Persian, and Arabic. The National Library also holds the National Archives collection. The Bangladesh Central Public Library System (1958) has over one million volumes; besides the main branch in Dhaka, there are four regional branches and eight district branches. The Bangla Academy maintains an excellent research collection, as does the Bangladesh Institute of Development studies in Dhaka (100,000 volumes).

The Dhaka Museum contains a variety of sculptures and paintings from the Buddhist, Hindu, and Muslim periods. Both it and the Balda Museum have outstanding collections of Bengali art and ancient artifacts. Also in Dhaka are a science and technology museum and the National Museum of Bangladesh. The Ram Mala Museum at Comilla houses 7th-century archaeological finds, and the museum in Rajshahi contains many artifacts from the ruins of an 8th-century Buddhist monastery excavated nearby, as well as significant relics from the Kushon, Gupta, Pala, and Sena periods of Bengali history. There is a gallery of contemporary paintings as well as an ethnological museum in Chittagong.

MEDIA

All postal and telecommunications services are controlled by the government. In 2003, there were an estimated five mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 153,100 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 10 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Color television was introduced in 1980. The primary radio and television broadcast stations are owned and operated by the government. In 2004, there was only one private radio station and three private television stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 49 radios and 59 television sets for every 1,000 people. While cable television service is available, only about 27 of every 1,000 people are subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 7.8 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 2 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were three secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

The major Bengali daily newspapers (with 2002 circulations), all in Dhaka, are Ittefaq (200,000), Dainik Inqilab (180,000), Sangbad (71,050), Dainik Bangla (65,000), and Dainik Sangram (45,000). The largest English dailies, also in Dhaka, are the Bangladesh Observer (43,000), Bangladesh Times (35,000), and Daily Star (30,000). Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha (BSS) and United News of Bangladesh (UNB) are the two main news agencies.

The government is said, with some exceptions, to generally respect freedom of speech and press. On occasion, the government has censored criticism of Islam.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry and the Foreign Investors' Chamber of Commerce and Industry are based in Dhaka. There are also many workers' associations, including the Bangladesh Teachers' Federation, Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association, the Bangladesh Tea Board, and the Bangladesh Jute Mills Association. The Association for Social Advancement serves as a developmental organization assisting the poor. The Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) also serves as a welfare and development organization. Maulik Chahida Karmashuchi promotes economic and social development of rural citizens through educational, vocational, and economic programs. Parbatya Bouddha Mission particularly serves the needs of the indigenous tribal people of the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

The Bangladesh Medical Studies and Research Institute and the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences promote research and education in a number of medical and scientific fields. Other medical associations include the Bangladesh Dental Society and the Bangladesh Society for Study of Pain

Various associations for the Muslim, Hindu, Christian, and Buddhist communities have long been active in organizing religious festivals and social activities. Every town also has several cultural groups. The Bangladesh Women's Association is active in social life.

There are about 39 national youth organizations and about two hundred regional and local youth organizations. These generally hold membership in one of two coordinating bodies: the Bangladesh Youth Council (BYC) and the National Federation of Youth Organizations in Bangladesh. There are about seven major student unions including the Bangladesh federation of University Women. Particular youth groups include the Bangladesh Girl Guides, the Bangladesh Scout, Junior Chamber Bangladesh, and the YMCA/YWCA. There are several sports associations, including groups for badminton, track and field, tae kwan do, tennis, and weightlifting.

The Red Crescent Society, Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, Caritas, UNICEF, Society of Saint Vincent de Paul, and Greenpeace have chapters within the country.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

The main tourist attractions include the old Mughal capital at Dhaka, nearby Sonargaon with its ancient architecture, the Buddhist cultural center of Mainamati, and the beach resort of Cox's Bazar. At the end of the 1980s tourism declined due to political unrest. Throughout the 1990s, however, figures began to increase. In 1997, about 172,000 foreign visitors arrived. In 2003, about 244,500 tourists visited the country. There were 4,565 hotel rooms with 10,165 beds and a 38% occupancy rate. Tourism revenues totaled $59 million. A valid passport and visa are required as well as a return or onward ticket.

In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Dhaka at $191. Expenses in other areas can be much lower.

FAMOUS BANGLADESHIS

Many Bengalis distinguished themselves in political life before the creation of Bangladesh. A. K. Fazlul Huq (d.1962), the former premier of Bengal Province, moved the Lahore Resolution of 1940, calling for an independent Pakistan, and dominated Bengali politics for half a century. H. S. Suhrawardy (1895–1964), another former premier of Bengal, served for a time as premier of Pakistan and was a mentor to the next generation of Bengali leaders. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (1920–75), a leader of the Awami League, led the successful fight for the independence of East Pakistan and was the first premier of Bangladesh (1972–75). Maj. Gen. Ziaur Rahman (1936–81) was military ruler of the country from 1976 until his assassination.

DEPENDENCIES

Bangladesh has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bangladesh: From Stabilization to Growth. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995.

Barter, James. The Ganges. San Diego, Calif.: Lucent Books, 2003.

Baxter, Craig and Syedur Rahman. Historical Dictionary of Bangladesh. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2003.

The Economy of Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1996.

Mitra, Subrata K. (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of South Asia. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2006.

Paratian, Rajendra. Bangladesh. Geneva: International Labour Office, 2001.

Saliba, Therese, Carolyn Allen, and Judith A. Howard (eds.). Gender, Politics, and Islam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002.

Shrestha, Nanda R. Nepal and Bangladesh: A Global Studies Hand-book. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABCCLIO, 2002.

Sisson, Richard. War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

Stern, Robert W. Democracy and Dictatorship in South Asia: Dominant Classes and Political Outcomes in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2001.

Bangladesh

Compiled from the May 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

People's Republic of Bangladesh

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 147, 570 sq. km. (55,813 sq. mi.); about the size of Wisconsin.

Cities: Capital—Dhaka (pop. 10 million). Other cities—Chittagong (2.8 million), Khulna (1.8 million), Rajshahi (1 million).

Terrain: Mainly flat alluvial plain, with hills in the northeast and southeast.

Climate: Semitropical, monsoonal.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Bangladeshi(s).

Population: 147 million.

Annual growth rate: 1.7%.

Ethnic groups: Bengali 98%, tribal groups, non-Bengali Muslims.

Religions: Muslim 88.3%; Hindu 10.5%; Christian 0.3%, Buddhist 0.6%, others 0.3%.

Languages: Bangla (official, also known as Bengali), English.

Education: Attendance— 61%. Literacy—62.66%.

Health: Infant mortality rate (below 1)—65/1,000. Life expectancy—61 years (male), 62 years (female).

Work force: (60.3 million) Agriculture—62.3%; manufacturing and mining—7.6%; others—30.1%.

Government

Type: Parliamentary democracy. Independence: 1971 (from Pakistan).

Constitution: 1972; amended 1974, 1979, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1996, 2004.

Government branches: Executive—president (chief of state), prime minister (head of government), cabinet. Legislative—unicameral Parliament (345 members). Judicial—civil court system based on British model.

Political subdivisions: Divisions, districts, subdistricts, unions, villages.

Political parties: 30-40 active political parties. Largest ones include Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), the Awami League (AL), the Jatiya Party, and the Jamaat-e-Islami Party.

Suffrage: Universal at age 18.

Economy

Fiscal year: July 1 to June 30.

Annual GDP growth rate: (FY 2006) 6.7%; (FY 2007 estimated) 6.5%.

GDP: $62.02 billion.

Per capita GDP: (2006) $456.

Inflation: (December 2006) 6.77%.

Exchange rate: FY 2003: U.S $1=Taka 57.90; FY 2006: U.S $1=Taka 69.43; FY 2007 (January) U.S $1=Taka 69.69.

Annual budget: (FY 2007) $10 billion.

Natural resources: Natural gas, fertile soil, water.

Agriculture: (21.8% of GDP) Products—rice, jute, tea, sugar, wheat. Land—cultivable area cropped at rate of 180% in 2004; 176% in 1997; largely subsistence farming dependent on monsoon rainfall, but growing commercial farming and increasing use of irrigation.

Industry: (Manufacturing; 17% of GDP) Types—garments and knit-wear, jute goods, frozen fish and sea-food, textiles, fertilizer, sugar, tea, leather, ship-breaking for scrap, pharmaceuticals, ceramic tableware, newsprint.

Trade: (FY 2006) Total imports (FY 2006)—$14.74 billion: capital goods, food grains, petroleum, textiles, chemicals, vegetable oils. Growth rate over previous fiscal year: 12.17%. Total exports (FY 2006)— $10.52 billion: garments and knitwear, frozen fish, jute and jute goods, leather and leather products, tea, urea fertilizer, ceramic tableware.

Growth rate over previous fiscal year: 21.63%. Exports to U.S. (FY 2006)—$3 billion. Imports from U.S. (FY 2006)—$300 million.

GEOGRAPHY

Bangladesh is a low-lying, riparian country located in South Asia with a largely marshy jungle coastline of 710 kilometers (440 mi.) on the northern littoral of the Bay of Bengal. Formed by a deltaic plain at the confluence of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna Rivers and their tributaries, Bangladesh's alluvial soil is highly fertile but vulnerable to flood and drought. Hills rise above the plain only in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the far southeast and the Sylhet division in the northeast. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh has a subtropical monsoonal climate characterized by heavy seasonal rainfall, moderately warm temperatures, and high humidity. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores affect the country almost every year. Bangladesh also is affected by major cyclones—on average 16 times a decade

Urbanization is proceeding rapidly, and it is estimated that only 30% of the population entering the labor force in the future will be absorbed into agriculture, although many will likely find other kinds of work in rural areas. The areas around Dhaka and Comilla are the most densely settled. The Sundarbans, an area of coastal tropical jungle in the southwest and last wild home of the Bengal Tiger, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts on the southeastern border with Burma and India, are the least densely populated.

PEOPLE

The area that is now Bangladesh has a rich historical and cultural past, combining Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Mongol/Mughul, Arab, Persian, Turkic, and west European cultures. Residents of Bangladesh, about 98% of whom are ethnic Bengali and speak Bangla, are called Bangladeshis. Urdu-speaking, non-Bengali Muslims of Indian origin, and various tribal groups, mostly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, comprise the remainder. Most Bangladeshis (about 88.3%) are Muslims, but Hindus constitute a sizable (10.5%) minority. There also are a small number of Buddhists, Christians, and animists. English is spoken in urban areas and among the educated. Sufi religious teachers succeeded in converting many Bengalis to Islam, even before the arrival of Muslim armies from the west. About 1200 AD, Muslim invaders established political control over the Bengal region. This political control also encouraged conversion to Islam. Since then, Islam has played a crucial role in the region's history and politics, with a Muslim majority emerging, particularly in the eastern region of Bengal.

HISTORY

Bengal was absorbed into the Mughul Empire in the 16th century, and Dhaka, the seat of a nawab (the representative of the emperor), gained some importance as a provincial center. But it remained remote and thus a difficult to govern region—especially the section east of the Brahmaputra River—outside the mainstream of Mughul politics. Portuguese traders and missionaries were the first Europeans to reach Bengal in the latter part of the 15th century. They were followed by representatives of the Dutch, the French, and the British East India Companies. By the end of the 17th century, the British presence on the Indian subcontinent was centered in Calcutta. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the British gradually extended their commercial contacts and administrative control beyond Calcutta to Bengal. In 1859, the British Crown replaced the East India Company, extending British dominion from Bengal, which became a region of India, in the east to the Indus River in the west.

The rise of nationalism throughout British-controlled India in the late 19th century resulted in mounting animosity between the Hindu and Muslim communities. In 1885, the All-India National Congress was founded with Indian and British membership. Muslims seeking an organization of their own founded the All-India Muslim League in 1906. Although both the League and the Congress supported the goal of Indian self-government within the British Empire, the two parties were unable to agree on a way to ensure the protection of Muslim political, social, and economic rights. The subsequent history of the nationalist movement was characterized by periods of Hindu-Muslim cooperation, as well as by communal antagonism. The idea of a separate Muslim state gained increasing popularity among Indian Muslims after 1936, when the Muslim League suffered a decisive defeat in the first elections under India's 1935 constitution. In 1940, the Muslim League called for an independent state in regions where Muslims were in the majority. Campaigning on that platform in provincial elections in 1946, the League won the majority of the Muslim seats contested in Bengal. Widespread communal violence followed, especially in Calcutta.

When British India was partitioned and the independent dominions of India and Pakistan were created in 1947, the region of Bengal was divided along religious lines. The predominantly Muslim eastern half was designated East Pakistan—and made part of the newly independent Pakistan—while the predominantly Hindu western part became the Indian state of West Bengal. Pakistan's history from 1947 to 1971 was marked by political instability and economic difficulties. Dominion status was rejected in 1956 in favor of an “Islamic republic within the Commonwealth.” Attempts at civilian political rule failed, and the government imposed martial law between 1958 and 1962, and again between 1969 and 1971.

Almost from the advent of independent Pakistan in 1947, frictions developed between East and West Pakistan, which were separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences also contributed to the estrangement of East from West Pakistan. Bengalis strongly resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan. Responding to these grievances, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1948

formed a students’ organization called the Chhatra League. In 1949, Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani and some other Bengali leaders formed the East Pakistan Awami Muslim League (AL), a party designed mainly to promote Bengali interests. This party dropped the word Muslim from its name in 1955 and came to be known as Awami League. Mujib became president of the Awami League in 1966 and emerged as leader of the Bengali autonomy movement. In 1966, he was arrested for his political activities.

After the Awami League won almost all the East Pakistan seats of the Pakistan national assembly in 1970-71 elections, West Pakistan opened talks with the East on constitutional questions about the division of power between the central government and the provinces, as well as the formation of a national government headed by the Awami League. The talks proved unsuccessful, however, and on March 1, 1971, Pakistani President Yahya Khan indefinitely postponed the pending national assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan. Mujib was arrested again; his party was banned, and most of his aides fled to India and organized a provisional government. On March 26, 1971, following a bloody crackdown by the Pakistan Army, Bengali nationalists declared an independent People's Republic of Bangladesh. As fighting grew between the army and the Bengali mukti bahini (“freedom fighters”), an estimated 10 million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal. On April 17, 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur district in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President, and Tajuddin Ahmed as Prime Minister.

The crisis in East Pakistan produced new strains in Pakistan's troubled relations with India. The two nations had fought a war in 1965, mainly in the west, but the refugee pressure in India in the fall of 1971 produced new tensions in the east. Indian sympathies lay with East Pakistan, and in November, India intervened on the side of the Bangladeshis. On December 16, 1971, Pakistani forces surrendered, and Bangladesh— meaning “Bengal country”— was born; the new country became a parliamentary democracy under a 1972 constitution.

The first government of the new nation of Bangladesh was formed in Dhaka with Justice Abu Sayeed Choudhury as President, and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (“Mujib”)—who was released from Pakistani prison in early 1972—as Prime Minister.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, 1972-75

Mujib came to office with immense personal popularity but had difficulty transforming this popular support into the political strength needed to function as head of government. The new constitution, which came into force in December 1972, created a strong executive prime minister, a largely ceremonial presidency, an independent judiciary, and a unicameral legislature on a modified Westminster model. The 1972 constitution adopted as state policy the Awami League's (AL) four basic principles of nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy.

The first parliamentary elections held under the 1972 constitution were in March 1973, with the Awami League winning a massive majority. No other political party in Bangladesh's early years was able to duplicate or challenge the League's broad-based appeal, membership, or organizational strength. Relying heavily on experienced civil servants and members of the Awami League, the new Bangladesh Government focused on relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction of the economy and society. Economic conditions remained precarious, however. In December 1974, Mujib decided that continuing economic deterioration and mounting civil disorder required strong measures. After proclaiming a state of emergency, Mujib used his parliamentary majority to win a constitutional amendment limiting the powers of the legislative and judicial branches, establishing an executive presidency, and instituting a one-party system, the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL), which all members of Parliament (and senior civil and military officials) were obliged to join.

Despite some improvement in the economic situation during the first half of 1975, implementation of promised political reforms was slow, and criticism of government policies became increasingly centered on Mujib. In August 1975, Mujib, and most of his family, were assassinated by mid-level army officers. His daughters, Sheikh Hasina and Sheikh Rehana, were out of the country. A new government, headed by former Mujib associate Khandakar Moshtaque, was formed.

Ziaur Rahman, 1975-81

Successive military coups resulted in the emergence of Army Chief of Staff Gen. Ziaur Rahman (“Zia”) as strongman. He pledged the army's support to the civilian government headed by President Chief Justice Sayem. Acting at Zia's behest, Sayem dissolved Parliament, promising fresh elections in 1977, and instituted martial law.

Acting behind the scenes of the Martial Law Administration (MLA), Zia sought to invigorate government policy and administration. While continuing the ban on political parties, he sought to revitalize the demoralized bureaucracy, to begin new economic development programs, and to emphasize family planning. In November 1976, Zia became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and assumed the presidency upon Sayem's retirement 5 months later, promising national elections in 1978.

As President, Zia announced a 19-point program of economic reform and began dismantling the MLA. Keeping his promise to hold elections, Zia won a 5-year term in June 1978 elections, with 76% of the vote. In November 1978, his government removed the remaining restrictions on political party activities in time for parliamentary elections in February 1979. These elections, which were contested by more than 30 parties, marked the culmination of Zia's transformation of Bangladesh's Government from the MLA to a democratically elected, constitutional one. The AL and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), founded by Zia, emerged as the two major parties.

In May 1981, Zia was assassinated in Chittagong by dissident elements of the military. The attempted coup never spread beyond that city, and the major conspirators were either taken into custody or killed. In accordance with the constitution, Vice President Justice Abdus Sattar was sworn in as acting president. He declared a new national emergency and called for election of a new president within 6 months—an election Sattar won as the BNP's candidate. President Sattar sought to follow the policies of his predecessor and retained essentially the same cabinet, but the army stepped in once again.

Hussain Mohammed Ershad, 1982-90

Army Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad assumed power in a bloodless coup in March 1982. Like his predecessors, Ershad suspended the constitution and—citing pervasive corruption, ineffectual government, and economic mismanagement—declared martial law. The following year, Ershad assumed the presidency, retaining his positions as army chief and CMLA. During most of 1984, Ershad sought the opposition parties’ participation in local elections under martial law. The opposition's refusal to participate, however, forced Ershad to abandon these plans. Ershad sought public support for his regime in a national referendum on his leadership in March 1985. He won overwhelmingly, although turnout was small. Two months later, Ershad held elections for local council chairmen. Pro-government candidates won a majority of the posts, setting in motion the President's ambitious decentralization program. Political life was further liberalized in early 1986, and additional political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the Jatiya (National) Party, designed as Ershad's political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established.

Despite a boycott by the BNP, led by President Zia's widow, Begum Khaleda Zia, parliamentary elections were held on schedule in May 1986. The Jatiya Party won a modest majority of the 300 elected seats in the National Assembly. The participation of the Awami League—led by the late President Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed—lent the elections some credibility, despite widespread charges of voting irregularities. Ershad resigned as Army Chief of Staff and retired from military service in preparation for the presidential elections, scheduled for October. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the AL refused to put up opposing candidates. Ershad easily outdistanced the remaining candidates, taking 84% of the vote. Although Ershad's government claimed a turnout of more than 50%, opposition leaders, and much of the foreign press, estimated a far lower percentage and alleged voting irregularities.

Ershad continued his stated commitment to lift martial law. In November 1986, his government mustered the necessary two-thirds majority in the National Assembly to amend the constitution and confirm the previous actions of the martial law regime. The President then lifted martial law, and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly.

In July 1987, however, after the government hastily pushed through a controversial legislative bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. Passage of the bill helped spark an opposition movement that quickly gathered momentum, uniting Bangladesh's opposition parties for the first time. The government began to arrest scores of opposition activists under the country's Special Powers Act of 1974. Despite these arrests, opposition parties continued to organize protest marches and nationwide strikes. After declaring a state of emergency, Ershad dissolved Parliament and scheduled fresh elections for March 1988.

All major opposition parties refused government overtures to participate in these polls, maintaining that the government was incapable of holding free and fair elections. Despite the opposition boycott, the government proceeded. The ruling Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament, while still regarded by the opposition as an illegitimate body, held its sessions as scheduled, and passed a large number of bills, including, in June 1988, a controversial constitutional amendment making Islam Bangladesh's state religion and provision for setting up High Court benches in major cities outside of Dhaka. While Islam remains the state religion, the provision for decentralizing the High Court division has been struck down by the Supreme Court.

By 1989, the domestic political situation in the country seemed to have quieted. The local council elections were generally considered by international observers to have been less violent and more free and fair than previous elections. However, opposition to Ershad's rule began to regain momentum, escalating by the end of 1990 in frequent general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order.

On December 6, 1990, Ershad offered his resignation. On February 27, 1991, after 2 months of widespread civil unrest, an interim government headed by Acting President Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed oversaw what most observers believed to be the nation's most free and fair elections to that date.

Khaleda Zia, 1991-96

The center-right BNP won a plurality of seats and formed a government with support from the Islamic fundamentalist party Jamaat-I-Islami, with Khaleda Zia, widow of Ziaur Rahman, obtaining the post of prime minister. Only four parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1991 Parliament: The BNP, led by Prime Minister Begum Khaleda Zia; the AL, led by Sheikh Hasina; the Jamaat-I-Islami (JI), led by Ghulam Azam; and the Jatiya Party (JP), led by acting chairman Mizanur Rahman Choudhury while its founder, former President Ershad, served out a prison sentence on corruption charges.

The electorate approved still more changes to the constitution, formally re-creating a parliamentary system and returning governing power to the office of the prime minister, as in Bangladesh’ original 1972 constitution. In October 1991, members of Parliament elected a new head of state, President Abdur Rahman Biswas.

In March 1994, controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the entire opposition. The opposition also began a program of repeated general strikes to press its demand that Khaleda Zia’ government resign and a caretaker government supervise a general election. Efforts to mediate the dispute, under the auspices of the Commonwealth Secretariat, failed. After another attempt at a negotiated settlement failed narrowly in late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament. The opposition then continued a campaign of marches, demonstrations, and strikes in an effort to force the government to resign. The opposition, including the Awami League's Sheikh Hasina, pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for February 15, 1996.

In February, Khaleda Zia was reelected by a landslide in voting boycotted and denounced as unfair by the three main opposition parties. In March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the sitting Parliament enacted a constitutional amendment to allow a neutral caretaker government to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections; former Chief Justice Mohammed Habibur Rahman was named Chief Adviser (a position equivalent to prime minister) in the interim government. New parliamentary elections were held in June 1996 and the Awami League won plurality and formed the government with support from the Jatiya Party led by deposed president Ershad; party leader Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister.

Sheikh Hasina, 1996-2001

Sheikh Hasina formed what she called a “Government of National Consensus” in June 1996, which included one minister from the Jatiya Party and another from the Jatiyo Samajtantric Dal, a very small leftist party. The Jatiya Party never entered into a formal coalition arrangement, and party president H.M. Ershad withdrew his support from the government in September 1997. Only three parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1996 Parliament: The Awami League, BNP, and Jatiya Party. Jatiya Party president, Ershad, was released from prison on bail in January 1997.

Although international and domestic election observers found the June 1996 election free and fair, the BNP protested alleged vote rigging by the Awami League. Ultimately, however, the BNP party decided to join the new Parliament. The BNP soon charged that police and Awami League activists were engaged in large-scale harassment and jailing of opposition activists. At the end of 1996, the BNP staged a parliamentary walkout over this and other grievances but returned in January 1997 under a four-point agreement with the ruling party. The BNP asserted that this agreement was never implemented and later staged another walkout in August 1997. The BNP returned to Parliament under another agreement in March 1998.

In June 1999, the BNP and other opposition parties again began to abstain from attending Parliament. Opposition parties staged an increasing number of nationwide general strikes, rising from 6 days of general strikes in 1997 to 27 days in 1999. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government elections unless the government took steps demanded by the opposition to ensure electoral fairness. The government did not take these steps, and the opposition subsequently boycotted all elections, including municipal council elections in February 1999, several parliamentary by-elections, and the Chittagong city corporation elections in January 2000.

In July 2001, the Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. Political violence that had increased during the Awami League government's tenure continued to increase through the summer in the run up to the election. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed during a visit of former President Jimmy Carter to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, foreswear the use of hartals (violently enforced strikes) as political tools, and if successful in forming a government allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament. The caretaker government was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary general election to be successfully held on October 1, 2001.

Khaleda Zia, 2001-2006

The four-party alliance led by the BNP won over a two-thirds majority in Parliament. Begum Khaleda Zia was sworn in on October 10, 2001, as Prime Minister for the third time (first in 1991, second after the February 15, 1996 elections).

Despite her August 2001 pledge and all election monitoring groups declaring the election free and fair, Sheikh Hasina condemned the election, rejected the results, and boycotted Parliament. In 2002, however, she led her party legislators back to Parliament, but the Awami League again walked out in June 2003 to protest derogatory remarks about Hasina by a State Minister and the allegedly partisan role of the Parliamentary Speaker. In June 2004, the AL returned to Parliament without having any of their demands met for an apology to Sheikh Hasina and guarantees of a neutral Speaker. They then attended Parliament irregularly before announcing a boycott of the entire June 2005 budget session.

On August 17, 2005, near-synchronized blasts of improvised explosive devices in 63 out of 64 administrative districts targeted mainly government buildings and killed two persons. An extremist Islamist outfit named Jamiatul Mujahideen, Bangladesh (JMB) claimed responsibility for the blasts aimed to press home their demand for replacement of the secular legal system with Islamic sharia courts. Subsequent attacks on the courts in several districts killed 28 people, including judges, lawyers, and police personnel guarding the courts. A government campaign against the Islamic extremists led to the arrest of hundreds of senior and mid-level JMB leaders. Six top JMB leaders were tried and sentenced to death for their role in the murder of two judges; another leader was tried and sentenced to death in absentia in the same case.

In February 2006, the AL returned to Parliament, raised demands for early elections, and requested significant changes in the electoral and caretaker government systems to stop alleged moves by the ruling coalition to rig the next election. The AL blames the ruling party for several high-profile attacks on opposition leaders, and asserts that the ruling party is bent on eliminating Sheikh Hasina and the Awami League as a viable force.

The BNP and its allies accuse the AL of maligning Bangladesh at home and abroad out of jealousy over the government's performance on development and economic issues. Dialogue between the Secretaries General of the main ruling and opposition parties failed to sort out the electoral reform issues.

Caretaker Government, October 2006-Present

The 13th Amendment to the constitution required the president to offer the position of the Chief Adviser to the immediate past Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Justice K.M. Hasan, once the previous parliamentary session expired on October 28, 2006. The AL opposed Justice Hasan, alleging that he belonged to ruling BNP in his past life and that the BNP government in 2004 amended the constitution to extend retirement age for the Supreme Court judges to make sure that Justice Hasan became the Chief Adviser during the next elections to help BNP win the election. Justice Hasan declined the position, and after two days of violent protests, President Iajuddin Ahmed also assumed the role of Chief Adviser to the caretaker government.

On January 3, 2007, the Awami League announced that they would boycott the January 22 parliamentary elections. The Awami League planned a series of country-wide general strikes and transportation blockades.

On January 11, 2007, President Iajuddin Ahmed declared a state of emergency under the Bangladesh constitution, resigned as Chief Adviser, and indefinitely postponed parliamentary elections. On January 12, former Bangladesh Bank governor Fakhruddin Ahmed was sworn in as the new Chief Adviser, and ten new advisers (ministers) have been appointed. Under emergency provisions, the government suspended certain fundamental rights of the citizens as guaranteed by the constitution and detained a large number of politicians and others on apparent suspicion of involvement in corruption and other crimes. The government has announced elections will occur in late 2008.

GOVERNMENT

The president, while chief of state, holds a largely ceremonial post; the real power is held by the prime minister, who is head of government. The president is elected by the legislature (Parliament) every 5 years. The president's circumscribed powers are substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government. (Under the 13th Amendment, which Parliament passed in March 1996, a caretaker government assumes power temporarily to oversee general elections after dissolution of the Parliament.) In the caretaker government, the president has control over the Ministry of Defense, the authority to declare a state of emergency, and the power to dismiss the Chief Adviser and other members of the caretaker government. Once elections have been held and a new government and Parliament are in place, the president's powers and position revert to their largely ceremonial role. The Chief Adviser and other advisers to the caretaker government must be appointed within 15 days from the day the current Parliament expires. The prime minister is appointed by the president. The prime minister must be a Member of Parliament (MP) whom the president feels commands the confidence of the majority of other MPs. The cabinet is composed of ministers selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president. At least 90% of the ministers must be MPs. The other 10% may be non-MP experts or “technocrats” who are not otherwise disqualified from being elected MPs. According to the constitution, the president can dissolve Parliament upon the written request of the prime minister.

The legislature is a unicameral, 300-seat body. All of its members are elected by universal suffrage at least every five years. Parliament amended the constitution in May 2004, making a provision for adding 45 seats reserved for women and to be distributed among political parties in proportion to their numerical strength in Parliament. The AL did not take its share of the reserved seats, arguing that they did not support the indirect election or nomination of women to fill these seats. Several women's groups also demanded direct election to fill the reserved seats for women.

Bangladesh's judiciary is a civil court system based on the British model; the highest court of appeal is the appellate court of the Supreme Court. At the local government level, the country is divided into divisions, districts, subdistricts, unions, and villages. Local officials are elected at the union level and selected at the village level. All larger administrative units are run by members of the civil ser-

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

The country has a caretaker government until a general election is held. Although Iajuddin Ahmed is President and Minister of Defense, all of the other Cabinet portfolios are held by Caretaker Advisers (CAs). The Chief CA is roughly equivalent to a primeminister.

Pres.: Iajuddin AHMED

Chief CA: Fakhruddin AHMED

CA for Agriculture: Sajjadul KARIM

CA for Chittagong Hills Tract Affairs:Iftekhar Ahmed CHOWDHURY

CA for Civil Aviation & Tourism: M. A.MATIN

CA for Commerce: Mirza Azizul ISLAM

CA for Communications: M. A. MATIN

CA for Cultural Affairs: Ayub QUADRI

Min. of Defense: Iajuddin AHMED

CA for Education: Ayub QUADRI

CA for Energy & Mineral Resources:Tappan CHOWDHURY

CA for Environment & Forests: SajjadulKARIM

CA for Finance & Planning: Mirza Azizul ISLAM

CA for Fisheries & Livestock: Sajjadul KARIM

CA for Food & Disaster Management: Tappan CHOWDHURY

CA for Foreign Affairs: Iftekhar Ahmed CHOWDHURY

CA for Health: Motiur RAHMAN

CA for Home Affairs: Fakhruddin AHMED

CA for Housing & Public Works: Mainul HOSSEIN

CA for Industries: Geetiara Safiya CHOWDHURY

CA for Information: Mainul HOSSEIN

CA for Jute & Textiles: Geetiara Safiya CHOWDHURY

CA for Labor & Employment: Anwarul IQBAL

CA for Land: Mainul HOSSEIN

CA for Law, Justice, & Parliamentary Affairs: Mainul HOSSEIN

CA for Liberation War Affairs: M. A. MATIN

CA for Local Govt., Rural Development, & Cooperatives: Anwarul IQBAL

CA for Overseas Employment & Expatriates’ Welfare: Iftekhar Ahmed CHOWDHURY

CA for Post & Telecommunications: Mirza Azizul ISLAM

CA for Power: Tappan CHOWDHURY

CA for Primary & Mass Education: Ayub QUADRI

CA for Religious Affairs: Motiur RAHMAN

CA for Science & Information & Communications Technology: Tappan CHOWDHURY

CA for Shipping: M. A. MATIN

CA for Social Welfare: Geetiara Safiya CHOWDHURY

CA for Water: Motiur RAHMAN

CA for Women's & Children's Affairs: Geetiara Safiya CHOWDHURY

CA for Youth & Sports: Tappan CHOWDHURY

Governor, Central Bank: Salehuddin AHMED

Ambassador to the US: M. Humayun KABIR

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York:

Bangladesh maintains an embassy in the United States at 3510 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel: 202-244-0183; fax: 202-244-5366). Bangladesh has Consulates General in New York and Los Angeles.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Despite serious problems related to a dysfunctional political system, weak governance, and pervasive corruption, Bangladesh remains one of the few democracies in the Muslim world. Bangladeshis regard democracy as an important legacy of their bloody war for independence, and vote in large numbers. However, the practice and understanding of democratic concepts is often shallow. The current government has banned all political activities and has yet to set a date for elections or its own departure from office. Bangladesh is generally a force for moderation in international forums, and it is also a long-time leader in international peacekeeping operations. Its activities in international organizations, with other governments, and its regional partners to promote human rights, democracy, and free markets are coordinated and high profile. In May 2005, Bangladesh became a member of the United Nations Human Rights Council.

Bangladesh lies at the strategic crossroads of South and Southeast Asia. Potential terrorist movements and activities in or through Bangladesh pose a potentially serious threat to India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma, as well as Bangladesh itself. The Bangladesh Government routinely denies Indian allegations that Indian insurgents in northeast India operate out of Bangladesh and that extremist Islamist forces are overwhelming Bangladesh's traditionally moderate character. It also denies there is any international terrorist presence in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Government, however, banned a number of Islamic extremist groups in recent years. In February 2002, the government banned Shahdat al Hiqma, in February 2005 it banned Jagrata Muslim Janata, Bangladesh (JMJB) and Jama’atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), and in October 2005 it banned Harkatul Jehad Al Islami (HUJI). Following the August 17, 2005 serial bombings in the country, the government launched a crackdown on the extremists. In 2006, seven senior JMB leaders were sentenced to death for their role in the 2005 murder of two judges. Six of the seven were executed in March 2007; another leader was tried and sentenced to death in absentia in the same case. In May 2005, the Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) killed six alleged Indian rebels in a raid on a house near the border with India in north-eastern Maulvibazar district. In June 2006, army and RAB personnel killed 10 gunrunners, who media reports described as suspected Indian insurgents, in a remote forest in southeastern Rangamati Hill district. Given its size and location, a major crisis in Bangladesh could have important consequences for regional stability, particularly if significant refugee movements ensue.

ECONOMY

Although one of the world's poorest and most densely populated countries, Bangladesh has made major strides to meet the food needs of its increasing population, through increased domestic production augmented by imports. The land is devoted mainly to rice and jute cultivation, although wheat production has increased in recent years; the country is largely self-sufficient in rice production. Nonetheless, an estimated 10% to 15% of the population faces serious nutritional risk. Bangladesh's predominantly agricultural economy depends heavily on an erratic monsoonal cycle, with periodic flooding and drought. Although improving, infrastructure to support transportation, communications, and power supply is poorly developed. Bangladesh is limited in its reserves of coal and oil, and its industrial base is weak. However, the country's main endowments include its vast human resource base, rich agricultural land, relatively abundant water, and substantial reserves of natural gas.

Since independence in 1971, Bangladesh has received more than $30 billion in grant aid and loan commitments from foreign donors, about $15 billion of which has been disbursed. Major donors include the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the UN Development Program, the United States, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and west European countries. Bangladesh historically has run a large trade deficit, financed largely through aid receipts and remittances from workers overseas. Foreign reserves dropped markedly in 2001 but appear to have now stabilized in the $3 to $4 billion range (or about 3 months import cover). On January 7, 2007, reserves stood at $3.73 billion.

Moves Toward a Market Economy

Following the violent events of 1971 during the fight for independence, Bangladesh—with the help of large infusions of donor relief and development aid—slowly began to turn its attention to developing new industrial capacity and rehabilitating its economy. The static economic model adopted by its early leadership, however—including the nationalization of much of the industrial sector—resulted in inefficiency and economic stagnation. Beginning in late 1975, the government gradually gave greater scope to private sector participation in the economy, a pattern that has continued. A few state-owned enterprises have been privatized, but many, including major portions of the banking and jute sectors, remain under government control. Population growth, inefficiency in the public sector, a resistance to developing the country's richest natural resources, and limited capital have all continued to restrict economic growth.

In the mid-1980s, there were encouraging, if halting, signs of progress. Economic policies aimed at encouraging private enterprise and investment, denationalizing public industries, reinstating budgetary discipline, and liberalizing the import regime were accelerated. From 1991 to 1993, the government successfully followed an enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF) with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) but failed to follow through on reforms in large part because of a preoccupation with the government's domestic political troubles. In the late 1990s the government's economic policies became more entrenched, and some of the early gains were lost, which was highlighted by a precipitous drop in foreign direct investment in 2000 and 2001. In June 2003 the IMF approved 3-year, $490-million plan as part of the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) for Bangladesh that aimed to support the government's economic reform program up to 2006. Seventy million dollars was made available immediately. In the same vein the World Bank approved $536 million in interest-free loans.

Efforts to achieve Bangladesh's macroeconomic goals have been problematic. The privatization of public sector industries has proceeded at a slow pace—due in part to worker unrest in affected industries—although on June 30, 2002, the government took a bold step as it closed down the Adamjee Jute Mill, the country's largest and most costly state-owned enterprise. The government also has proven unable to resist demands for wage hikes in government-owned industries. Access to capital is impeded. State-owned banks, which control about three-fourths of deposits and loans, carry classified loan burdens of about 50%. The IMF and World Bank predict GDP growth over the next 5 years will be about 6.0%, well short of the 8%-9% that they feel is needed to lift Bangladesh out of its severe poverty. The initial impact of the end of quotas under the Multi-Fiber Arrangement has been positive for Bangladesh, with continuing investment in the ready-made garment sector, which is experiencing 20%-25% export growth. Downward price pressure means Bangladesh must continue to cut final delivered costs if it is to remain competitive in the world market. Foreign investors in a broad range of sectors are increasingly frustrated with the politics of confrontation, the level of corruption, and the slow pace of reform. While investors view favorably recent steps by the interim government to address corruption, governance, and infrastructure issues, most believe it is too early to assess the long-term impact of these developments.

Agriculture

Most Bangladeshis earn their living from agriculture. Although rice and jute are the primary crops, maize and vegetables are assuming greater importance. Due to the expansion of irrigation network, some wheat producers have switched to cultivation of maize which is used mostly as poultry feed. Tea is grown in the northeast. Because of Bangladesh's fertile soil and normally ample water supply, rice can be grown and harvested three times a year in many areas. Due to a number of factors, Bangladesh labor-intensive agriculture has achieved steady increases in food grain production despite the often unfavorable weather conditions. These include better flood control and irrigation, a generally more efficient use of fertilizers, and the establishment of better distribution and rural credit networks. With 28.8 million metric tons produced in 2005-2006 (July-June), rice is Bangladesh's principal crop. By comparison, wheat output in 2005-2006 was 9 million metric tons. Population pressure continues to place a severe burden on productive capacity, creating a food deficit, especially of wheat. Foreign assistance and commercial imports fill the gap. Underemployment remains a serious problem, and a growing concern for Bangladesh's agricultural sector will be its ability to absorb additional manpower. Finding alternative sources of employment will continue to be a daunting problem for future governments, particularly with the increasing numbers of landless peasants who already account for about half the rural labor force.

Industry and Investment

Fortunately for Bangladesh, many new jobs—1.8 million, mostly for women—have been created by the country's dynamic private readymade garment industry, which grew at double-digit rates through most of the 1990s. The labor-intensive process of shipbreaking for scrap has developed to the point where it now meets most of Bangladesh's domestic steel needs. Other industries include sugar, tea, leather goods, newsprint, pharmaceutical, and fertilizer production. The country has done less well, however, in expanding its export base—garments account for more than three-fourths of all exports, dwarfing the country's historic cash crop, jute, along with leather, shrimp, pharmaceuticals, and ceramics.

Despite the country's politically motivated general strikes, poor infrastructure, and weak financial system, Bangladeshi entrepreneurs have shown themselves adept at competing in the global garments marketplace. Bangladesh exports significant amounts of garments and knitwear to the U.S. and the European Union (EU) market. As noted, the initial impact of the end of quotas on Bangladesh's ready-made garment industry has been positive. Downward price pressures, however, mean Bangladesh must continue to cut final delivered costs if it is to remain competitive in the world market. Bangladesh has been a world leader in its efforts to end the use of child labor in garment factories. On July 4, 1995, the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers Export Association, International Labor Organization, and UNICEF signed a memorandum of understanding on the elimination of child labor in the garment sector. Implementation of this pioneering agreement began in fall 1995, and by the end of 2001, child labor in the garment trade virtually had been eliminated.

The Bangladesh Government continues to court foreign investment, something it did fairly well in the 1990s in private power generation and gas exploration and production, as well as in other sectors such as cellular telephony, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. In 1989, the same year it signed a bilateral investment treaty with the United States, it established a board of investment to simplify approval and start-up procedures for foreign investors, although in practice the board has done little to increase investment. Bangladesh also has established successful export processing zones in Chittagong (1983), Dhaka (1994) and Comilla (2000), and has given the private sector permission to build and operate competing export promotion zones (EPZs).

The most important reforms Bangladesh should make to be able to compete in a global economy are to privatize the state-owned enterprises (SOEs), deregulate and promote foreign investment in high-potential industries like energy and telecommunications, and take decisive steps toward combating corruption and strengthening rule of law.

DEFENSE

The Bangladesh Army, Navy, and Air Force are composed of regular military members. The 110,000-member, seven-division army is modeled and organized along British lines, similar to other armies on the Indian subcontinent. However, it has adopted U.S. Army tactical planning procedures, training management techniques, and noncommissioned officer educational systems. It also is eager to improve its peacekeeping operations capabilities and is working with the U.S. military in that area. The United States gave the Bangladesh Air Force four U.S. C-130 B transport aircraft in 2001 under the excess defense article (EDA) program. These aircraft will improve the military's disaster response and peacekeeping capabilities. The Bangladesh Navy is mostly limited to coastal patrolling, but in 2001 it paid to have an ULSAN-class frigate built in South Korea.

In addition to traditional defense roles, the military has been called on to provide support to civil authorities for disaster relief and internal security. Since the proclamation of the state of emergency on January 11, 2007, the military has played a central role in the formulation and execution of key government strategies, including the anti-corruption campaign. The Bangladesh Air Force and Navy, with about 7,000 personnel each, perform traditional military missions. A Coast Guard has been formed, under the home ministry, to play a stronger role in the area of anti-smuggling, anti-piracy, and protection of offshore resources. Recognition of economic and fiscal constraints has led to the establishment of several paramilitary and auxiliary forces, including the 40,000-member Bangladesh rifles; the Ansars and village defense parties organization, which claim 64 members in every village in the country; and a 5,000-member specialized police unit known as the armed police. In 2004, a new police unit called the Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) was constituted with personnel drawn from the military and different law enforcement agencies. RAB is designed to fight hardcore criminal gangs. Bangladesh Rifles, under the authority of the home ministry, are commanded by army officers who are seconded to the organization.

In addition to in-country military training, some advanced and technical training is done abroad, including grant aid training in the United States. China, Pakistan, and Eastern Europe are the major defense suppliers to Bangladesh, but military leaders are trying to find affordable alternatives to Chinese equipment. A 2,300-member Bangladesh Army contingent served with coalition forces during the 1991 Gulf war. As of February 28, 2007, Bangladesh's 9,653 peacekeepers deployed around the world made it the second-largest troop contributor to international peacekeeping operations. Troops are deployed in Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia, Sudan, Congo, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Western Sahara, Georgia, East Timor, Kosovo, Sierra Leone, and Afghanistan.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Bangladesh pursues a moderate foreign policy that places heavy reliance on multinational diplomacy, especially at the United Nations.

Participation in Multilateral Organizations

Bangladesh was admitted to the United Nations in 1974 and was elected to a Security Council term in 1978 and again for a 2000-01 term. Then Foreign Minister Choudhury served as president of the 41st UN General Assembly in 1986. The government has participated in numerous international conferences, especially those dealing with population, food, development, and women's issues. In 1982-83, Bangladesh played a constructive role as chairman of the “Group of 77,” an informal association encompassing most of the world's developing nations. It has taken a leading role in the “Group of 48” developing countries and the “Developing-8” group of countries. It is also a participant in the activities of the Non-aligned Movement.

Since 1975, Bangladesh has sought close relations with other Islamic states and a role among moderate members of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). In 1983, Bangladesh hosted the foreign ministers meeting of the OIC. The government also has pursued the expansion of cooperation among the nations of South Asia, bringing the process—an initiative of former President Ziaur Rahman—through its earliest, most tentative stages to the formal inauguration of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) at a summit gathering of South Asian leaders in Dhaka in December 1985. Bangladesh hosted the last SAARC summit in November 2005, and Prime Minister Khaleda Zia had reassumed its chairmanship. In the latest summit, Bangladesh has participated in a wide range of ongoing SAARC regional activities. The head of the current caretaker government participated in the April 2007 SAARC summit in India.

In recent years, Bangladesh has played a significant role in international peacekeeping activities. Several thousand Bangladeshi military personnel are deployed overseas on peacekeeping operations. Under UN auspices, Bangladeshi troops have served or are serving in Sierra Leone, Somalia, Rwanda, Mozambique, Kuwait, Ethiopia-Eritrea, Kosovo, East Timor, Georgia, Congo, Cote d’Ivoire and Western Sahara, Bosnia, and Haiti. Bangladesh responded quickly to President Clinton's 1994 request for troops and police for the multinational force for Haiti and provided the largest non-U.S. contingent.

Bilateral Relations With Other Nations

Bangladesh is bordered on the west, north, and east by a 2,400-kilometer land frontier with India, and on the southeast by a land and water frontier (193 kilometers) with Burma.

India. India is Bangladesh's most important neighbor. Geographic, cultural, historic, and commercial ties are strong, and both countries recognize the importance of good relations. During and immediately after Bangladesh's struggle for independence from Pakistan in 1971, India assisted refugees from East Pakistan, intervened militarily to help bring about the independence of Bangladesh, and furnished relief and reconstruction aid.

Indo-Bangladesh relations are often strained, and many Bangladeshis feel India likes to play “big brother” to smaller neighbors, including Bangladesh. Bilateral relations warmed in 1996, due to a softer Indian foreign policy and the new Awami League government. A 30-year water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River was signed in December 1996, after an earlier bilateral water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River lapsed in 1988. Bangladesh remains extremely concerned about a proposed Indian river linking project, which the government says could turn large parts of Bangladesh into a desert The Bangladesh Government and tribal insurgents signed a peace accord in December 1997, which allowed for the return of tribal refugees who had fled into India, beginning in 1986, to escape violence caused by an insurgency in their homeland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The implementation of most parts of this agreement has stalled, and the army maintains a strong presence in the Hill Tracts. Arms smuggling and reported opium poppy cultivation are concerns in this area. Occasional skirmishes between Bangladeshi and Indian border forces sometimes escalate and seriously disrupt bilateral relations.

The ruling party views the Indian Government as a major benefactor of the opposition Awami League, and blames negative international media coverage of Bangladesh on alleged Indian manipulation. Prime Minister Khaleda Zia, however, visited the Indian capital in March 2006 and reviewed bilateral relations with her Indian counterpart. Two agreements—The Revised Trade Agreement and the Agreement on Mutual Cooperation for Preventing Illicit Drug Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances and Related Matters—were signed between the two countries during this visit. Indian Foreign Minister Pranab Mukherjee met with Chief Adviser Ahmed in Dhaka on February 26, 2007. Mukherjee invited Ahmed to the April 3-4, 2007, SAARC summit in Delhi, and both sides pledged to put Bangladesh-India relations on “an irreversible higher trajectory.”

Pakistan. Bangladesh enjoys warm relations with Pakistan, despite the strained early days of their relationship. Landmarks in their reconciliation are:

• An August 1973 agreement between Bangladesh and Pakistan on the repatriation of numerous individuals, including 90,000 Pakistani prisoners of war stranded in Bangladesh as a result of the 1971 conflict;
• A February 1974 accord by Bangladesh and Pakistan on mutual recognition followed more than 2 years later by establishment of formal diplomatic relations;
• The organization by the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) of an airlift that moved almost 250,000 Bengalis from Pakistan to Bangladesh, and non-Bengalis from Bangladesh to Pakistan; and
• Exchanges of high-level visits, including a visit by Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto to Bangladesh in 1989 and visits by Prime Minister Zia to Pakistan in 1992 and in 1995. President Pervez Musharraf visited Bangladesh in 2002. Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz visited Bangladesh in 2004. Prime Minister Khaleda Zia visited Pakistan in 2006.

Still to be resolved are the division of assets from the pre-1971 period and the status of more than 250,000 non-Bengali Muslims (known as “Biharis”) remaining in Bangladesh but seeking resettlement in Pakistan.

Burma. Bilateral ties with Burma are good, despite occasional border strains and an influx of more than 270,000 Muslim refugees (known as “Rohingya”) from predominantly Buddhist Burma. As a result of bilateral discussions, and with the cooperation and assistance of the UNHCR, most of the Rohingya refugees have now returned to Burma. As of 2007, about 20,000 refugees remain in camps in southern Bangladesh. Thousands of other Burmese, not officially registered as refugees, are squatting on the bank of the river Naaf or living in Bangladeshi villages in the southeastern tip. Bangladesh and Burmese officials are negotiating a deal to establish direct road link between the capitals of the two countries.

Former Soviet Union. The former Soviet Union supported India's actions during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war and was among the first to recognize Bangladesh. The U.S.S.R. initially contributed considerable relief and rehabilitation aid to the new nation. After Sheikh Mujib was assassinated in 1975 and replaced by military regimes, however, Soviet-Bangladesh relations cooled.

In 1989, the U.S.S.R. ranked 14th among aid donors to Bangladesh. The Soviets focused on the development of electrical power, natural gas and oil, and maintained active cultural relations with Bangladesh. They financed the Ghorasal thermal power station—the largest in Bangladesh. Recently, Russia has conducted an aggressive military sales effort in Dhaka and has succeeded with a $124-million deal for eight MIG-29 fighters. Bangladesh began to open diplomatic relations with the newly independent Central Asian states in 1992.

China. China traditionally has been more important to Bangladesh than the former U.S.S.R., even though China supported Pakistan in 1971. As Bangladesh's relations with the Soviet Union and India cooled in the mid-1970s, and as Bangladesh and Pakistan became reconciled, China's relations with Bangladesh grew warmer. An exchange of diplomatic missions in February 1976 followed an accord on recognition in late 1975.

Since that time, relations have grown stronger, centering on trade, cultural activities, military and civilian aid, and exchanges of high-level visits, beginning in January 1977 with President Zia's trip to Beijing. The largest and most visible symbol of bilateral amity is the Bangladesh-China “Friendship Bridge,” completed in 1989 near Dhaka, as well as the extensive military hardware in the Bangladesh inventory and warm military relations between the two countries. In the 1990s, the Chinese also built two 210-megawatt power plants outside of Chittagong; mechanical faults in the plants cause them to frequently shut down for days at a time, heightening the country's power shortage. In April 2005, Bangladesh and China signed nine memoranda of understanding on trade and other issues during the visit to Dhaka of Prime Minister Wen. The opening of a Taiwanese trade center in Dhaka in 2004 displeased China, but the Bangladesh government moved quickly to repair the crack and closed the trade center. In August 2005 Prime Minister Khalda Zia visited China.

Other countries in South Asia. Bangladesh maintains friendly relations with Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka and strongly opposed the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Bangladesh and Nepal recently agreed to facilitate land transit between the two countries. Bangladesh is considering importing electricity from Nepal and Bhutan through India to meet its energy shortfall.

U.S.-BANGLADESH RELATIONS

Although the U.S. relationship with Bangladesh was initially troubled because of strong U.S. ties with Pakistan, U.S.-Bangladesh friendship and support developed quickly following Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan in 1971.

U.S.-Bangladesh relations are excellent. These relations were boosted in March 2000 when President Clinton visited Bangladesh, the first visit ever by a sitting U.S. President, and when Secretary of State Colin Powell visited in June 2003, as well as when Secretary of Defense Donald Rums-feld visited in June 2004. A centerpiece of the bilateral relationship is a large U.S. economic aid program, which totaled about $100 million in 2001. U.S. economic and food aid programs, which began as emergency relief following the 1971 war for independence, now concentrate on long-term development. U.S. assistance objectives include stabilizing population growth, protecting human health, encouraging broad-based economic growth, and building democracy. In total, the United States has provided more than $4.3 billion in food and development assistance to Bangladesh. Food aid under Titles I, II, and III of PL-480 (congressional “food-for-peace” legislation) has been designed to help Bangladesh meet minimum food requirements, promote food production, and moderate fluctuation in consumer prices. Other U.S. development assistance emphasizes family planning and health, agricultural development, and rural employment. The United States works with other donors and the Bangladesh Government to avoid duplication and ensure that resources are used to maximum benefit.

Since 1986, with the exception of 1988-89, when an aircraft purchase made the trade balance even, the U.S. trade balance with Bangladesh has been negative, due largely to growing imports of readymade garments. Jute carpetbacking is the other major U.S. import from Bangladesh. Total imports from Bangladesh were about $2.5 billion (excluding services) in FY 2005, up from the $ 2.1 billion in 2002. U.S. exports to Bangladesh (some $333 million, excluding services in 2005) include wheat, fertilizer, cotton, communications equipment, aircraft, and medical supplies, a portion of which is financed by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). A bilateral investment treaty was signed in 1989.

Another trade related issue between the two countries involves the export processing zones (EPZs). The government provides several tax, foreign exchange, customs and labor incentives to investors in the EPZs. One such incentive provided in recent years was an exemption from certain labor laws, which had the practical effect of prohibiting trade unions from the zones. The U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) law requires the beneficiary country to satisfy certain conditions relating to labor rights. On July 13, 2004, the government passed a bill allowing limited trade unionism in the EPZs effective November 1, 2006.

Relations between Bangladesh and the United States were further strengthened by the participation of Bangladesh troops in the 1991 Gulf war coalition, and alongside U.S. forces in numerous UN peacekeeping operations, including Haiti in 1994, as well as by the assistance of a U.S. naval task force after a disastrous March 1991 cyclone in Bangladesh. The relief efforts of U.S. troops are credited with having saved as many as 200,000 lives. In response to Bangladesh's worst flooding of the century in 1998, the United States donated 700,000 metric tons of food grains, helping to mitigate shortages. In July 2006, US Navy's hospital ship Mercy visited Bangladesh and U.S. personnel worked with Bangladeshi medical personnel to provide medical treatment to Bangladeshi patients.

Most recently, Bangladesh has become a valuable United States ally in the Global War on Terrorism. As part of the war effort, the Government of Bangladesh has publicly addressed problems of money laundering and weak border controls to ensure that Bangladesh does not become a terrorist safe-haven.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

DHAKA (E) Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka, Bangladesh, APO/ FPO Unit 6120 Box 1000, APO, AP 96562-1000, +880 2 885 5500, Fax +880 2 882 3744 (Tel Operator) or 880 2 882 3159 (Mail Room), INMARSAT Tel +881 676 311 001, Workweek: 0800 to 1630 Sun-Thurs, Website: http://dhaka.usembassy.gov.

The U.S. Embassy in Dhaka is located at Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh; tel: (880) (2) 885-5500, fax: (880) (2) 8823744. Hours of Operation: Sunday to Thursday (08:00 a.m.-16:30 p.m.), except holidays.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

November 23, 2007

Country Description: Bangladesh is a democratic republic with a parliamentary form of government. On January 11, 2007, President Iajuddin Ahmed declared a state of emergency that suspended all civil and political liberties. The nationwide elections scheduled for January 22 were indefinitely postponed. On April 12, 2007, Chief Advisor to the caretaker government, Fakhruddin Ahmed, announced that elections would be held before the end of 2008. Bangladesh is a developing country with poor infrastructure. Tourist facilities outside major cities and tourist areas are minimal.

Entry Requirements: A passport, visa and onward/return ticket are required. All travelers to Bangladesh, including American citizens, must have a valid visa in their valid passport prior to arrival. A valid visa in an expired or cancelled U.S. passport is not acceptable. If you are issued a new U.S. passport, you will require a new visa. The Bangladesh Immigration & Passport Department is able to issue ‘exit visas’ or a ‘no visa required’ stamp. It can be contacted at their Dhaka office at: 88-02-8159878, or 8123788, or 8123323. Please note that Americans who visit this office and do not speak the local language are likely to need an interpreter. Airport visas (landing permits) are no longer available upon arrival by air. Americans should not plan to enter Bangladesh on a landing permit.

New visa rules, introduced in October 2006, require foreign nationals who come to Bangladesh to work or for long-term visits to have the appropriate work permits and clearances on arrival. There are increased financial penalties for overstaying visas. Additionally, those who overstay for more than 90 days face the possibility of being charged with violating the Foreigners Act of 1946. For further information on these rules, please check with the nearest Bangladeshi Embassy or Consulate (U.S. addresses listed below) before traveling, or visit the Bangadeshi Immigration Police web site, which provides further details on rules relating to Foreigner Registrations.

If you intend to use Dhaka as a hub from which to visit other countries in the region, ensure that you obtain a multiple-entry visa before arrival. If you intend to work for a non-governmental organization (NGO) in Bangladesh you should ensure that your sponsor has provided you with up-to-date advice on the kind of visa you must obtain before arrival. It is difficult and time-consuming to change your immigration status once you have arrived in Bangladesh.

Visas to Bangladesh which are expiring may be extended at the Directorate of Immigration and Passport, located at Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Agargaon, Dhaka. The phone numbers are (880-2) 913-1891 and 913-4011. There are two exit requirements:

A. When traveling by air, there is a departure tax on all foreigners except children under the age of two. This tax is often included when air tickets are purchased. Otherwise, it is collected at the airport at the time of departure. The amount of the departure tax varies, depending on the destination (e.g., the departure tax for the U.S. is the most expensive, at USD $43). There is no travel tax for transit passengers transiting Bangladesh without a visa and in country for 72 hours or fewer. These requirements may be subject to change, and travelers are advised to check with the Embassy of Bangladesh before traveling.

B. Departing foreign nationals are also required to comply with the income tax ordinance of 1984 and submit an income tax clearance certificate/income tax exemption certificate to local airline offices upon departure from Bangladesh. More information can be obtained from the Bangladesh Board of Revenue web site at http://www.nbr-bd.org.

For further information on entry requirements and possible exceptions to the exit requirements, please contact the Embassy of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (3510 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008, telephone 202-244-0183, fax 202-244-5366, web site http://www.bangladoot.org), or the Bangladeshi Consulates in New York (211 E. 43rd Street, Suite 502, New York, NY 10017, telephone 212-599-6767), or Los Angeles (10850 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 1250, Los Angeles, CA 90024, telephone 310-441-9399). Visit the Embassy of Bangladesh web site at http://www.bangladoot.org for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: Bangladesh is currently under a state of emergency. Elections have been postponed until late 2008. The security situation in Bangladesh is fluid, and Americans are urged to check with the U.S. Embassy for the latest information. Spontaneous demonstrations take place in Bangladesh from time to time in response to world events or local developments. We remind American citizens that even demonstrations intended to be peaceful can turn confrontational and possible escalate into violence. American citizens are therefore urged to avoid the areas of demonstrations if possible, and to exercise caution if within the vicinity of any demonstrations. American citizens should stay up-to-date with media coverage of local events and be aware of their surroundings at all times. Information regarding demonstrations in Bangladesh can be found on the U.S. Embassy Dhaka’ website at http://dhaka.usembassy.gov.

A terrorist bombing campaign in the second half of 2005, political violence throughout the country at the end of 2006, and threats to U.S. and Western interests led to increased security around U.S. Government facilities. On August 17, 2005, a banned Islamist terrorist group, Jamaatul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), claimed responsibility for nearly 500 coordinated small bomb blasts in virtually every part of Bangladesh that killed two persons and injured several dozen. The most recent JMB bombing occurred on December 8, 2005, and the Bangladeshi government subsequently apprehended the known senior leadership of JMB. Six JMB leaders convicted of complicity in JMB attacks were executed on March 29, 2007. JMB and other extremist groups are small in number but remain active and may resume violent activities.

Demonstrations, political activity, and hartals (nationwide strikes) are banned during the state of emergency. Prior to the state of emergency, rallies, marches, demonstrations and hartals were scheduled frequently. In August 2007 violent protests involving thousands of demonstrators occurred in several cities in Bangladesh. Authorities imposed a curfew to restore calm. Protests involving workers from the large garment-manufacturing industry are not uncommon. Visitors to Bangladesh should check with the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Dhaka for updated information on the current political situation.

Due to kidnappings and other security incidents, including those involving foreign nationals, U.S. citizens are advised against traveling to the Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban Hill Tracts districts (collectively known as the Chittagong Hill Tracts). Foreigners traveling in the Chittagong Hill Tracts are required to register with local authorities. Additionally, the U.S. Embassy has in the past received reports of incidents of kidnapping, arms and narcotics smuggling and clashes between local Bangladeshis and Rohingyan refugees in areas near Rohingyan refugee camps in the Teknaf, Kutupalong, Ukhia, and Ramu areas of the Cox’ Bazar district. The U.S. Embassy also recommends against travel to these areas. Individuals who choose to visit these districts are urged to exercise extreme caution.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, can be found. Americans traveling to or living in Bangladesh who are registered at the U.S. Embassy will receive updated security information about Bangladesh via e-mail. All Demonstration Notices and Warden Messages are posted on the Embassy's web site at http://dhaka.usembassy.gov. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: Urban crime can be organized or opportunistic, conducted by individuals or groups, and commonly encompasses fraud, theft (larceny, pick-pocketing, snatch-and-grab), robbery (armed and unarmed), carjacking, rape, assault, and burglary (home and auto). Incidents of crime and levels of violence are higher in low-income residential and congested commercial areas, but are unexpectedly rising in the wealthier areas as well. Visitors should avoid walking alone after dark, carrying large sums of money, or wearing expensive jewelry. Valuables should be stored in hotel safety deposit boxes and should not be left unattended in hotel rooms. Police are generally responsive to reports of crimes against Americans.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime are solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities in Bangladesh do not approach U.S. standards, even in tourist areas. There is limited functioning ambulance service in Bangladesh. Several hospitals in Dhaka (e.g., Apollo Hospital and Square Hospital) have emergency rooms that are equipped at the level of a community hospital. Hospitals in the provinces are less well equipped and supplied. There have been reports of counterfeit medications within the country, but medication from major pharmacies and hospitals is generally reliable. Medical evacuations to Bangkok or Singapore are often necessary for serious conditions or invasive procedures.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's internet site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith/en.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Bangladesh is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

The Bangladeshi road network is in poor condition and poorly maintained. The streets of Dhaka are extremely congested; bicycle rickshaws compete with baby taxis, cars, overloaded buses, and trucks on limited road space. Also, driving on the left-hand side of the road may be confusing to American visitors. Inter-city roads are narrow. Driving at night is especially dangerous. Streetlights are rare even in cities. Road accidents are common in Bangladesh. Fatal head-on collisions on inter-city roads are common. When vehicle accidents occur, a crowd quickly gathers and violence can occur when the crowd becomes unruly. Travelers are strongly urged not to use public transportation, including buses, rick-shaws, and three-wheeled baby taxis due to their high accident rate and crime issues. An alternative to consider is a rental car and driver. Visit the website of Bangladesh's National Tourism Organization at http://www.parjatan.org (e-mail address, bpcho@bangla.net).

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of Bangladesh's Civil Aviation Authority as not being in compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards for the oversight of Bangladesh's air carrier operations. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Bangladesh is a riverine country with wide network of waterways used for public transportation. Ferries and other boats compete with the railroads as a major means of public transport. Typically overloaded and top-heavy, ferries are subject to capsizing, particularly during the monsoon season from May to October or when encountering thunderstorms or wind gusts that arise unpredictably. Every year there are dozens of fatalities resulting from ferry accidents.

Bangladeshi customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Bangladesh of items such as currency, household appliances, alcohol, cigarettes and weapons. There is no restriction as to the amount of U.S. currency visitors may bring into Bangladesh; however, they must declare to customs authorities if they are carrying more than USD $5,000 at the time of arrival. It is advisable to contact the Bangladeshi Embassy or Consulates for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Land disputes are extremely common in Bangladesh, and are extremely difficult to resolve through ordinary legal channels. The court cases can last for months, and sometimes years, without there ever being a final and accurate determination of which party has legitimate claim to the title.

The American Embassy currently has on file nearly twenty cases of American citizens who claim to be victimized in land-grabbing disputes. Rarely are these simple cases of a legitimate property owner and an opportunistic land-grabber. More often, it is a case of an owner who believes he has historical ownership of the property and a new owner who has just purchased the same property. One of them has been swindled, both of them have deeds, and it is next to impossible to determine whose deed is valid.

The dangers in becoming involved in a property dispute range from being threatened by bullies to being involved in a lengthy court dispute. Those involved in a court dispute run the risk of having cases filed against them, and may be arrested and jailed, sometimes for months. American Citizens wishing to purchase property in Bangladesh should be thoroughly aware of the risks they take, and should only purchase property from a seller whose ownership is beyond doubt. Additionally, they should recognize the risks associated if they are not physically present to oversee their property.

American Citizens should bear in mind that the American Embassy cannot protect personal property in the absence of owners and cannot take sides in a legal dispute.

Adult children and teenaged children of dual-citizen parents should be aware that the Embassy has recently helped several young people extricate themselves from family-arranged marriage plans. A marriage must be entered into with the full and free consent of both people. Everyone involved should feel that they have a choice.

If an American citizen is being forced into a marriage against his/her will, help and advice are available (DhakaACS@state.gov, or 011-88-02-885-5500 from the United States, 02-885-5500 from inside Bangladesh, or 885-5500 from anywhere in the city of Dhaka). Young adults traveling to Bangladesh with their families to visit relatives should hold onto their passports and their return plane tickets.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Bangladeshi laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Bangladesh are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Bangladesh are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy through the State Department's travel registration website and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Bangladesh. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency.

The U.S. Embassy is located approximately four miles south of Zia International Airport, and five miles north of downtown in the Diplomatic Enclave, Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka, telephone (88-02) 885-5500, fax number (88-02) 882-3744. The workweek is Sunday through Thursday. The Consular Section is open for American Citizens Services Sunday through Thursday from 1:00 p.m. to 4:00 p.m. For emergency services and general information during business hours, please call (88-02) 882-3805. For emergency services after hours, please call (88-02) 885-5500 and ask for the duty officer. The Embassy's Internet home page is http://dhaka.usembassy.gov.

International Adoption

November 2006

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: Bangladeshi law does not allow for full adoptions of Bangladeshi children. Americans considering adoption of Bangladeshi children must obtain guardianship from a Bangladeshi court and subsequently adopt the child in the United States. Prospective American guardians may also want to see our Shari’a Adoption Flyer on Guardianship in Muslim Countries.

In addition, only citizens of Bangladesh may be appointed/declared guardians of a Bangladeshi child. Since Bangladesh allows for dual citizenship, however, American citizens who are also Bangladeshi citizens may be appointed guardians of Bangladeshi children.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Guardianship Authority: The relevant Family Court is the sole authority to award guardianship and issue guardianship certificate. The Ministry of Home Affair issues No Objection Certificate to issue a Bangladesh passport and Immigration and Passport office issues a passport.

There is no public contact information for Family Court. Family Court is located in all district of Bangladesh and if it is required by an applicant to contact, he/she may contact the concerned Desk Officer or dealing section of the Family Court in person.

Eligibility Requirements: Prospective guardians must be at least 18 years old being of sound mind and capable of maintaining through provision of food, shelter and education and provide proof of Bangladeshi citizenship. The Court has the duty to look at the character and capacity of the proposed guardian in considering the welfare of the minor. The proposed ward must be a minor (below the age of 18 years).

Residency Requirements: There are no residency requirements. However, as noted above, prospective guardians must be citizens of Bangladesh.

Time Frame: There are no set time frame and fee for legal guardianship in Bangladesh. The following, however, are rough estimates of the processing times for specific stages of the process. Processing time at orphanage is about 3 days to 1 month. Processing time at Family Court is about 1–3 months. Processing time at Ministry of Home Affairs: 15 days to 2 months.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no adoption agencies in Bangladesh. There are at least 25,000 lawyers in Bangladesh who may initiate guardianship proceedings. Prospective guardians who choose to work with U.S. adoption service providers in the context of obtaining guardianship of Bangladeshi children are advised to fully research any adoption agency or facilitator they plan to use.

Guardianship Fees: There is a Government court fee of Tk.60. Lawyer's fee: No set fee but ranging from Tk.5000 to Tk.50,000 = roughly $85 to $850. There is no official fee at the orphanage. But many request/accept donations. There is no fee at Ministry of Home Affairs.

Requirements for Obtaining Legal Guardianship:

• Biological parent must sign an irrevocable release of the child before a Notary Public, 1st Class Magistrate or the relevant Family Court in Bangladesh.
• An application for legal guardianship must be made to the Family Court. In Bangladesh, the Family Court has sole jurisdiction over family matters.
• A No Objection Certificate must be obtained from the Home Ministry for issuance of International Passport in the name of the minor.
• The No Objection and Legal Guardianship’ certificates should be presented to the Bangladesh Passport Office for the child's passport. Prospective guardians’ names should be listed as the legal guardians in the child's passport.

Required Documents:

• Birth Certificate of the minor.
• Guardianship Certificate.
• Irrevocable release/undertaking of the biological parents (if any) of the child before a Notary Public, 1st Class Magistrate or before the relevant Family Court in Bangladesh.
• No Objection certificate from the Ministry of Home Affairs.

The Bangladeshi procedure for authenticating documents to be used in Bangladesh is as follows:

• Any foreign document should be attested by the Bangladeshi Mission abroad and then re-attested by the Foreign Ministry in Bangladesh. If the document is of a legal nature, then it should revalidated by the relevant treasury in Bangladesh.
• Any Bangladeshi (local) document can be treated as authenticated if it is attested by any First Class Government officer, any Magistrate or any Notary Public in Bangladesh.

Embassy of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Washington D.C.
3510, International Drive NW
Washington, DC 20008, USA
Telephone: (202) 244-0183,
(202) 244-7830
Fax:(202) 244-5366
Website: http://www.bangladoot.org

Consulate General of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, New York
211 E. 43rd Street, Suite 502
New York, NY 10017
Telephone: (212) 599-6767,
(212) 599-6850
Fax: (212) 682-9211
E-mail: bdcgny@aol.com

Consulate General of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Los Angeles
10850 Wilshire Boulevard
Suite 1250, Los Angeles CA 90024
Telephone: (310) 441-9399
Fax: (310) 441-4458
E-mail: bcgla@earthlink.net

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adopting parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

U.S. Embassy, Dhaka
Madani Avenue, Baridhara,
Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
Tel: (880) (2) 885-5500
Fax: (880) (2) 8823744
Internet: http://dhaka.usembassy.gov

Additional Information: Specific questions about guardianship in Bangladesh may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Dhaka, Bangladesh, via e-mail at: DhakaAdoptions @state.gov. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/ OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

Bangladesh

Compiled from the September 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
People’s Republic of Bangladesh

PROFILE

GEOGRAPHY

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

DEFENSE

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-BANGLADESH RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 147, 570 sq. km. (55,813 sq. mi.); about the size of Wisconsin.

Cities: Capital—Dhaka (pop. 10 million). Other cities—Chittagong (2.8 million), Khulna (1.8 million), Rajshahi (1 million).

Terrain: Mainly flat alluvial plain, with hills in the northeast and southeast.

Climate: Semitropical, monsoonal.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Bangladeshi(s).

Population: 146 million.

Annual growth rate: 1.8%.

Ethnic groups: Bengali 98%, tribal groups, non-Bengali Muslims.

Religions: Muslim 88.3%; Hindu 10.5%; Christian 0.3%, Buddhist 0.6%, others 0.3%.

Languages: Bangla (official, also known as Bengali), English.

Education: Attendance—61%. Literacy—62.66.

Health: Infant mortality rate (below 1)—56/1,000. Life expectancy—62 years (male), 63 years (female).

Work force: (60.3 million) Agriculture—62.3%; manufacturing and mining—7.6%; others—30.1%.

Government

Type: Parliamentary democracy.

Independence: 1971 (from Pakistan).

Constitution: 1972; amended 1974, 1979, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1996, 2004.

Government branches: Executive—president (chief of state), prime minister (head of government), cabinet. Legislative—unicameral parliament (345 members). Judicial—civil court system based on British model.

Political subdivisions: Divisions, districts, subdistricts, unions, villages.

Political parties: 30-40 active

Political parties: largest ones include Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), the Awami League (AL), the Jatiya Party, and the Jamaat-e-Islami Party.

Suffrage: Universal at age 18.

Economy

Fiscal year: July 1 to June 30.

Annual GDP growth rate: (FY 2006 est.) 6.7%.

GDP: $60 billion

Inflation: (April 2006) 6.5%.

Exchange Rate: FY 2003: 1 $= Taka 57.90 FY 2006: 1 $= Taka 69.43

Budget: (FY 2007) $10 billion

Per capita GDP: (2006) $456.

Natural resources: Natural gas, fertile soil, water.

Agriculture: (21.8% of GDP) Products—rice, jute, tea, sugar, wheat. Land—cultivable area cropped at rate of 180% in 2004; 176% in 1997; largely subsistence farming dependent on monsoon rainfall, but growing commercial farming and increasing use of irrigation.

Industry: (Manufacturing; 17% of GDP) Types—garments and knitwear, jute goods, frozen fish and seafood, textiles, fertilizer, sugar, tea, leather, ship-breaking for scrap, pharmaceuticals, ceramic tableware, newsprint.

Trade: (FY 2005) Total Imports (FY 2005)- $13.4 billion: capital goods, food grains, petroleum, textiles, chemicals, vegetable oils. Total Exports (FY 2005) —$8.7 billion: garments and knitwear, frozen fish, jute and jute goods, leather and leather products, tea, urea fertilizer, ceramic tableware. Exports to U.S. (FY 2005)—$2.5 billion. Imports from U.S. (FY 2005)—$333 million.

GEOGRAPHY

Bangladesh is a low-lying, riparian country located in South Asia with a largely marshy jungle coastline of 710 kilometers (440 mi.) on the northern littoral of the Bay of Bengal. Formed by a deltaic plain at the confluence of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna Rivers and their tributaries, Bangladesh’s alluvial soil is highly fertile but vulnerable to flood and drought.

Hills rise above the plain only in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the far southeast and the Sylhet division in the northeast. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh has a subtropical monsoonal climate characterized by heavy seasonal rainfall, moderately warm temperatures, and high humidity. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores affect the country almost every year. Bangladesh also is affected by major cyclones—on average 16 times a decade.

Urbanization is proceeding rapidly, and it is estimated that only 30% of the population entering the labor force in the future will be absorbed into agriculture, although many will likely find other kinds of work in rural areas. The areas around Dhaka and Comilla are the most densely settled. The Sundarbans, an area of coastal tropical jungle in the southwest and last wild home of the Bengal Tiger, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts on the southeastern border with Burma and India, are the least densely populated.

PEOPLE

The area that is now Bangladesh has a rich historical and cultural past, combining Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Mongol/Mughul, Arab, Persian, Turkic, and west European cultures. Residents of Bangladesh, about 98% of whom are ethnic Bengali and speak Bangla, are called Bangladeshis. Urdu-speaking, non-Bengali Muslims of Indian origin, and various tribal groups, mostly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, comprise the remainder. Most Bangladeshis (about 88.3%) are Muslims, but Hindus constitute a sizable (10.5%) minority. There also are a small number of Buddhists, Christians, and animists. English is spoken in urban areas and among the educated.

Sufi religious teachers succeeded in converting many Bengalis to Islam, even before the arrival of Muslim armies from the west. About 1200 AD, Muslim invaders established political control over the Bengal region. This political control also encouraged conversion to Islam. Since then, Islam has played a crucial role in the region’s history and politics, with a Muslim majority emerging, particularly in the eastern region of Bengal.

HISTORY

Bengal was absorbed into the Mughul Empire in the 16th century, and Dhaka, the seat of a nawab (the representative of the emperor), gained some importance as a provincial center. But it remained remote and thus a difficult to govern region—especially the section east of the Brahmaputra River—outside the mainstream of Mughul politics. Portuguese traders and missionaries were the first Europeans to reach Bengal in the latter part of the 15th century. They were followed by representatives of the Dutch, the French, and the British East India Companies. By the end of the 17th century, the British presence on the Indian subcontinent was centered in Calcutta. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the British gradually extended their commercial contacts and administrative control beyond Calcutta to Bengal. In 1859, the British Crown replaced the East India Company, extending British dominion from Bengal, which became a region of India, in the east to the Indus River in the west.

The rise of nationalism throughout British-controlled India in the late 19th century resulted in mounting animosity between the Hindu and Muslim communities. In 1885, the All-India National Congress was founded with Indian and British membership. Muslims seeking an organization of their own founded the All-India Muslim League in 1906. Although both the League and the Congress supported the goal of Indian self-government within the British Empire, the two parties were unable to agree on a way to ensure the protection of Muslim political, social, and economic rights. The subsequent history of the nationalist movement was characterized by periods of Hindu-Muslim cooperation, as well as by communal antagonism. The idea of a separate Muslim state gained increasing popularity among Indian Muslims after 1936, when the Muslim League suffered a decisive defeat in the first elections under India’s 1935 constitution. In 1940, the Muslim League called for an independent state in regions where Muslims were in the majority. Campaigning on that platform in provincial elections in 1946, the League won the majority of the Muslim seats contested in Bengal. Widespread communal violence followed, especially in Calcutta.

When British India was partitioned and the independent dominions of India and Pakistan were created in 1947, the region of Bengal was divided along religious lines. The predominantly Muslim eastern half was designated East Pakistan—and made part of the newly independent Pakistan—while the predominantly Hindu western part became the Indian state of West Bengal. Pakistan’s history from 1947 to 1971 was marked by political instability and economic difficulties. Dominion status was rejected in 1956 in favor of an “Islamic republic within the Commonwealth.” Attempts at civilian political rule failed, and the government imposed martial law between 1958 and 1962, and again between 1969 and 1971.

Almost from the advent of independent Pakistan in 1947, frictions developed between East and West Pakistan, which were separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences also contributed to the estrangement of East from West Pakistan. Bengalis strongly resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan. Responding to these grievances, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1948 formed a students’ organization called the Chhatra League. In 1949, Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani and some other Bengali leaders formed the East Pakistan Awami Muslim League (AL), a party

designed mainly to promote Bengali interests. This party dropped the word Muslim from its name in 1955 and came to be known as Awami League. Mujib became president of the Awami League in 1966 and emerged as leader of the Bengali autonomy movement. In 1966, he was arrested for his political activities. After the Awami League won almost all the East Pakistan seats of the Pakistan national assembly in 1970-71 elections, West Pakistan opened talks with the East on constitutional questions about the division of power between the central government and the provinces, as well as the formation of a national government headed by the Awami League. The talks proved unsuccessful, however, and on March 1, 1971, Pakistani President Yahya Khan indefinitely postponed the pending national assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan. Mujib was arrested again; his party was banned, and most of his aides fled to India and organized a provisional government. On March 26, 1971, following a bloody crackdown by the Pakistan Army, Bengali nationalists declared an independent People’s Republic of Bangladesh. As fighting grew between the army and the Bengali mukti bahini (“freedom fighters”), an estimated 10 million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal. On April 17, 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur district in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President, and Tajuddin Ahmed as Prime Minister.

The crisis in East Pakistan produced new strains in Pakistan’s troubled relations with India. The two nations had fought a war in 1965, mainly in the west, but the refugee pressure in India in the fall of 1971 produced new tensions in the east. Indian sympathies lay with East Pakistan, and in November, India intervened on the side of the Bangladeshis. On December 16, 1971, Pakistani forces surrendered, and Bangladesh—meaning “Bengal country”—was born; the new country became a parliamentary democracy under a 1972 constitution.

The first government of the new nation of Bangladesh was formed in Dhaka with Justice Abu Sayeed Choudhury as President, and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (“Mujib”)—who was released from Pakistani prison in early 1972—as Prime Minister.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, 1972–75

Mujib came to office with immense personal popularity but had difficulty transforming this popular support into the political strength needed to function as head of government. The new constitution, which came into force in December 1972, created a strong executive prime minister, a largely ceremonial presidency, an independent judiciary, and a unicameral legislature on a modified Westminster model. The 1972 constitution adopted as state policy the Awami League’s (AL) four basic principles of nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy.

The first parliamentary elections held under the 1972 constitution were in March 1973, with the Awami League winning a massive majority. No other political party in Bangladesh’s early years was able to duplicate or challenge the League’s broad-based appeal, membership, or organizational strength. Relying heavily on experienced civil servants and members of the Awami League, the new Bangladesh Government focused on relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction of the economy and society. Economic conditions remained precarious, however. In December 1974, Mujib decided that continuing economic deterioration and mounting civil disorder required strong measures. After proclaiming a state of emergency, Mujib used his parliamentary majority to win a constitutional amendment limiting the powers of the legislative and judicial branches, establishing an executive presidency, and instituting a one-party system, the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL), which all members of Parliament (and senior civil and military officials) were obliged to join.

Despite some improvement in the economic situation during the first half of 1975, implementation of promised political reforms was slow, and criticism of government policies became increasingly centered on Mujib. In August 1975, Mujib, and most of his family, were assassinated by mid-level army officers. His daughters, Sheikh Hasina and Sheikh Rehana, were out of the country. A new government, headed by former Mujib associate Khandakar Moshtaque, was formed.

Ziaur Rahman, 1975–81

Successive military coups resulted in the emergence of Army Chief of Staff Gen. Ziaur Rahman (“Zia”) as strongman. He pledged the army’s support to the civilian government headed by President Chief Justice Sayem. Acting at Zia’s behest, Sayem dissolved Parliament, promising fresh elections in 1977, and instituted martial law.

Acting behind the scenes of the Martial Law Administration (MLA), Zia sought to invigorate government policy and administration. While continuing the ban on political parties, he sought to revitalize the demoralized bureaucracy, to begin new economic development programs, and to emphasize family planning. In November 1976, Zia became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and assumed the presidency upon Sayem’s retirement 5 months later, promising national elections in 1978.

As President, Zia announced a 19-point program of economic reform and began dismantling the MLA. Keeping his promise to hold elections, Zia won a 5-year term in June 1978 elections, with 76% of the vote. In November 1978, his government removed the remaining restrictions on political party activities in time for parliamentary elections in February 1979. These elections, which were contested by more than 30 parties, marked the culmination of Zia’s transformation of Bangladesh’s Government from the MLA to a democratically elected, constitutional one. The AL and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), founded by Zia, emerged as the two major parties.

In May 1981, Zia was assassinated in Chittagong by dissident elements of the military. The attempted coup never spread beyond that city, and the major conspirators were either taken into custody or killed. In accordance with the constitution, Vice President Justice Abdus Sattar was sworn in as acting president. He declared a new national emergency and called for election of a new president within 6 months—an election Sattar won as the BNP’s candidate. President Sattar sought to follow the policies of his predecessor and retained essentially the same cabinet, but the army stepped in once again.

Hussain Mohammed Ershad, 1982–90

Army Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad assumed power in a bloodless coup in March 1982. Like his predecessors, Ershad suspended the constitution and—citing pervasive corruption, ineffectual government, and economic mismanagement—declared martial law. The following year, Ershad assumed the presidency, retaining his positions as army chief and CMLA. During most of 1984, Ershad sought the opposition parties’ participation in local elections under martial law. The opposition’s refusal to participate, however, forced Ershad to abandon these plans. Ershad sought public support for his regime in a national referendum on his leadership in March 1985. He won overwhelmingly, although turnout was small. Two months later, Ershad held elections for local council chairmen. Pro-government candidates won a majority of the posts, setting in motion the President’s ambitious decentralization program. Political life was further liberalized in early 1986, and additional political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the Jatiya (National) Party, designed as Ershad’s political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established.

Despite a boycott by the BNP, led by President Zia’s widow, Begum Khaleda Zia, parliamentary elections were held on schedule in May 1986. The Jatiya Party won a modest majority of the 300 elected seats in the National Assembly. The participation of the Awami League—led by the late President Mujib’s daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed—lent the elections some credibility, despite widespread charges of voting irregularities.

Ershad resigned as Army Chief of Staff and retired from military service in preparation for the presidential elections, scheduled for October. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the AL refused to put up opposing candidates. Ershad easily outdistanced the remaining candidates, taking 84% of the vote. Although Ershad’s government claimed a turnout of more than 50%, opposition leaders, and much of the foreign press, estimated a far lower percentage and alleged voting irregularities.

Ershad continued his stated commitment to lift martial law. In November 1986, his government mustered the necessary two-thirds majority in the National Assembly to amend the constitution and confirm the previous actions of the martial law regime. The President then lifted martial law, and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly.

In July 1987, however, after the government hastily pushed through a controversial legislative bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. Passage of the bill helped spark an opposition movement that quickly gathered momentum, uniting Bangladesh’s opposition parties for the first time. The government began to arrest scores of opposition activists under the country’s Special Powers Act of 1974. Despite these arrests, opposition parties continued to organize protest marches and nationwide strikes. After declaring a state of emergency, Ershad dissolved Parliament and scheduled fresh elections for March 1988.

All major opposition parties refused government overtures to participate in these polls, maintaining that the government was incapable of holding free and fair elections. Despite the opposition boycott, the government proceeded. The ruling Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament, while still regarded by the opposition as an illegitimate body, held its sessions as scheduled, and passed a large number of bills, including, in June 1988, a controversial constitutional amendment making Islam Bangladesh’s state religion and provision for setting up High Court benches in major cities outside of Dhaka. While Islam remains the state religion, the provision for decentralizing the High Court division has been struck down by the Supreme Court. By 1989, the domestic political situation in the country seemed to have quieted. The local council elections were generally considered by international observers to have been less violent and more free and fair than previous elections. However, opposition to Ershad’s rule began to regain momentum, escalating by the end of 1990 in frequent general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order.

On December 6, 1990, Ershad offered his resignation. On February 27, 1991, after 2 months of widespread civil unrest, an interim government headed by Acting President Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed oversaw what most observers believed to be the nation’s most free and fair elections to that date.

Khaleda Zia, 1991–96

The center-right BNP won a plurality of seats and formed a government with support from the Islamic fundamentalist party Jamaat-I-Islami, with Khaleda Zia, widow of Ziaur Rahman, obtaining the post of prime minister. Only four parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1991 Parliament: The BNP, led by Prime Minister Begum Khaleda Zia; the AL, led by Sheikh Hasina; the Jamaat-IIslami (JI), led by Ghulam Azam; and the Jatiya Party (JP), led by acting chairman Mizanur Rahman Choudhury while its founder, former President Ershad, served out a prison sentence on corruption charges. The electorate approved still more changes to the constitution, formally recreating a parliamentary system and returning governing power to the office of the prime minister, as in Bangladesh’s original 1972 constitution. In October 1991, members of Parliament elected a new head of state, President Abdur Rahman Biswas.

In March 1994, controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the entire opposition. The opposition also began a program of repeated general strikes to press its demand that Khaleda Zia’s government resign and a caretaker government supervise a general election. Efforts to mediate the dispute, under the auspices of the Commonwealth Secretariat, failed. After another attempt at a negotiated settlement failed narrowly in late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament. The opposition then continued a campaign of marches, demonstrations, and strikes in an effort to force the government to resign. The opposition, including the Awami League’s Sheikh Hasina, pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for February 15, 1996.

In February, Khaleda Zia was reelected by a landslide in voting boycotted and denounced as unfair by the three main opposition parties. In March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the sitting Parliament enacted a constitutional amendment to allow a neutral caretaker government to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections; former Chief Justice Mohammed Habibur Rahman was named Chief Adviser (a position equivalent to prime minister) in the interim government. New parliamentary elections were held in June 1996 and the Awami League won plurality and formed the government with support from the Jatiya Party led by deposed president Ershad; party leader Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister.

Sheikh Hasina, 1996– 2001

Sheikh Hasina formed what she called a “Government of National Consensus” in June 1996, which included one minister from the Jatiya Party and another from the Jatiyo Samajtantric Dal, a very small leftist party. The Jatiya Party never entered into a formal coalition arrangement, and party president H.M. Ershad withdrew his support from the government in September 1997. Only three parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1996 Parliament: The Awami League, BNP, and Jatiya Party. Jatiya Party president, Ershad, was released from prison on bail in January 1997. Although international and domestic election observers found the June 1996 election free and fair, the BNP protested alleged vote rigging by the Awami League. Ultimately, however, the BNP party decided to join the new Parliament. The BNP soon charged that police and Awami League activists were engaged in large-scale harassment and jailing of opposition activists. At the end of 1996, the BNP staged a parliamentary walkout over this and other grievances but returned in January 1997 under a four-point agreement with the ruling party. The BNP asserted that this agreement was never implemented and later staged another walkout in August 1997. The BNP returned to Parliament under another agreement in March 1998.

In June 1999, the BNP and other opposition parties again began to abstain from attending Parliament. Opposition parties staged an increasing number of nationwide general strikes, rising from 6 days of general strikes in 1997 to 27 days in 1999. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government elections unless the government took steps demanded by the opposition to ensure electoral fairness. The government did not take these steps, and the opposition subsequently boycotted all elections, including municipal council elections in February 1999, several parliamentary by-elections, and the Chittagong city corporation elections in January 2000.

In July 2001, the Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. Political violence that had increased during the Awami League government’s tenure continued to increase through the summer in the run up to the election. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed during a visit of former President Jimmy Carter to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, foreswear the use of hartals (violently enforced strikes) as political tools, and if successful in forming a government allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament. The caretaker government was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary general election to be successfully held on October 1, 2001.

Khaleda Zia, 2001– present

The four-party alliance led by the BNP won over a two-thirds majority in Parliament. Begum Khaleda Zia was sworn in on October 10, 2001, as Prime Minister for the third time (first in 1991, second after the February 15, 1996 elections).

Despite her August 2001 pledge and all election monitoring groups declaring the election free and fair, Sheikh Hasina condemned the election, rejected the results, and boycotted Parliament. In 2002, however, she led her party legislators back to Parliament, but the Awami League again walked out in June 2003 to protest derogatory remarks about Hasina by a State Minister and the allegedly partisan role of the Parliamentary Speaker. In June 2004, the AL returned to Parliament without having any of their demands met for an apology to Sheikh Hasina and guarantees of a neutral Speaker. Since then, they attended Parliament irregularly before announcing a boycott of the entire June 2005 budget session. In February 2006, the AL returned to parliament, raised demands for early elections, and requested significant changes in the electoral and caretaker government systems to stop alleged moves by the ruling coalition to rig the next election. The AL blames the ruling party for several high-profile attacks on opposition leaders, and asserts that the ruling party is bent on eliminating Sheikh Hasina and the Awami League as a viable force. The BNP and its allies accuse the AL of maligning Bangladesh at home and abroad out of jealousy over the government’s performance on development and economic issues. Initiatives to hold dialog between the government and the opposition to sort out the electoral reform issues remained unsuccessful. The next parliamentary election is slated for January 2007. On August 17, 2005 near-synchronized blasts of improvised explosive devices in 63 out of 64 administrative districts targeted mainly government buildings and killed two persons. An extremist Islamist outfit named Jamiatul Mujahideen, Bangladesh (JMB) claimed responsibility for the blasts aimed to press home their demand for replacement of the secular legal system with Islamic sharia courts. Subsequent attacks on the courts in several districts killed 28 people, including judges, lawyers, and police personnel guarding the courts. A government campaign against the Islamic extremists led to the arrest of the top JMB leaders and their trial. Death sentences handed down to the JMB leaders were under review of the High Court.

GOVERNMENT

The president, while chief of state, holds a largely ceremonial post; the real power is held by the prime minister, who is head of government. The president is elected by the legislature (Parliament) every 5 years. The president’s circumscribed powers are substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government. (Under the 13th Amendment, which Parliament passed in March 1996, a caretaker government assumes power temporarily to oversee general elections after dissolution of the Parliament.) In the caretaker government, the president has control over the Ministry of Defense, the authority to declare a state of emergency, and the power to dismiss the Chief Adviser and other members of the caretaker government. Once elections have been held and a new government and Parliament are in place, the president’s powers and position revert to their largely ceremonial role. The Chief Adviser and other advisors to the caretaker government must be appointed within 15 days from October 28, 2006, the day the current parliament expires. The 13th amendment to the constitution requires the president to offer the position of the Chief Adviser to the immediate past Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Justice K.M. Hasan, first. The AL is opposed to making this offer to Justice Hasan alleging that he belonged to ruling BNP in his past life and the BNP government in 2004 amended the constitution to extend retirement age for the Supreme Court judges to make sure that Justice Hasan became the Chief Adviser during the next elections to help BNP win the election. Elections are to be held within 90 days of expiry or dissolution of parliament and the next general elections are slated for January 2007.

The prime minister is appointed by the president. The prime minister must be a Member of Parliament (MP) whom the president feels commands the confidence of the majority of other MPs. The cabinet is composed of ministers selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president. At least 90% of the ministers must be MPs. The other 10% may be non-MP experts or “technocrats” who are not otherwise disqualified from being elected MPs. According to the constitution, the president can dissolve Parliament upon the written request of the prime minister.

The legislature is a unicameral, 300-seat body. All of its members are elected by universal suffrage at least every five years. Parliament amended the constitution in May 2004, making a provision for adding 45 seats reserved for women and to be distributed among political parties in proportion to their numerical strength in Parliament. The AL did not take its share of the reserved seats arguing that they did not support the indirect election or nomination of women to fill these seats. Several women groups also demanded direct election to fill the reserved seats for women. The next general election is scheduled to take place no later than January 2007.

Bangladesh’s judiciary is a civil court system based on the British model; the highest court of appeal is the appellate court of the Supreme Court. At the local government level, the country is divided into divisions, districts, subdistricts, unions, and villages. Local officials are elected at the union level and selected at the village level. All larger administrative units are run by members of the civil service.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 6/28/2006

President: Iajuddin AHMED

Prime Minister: Khaleda ZIA

Min. of Agriculture: M. K. ANWAR

Min. of Commerce: M. Hafizuddin AHMED

Min. of Communications: Nazmul HUDA

Min. of Defense: Khaleda ZIA

Min. of Education: Osman FARRUK

Min. of Energy & Resources: Khaleda ZIA

Min. of Environment & Forests: Tariqul ISLAM

Min. of Finance & Planning: Mohammad Saifur RAHMAN

Min. of Fisheries & Livestock: Abdullah Al NOMAN

Min. of Food & Disaster Management & Relief: Chowdhury Kamal Ibne YUSUF

Min. of Foreign Affairs: M. Morshed KHAN

Min. of Health & Family Welfare: Khandaker Mosharraf HOSSAIN

Min. of Housing & Public Works: Mirza ABBAS

Min. of Industries: Maulana Matiur Rahman NIZAMI

Min. of Information: M. Shamsul ISLAM

Min. of Jute & Textiles: Shahjahan SIRAJ

Min. of Law, Justice, & Parliamentary Affairs: Moudud AHMED

Min. of Local Govt., Rural Development, & Cooperatives: Abdul Mannan BHUIYAN

Min. of Post & Telecommunication: Mohammad Aminul HAQUE

Min. of Science & Information & Communication Technology: Abdul Moyeen KHAN

Min. of Shipping: Akbar HOSSAIN

Min. of Social Welfare: Ali Ahsan Mohammad MUJAHID

Min. of Water Resources: M. Hafizuddin AHMED

Min. of Women & Children Affairs: Khurshid Jahan HAQUE

Min. Without Portfolio: Altaf Hossain CHOUDHURY

Min. Without Portfolio: Abdul Matin CHOWDHURY

State. Min. of Home Affairs: Lutfozzaman BABAR

State Min. of Labor & Employment: Amanuallah AMAN

State Min. of Land: Ukil Abdus Sattar BHUIYAN

State Min. of NGOs: Lutfar Rahman Khan AZAD

Governor, Central Bank: Salehuddin AHMED

Ambassador to the US: Shamsher Mobin CHOWDHURY

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Iftekhar Ahmed CHOWDHURY

Bangladesh maintains an embassy in the United States at 3510 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel: 202-244-0183; fax: 202-244-5366). Bangladesh has Consulates General in New York and Los Angeles.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Despite serious problems related to a dysfunctional political system, weak governance, and pervasive corruption, Bangladesh remains one of the few democracies in the Muslim world. Bangladeshis regard democracy as an important legacy of their bloody war for independence, and vote in large numbers. However, the practice and understanding of democratic concepts is often shallow. Bangladesh is generally a force for moderation in international forums, and it is also a long-time leader in international peacekeeping operations. Its activities in international organizations, with other governments, and its regional partners to promote human rights, democracy, and free markets are coordinated and high profile. In May 2005, Bangladesh became a member of the United Nations Human Rights Council.

Bangladesh lies at the strategic crossroads of South and Southeast Asia. Potential terrorist movements and activities in or through Bangladesh pose a potentially serious threat to India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma, as well as Bangladesh itself. The Bangladesh Government routinely denies Indian allegations that Indian insurgents in northeast India operate out of Bangladesh and that extremist Islamist forces are overwhelming Bangladesh’s traditionally moderate character. It also denies there is any international terrorist presence in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh government, however, banned a number of Islamic extremist groups in recent years. In February 2002, the government banned Shahdat al Hiqma, in February 2005 it banned Jagrata Muslim Janata, Bangladesh (JMJB) and Jama’atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), and in October 2005 it banned Harkatul Jehad Al Islami (HUJI). Following the August 17, 2005 serial bombings in the country, the government launched a crackdown on the extremists. In May 2005, The Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) killed six alleged Indian rebels in a raid on a house near the border with India in north-eastern Maulvibazar district. In June 2006, army and RAB personnel killed 10 gunrunners, who media reports described as suspected Indian insurgents, in a remote forest in southeastern Rangamati Hill district. Given its size and location, a major crisis in Bangladesh could have important consequences for regional stability, particularly if significant refugee movements ensue.

ECONOMY

Although one of the world’s poorest and most densely populated countries, Bangladesh has made major strides to meet the food needs of its increasing population, through increased domestic production augmented by imports. The land is devoted mainly to rice and jute cultivation, although wheat production has increased in recent years; the country is largely self-sufficient in rice production. Nonetheless, an estimated 10% to 15% of the population faces serious nutritional risk. Bangladesh’s predominantly agricultural economy depends heavily on an erratic monsoonal cycle, with periodic flooding and drought. Although improving, infrastructure to support transportation, communications, and power supply is poorly developed.

Bangladesh is limited in its reserves of coal and oil, and its industrial base is weak. However, the country’s main endowments include its vast human resource base, rich agricultural land, relatively abundant water, and substantial reserves of natural gas.

Since independence in 1971, Bangladesh has received more than $30 billion in grant aid and loan commitments from foreign donors, about $15 billion of which has been disbursed. Major donors include the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the UN Development Program, the United States, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and west European countries. Bangladesh historically has run a large trade deficit, financed largely through aid receipts and remittances from workers overseas. Foreign reserves dropped markedly in 2001 but appear to have now stabilized in the $2.2 to $2.5 billion range (or about 2.0-2.2 monthly import cover). On May 5, 2005, reserves stood at $3.24 billion.

Moves Toward a Market Economy

Following the violent events of 1971 during the fight for independence, Bangladesh—with the help of large infusions of donor relief and development aid—slowly began to turn its attention to developing new industrial capacity and rehabilitating its economy. The static economic model adopted by its early leadership, however—including the nationalization of much of the industrial sector—resulted in inefficiency and economic stagnation. Beginning in late 1975, the government gradually gave greater scope to private sector participation in the economy, a pattern that has continued. A few state-owned enterprises have been privatized, but many, including major portions of the banking and jute sectors, remain under government control. Population growth, inefficiency in the public sector, a resistance to developing the country’s richest natural resources, and limited capital have all continued to restrict economic growth.

In the mid-1980s, there were encouraging, if halting, signs of progress. Economic policies aimed at encouraging private enterprise and investment, denationalizing public industries, reinstating budgetary discipline, and liberalizing the import regime were accelerated. From 1991 to 1993, the government successfully followed an enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF) with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) but failed to follow through on reforms in large part because of a preoccupation with the government’s domestic political troubles. In the late 1990s the government’s economic policies became more entrenched, and some of the early gains were lost, which was highlighted by a precipitous drop in foreign direct investment in 2000 and 2001. The current government has promised a return to liberalization. In June 2003 the IMF approved 3-year, $490-million plan as part of the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) for Bangladesh that aims to support the government’s economic reform program up to 2006. Seventy million dollars was made available immediately. In the same vein the World Bank approved $536 million in interest-free loans.

Efforts to achieve Bangladesh’s macroeconomic goals have been problematic. The privatization of public sector industries has proceeded at a slow pace—due in part to worker unrest in affected industries—although on June 30, 2002, the government took a bold step as it closed down the Adamjee Jute Mill, the country’s largest and most costly state-owned enterprise. The government also has proven unable to resist demands for wage hikes in government-owned industries. Economic growth has been further slowed by a largely dysfunctional banking system. This has impeded access to capital. State-owned banks, which control about three-fourths of deposits and loans, carry classified loan burdens of about 50%.

The IMF and World Bank predict GDP growth over the next 5 years will be about 4.5%, well short of the 7%-8% that they feel is needed to lift Bangladesh out of its severe poverty. The post-September 11, 2001 global economic downturn hit especially hard Bangladesh’s main export industry—readymade garments. As a result, exports, which were growing 18% annually, are now growing 8%. The initial impact of the end of quotas under the Multi-Fiber Arrangement has been moderate and uneven with some sectors, especially knitwear, experiencing gains while other sectors report a 10-20% drop in orders. Downward price pressure means Bangladesh must cut final delivered costs considerably if it is to remain competitive in the world market. Foreign investors in a broad range of sectors are increasingly frustrated with the politics of confrontation, the level of corruption, and the slow pace of reform. Bangladesh may well lose not only potential investors but also those already invested if governance does not improve.

Agriculture

Most Bangladeshis earn their living from agriculture. Although rice and jute are the primary crops, maize and vegetables are assuming greater importance. Due to the expansion of irrigation network, some wheat producers have switched to cultivation of maize which is used mostly as poultry feed. Tea is grown in the northeast. Because of Bangladesh’s fertile soil and normally ample water supply, rice can be grown and harvested three times a year in many areas. Due to a number of factors, Bangladesh’s labor-intensive agriculture has achieved steady increases in food grain production despite the often unfavorable weather conditions. These include better flood control and irrigation, a generally more efficient use of fertilizers, and the establishment of better distribution and rural credit networks. With 28.8 million metric tons produced in 2005-2006 (July-June), rice is Bangladesh’s principal crop. By comparison, wheat output in 2005-2006 was 9 million metric tons. Population pressure continues to place a severe burden on productive capacity, creating a food deficit, especially of wheat. Foreign assistance and commercial imports fill the gap. Underemployment remains a serious problem, and a growing concern for Bangladesh’s agricultural sector will be its ability to absorb additional manpower. Finding alternative sources of employment will continue to be a daunting problem for future governments, particularly with the increasing numbers of landless peasants who already account for about half the rural labor force.

Industry and Investment

Fortunately for Bangladesh, many new jobs—1.8 million, mostly for women—have been created by the country’s dynamic private readymade garment industry, which grew at double-digit rates through most of the 1990s. The labor-intensive process of shipbreaking for scrap has developed to the point where it now meets most of Bangladesh’s domestic steel needs. Other industries include sugar, tea, leather goods, newsprint, pharmaceutical, and fertilizer production. The country has done less well, however, in expanding its export base—garments account for more than three-fourths of all exports, dwarfing the country’s historic cash crop, jute, along with leather, shrimp, pharmaceuticals, and ceramics.

Despite the country’s politically motivated general strikes, poor infrastructure, and weak financial system, Bangladeshi entrepreneurs have shown themselves adept at competing in the global garments marketplace. Bangladesh exports significant amounts of garments and knitwear to the U.S. and the European Union (EU) market. As noted, the initial impact of the end of quotas on Bangladesh’s ready-made garment industry has been moderate. Downward price pressures, however, mean Bangladesh must cut final delivered costs considerably if it is to remain competitive in the world market. Bangladesh has been a world leader in its efforts to end the use of child labor in garment factories. On July 4, 1995, the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers Export Association, International Labor Organization, and UNICEF signed a memorandum of understanding on the elimination of child labor in the garment sector. Implementation of this pioneering agreement began in fall 1995, and by the end of 2001, child labor in the garment trade virtually had been eliminated.

The Bangladesh Government continues to court foreign investment, something it did fairly well in the 1990s in private power generation and gas exploration and production, as well as in other sectors such as cellular telephony, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. In 1989, the same year it signed a bilateral investment treaty with the United States, it established a board of investment to simplify approval and start-up procedures for foreign investors, although in practice the board has done little to increase investment. Bangladesh also has established successful export processing zones in Chittagong (1983), Dhaka (1994) and Comilla (2000), and has given the private sector permission to build and operate competing export promotion zones (EPZs).

The most important reforms Bangladesh should make to be able to compete in a global economy are to privatize the state-owned enterprises (SOEs), deregulate and promote foreign investment in high-potential industries like energy and telecommunications, and take decisive steps toward combating corruption and strengthening rule of law.

DEFENSE

The Bangladesh Army, Navy, and Air Force are composed of regular military members. Some of the senior officers and noncommissioned officers served in the Pakistan military before the 1971 independence war. Senior officers included “repatriates” who were interned in Pakistan during the war, and “freedom fighters” that fought against Pakistan. The 110,000-member, seven-division army is modeled and organized along British lines, similar to other armies on the Indian subcontinent. However, it has adopted U.S. Army tactical planning procedures, training management techniques, and noncommissioned officer educational systems. It also is eager to improve its peacekeeping operations capabilities and is working with the U.S. military in that area. The United States gave the Bangladesh Air Force four U.S. C-130 B transport aircraft in 2001 under the excess defense article (EDA) program. These aircraft will improve the military’s disaster response and peacekeeping capabilities. The Bangladesh Navy is mostly limited to coastal patrolling, but in 2001 it paid to have an ULSAN-class frigate built in South Korea.

In addition to traditional defense roles, the military has been called on to provide support to civil authorities for disaster relief and internal security. The Bangladesh Air Force and Navy, with about 7,000 personnel each, perform traditional military missions. A Coast Guard has been formed, under the home ministry, to play a stronger role in the area of anti-smuggling, anti-piracy, and protection of offshore resources. Recognition of economic and fiscal constraints has led to the establishment of several paramilitary and auxiliary forces, including the 40,000-member Bangladesh rifles; the Ansars and village defense parties organization, which claim 64 members in every village in the country; and a 5,000-member specialized police unit known as the armed police. In 2004, a new police unit called the Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) was constituted with personnel drawn from the military and different law enforcement agencies. RAB is designed to fight hardcore criminal gangs. Bangladesh Rifles, under the authority of the home ministry, are commanded by army officers who are seconded to the organization. In addition to in-country military training, some advanced and technical training is done abroad, including grant aid training in the United States. China, Pakistan, and eastern Europe are the major defense suppliers to Bangladesh, but military leaders are trying to find affordable alternatives to Chinese equipment.

A 2,300-member Bangladesh Army contingent served with coalition forces during the 1991 Gulf war. In June 2003 Bangladesh was the third-leading contributor to UN peacekeeping operations with a total of 2,642 troops, observers, and military police. As of April 30, 2005, Bangladesh’s 7,942 peacekeepers deployed around the world made it the top troop contributor to international peacekeeping operations. That figure should reach 9,862 at the completion of their deployment to Sudan later in 2005.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Bangladesh pursues a moderate foreign policy that places heavy reliance on multinational diplomacy, especially at the United Nations.

Participation in Multilateral Organizations

Bangladesh was admitted to the United Nations in 1974 and was elected to a Security Council term in 1978 and again for a 2000-01 term. Then Foreign Minister Choudhury served as president of the 41st UN General Assembly in 1986. The government has participated in numerous international conferences, especially those dealing with population, food, development, and women’s issues. In 1982-83, Bangladesh played a constructive role as chairman of the “Group of 77,” an informal association encompassing most of the world’s developing nations. It has taken a leading role in the “Group of 48” developing countries and the “Developing-8” group of countries. It is also a participant in the activities of the Non-aligned Movement.

Since 1975, Bangladesh has sought close relations with other Islamic states and a role among moderate members of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). In 1983, Bangladesh hosted the foreign ministers meeting of the OIC. The government also has pursued the expansion of cooperation among the nations of South Asia, bringing the process—an initiative of former President Ziaur Rahman—through its earliest, most tentative stages to the formal inauguration of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) at a summit gathering of South Asian leaders in Dhaka in December 1985. Bangladesh hosted the last SAARC summit in November 2005 and Prime Minister Khaleda Zia reassumed its chairmanship. In the latest summit, Bangladesh has participated in a wide range of ongoing SAARC regional activities.

In recent years, Bangladesh has played a significant role in international peacekeeping activities. Several thousand Bangladeshi military personnel are deployed overseas on peacekeeping operations. Under UN auspices, Bangladeshi troops have served or are serving in Sierra Leone, Somalia, Rwanda, Mozambique, Kuwait, Ethiopia-Eritrea, Kosovo, East Timor, Georgia, Congo, Cote d’Ivoire and Western Sahara, Bosnia, and Haiti. Bangladesh responded quickly to President Clinton’s 1994 request for troops and police for the multinational force for Haiti and provided the largest non-U.S. contingent.

Bilateral Relations With Other Nations

Bangladesh is bordered on the west, north, and east by a 2,400-kilometer land frontier with India, and on the southeast by a land and water frontier (193 kilometers) with Burma.

India. India is Bangladesh’s most important neighbor. Geographic, cultural, historic, and commercial ties are strong, and both countries recognize the importance of good relations. During and immediately after Bangladesh’s struggle for independence from Pakistan in 1971, India assisted refugees from East Pakistan, intervened militarily to help bring about the independence of Bangladesh, and furnished relief and reconstruction aid.

Indo-Bangladesh relations are often strained, and many Bangladeshis feel India likes to play “big brother” to smaller neighbors, including Bangladesh. Bilateral relations warmed in 1996, due to a softer Indian foreign policy and the new Awami League government. A 30-year water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River was signed in December 1996, after an earlier bilateral water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River lapsed in 1988. Bangladesh remains extremely concerned about a proposed Indian river linking project, which the government says could turn large parts of Bangladesh into a desert The Bangladesh Government and tribal insurgents signed a peace accord in December 1997, which allowed for the return of tribal refugees who had fled into India, beginning in 1986, to escape violence caused by an insurgency in their homeland in the Chit-tagong Hill Tracts. The implementation of most parts of this agreement has stalled, and the army maintains a strong presence in the Hill Tracts. Arms smuggling and reported opium poppy cultivation are concerns in this area. Occasional skirmishes between Bangladeshi and Indian border forces sometimes escalate and seriously disrupt bilateral relations. The ruling party views the Indian Government as a major benefactor of the opposition Awami League, and blames negative international media coverage of Bangladesh on alleged Indian manipulation. Prime Minister Khaleda Zia, however, visited the Indian capital in March 2006 and reviewed bilateral relations with her Indian counterpart. Two agreements—The Revised Trade Agreement and the Agreement on Mutual Cooperation for Preventing Illicit Drug Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances and Related Matters—were signed between the two countries during this visit.

Pakistan. Bangladesh enjoys warm relations with Pakistan, despite the strained early days of their relationship. Landmarks in their reconciliation are:

• An August 1973 agreement between Bangladesh and Pakistan on the repatriation of numerous individuals, including 90,000 Pakistani prisoners of war stranded in Bangladesh as a result of the 1971 conflict;
• A February 1974 accord by Bangladesh and Pakistan on mutual recognition followed more than 2 years later by establishment of formal diplomatic relations;
• The organization by the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) of an airlift that moved almost 250,000 Bengalis from Pakistan to Bangladesh, and non-Bengalis from Bangladesh to Pakistan; and
• Exchanges of high-level visits, including a visit by Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto to Bangladesh in 1989 and visits by Prime Minister Zia to Pakistan in 1992 and in 1995. President Pervez Musharraf visited Bangladesh in 2002. Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz visited Bangladesh in 2004. Prime Minister Khaleda Zia visited Pakistan in 2006.

Still to be resolved are the division of assets from the pre-1971 period and the status of more than 250,000 non-Bengali Muslims (known as “Biharis”) remaining in Bangladesh but seeking resettlement in Pakistan.

Burma. Bilateral ties with Burma are good, despite occasional border strains and an influx of more than 270,000 Muslim refugees (known as “Rohingya”) from predominantly Buddhist Burma. As a result of bilateral discussions, and with the cooperation and assistance of the UNHCR, most of the Rohingya refugees have now returned to Burma. As of 2006, about 20,000 refugees remain in camps in southern Bangladesh. Bangladesh and Burmese officials are negotiating a deal to establish direct road link between the capitals of the two countries.

Former Soviet Union. The former Soviet Union supported India’s actions during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war and was among the first to recognize Bangladesh. The U.S.S.R. initially contributed considerable relief and rehabilitation aid to the new nation. After Sheikh Mujib was assassinated in 1975 and replaced by military regimes, however, Soviet-Bangladesh relations cooled.

In 1989, the U.S.S.R. ranked 14th among aid donors to Bangladesh. The Soviets focused on the development of electrical power, natural gas and oil, and maintained active cultural relations with Bangladesh. They financed the Ghorasal thermal power station—the largest in Bangladesh. Recently, Russia has conducted an aggressive military sales effort in Dhaka and has succeeded with a $124-million deal for eight MIG-29 fighters. Bangladesh began to open diplomatic relations with the newly independent Central Asian states in 1992.

China. China traditionally has been more important to Bangladesh than the former U.S.S.R., even though China supported Pakistan in 1971. As Bangladesh’s relations with the Soviet Union and India cooled in the mid-1970s, and as Bangladesh and Pakistan became reconciled, China’s relations with Bangladesh grew warmer. An exchange of diplomatic missions in February 1976 followed an accord on recognition in late 1975.

Since that time, relations have grown stronger, centering on trade, cultural activities, military and civilian aid, and exchanges of high-level visits, beginning in January 1977 with President Zia’s trip to Beijing. The largest and most visible symbol of bilateral amity is the Bangladesh-China “Friendship Bridge,” completed in 1989 near Dhaka, as well as the extensive military hardware in the Bangladesh inventory and warm military relations between the two countries. In the 1990s, the Chinese also built two 210-megawatt power plants outside of Chittagong; mechanical faults in the plants cause them to frequently shut down for days at a time, heightening the country’s power shortage. In April 2005, Bangladesh and China signed nine memoranda of understanding on trade and other issues during the visit to Dhaka of Prime Minister Wen. The opening of a Taiwanese trade center in Dhaka in 2004 displeased China, but the Bangladesh government moved quickly to repair the crack and closed the trade center. In August 2005 Prime Minister Khaleda Zia visited China.

Other countries in South Asia. Bangladesh maintains friendly relations with Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka and strongly opposed the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Bangladesh and Nepal recently agreed to facilitate land transit between the two countries.

U.S.-BANGLADESH RELATIONS

Although the U.S. relationship with Bangladesh was initially troubled because of strong U.S. ties with Pakistan, U.S.-Bangladesh friendship and support developed quickly following Bangladesh’s independence from Pakistan in 1971.

U.S.-Bangladesh relations are excellent. These relations were boosted in March 2000 when President Clinton visited Bangladesh, the first visit ever by a sitting U.S. President, and when Secretary of State Colin Powell visited in June 2003, as well as when Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld visited in June 2004. A centerpiece of the bilateral relationship is a large U.S. economic aid program, which totaled about $100 million in 2001. U.S. economic and food aid programs, which began as emergency relief following the 1971 war for independence, now concentrate on long-term development. U.S. assistance objectives include stabilizing population growth, protecting human health, encouraging broad-based economic growth, and building democracy.

In total, the United States has provided more than $4.3 billion in food and development assistance to Bangladesh. Food aid under Titles I, II, and III of PL-480 (congressional “food-for-peace” legislation) has been designed to help Bangladesh meet minimum food requirements, promote food production, and moderate fluctuation in consumer prices. Other U.S. development assistance emphasizes family planning and health, agricultural development, and rural employment. The United States works with other donors and the Bangladesh Government to avoid duplication and ensure that resources are used to maximum benefit. Since 1986, with the exception of 1988-89, when an aircraft purchase made the trade balance even, the U.S. trade balance with Bangladesh has been negative, due largely to growing imports of readymade garments. Jute carpetbacking is the other major U.S. import from Bangladesh. Total imports from Bangladesh were about $2.5 billion (excluding services) in FY 2005, up from the $2.1 billion in 2002. U.S. exports to Bangladesh (some $333 million, excluding services in 2005) include wheat, fertilizer, cotton, communications equipment, aircraft, and medical supplies, a portion of which is financed by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). A bilateral investment treaty was signed in 1989.

Another trade related issue between the two countries involves the export processing zones (EPZs) The government provides several tax, foreign exchange, customs and labor incentives to investors in the EPZs. One such incentive provided in recent years was an exemption from certain labor laws, which had the practical effect of prohibiting trade unions from the zones. The U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) law requires the beneficiary country to satisfy certain conditions relating to labor rights. On July 13, 2004, the government passed a bill allowing limited trade unionism in the EPZs effective November 1, 2006. Relations between Bangladesh and the United States were further strengthened by the participation of Bangladesh troops in the 1991 Gulf war coalition, and alongside U.S. forces in numerous UN peacekeeping operations, including Haiti in 1994, as well as by the assistance of a U.S. naval task force after a disastrous March 1991 cyclone in Bangladesh. The relief efforts of U.S. troops are credited with having saved as many as 200,000 lives. In response to Bangladesh’s worst flooding of the century in 1998, the United States donated 700,000 metric tons of food grains, helping to mitigate shortages. In July 2006, U.S. Navy’s hospital ship Mercy visited Bangladesh and U.S. personnel worked with Bangladeshi medical personnel to provide medical treatment to Bangladeshi patients.

Most recently, Bangladesh has become a valuable United States ally in the Global War on Terrorism. As part of the war effort, the Government of Bangladesh has publicly addressed problems of money laundering and weak border controls to ensure that Bangladesh does not become a terrorist safe-haven.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

DHAKA (E) Address: Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka, Bangladesh; APO/FPO: Unit 6120 Box 1000, APO AP 96562-1000; Phone: +880 885 5500; Fax: +880 882 3744; INMARSAT Tel: +881 676 311 001; Workweek: 0800 to 1630 Sunto Thurs; Website: http://www.usembassydhaka.org/.

Last Updated: 12/13/2006

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : September 13, 2006

Country Description: Bangladesh is a democratic republic with a parliamentary form of government. Bangladesh has a developing economy. Tourist facilities outside major cities and tourist areas are minimal.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport, visa and onward/return ticket are required. All travelers to Bangladesh, including American citizens, must have a valid visa in their valid passport prior to arrival. A valid visa in an expired or cancelled U.S. passport is not acceptable. If you are issued a new U.S. passport, you must have your Bangladeshi visa transferred to that passport. Note that airport visas (landing permits) are no longer available upon arrival by air. Some Americans seeking visas from the Bangladeshi Embassy in Washington, D.C. or from Bangladeshi Embassies or Consulates in other countries have reported that they are erroneously advised to enter Bangladesh on a landing permit.

Expired visas to Bangladesh may be extended at the Directorate of Immigration and Passport, located at Shere-Bangla Nagar, Agargaon, Dhaka. The phone number is (880-2) 913-1891 and 913-4011.

There are two exit requirements.

A) When traveling by air, there is a departure tax on all foreigners except children under the age of two. This tax is included when air tickets are purchased. Otherwise, it is collected at the airport at the time of departure. The amount of the departure tax varies for travel to different countries (i.e., tax for the U.S. is the most expensive, which is USD $43). There is no travel tax for transit passengers transiting Bangladesh without a visa and in country for 72 hours or less. These requirements may be subject to change, and travelers are advised to check with the Embassy of Bangladesh before traveling.

B) Departing foreign nationals are also required to comply with the income tax ordinance of 1984 and submit an income tax clearance certificate/income tax exemption certificate to local airline offices upon departure from Bangladesh. More information can be obtained from the Bangladesh Board of Revenue website. For further information on entry requirements and possible exceptions to the exit requirements, please contact the Embassy of the People’s

Republic of Bangladesh (3510 International Drive, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, telephone 202-244-0183, fax 202-244-5366, website http://www.bangladoot.org), or the Bangladesh Consulates in New York (211 E. 43rd Street, Suite 502, New York, NY 10017, telephone 212-599-6767), or Los Angeles (10850 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 1250, Los Angeles, CA 90024, telephone 310-441-9399).

Visit the Embassy of Bangladesh web site at http://www.bangladoot.org for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: The security situation in Bangladesh is volatile, and Americans are urged to check with the Embassy for the latest information. A terrorist bombing campaign in the second half of 2005 and several subsequent threats to U.S. and Western interests led to increased security around U.S. Government facilities in and around Dhaka.

On August 17, 2005, a banned Islamist terrorist group, Jamaatul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), claimed responsibility for nearly 500 coordinated small bomb blasts in virtually every part of Bangladesh that killed two persons and injured several dozen. Subsequent JMB bombings and suicide attacks killed approximately 30 Bangladeshis, including judges, court workers, police officers, and bystanders, and wounded nearly 200 Bangladeshis. JMB statements call for the imposition of strict Islamic law in Bangladesh, justify the indiscriminate use of suicide attacks, and condemn Western social and political concepts as un-Islamic. They also identify the governments of the United States and the United Kingdom as alleged enemies of Islam. The most recent JMB bombing occurred on December 8, 2005, and the Bangladeshi government has subsequently apprehended the known senior leadership of JMB. Seven JMB leaders have already been convicted of complicity in JMB attacks and sentenced to death. There are unconfirmed reports that JMB remnants remain active and are regrouping with a view to resuming violent activities, perhaps in the days leading up to and after the national elections expected in January 2007. The potential for continued JMB violence, in Dhaka and elsewhere, should continue to be considered real and serious.

Political confrontations manifested in demonstrations, rallies, and marches are unpredictable and have the potential for violence. In general, demonstrations occur on Friday afternoons but may take place at any time and any place. However, most demonstrations occur in downtown Dhaka, approximately five miles south of the U.S. Embassy. Protesters have used physical force, rocks, guns, and explosive devices during confrontations. In the past, police have used rubber bullets, tear gas, live ammunition, water cannons, and other riot equipment when confronting protesters. The U.S. Embassy continues to see anti-American rhetoric and sporadic anti-American protests following Friday prayers at the national mosque, most recently in the context of the war in Lebanon. Americans are urged to avoid travel to the downtown Dhaka area on Fridays whenever possible. Visitors to Bangladesh should check with the Consular Section at the U.S. Embassy in Dhaka for updated information on political demonstrations or other activities.

Nationwide strikes or “hartals” are widely employed as a means of political pressure in Bangladesh. These hartals often result in the virtual shutdown of transportation and commerce, and sometimes attacks on individuals who do not observe the hartals. Clashes between rival political groups during hartals have resulted in deaths and injuries. American citizens are therefore urged to avoid all political protests, demonstrations, and marches. During hartals, American citizens should exercise caution in all areas and remain inside their hotels, residences, schools, or workplace whenever possible.

Due to kidnappings and other security incidents, including those involving foreign nationals, U.S. citizens are advised against traveling to the Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban Hill Tracts districts (collectively known as the Chittagong Hill Tracts). Additionally, the U.S. Embassy continues to receive reports of incidents of kidnapping, arms and narcotics smuggling and clashes between local Bangladeshis and Rohingyan refugees in areas near Rohingya refugee camps in the Teknaf, Kutupalong, Ukhia, and Ramu areas of the Cox’s Bazar district. The U.S. Embassy also recommends against travel to these areas. Individuals who choose to visit these districts are urged to exercise extreme caution.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Urban crime can be organized or opportunistic, conducted by individuals or groups, and commonly encompasses fraud, theft (larceny, pick-pocketing, snatch-and-grab), robbery (armed and unarmed), carjacking, rape, assault, and burglary (home and auto). Incidents of crime and levels of violence are higher in low-income residential and congested commercial areas. Visitors should avoid walking alone after dark, carrying large sums of money, or wearing expensive jewelry. Valuables should be stored in hotel safety deposit boxes and should not be left unattended in hotel rooms. Police are generally responsive to reports of crimes against Americans.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities in Bangladesh do not approach U.S. standards, even in tourist areas. There is no functioning emergency medical care system in Bangladesh. Prescription medication may be untrustworthy or unavailable. Medical evacuations to Bangkok or Singapore are often necessary for serious conditions.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747), or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Bangladesh is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance. The Bangladesh road network is in poor condition and poorly maintained. The streets of Dhaka are extremely congested, with hundreds of thousands of bicycle rickshaws competing with baby taxis, cars, overloaded buses, and trucks on limited road space. Also, driving on the left-hand side of the road may be confusing to American visitors. Inter-city roads are narrow. Driving at night is especially dangerous. Streetlights are rare even in cities. Road accidents are common in Bangladesh. Numerous American residents in Bangladesh report having had at least one traffic accident. Fatal head-on collisions on inter-city roads are common. When vehicle accidents occur, a crowd quickly gathers and judges the more affluent party to be at fault. Travelers are strongly urged not to use rickshaws or three-wheeled baby taxis due to their high accident rate, as well as the increased possibility of purse-snatching or mugging. Rental cars with drivers and regular taxis are the preferred means of transportation.

Visit the website of Bangladesh’s National Tourism Organization at http://www.parjatan.org, or e-mail address, bpcho@bangla.net and the national authority responsible for road safety, the Bangladesh Road Transport Authority, at www.brta.gov.bd.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of Bangladesh’s Civil Aviation Authority as not being in compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards for the oversight of Bangladesh’s air carrier operations. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Bangladesh is a riverine country with a wide network of waterways used for public transportation. Ferries and other boats compete with the railroads as a major means of public transport. Typically overloaded and top-heavy, ferries are subject to capsizing, particularly during the monsoon season from May to October or when encountering thunderstorms or wind gusts that arise unpredictably. Every year there are dozens of fatalities resulting from ferry accidents.

Bangladesh customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Bangladesh of items such as currency, household appliances, alcohol, cigarettes and weapons. There is no restriction as to the amount of U.S. currency visitors may bring into Bangladesh; however, they must declare to customs authorities if they are carrying more than USD $5,000 at the time of arrival. It is advisable to contact the Bangladeshi Embassy or Consulates for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Land disputes are extremely common in Bangladesh, and are extremely difficult to resolve through ordinary legal channels. The court cases can last for months, and sometimes years, without there ever being a final and accurate determination of which party has legitimate claim to the title.

The American Embassy currently has on file nearly 20 cases of American citizens who claim to be victimized in land-grabbing disputes. Rarely are these simple cases of a legitimate property-owner and an opportunistic land-grabber. More likely, it is a case of an owner who believes he has historical ownership of the property and a new owner who has just purchased the same property. One of them has been swindled, both of them have deeds, and it is next to impossible to determine whose deed is valid.

The dangers in becoming involved in a property dispute range from being threatened by bullies to being involved in a lengthy court dispute. Those involved in a court dispute run the risk of having cases filed against them, and may be arrested and jailed, sometimes for months.

American Citizens wishing to purchase property in Bangladesh should be thoroughly aware of the risks they take, and should only purchase property from a seller whose ownership is beyond doubt. Additionally, they should recognize that if they are not physically present to protect their property, they run the risk of losing it.

American Citizens should bear in mind that the American Embassy cannot protect personal property in the absence of owners and cannot take sides in a legal dispute.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Bangladeshi laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Bangladesh are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Bangladesh are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy through the State Department’s travel registration website and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Bangladesh. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located approximately four miles south of Zia International Airport, and five miles north of downtown in the Diplomatic Enclave, Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka, telephone (880-2) 885-5500, fax number (880-2) 882-3744. The workweek is Sunday through Thursday. The Consular Section is open for American Citizens Services Sunday through Thursday from 1:00 p.m. to 4:00 p.m. For emergency services and general information during business hours, please call (880-2) 882-3805. For emergency services after hours, please call (880-2) 885-5500 and ask for the duty officer. The Embassy’s Internet home page is http://dhaka.usembassy.gov/.

International Adoption : November 2006

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: Bangladeshi law does not allow for full adoptions of Bangladeshi children. Americans considering adoption of Bangladeshi children must obtain guardianship from a Bangladeshi court and subsequently adopt the child in the United States.*

In addition, only citizens of Bangladesh may be appointed/declared guardians of a Bangladeshi child. Since Bangladesh allows for dual citizenship, however, American citizens who are also Bangladeshi citizens may be appointed guardians of Bangladeshi children.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Guardianship Authority: The relevant Family Court is the sole authority to award guardianship and issue guardianship certificate. The Ministry of Home Affair issues No Objection Certificate to issue a Bangladesh passport and Immigration and Passport office issues a passport.

There is no public contact information for Family Court. Family Court is located in all district of Bangladesh and if it is required by an applicant to contact, he/she may contact the concerned Desk Officer or dealing section of the Family Court in person.

Eligibility Requirements for Prospective Guardians: Prospective guardians must be at least 18 years old being of sound mind and capable of maintaining through provision of food, shelter and education and provide proof of Bangladeshi citizenship. The Court has the duty to look at the character and capacity of the proposed guardian in considering the welfare of the minor. The proposed ward must be a minor (below the age of 18 years).

Residency Requirements: There are no residency requirements. However, as noted above, prospective guardians must be citizens of Bangladesh.

Time Frame: There are no set time frame and fee for legal guardianship in Bangladesh. The following, however, are rough estimates of the processing times for specific stages of the process:

Processing time at orphanage: 3 days to 1 month

Processing time at Family Court: 1—3 months.

Processing time at Ministry of Home Affairs: 15 days to 2 months

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no adoption agencies in Bangladesh. There are at least 25,000 lawyers in Bangladesh who may initiate guardianship proceedings.

Prospective guardians who choose to work with U.S. adoption service providers in the context of obtaining guardianship of Bangladeshi children are advised to fully research any adoption agency or facilitator they plan to use.

Guardianship Fees in Bangladesh: There is a Government court fee of Tk.60. Lawyer’s fee: No set fee but ranging from Tk.5000 to Tk.50,000 = roughly $85 to $850. There is no official fee at the orphanage. But many request/accept donations. There is no fee at Ministry of Home Affairs.

Guardianship Procedures: Biological parent must sign an irrevocable release of the child before a Notary Public, 1st Class Magistrate or the relevant Family Court in Bangladesh. An application for legal guardianship must be made to the Family Court. In Bangladesh, the Family Court has sole jurisdiction over family matters. A’No Objection Certificate’ must be obtained from the Home Ministry for issuance of International Passport in the name of the minor. The’No Objection and “Legal Guardianship” certificates should be presented to the Bangladesh Passport Office for the child’s passport. Prospective guardians’ names should be listed as the legal guardians in the child’s passport.

Documentary Requirements:

• Birth Certificate of the minor.
• Guardianship Certificate.
• Irrevocable release/undertaking of the biological parents (if any) of the child before a Notary Public, 1st Class Magistrate or before the relevant Family Court in Bangladesh.
• No Objection certificate from the Ministry of Home Affairs.

The Bangladeshi procedure for authenticating documents to be used in Bangladesh is as follows:

• Any foreign document should be attested by the Bangladeshi Mission abroad and then re-attested by the Foreign Ministry in Bangladesh. If the document is of a legal nature, then it should revalidated by the relevant treasury in Bangladesh.
• Any Bangladeshi (local) document can be treated as authenticated if it is attested by any First Class Government officer, any Magistrate or any Notary Public in Bangladesh.

Embassy and Consulates in the United States:
Embassy of the People’s Republic of
Bangladesh, Washington D.C.
3510, International Drive NW
Washington, DC 20008, USA
Telephone: (202) 244-0183, (202) 244-7830
Fax:(202) 244—5366
Website: http://www.bangladoot.org

Consulate General of the People’s
Republic of Bangladesh, New York
211 E. 43rd Street, Suite 502
New York, NY 10017
Telephone: (212) 599-6767,
(212) 599-6850
Fax: (212) 682-9211
E-mail: bdcgny@aol.com

Consulate General of the People’s
Republic of Bangladesh, Los Angeles
10850 Wilshire Boulevard
Suite 1250, Los Angeles CA 90024
Telephone: (310) 441-9399
Fax: (310) 441-4458
E-mail: bcgla@earthlink.net

U.S. Embassy, Dhaka
Madani Avenue, Baridhara
Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh
Tel: (880) (2) 885-5500
Fax: (880) (2) 8823744
Internet: http://dhaka.usembassy.gov

Additional Information: Specific questions about guardianship in Bangladesh may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Dhaka, Bangladesh, via e-mail at: DhakaAdoptions@state.gov. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children’s Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

Public Announcement : January 31, 2007

This Public Announcement reminds American citizens of concerns about the fluid security situation in Bangladesh and strongly urges U.S. citizens to closely monitor current information before traveling to the country. This Public Announcement supersedes the Public Announcement for Bangladesh dated January 12, 2007, and expires on April 23, 2007.

On January 11, 2007, President Ahmed stepped down as leader of the Caretaker Government after declaring a state of emergency. Elections previously scheduled for January 22 have been postponed indefinitely. The political and security situation throughout Bangladesh remains fluid. An initial curfew has been lifted, but a new curfew could be reinstated at any time. There is the potential for American citizens to become caught up in demonstrations or other situations which do not directly target them. The Embassy expects the situation throughout Bangladesh to remain uncertain for the foreseeable future, and the Department of State strongly urges U.S. citizens to closely monitor the most up-to-date information before traveling to the country.

In late October 2006, political violence erupted in Dhaka and provincial cities, killing approximately 40 people and wounding several hundred. The political opposition successfully shut down the country’s major port in Chittagong, border entry points from India, and major highways leading to Dhaka and Chit-tagong. All modes of transportation, including rail and river, were temporarily disrupted.

The Embassy advises all Americans traveling or residing in Bangladesh to keep abreast of developments, remain vigilant and avoid large crowds and political demonstrations. U.S. citizens can expect a more robust presence of security forces, including the airport. A curfew would limit the ability to travel, and travelers should plan accordingly.

For the latest information on Bangladesh, U.S. citizens should consult the Department of State’s Consular Information Sheet for Bangladesh, the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, and the Middle East and North Africa Public Announcement, which are available via the Internet at http://travel.state.gov. American citizens may obtain up-to-date information on security conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll-free in the United States and Canada, and (202) 501-4444 from overseas.

U.S. citizens visiting or residing in Bangladesh are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy, where they may obtain updated information on travel and security within Bangladesh. Security updates are e-mailed to all registered Americans with an e-mail address. Registration is done online and can be done in advance of travel at https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs/. Information on registering can also be found at the Embassy website: http://dhaka.usembassy.gov or at the Department of State’s Consular Affairs website: http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/registration/registration_1186.html.

During normal business hours American citizens may call the U.S. Embassy in Dhaka at (880-2) 882-3805; for after-hours emergencies call (880-2) 885-5500, dial “0” and ask for the duty officer. The fax number of the consular section is (880-2) 882-4449. The U.S. Embassy is located in the diplomatic enclave north of downtown Dhaka, at Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka 1212. The Embassy’s workweek is Sunday through Thursday, 8:00 am to 4:30 pm. The American Citizens Services (ACS) unit is open to the public from 1:00 pm to 4:00 pm, Sunday through Thursday, except for American and most local holidays.

BANGLADESH

People's Republic of Bangladesh

Gana-Prajatantri Bangladesh

COUNTRY OVERVIEW

LOCATION AND SIZE.

Bangladesh is situated in southern Asia, on the delta of the 2 largest rivers on the Indian subcontinent—the Ganges and Jamuna (Brahmaputra). It borders with India in the west, north, and east, with Burma (also known as Myanmar) in the southeast, and with the Bay of Bengal in the south. The country's area is 144,000 square kilometers (55,598 square miles), and it is divided into 6 administrative divisions (Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Barisal, Rajshai and Sylhet) and 4 major municipal corporations (Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna and Rajshahi). Comparatively, the territory of Bangladesh is slightly greater than the state of New York. Bangladesh's capital city, Dhaka, is located in the central part of the country. Bangladesh occupies the eastern part of the Bengal region (the western part of the region is occupied by the Indian state of West Bengal), which historically was part of the great civilizations in the northeast of the Indian subcontinent.

POPULATION.

The population of Bangladesh was estimated at 129,194,224 in July of 2000, making Bangladesh the tenth-most populous state in the world. Having a total area the size of New York state, the country has a population equal to half that of the United States or 8 times the population of New York State. It has almost doubled since the 1960s, due to improved health, medical facilities, and longer life expectancy. In 2000 the birth rate stood at 25.44 per 1,000 (slightly higher than the world average), adding around 190,000 people every month. Meanwhile the death rate stood at 8.73 per 1,000. The estimated population growth rate is 1.59 percent, and if the current trend remains unchanged, the population could double within the next 45 years.

The Bangladesh population is relatively homogeneous, with Bengalis making up 98 percent of the population and other ethnic groups, including various tribal groups, making up the remaining 2 percent. Religion plays a very important role in this country, and the main division is between Islam and Hinduism. Almost 88.3 percent of the population are Muslims, 10.5 percent are Hindus, and 1.2 percent are Buddhists, Christians, or animists. The Bangladesh population is very young, with 36 percent below age 14 and just 4 percent of the population older than 65. In 1998 over 80 percent of Bangladeshis were living in rural areas, although during the last decade the growth of the population in the urban areas was twice as fast as in rural areas (due to both the migration of the rural population and the high birth rate). The rapid growth of the urban population is especially noticeable in the urban centers of Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, and Rajshahi.

In 1970, the population of Bangladesh was about 66 million, and the country at one time had one of the highest birth rates in Asia. The country's population doubled between 1950 and 1977 and almost doubled again between 1977 and 2001, putting severe pressure on the natural resources and leading to land shortages. In the 1970s the government introduced population control and family planning initiatives, aided by various international organizations, including United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), and the World Bank. The fertility rate (the average number of children born to a woman) in Bangladesh declined from 6.8 babies per woman in 1965 to around 3 per woman in 1999. However, these population control initiatives were undermined by the fact that two-thirds of the population still lives in rural areas, where historically population growth was very high, and by the fact that almost two-thirds of the people in the country are illiterate. A number of issues still need to be addressed, including the supply of safe drinking water, malnutrition among children (which remains the highest in the world), early and forced marriages, and illiteracy among the population in general and women in particular.

The population growth in the country was offset by rapidly rising emigration of people, both permanent and temporary, in the 1980s and 1990s. The major destinations for Bangladeshi workers seeking temporary jobs are Kuwait, Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates, where they are employed mainly in the low-skill and low-wage construction and service sectors and in agricultural plantations. Other popular destinations for emigration are Western Europe, the Americas and Australia, where large Bangladeshi communities formed during the last 3 decades. According to the CIA World Factbook, the emigration rate stood at the 0.77 migrant(s) per 1,000 population in 2000, or around 1 million a year.

OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY

Agriculture and labor-intensive manufacturing remain the 2 major pillars of the Bangladeshi national economy. Historically, a tropical climate and warm temperatures throughout the year made it possible to grow 2 or 3 crops of rice each year, although floods and cyclones regularly damaged crop yield. Flourishing trade, manufacturing—traditionally in light manufacturing and agricultural processing—along with the wealth of the region's nobility, attracted English, French, and Dutch traders. The British East India Company had slowly but steadily advanced into the region in the 17th and 18th centuries, acquiring trade privileges from the Mogul emperors and exploiting rivalries between local rulers, and gradually established control over the trade between India and Europe. The company and its often corrupt administration had greatly benefited from the trade between India and Europe. The British East India Company established control over administration of the Bengal province in 1765. However, in 1858 the company was abolished, and the British crown assumed direct control over British India, in response to the local uprising of 1857 to 1858 and to growing evidence of the company's inefficiency. Throughout the colonial era, East Bengal (the territory of modern Bangladesh) received very limited investments in its industrial sector or toward development of its transportation system, and largely relied on the production and export of its agricultural goods, including jute, rice, and tea. The British colonial rule in India was accompanied by uprisings, greater polarization of society, and a decline in the traditional values and institutions of the society; nevertheless, it included India in the global trade of the early capitalist era and introduced the British legal and political systems and the technological innovations of that era.

In August 1947, India was granted independence within the British Commonwealth and was divided into the dominions of India and Pakistan. Pakistan, which included the areas populated predominantly by the Muslims, was itself divided with the West Pakistan comprising the area now known as Pakistan, and East Pakistan, occupying what had been Eastern Bengal. Powerful West Pakistan was politically and economically dominant over East Pakistan, giving rise to a secessionist movement in the eastern province. Despite attempts to ease the tensions, these factions gradually grew into open hostility and in 1971 a brief but bloody civil war flared up that lasted for 2 weeks and ended with the intervention of Indian troops. On 17 December 1971 a new government in Dhaka declared the independence of the new state, Bangladesh.

After achieving independence in 1971, Bangladesh confronted the challenging task of developing and diversifying its economy, as the country had very limited natural resources and arable land with which to support its rapidly growing population. The task was complicated by years of political turbulence and military coups (in 1975, 1981, and 1982) that did little to attract international investors and by devastating natural disasters that regularly visited Bangladesh in the 1970s and 1980s. By the beginning of the 21st century, according to the World Bank, Bangladesh had become one of the poorest and least-developed economies in Asia.

During the 1970s and 1980s the government of Bangladesh promoted economic development based on heavy state involvement both in economic management and economic planning. In fact, after achieving independence, the government led by the Awami League, nationalized large and medium-sized enterprises in jute, cotton textile, sugar processing, banking and insurances. Its economic policies were centered on 5-year plans (the first 5-year plan was launched in 1973), which aimed at development and public resource allocation modeled on the Soviet 5-year experience. However, the Bangladeshi experiment with socialism did not last long, and the government eschewed radical changes. The country's average gross domestic product (GDP) growth of around 3.3 percent in the 1970s and 4.4 percent in the 1980s (World Bank calculation) were very impressive, but this growth was offset by even more rapid growth of the population.

In 1991 the first free and fair election was held in Bangladesh and the Bangladesh National Party (BNP) won the election. The new civilian government considerably revised the economic policies of the previous government, introducing elements of free market economy, limiting state intervention, downsizing the government, launching privatization and attempting to attract foreign direct investments (FDIs) and technologies. The political stability of the 1990s and the new economic policies attracted international investors and greatly contributed to the economic growth of around 5 percent throughout the 1990s. However, Bangladesh still depends heavily on international assistance and loans, as well as remittances from Bangladeshis working abroad. According to the International Monetary Fund's (IMF) Country Report, in 1999 the country's external debt stood at US$15.145 billion, or 35 percent of GDP. This amount is relatively small according to international standards and mainly due to past capital account restrictions. According to the IMF, one of the peculiarities of the Bangladeshi foreign debt that makes it different from that of Indonesia or Malaysia is that it is almost entirely public, with private debt accounting for a low 5 percent of the total country's debt. Bangladeshi official reserves stood at a level of US$1.522 billion in 1999.

The structure of the Bangladeshi economy changed gradually over the last 3 decades. According to the World Bank, the contribution of agriculture to the country's GDP has been steadily declining from 55 percent in 1970 to 31.6 in 1999, although it still provides employment to large numbers of people. Bangladesh remains one of the world's leading producers of jute and rice, although most of the rice is for domestic consumption rather than export. The proportion of manufactured production grew from 9 percent of GDP in 1970 to 19.3 percent of GDP in 1999. Manufactured products accounted for around 60 percent of gross export earnings in 1999, with clothing goods becoming the single most important product. Tourism is a very small but rapidly growing sector of the economy that increased by around 42 percent between 1993 and 1998. Approximately 171,000 tourists visited the country in 1999, contributing Tk2.4 billion to the national economy. By comparison, tiny Singapore attracts a similar number of tourists every week.

For a long time Bangladesh struggled to diversify its economy. Large and medium state-owned enterprises dominate the manufacturing sector, although a number of private enterprises were established during the 1990s. Medium and small farms dominate the agricultural sector, and many farmers are still engaged in subsistence agriculture. Meanwhile, a number of medium and small, usually family-owned, enterprises dominate the service sector, especially retail . Bangladesh tried to catch up with the information technologies boom in the 1990s, but unlike neighboring India, it failed to promote this sector of its economy on a similar scale.

Economic growth and stability failed to bring economic prosperity to a large proportion of the population, especially in rural areas. Since the 1970s there has been an outflow of large numbers of the young and the most talented people from the country through various legal and illegal channels. Allegedly, organized criminal groups connected to drug trafficking control this outflow. Drugs are another important issue, as Bangladesh shares a border with Burma (Myanmar), which is a part of the world's largest opium producing region called the "Golden Triangle" (an area between Burma, Laos, andThailand). The shadow economy is believed to be very large due to incomplete economic activities data collection, tax evasion, and a strong tradition of cash economy, although this shadow economy is not necessarily related to organized criminal activities. In 1996 a national account task force was formed to upgrade the outdated and inefficient system of national accounting, having among other goals to deal with the problem of calculating and capturing shadow economy activities.

POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION

Bangladesh is a parliamentary democracy largely influenced by the British parliamentary system. Executive power is in the hands of the prime minister, who is the head of the cabinet, and who must be a member of the 300-seat Jatiya Sangsad ( unicameral parliament). She/he recommends the council of ministers to the president. The president is the constitutional head of state and is elected for a 5-year term by the parliament, but plays a largely ceremonial role. The president can act only on the advice of the prime minister, as the presidential power was significantly reduced in accordance with constitutional changes in 1991.

All adult citizens (18 years old and over) are eligible to vote, including women and ethnic minorities. One of the unique features of the political system in Bangladesh is that 30 seats (10 percent) in the parliament are reserved for female members, and they are elected by the members of the parliament.

Bangladesh experienced a number of military coups after achieving independence in 1971, and several military governments tried to restrict activities of political parties. However, after the return to civil rule in 1990, all political parties may openly function in the country. There are a number of political organizations in Bangladesh. Most prominent of them are: the Awami League (a coalition of 8 parties); the Bangladesh Nationalist Party; the Jatiya Party; and the Jamaat-e-Islami Party. The Awami League (AL), which led the country to independence in 1971, generally supports more government interventionist policies and has a very cautious attitude towards liberalization or opening of the national economy to international competition; in fact, in the early 1970s the party had strong pro-socialist elements in its economic policy. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), which was the ruling party from 1991 until its defeat in the parliamentary election of 1996, is more free-market oriented. The BNP introduced the policy of economic liberalization and privatized some state-owned enterprises. It opened the national economy to international competition in an attempt to attract foreign investors.

Once Bangladesh had achieved independence, political stability, the creation of a viable national economy, and the elimination of poverty became the major political issues shaping political debate and conflict in the state. The political process in the country was complicated by the hostility and often violent confrontations between the 2 leading parties, AL and BNP. The Awami League won the first post-independence general elections while promulgating ideas of nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism. In economic areas, this government took a strongly interventionist role in the development and industrialization of the national economy. The party, however, could not overcome the economic and political divisions within Bangladeshi society and lost its power in a military coup in August 1975. The coup pushed the country towards even greater political instability, which continued until 1990, when charismatic General Hossain Ershad was forced to resign. Military rule failed to bring stability to the country because it did not stop the rivalry between the 2 major parties, the AL and BNP. In fact, the army was drawn into the groups' political confrontations.

In 1991, the first free and fair election was held in Bangladesh. Begum Khaleda Zia (widow of General Ziaur Rahman, the president from 1978 until his assassination in 1981) and her party (BNP) won the election. The new government brought radical changes to the economic policy, promoting private entrepreneurship, especially among representatives of poor communities, and supporting small- and medium-size businesses and privatization. This program was successful, and Bangladesh experienced economic growth throughout the 1990s. According to the World Bank, between 1989 and 1999 the average annual GDP growth was around 4.8 percent, with industrial production growing at an annual average of 7.3 percent and exports of goods and services at an annual average of 14.2 percent, albeit from a very low base. For the first time in decades the Bangladeshi government had brought a sense of stability to the country.

The 1996 parliamentary election, however, was again accompanied by irregularities and almost pushed the country into chaos again. The BNP won the February 1996 parliamentary election, which was boycotted by the AL-led opposition. The confrontation escalated in violence, and the BNP handed power over to a caretaker government. After 2 decades in opposition, the Awami League won the June 1996 parliamentary election, with support from the Jatiya Party. This time the Awami Party significantly moderated its position, supporting a gradual liberalization of the national economy, encouraging private entrepreneurship, and advocating the secular state; it had largely abandoned socialist ideas. One of the most important achievements of the 1990s was the diminishing role of the army in the political life of the state, although the army threatened to take matters into its own hands during the period of political conflict in 1996.

According to the IMF Country Report, the major source of government revenue comes from taxes, although the tax ratio of 7.6 percent of GDP remains one of the lowest in the world. Total government revenue was Tk210 billion in the 1997/1998 financial year. Tk51 billion came from value-added tax (VAT), Tk43.5 billion from customs duties , Tk20.0 billion from income and profit taxes, Tk21 billion from supplementary duties, and the rest from other sources. According to the U.S. Department of State, the maximum customs duty rate has been reduced from 350 percent in 1991 to around 37 percent in 2000.

INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS

Bangladesh is a country of a thousand rivers, large and small, and most of its territory is regularly flooded during the monsoon season. This fact makes it extremely difficult and expensive to build modern transportation and communication networks. The river boats and ferries traditionally used for transportation are cheap, but slow and inefficient. The situation is further complicated by the fact that the Bangladeshi government has sharply limited resources not only for building new infrastructure but also for maintaining the existing one. From the colonial era Bangladesh inherited underdeveloped and unevenly distributed infrastructure and transportation networks. Poor and inefficient infrastructure undermined the economic development in the country, and only recently has the government been able to address the problem systematically and channel investments towards expanding its highways, railroads, seaports, and airports. More recently, with international assistance the government has also started to modernize its telecommunications infrastructure and introduce the Internet.

According to the CIA World Factbook, Bangladesh is served by a network of 201,182 kilometers (125,014 miles) of primary and secondary roads, but only around 10 percent of them, or 19,112 kilometers (11,876 miles) are paved. In June 1998 the huge US$1 billion Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge was completed, becoming the 12th-longest bridge in the world. The bridge connected for the first time the eastern and western parts of Bangladesh. The completion of this project made an important contribution to the development of the country's transportation network and significantly boosted the quality and speed of passenger and freight transportation. The number of privately-owned cars grew throughout the 1990s, albeit from a very low level (there were 40,000 private cars in 1994). Many cars are very old and in poor repair and produce high levels of pollution on the congested roads of the capital and other major cities. Despite all the problems with the roads and the often-outdated equipment, 66 percent of all freight and 73 percent of all passengers are carried by roads; however, animal-driven carts are still a part of the national landscape, as they provide the cheapest and most reliable transportation for people and goods in most of the country's rural areas.

Bangladesh has a railway system of about 2,745 kilometers (1,706 miles), of which only 923 kilometers (573.5 miles) is a broad gauge (1.676 meter gauge) and the remaining 1,822 kilometers (1,132 miles) is narrow gauge (1.000 meter gauge), according to CIA estimates for 1998. Major links run from the largest Bangladeshi port, Chittagong, to Dhaka and further to the north of the country; other links connect such centers as Khulna and Rajshahi. Historically, the railway was built by the British colonial administration in 1884, running between Calcutta (now India) and Khulna (now Bangladesh). Rail services were halted following the Indo-Pakistan war in 1965. In the 1970s cargo trains resumed their services between the 2 countries. According to a BBC report on 26 January 2001, the government of Bangladesh has expressed its interest in "seriously studying the potential of linking the national railways with the proposed Trans-Asian Railway Network." The Bangladeshi railway system remains a state-owned monopoly requiring large

subsidies , as it is notorious for its poor management and a long-established tradition of ticketless travel among the local population. In recent moves, the government began the privatization of some railway services, including ticket reservation and in-service catering. Despite all shortcomings, the railway remained an important mode of transportation, operating 3.7 billion passenger-kilometers and carrying 3.76 million metric tons of goods in the 1998-99 financial year.

The waterways are an important mode of transportation, especially to some remote areas of the country, as no other mode of transportation is available during monsoon season. Bangladesh has 3 major seaports, at Chittagong, Dhaka, and Mongla, and several smaller ports. The largest and most important port is Chittagong, situated around 200 kilometers (124 miles) southeast of Dhaka. According to the EIU Country Report, in 2000 the Chittagong seaport handled around 80 percent of country's imports and 75 percent of exports, or 14.6 million metric tons of cargo and 420,850 containers. There have been several plans backed by private investors to set up 2 modern container terminals (in Chittagong and in Dhaka), but these plans have met opposition from the labor unions. According to the U.S. Department of State, in 1998 the U.S.-based company Stevedoring Services of America (SSA) signed a US$440 million contract to develop a private container project, which includes the construction of 2 container terminals.

Currently, Bangladesh is putting considerable efforts into developing its aviation industry to serve growing tourism and business needs. According to the CIA World Factbook, the country has 16 airports with paved run-ways, including 2 international airports (Chittagong and Dhaka). The largest, Zia International Airport at Dhaka, is capable of handling 25 million passengers and 1.2 million tons of cargo annually. Bangladeshi Biman Airline, the national air carrier, operates a fleet of about 15 aircraft, including 3 Airbus 310-300s, flying to 25 international destinations and serving several domestic routes. In the 1998-99 financial year it carried 1.22 million passengers and 30,869 metric tons of cargo.

Bangladesh belongs to the group of countries with the lowest commercial energy consumption per head in the world. The CIA estimated that in 1999 the country produced 12.5 billion kWh, 85 percent of which was produced using gas, 7.0 percent was produced at hydroelectric power plants, and around 8 percent by using liquid fuel. According to the EIU Country Profile, 85 percent of households in Bangladesh have no electricity and in these places where it is delivered, 40 percent of the electricity generated is not paid for. The country experiences regular electricity blackouts and shortages, and its poor reliability is often cited among factors driving away foreign investors. The Bangladeshi government is willing to address the problem but in general has not had enough resources to build new electric power generating plants. In a recent trend, the Asian Bank of Development (ABD) approved a US$140 million loan to construct a 450-mw gas-fired power station near Dhaka, scheduled for completion in 2003.

Telecommunication services in Bangladesh are underdeveloped and provide one of the lowest rates of telephone ownership per 1,000 inhabitants in the world. The largest company is the Bangladesh Telegraph and Telephone Board (BTTB), which enjoyed a state monopoly until 1972, when private operators were allowed. As most of the telephone service uses outdated analogue technology, the quality of telecommunication services is often poor and in need of upgrades. In 2000 the country had a mere 490,000 telephone lines and 52,000 mobile phones serving 129 million people. The government is aiming to provide telephone coverage of remote towns and villages that until now have had no telephone connections. With international assistance and increasing private investments, Bangladesh is upgrading its telecommunication system, replacing analogue technology with digital, introducing the Internet and e-mail services, and expanding cellular mobile services.

ECONOMIC SECTORS

According to the World Bank Development Indicators, Bangladesh is the 50th-largest economy in the world, judged by its gross national income, although it is the 10th-largest state in the world if judged by its population. Although it has a good environment and climate for the production of various crops and huge potential for developing a tourist industry, the country suffers from scarcity of natural resources, shortage of arable land, regular natural disasters (flooding and cyclones), and a lack of investment.

For decades after independence, political instability, low demand in the local market, and economic stagnation hindered the economic development of the country. Since establishing a civil government in 1991, Bangladesh has been struggling to diversify its economy, to reform its agricultural sector, and to expand its industrial sector, as it needs average annual economic growth of at least 7 percent in order to eliminate widespread poverty. In the 1990s while Bangladesh was unable to solve its economic difficulties and eliminate poverty, it achieved impressive growth in many areas, including manufacturing and agriculture. Recognizing the difficulties, the Bangladeshi government was willing to accept the IMF's recommendations and to conduct structural changes, which included relinquishing its socialist orientation and state control over the economy, decentralization of economic management, and privatization, although many of these changes were painful and implemented only slowly.

Agriculture is still the single most important sector of economy. Between 1989 and 1999, it experienced stagnation with an average annual growth of only 1.6 percent, which was not enough to support a rapidly growing population. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Bangladesh tried with some success to achieve politically and economically important self-sufficiency in food production, increasing productivity and diversifying the crop base. Nevertheless, the share of agriculture in the GDP declined from 55 percent in 1970 to 19.6 percent in 1999.

The role of the manufacturing sector is growing, but the growth is painfully slow due to a lack of foreign investment, small demand in the local market, and red tape and inefficiency in the local bureaucracy. According to the World Bank, the industrial sector in Bangladesh grew at an average annual rate of around 4.1 percent between 1979 and 1989 and around 7.3 percent between 1989 and 1999. Bangladesh has a relatively large reserve of gas, which has become increasingly important as a source of energy and has potential to become a source of export revenue.

Bangladesh tries to promote its service sector, especially tourism and the information technologies sector. However, in doing so it has to compete with neighboring India. Local trade, tourism, and other services currently make important contributions to the country's GDP, providing employment for 26 percent of the labor force in the country.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture remains the most important sector of Bangladeshi economy, contributing 19.6 percent to the national GDP and providing employment for 63 percent of the population. Agriculture in Bangladesh is heavily dependent on the weather, and the entire harvest can be wiped out in a matter of hours when cyclones hit the country. According to the World Bank, the total arable land in Bangladesh is 61.2 percent of the total land area (down from 68.3 percent in 1980). Farms are usually very small due to heavily increasing population, unwieldy land ownership, and inheritance regulations. The 3 main crops—rice, jute, and tea—have dominated agricultural exports for decades, although the rice is grown almost entirely for domestic consumption, while jute and tea are the main export earners. In addition to these products, Bangladeshi farmers produce sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, and various fruits and vegetables (sweet potatoes, bananas, pineapples, etc.) for the domestic market.

Rice is the staple food in the everyday diet of Bangladeshis. The production of rice, which can be harvested 2 or even 3 times a year, reached 19.9 million metric tons in 1998-99. The production of wheat reached about 2 million metric tons in 1998-99. Both crops play an important role in achieving self-sufficiency in food production. However, due to weather conditions the production of rice and wheat fluctuate greatly, forcing Bangladesh to import food from the international market or turn to international aid. Bangladesh imported 1.6 million tons of wheat (mainly from the United States) in 2000 in order to meet the demand in the local market.

Jute, often called the "golden fibre" of Bengal, is the main export-earner for Bangladeshi agriculture, as Bangladesh remains the world's second-largest producer of jute (after India) and the world's largest exporter of fiber. Jute is traditionally used for the fiber of carpet backing, burlap bags, cheap paper, and various other purposes. Its importance for the Bangladeshi economy comes from the fact that almost 3 million farms are involved in jute production. In 1999 Bangladeshi export earnings from jute amounted to US$55 million, with the country producing 720,000 metric tons of jute, although this is about one-third of the jute production of the middle of the 1980s. The decline in jute production is attributed to declining world prices for this crop and to farmers switching to other crops.

Bangladesh also produces tea leaves, mainly for export, although the export of this product contributes only 1 percent of the country's hard currency earnings. In 1998-99 the country produced 56,000 metric tons of tea leaves, but it could produce twice that amount. The main obstacle to increasing production is in falling prices for tea in the international market and in management and regulation problems in the industry in the country.

Tropical rainforest is important for maintaining the ecological balance in Bangladesh, and forestry contributes 1.9 percent to the GDP (1999-2000). The forest covers around 17 percent of the country's territory, or 2.5 million hectares (6.18 million acres). The timber is used by the construction industry as a source of building materials, by the printing industry as a source of materials to produce paper, and in the agricultural sector as a source of firewood. Commercial logging is limited to around 6.1 million cubic feet, and the government plans to plant more trees within the next 15 years.

Fishing is another important activity in the country, contributing 4.9 percent to the GDP (1999-2000) and providing 6 percent of the total export income. The overall fish production was around 1.6 million metric tons (1999-2000). Bangladesh mainly exports its shrimp to the international market.

INDUSTRY

MINING.

The main commercially viable natural resource in Bangladesh is gas, although there are reports of the existence of moderate-sized reserves of coal. Total gas reserves are estimated at 21,000 billion cubic feet. In 2000 Bangladesh utilized 370 billion cubic feet, mainly for domestic consumption. The major gas fields are situated in Greater Sylhet district, the Bay of Bengal, and Greater Chittagong district. Transnational corporations are keen to be involved in gas exploration in Bangladesh and its exportation to the huge Indian market, however the Bangladeshi government is resistant to the idea of exporting the gas, as according to local experts' estimates the proven reserves could run out within the next 30 to 40 years.

MANUFACTURING.

During the 20th century Bangladesh, like neighboring Burma (Myanmar) and Nepal, largely missed the industrialization wave that changed the economies of many countries in the Asian region, such as Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. At the beginning of 2001, manufacturing contributed about 24.3 percent of the GDP, providing employment to 6.2 million people or 11 percent of the workforce. Between 1989 and 1999, the manufacturing sector in Bangladesh grew at an average annual rate of around 7.2 percent, albeit from a very low base. The cheap, reliable, and abundant labor available in Bangladesh is attractive to the world's leading transnational corporations, but they have been very slow to move into the country, as they face regular industrial unrest led by radical trade unions, poorly developed infrastructure, red tape, and a very small local market. As in neighboring India, the Bangladeshi government promoted the idea of state-led industrialization combined with heavy state involvement in and state control of enterprise activities.

The manufacturing sector in Bangladesh comprises mainly small, privately-owned, often unmechanized enterprises or large, state-owned, often loss-making enterprises. The main industrial centers are Dhaka, Chit-tagong, Khulna, and Rajshahi, which have (by local standards) well-developed transport infrastructure, including access to seaports and railways and the sizeable and very cheap unskilled and skilled labor force. The industrial enterprises concentrate mainly on the production of jute goods, ready-made garments, foodstuff processing, and chemical production.

Most of Bangladeshi jute goods are produced in large state-controlled enterprises for export to the United States, Europe, and other markets, contributing Tk13.3 billion in 1997-98 to the country's export earnings and Tk11.7 billion in 1998-99. According to the EIU Country Profile, Bangladesh accounts for 90 percent of world jute fiber exports. The jute processing enterprises are vulnerable to downturns in the regional and international market and experienced some recession in 1998-99. Additionally, during the last few years the demand for jute in the international market has been in decline due to increasing use of synthetic materials in the areas where jute was previously used. However, these jute processing businesses still have plenty of the cheap local supply of raw materials and, if they continue to improve the quality of their products, with efficient management and marketing they may expand their export potential.

During the last 2 decades Bangladesh has found a strong niche in ready-made garments (RMG), becoming one of the world's leading exporters of these products. There are around 2,600 small and medium-size garment-manufacturing enterprises, providing employment for about 1.4 million local workers, mainly women. Access to cheap and reliable local labor makes Bangladeshi RMG manufacturers very competitive in the international market, although most of the fabrics and machinery must be imported (in 2000 Bangladesh imported 160,000 metric tons of cotton from the United States). According to the U.S. Department of State, total clothing exports reached about US$5 billion in 1999-2000, mainly to the United States, Europe, and Canada. Bangladesh especially benefited from the multi-fiber arrangement with the United States and the generalized system of preferences with the European Union, which set special quotas for the RMG imports from Bangladesh. The RMG sector experienced rapid growth during the last 5 years, but with the rise of free trade and elimination of the quota system at the end of 2004, Bangladesh will face very tough competition from other Asian countries such as China, India, Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Bangladesh has a well-established food processing sector, which relies on domestic agricultural production and is oriented mainly to domestic needs. It includes sugar refining and milling, production of edible oils, processing and preserving of fruits and fruit juices as well as fish processing, especially shrimp and prawns. As a tropical country Bangladesh has a plentiful domestic supply of exotic fruits and sea species.

In the 1990s 2 major changes affected the development of the industrial sector in Bangladesh. First, the end of the numerous military coups and the establishment of civil government brought in political stabilization, which attracted direct international investments and encouraged the inflow of foreign aid. Secondly, the policy of economic liberalization, structural adjustment, and privatization helped to increase the competitiveness of the local industries and encouraged them to search for new overseas markets. In order to promote the attractiveness of the Bangladesh economy, the government established special export-processing zones (EPZ). They are situated in Chittagong, Dhaka, Chalna (near Mongla port in Khulna) and in Commila, where investors are given access to well-developed infrastructure and enjoy tax breaks and other privileges. By the year 2000, the EPZs had attracted around US$415 million worth of foreign investments and more than 150 firms had moved there. According to the U.S. State Department, the United States is the single largest foreign investor in Bangladesh with total fixed direct investment of about $750 million. The major investment projects were in the chemical, electronics, and electrical industries. The United States is followed by Malaysia, Japan, and the United Kingdom, and the next tier of investors are Singapore, India, Hong Kong, China, and South Korea. The U.S. State Department estimates U.S. investment in Bangladesh will be about $2.5 billion in 2 to 4 years.

SERVICES

TOURISM.

Tourism is a small but rapidly growing sector of Bangladeshi economy. According to the International Labor Organization, together with the wholesale and retail sector it provides employment for almost 6.0 million people (1996), or around 10.8 percent of the labor force. Government statistics state that 171,000 tourists visited the country in 1998, contributing Tk2.4 billion to the national economy. Most visitors were from India, Australia, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

Tourism could only take off in the 1990s, after the stabilization of the political situation in the country and the end of the tribal insurgency in the Chittagong Hill Tracts area (southeast of the country). Bangladesh has huge potential for attracting foreign tourists as it has a deep cultural heritage, a number of ancient monuments and temples, and a rich natural heritage, including tropical forests, beautiful hills, rivers, and national parks. The country offers bargain-shopping and exotic souvenirs, as well as a wide variety of activities, from eco-friendly to adventure tourism. However, it needs to renovate and expand its hotels' infrastructure and other services, which are still underdeveloped.

FINANCIAL SERVICES.

The financial service industry remains underdeveloped in spite of a decade of major reforms conducted under the Financial Sector Reforms Program. According to the International Labor Organization, this sector provides employment for 213,000 people (1996). Since independence it has been under state control, as the major commercial banks were nationalized soon after independence. The local banks are often accused of providing poor financial services and being beset by corruption, inefficient management and capital inadequacies. Bangladesh lags behind in the introduction of computerized banking payment systems, the development of electronic payment systems, and electronic banking. The Agrani Bank, Janata Bank, Rupali Bank and Sonali Bank are the main financial institutions still under state control. They account for almost half of all deposits.

In 1999 the government launched a Commercial Bank Reform Project intended to improve the functioning of the private commercial banks. One bank has provided a success story: the Grameen Bank, which was founded by university professor Mohammad Yunus, pioneered in providing small credits to local communities in need. At present the IMF and the World Bank, which are often notoriously ineffective in the poor countries of Asia and Africa, have carefully studied the Grameen Bank's microcredit model with a view to applying it in other developing countries.

RETAIL.

In Bangladesh, as in many other Asian countries, many small- and medium-sized businesses have been built around the retail sector and are often associated with small shops and restaurants. The retail sector provides employment for a large number of people, but it still remains relatively underdeveloped, due to a generally low level of income among the population. There are still a number of small family-run traditional shops and cafes, selling mainly locally-made products.

The United States has found that the enforcement of intellectual property rights is "weak" and that "intellectual property infringement is common." The Bangladeshi government has begun to address this problem seriously, introducing a new Copyright Act in 2000 in order to bring the country's copyright laws into compliance with the WTO. This act updated the Patents and Design Act of 1911, and some other outdated regulations.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Bangladeshi international trade is extremely small relative to the size of its population, although it experienced accelerated growth during the last decade. It is not very diversified and depends on the fluctuations of the international market. The Bangladeshi government struggles to attract export-oriented industries, removing red tape and introducing various financial and tax initiatives. Between 1990 and 1995 Bangladesh doubled its exports from US$1.671 billion in 1990 to US$3.173 billion in 1995 and then almost doubled them again from US$3.173 billion in 1995 to US$5.523 billion in 1999.

During the 1990s, the United States has been the largest trading partner for Bangladesh, with its exports to the United States reaching 35.7 percent in 1998-99. This percentage consisted mainly of Ready-Made Garments (RMG). Germany is the second-largest export market, with the proportion of goods reaching 10.4 percent; and the United Kingdom is in third place at 8.3 percent. Other export destinations are France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Japan.

India, China, and Singapore are the 3 largest sources of imports. Most Bangladeshi imports originate from

neighboring India, reaching 20.8 percent in 1998-99. The second most important source is China, totaling 9.3 percent, third is Singapore with 8.6 percent, with Hong Kong fourth at 7.6 percent.

During the last decade, Bangladeshi exports shifted from the sale of agricultural products and raw and processed natural resources to labor-intensive manufactured goods (including clothing, footwear, and textiles), but the country, unlike neighboring India, could not catch up with the exporters of skill-intensive products. While India is becoming an important international player in the field of software and applications development, Bangladesh lags far behind, despite the government's efforts to promote this area.

Bangladesh has a long history of maintaining a negative trade balance, importing more goods than it exports. In the 1970s and 1980s it imported goods and services twice and sometimes 3 times as much as it exported. Even during the relatively successful 1999 financial year, the country exported just US$5.523 billion worth of products while it imported US$8.381 billion worth of products, leaving a large trade shortfall of US$2.858 billion.

At present, Bangladesh faces growing economic competition from India, Pakistan, and Indonesia, countries which could offer better infrastructure and larger and growing domestic markets. A border conflict between Bangladesh and India, the worst in the last 30 years erupted in April 2001, bringing political and economic uncertainty to the region and undermining international investor confidence in the Bangladeshi market. If the investors move out, they could cause further social polarization and increased poverty in the country.

MONEY

The Bangladeshi government tightly controls the exchange rate of the taka against the U.S. dollar and major regional currencies. During the last decade the value of the currency showed a steady decline, mainly due to the devaluation of many of the neighboring currencies

(especially the Indian and Pakistani rupees). In 1995 the Bangladeshi taka was valued at 40.278 taka per US$1; in January 2000 the value of the taka declined to 51.000 taka per US$1. According to the IMF, the Bangladesh Central Bank has followed a policy of gradual depreciation of the taka against the U.S. dollar since the middle of the 1990s, devaluing the taka in gradual steps of 1 to 2 percent 2 or 3 times a year. The taka's market value has been protected by the large sums of foreign currencies Bangladesh receives every year through aid transfers and through remittances from overseas workers. The taka is still not fully convertible. The government periodically revises its exchange control regulations, introducing further liberalization of the controls. The government lifted restrictions on the repatriation of the profit and dividends from foreign direct investments (in the industrial sector); however, non-residents are not allowed to buy money market instruments or treasury bills .

During the period between 1970 and 1980 inflationary pressure was relatively small, as the country's economy was closed to outside influences and was tightly controlled by the government. In the 1990s consumer prices became more volatile, fluctuating between a low of 2.9 percent and a high of 8.9 percent a year, due to the liberalization and gradual opening up of the national economy to international competition.

The Bangladeshi banking system suffers from a lack of capital and poor management. Other problems include banks' exposure to corruption and to bad loans allegedly made to politically well-connected businessmen. There are 43 private banks in the country, including 29 domestic and 14 foreign banks, but most of them are active in major urban areas (Dhaka and Chittagong). The foreign banks are represented by such names as the Scotiabank of Canada and Societe Generale of France.

The 1997 Asian financial crisis did not bring damages in the scale of the economic and financial downturn in Indonesia, although it did negatively affect Bang-ladeshi exports. This escape was mainly due to the limited size of the Bangladeshi market, existing currency exchange controls and the relatively closed nature of its economy. Nevertheless, the Bangladeshi taka depreciated between 1997 and 1999 at a faster rate, declining from Tk43.892 in 1997 to Tk49.085 in 1999.

Bangladesh has 2 stock exchanges, the Dhaka Stock Exchange (DSE) and the Chittagong Stock Exchange (CSE; opened in 1995). Share prices shot up after the 1996 parliamentary election and market capitalization reached US$6.0 billion in November 1999; however, share prices fell dramatically the following year, with some shares losing up to 60 or 70 percent of their value. The all share indexes both in the DSE and the CSE still remain far below those of the 1996 levels.

POVERTY AND WEALTH

Bangladesh belongs to the poorest group of countries in the world; during the last 3 decades its GDP per capita income barely increased from US$203 in 1975 to US$348 per capita in 1998. The World Bank's World Development Indicators puts Bangladesh in 170th place (out of 207 countries) in the global ranking of gross national income per capita. Despite considerable international assistance, Bangladesh has been unable to eliminate extreme poverty and hunger. There is a huge disparity between standards of living in urban and rural areas of the country. The urban areas, especially the capital Dhaka, and major industrial cities such as Chittagong, Khulna, and Rajshahi, enjoy a better quality of living, with electricity, gas, and clean water supplies. Still, even in the major cities a significant proportion of Bangladeshis live in squalor in dwellings that fall apart during the monsoon season and have no regular electricity. These Bang-ladeshis have limited access to health care and to clean drinking water. The rural population, meanwhile, often lives in traditional houses in villages with no facilities associated with even the most modest standards of living.

Disparities encompass 3 dimensions that define considerable differences: geographic, educational, and gender. There is still considerable inequality in the distribution of income between rural and urban populations. In general, the urban population, in the areas around Dhaka, Chittagong, and other large cities, has long been involved in small- and medium-sized businesses or employed in various industries. They benefited from the recent growth and have higher incomes. Meanwhile, the rural population experience chronic shortages of land and regular floods and cyclones, which often a within matter of hours sweep away the results of months of hard work. The 1998 flood, for example, affected two-thirds of the country, wiping out the entire winter crop and displacing millions of people.

Education is another problem, as the adult literacy rate reached just 60 percent in 2000, despite the fact that primary education is universal, compulsory and free. The illiterate section of the population is generally much

poorer as they are missing employment opportunities in the industrial sector as well as government and international assistance in form of micro-credits, and awareness of better cultivation methods and other market skills. Also, women in Bangladesh, especially those with large families, have heavier workloads and often fewer skills than the male population; the illiteracy rate is much higher among women than men. These differences may be seen in the statistical data. The wealthiest 20 percent of Bangladeshis control 42.8 percent of the wealth. The poorest 20 percent of the population control only 3.9 percent of the wealth. In fact, the poorest 40 percent of the population controls just 20.7 percent of the wealth.

Since the 1970s, the Bangladeshi government has implemented a social policy aimed at the elimination of poverty and social inequality, and largely funded by international organizations and individual donors. This policy aims at increasing the literacy rate, providing access to safe drinking water, family planning, and micro-crediting the poorest and most disadvantaged groups of society.

Throughout the 1990s the Bangladeshi government achieved some positive results, although the 1998 floods put pressure on scarce government resources, brought hunger to some areas of the country, and made food prices higher. These difficulties particularly affected the most vulnerable social groups of society, both in rural areas and in major urban centers. The chronic poverty, under-employment and unemployment forced large numbers of people to migrate from the country, using all possible legal and illegal channels. Bangladesh's quality of life remains much lower than in neighboring India, Pakistan, or Sri Lanka. According to the CIA World Factbook, in 1996 around 35.6 percent of the population lived below the poverty line, most of them in rural areas of the country.

WORKING CONDITIONS

Due to rapid growth of the population in the last few decades the Bangladeshi labor force has grown rapidly, as there was a large proportion of young people born in the 1960s and 1970s. According to the EIU Country Profile the Bangladeshi labor force almost doubled in a matter of a decade, growing from 30.9 million people in 1985-86 to 56.0 million people in 1995-96. Although all sectors of the national economy experienced significant growth, they were far below the speed of the labor force growth. According to Bangladeshi national statistics, in 1995-96 only 12.4 percent of the labor force had formal employment, while 40 percent were considered "employed in family-based" businesses, 29.6 percent were considered "self-employed," and 17.9 percent had their jobs on a "daily basis." In general, the competition for working positions in the country is intense, and the working conditions are very harsh, especially in rural areas, where 63 percent of the labor force are employed.

The Bangladeshi government pays special attention to improving education at all levels, as it wants to attract labor-intensive manufacturing and services to the country. Primary education is compulsory. Various initiatives have been tried, including direct special stipends, designed to increase the proportion of female students at school. However, as the government admits, the country's education system suffers from poor quality education, chronic shortages of trained teachers, and a shortage of books. Secondary education is not accessible for

children from many poor families. The government channels considerable funds into tertiary education, and the quality of teaching in some areas, particularly in technical subjects, is relatively strong. Nevertheless, the overall quality of the Bangladeshi universities' graduates often does not match the demands of modern technological developments in many areas, including information technologies and engineering. A number of Bangladeshis, receive their education overseas, many with state or international organizations' support, although in the past many of the students have opted not to return home after graduating from overseas universities. Bangladesh suffers shortages of medical doctors, information technology specialists, qualified teachers, and professionals in various other areas.

The very low wages, starting from Tk1,500, and harsh working conditions drive large numbers of people to seek jobs as temporary workers in Kuwait, Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and the United Arab Emi-rates. According to some unofficial estimates there are as many as 20 million Bangladeshi illegal immigrants in neighboring India. Many are hired to work in the low-skill and low-wages construction and service sectors and on agricultural plantations. The workers' remittances, sent home regularly, are one of the most important sources of hard currency not only for the extended families of these workers, but also for the national economy as well, totaling, according to the IMF's figures, US$1.706 billion (1998-99) or equivalent to the Bang-ladeshi gross official currency reserves in 1998-99.

The trade unions are very strong in Bangladesh, although only 3.5 percent of the workforce is unionized, but most of the unions are limited to the public sector or state-controlled enterprises. According to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), there are a total of 23 national trade union centers in Bangladesh and approximately 5,450 trade unions. The largest of these are the Bangladesh Jatio Sramik League (BJSL); the Bangladesh Jatiyatabadi Sramik Dal (BJSD); the Jatiya Sramik Party (JSP); the Bangladesh Free Trade Union Congress (BFTUC); and the Jatio Sramik League (JSL). These bodies are organized together in the ICFTU Bangladesh Council. About 1.8 million of the country's workers belong to unions, out of a total workforce of approximately 58 million. The unions tend to have strong links to major political parties or are controlled by political figures, and they often lead political action and strikes in the country. The power of the trade unions is exemplified in the fact that their continuous general strikes (hartals) forced the BNP government to resign in 1996, and their support led to the victory of the Awami League in the 1996 parliamentary election. Strikes are extremely common in Bangladesh and can paralyze business activities for weeks. The private sector is less unionized and trade unions are practically banned from the Export Processing Zones (EPZ), as the EPZ is exempted from certain labor laws. In case of industrial dispute the problems are supposed to be solved through the Labor Tribunal.

Unlike many Middle Eastern countries, women in Bangladesh enjoy considerable freedom and are generally involved in education and labor, although the employment and literacy rates among them generally are lower than among men. Recent surges in the garment industry brought new employment opportunities for women, as around 95 percent of people employed in this sector are women. However, in the rural areas the women very often are disadvantaged and among the poorer members of the communities. Currently, more than 37 percent of the labor force is women. However, unionization among women, and hence the protection of their rights, is generally lower than among men.

Despite the presence of strong trade unions, the use of child labor was quite common until recently. Not until 1995 did the Bangladeshi garment exporters' association agree to eliminate children from the industry. However, according to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, included in export sectors such as garments and leather production, there are over 6 million child laborers between the ages of 5 and 14 years who work for pay and are not enrolled in school. About 1.9 million working children are below the age of 10. In addition to remunerated employment, children often have to work alongside other family members in small-scale and subsistence agriculture. Bangladesh has not ratified either of the ILO core conventions on child labor, although there are various laws and regulations protecting children.

COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1500 B.C. Hinduism, the system of beliefs, practices, and socio-religious institutions of the Hindus, is introduced in the Indian subcontinent.

327 B.C. Alexander the Great invades the province of Gandhara, in northwest Indian subcontinent.

800s A.D. The first Muslim Arabs appear in the north of the Indian subcontinent, and the first Muslim trading communities are established in various parts of the region.

1192. Muhammad of Ghur wins the battles of Taraori, which leads to the establishment of the Delhi sultanate, principal Muslim sultanate in North India from the 13th to the 16th century.

1341. Most of Bengal becomes independent of Delhi.

1498. Vasco da Gama, Portuguese traveler and adventurer, lands at Calcutta.

1576. Akbar, the great Mogul emperor, conquers the territory of modern Bangladesh.

1608. Dhaka becomes the Mogul's capital of Bengal province.

1757. The nawab (ruler) of Bengal is defeated by Robert Clive's British force at Plassey.

1765. The British East India Company establishes control over the administration of the territory of Bengal.

1857. Indian Sepoys (soldiers) in the Bengal army of the British East India Company rebel against British rule in India (known as the Sepoy Rebellion).

1858. The East India Company is abolished, and the British crown assumes direct control over British India.

1885. The Indian National Congress is founded.

1905. The British colonial administration introduces division into West Bengal and East Bengal, with East Bengal being more or less within the territory of modern Bangladesh, although the partition is withdrawn in 1911.

1947. Bangladesh becomes independent as a part of Pakistan under the name "East Pakistan."

1970. In November, a powerful cyclone hits Bangladesh, causing great damage and more than 500,000 deaths, one of the worst natural disasters of the 20th century.

1970. In December, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (popularly known as Sheikh Mujib) and his political party, Awami League (AL), win both national and provincial elections and demand greater autonomy for East Pakistan.

1970. The AL declares its intention to achieve independence from West Pakistan.

1971. With the help of Indian forces, the Bangladeshi pro-independence movement wins independence.

1974. A state of emergency is declared in Bangladesh.

1975. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman becomes president and assumes absolute power.

1975. President Sheikh Mujib is assassinated in a military coup in August.

1975. Abusadat Muhammad Sayem becomes president but resigns 2 years later.

1978. General Ziaur Rahman wins the presidential election.

1981. President General Ziaur Rahman is assassinated in a military coup.

1981. Abdus Sattar wins the presidential election in November.

1982. General Hossain Ershad takes power in a military coup.

1985. General Hossain Ershad wins the presidential election and bans all active political opposition.

1988. Devastating floods hit three-quarters of the country, leaving 30 million people homeless and causing food shortages.

1990. General Hossain Ershad resigns.

1991. The first free and fair election is held in Bangladesh. Begum Khaleda Zia (widow of General Ziaur Rahman) and her party, Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), win the election.

1991. A powerful cyclone hits Bangladesh, causing the deaths of more than 120,000 people and great damage to the economy.

1996. Begum Khaleda Zia wins the April parliamentary election, which is accompanied by violence and a low turnout, but is forced to resign shortly after.

1996. Hasina Wajed, daughter of Sheikh Mujib, and her Awami League (AL) win the June parliamentary election.

1996. An important 30-year agreement is reached with India on the sharing of the Ganges River's water.

1997. A peace treaty is signed between the government and Chakma rebels, ending a 20-year uprising.

1998. Another powerful cyclone hits the country, causing extensive damage to the national economy.

2001. Indian and Bangladeshi forces clash on the border between their 2 countries.

FUTURE TRENDS

For decades after 1971 the development of the Bangladeshi national economy has been hindered by political instability, poor economic performance, pressure on scarce natural resources by the rapidly growing population, and an ineffective bureaucracy. The major changes introduced during the 1990s included more flexible economic policies, export-oriented industrialization, and inflow of foreign direct investments. Inflation remains low and is under control. The Bangladeshi currency exchange managed to avoid any spectacular failures similar to Indonesia or South Korea during the Asian financial crisis of 1997, and it is still stable, tightly regulated and pegged to the basket of the regional currencies. In 1999 and 2000 Bangladesh achieved strong economic recovery after the devastating floods of 1998, and if the regional and global economic environment remains positive, the Bangladeshi economic annual growth rate of 5 to 6 percent might continue. This development may ease the poverty, low standards of living, underemployment, and unemployment problems.

Nevertheless, there are several issues to be addressed. There is strong potential for all the problems, including political instability and recession, to return if the government fails to improve the economic situation in the country or if global recession or global competition negatively affect the country's exports. Both the border clashes with Indian border guards in early 2001, which led to heavy casualties, and confrontations along the border with Burma (Myanmar) show how fragile regional stability is. Meanwhile, although the changes brought some positive results to the national economy and some level of prosperity to some groups of the population (often limited to the educated urban population of the large metropolitan areas), they also brought new social ills such as growing criminality and drug usage among youth. The government has often been criticized for its intervention in economic development and its inability to improve economic management or to conduct further reforms, including privatization. There is also a serious problem with widespread corruption, with some political groups accused of wasting public resources. The experience of Indonesia shows how dangerous corruption and political instability are. It remains to be seen whether economic liberalization combined with the force of globalization measures will strengthen the performance of the national economy.

In the longer term, Bangladesh will need to maintain its international competitiveness, since the current globalization trend eliminates borders for international trade and brings growing competition from emerging markets for FDIs and for the transfer of modern technologies. Political and social unrest in neighboring Burma might affect Bangladesh, threatening and undermining regional stability and thus scaring off potential investors. Environmental issues are also very important for Bangladesh in the longer term, as global climate change and the rise of the surface level in the world's seas may undermine the country's agriculture, which still plays a dominant role in the national economy. In fact, a warmer Earth could well witness sizeable areas of the country covered by water, or it might increase salinization of the currently arable land, making it impossible to continue agricultural activities.

DEPENDENCIES

Bangladesh has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alauddin, M., and Samiul Hasan, editors. Development, Governance and the Environment in South Asia: A Focus on Bangladesh. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999.

Caf, Dowlah. Privatization Experience in Bangladesh, 1991-1996. Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1997.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Bangladesh: EIU Country Profile 2000. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2000.

Economist Intelligence Unit. Bangladesh: EIU Country Report. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, February 2000.

Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. <http://www.bangladeshgov.org>. Accessed August 2001.

Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Ministry of Planning Statistics Division. <http://www.bangladeshgov.org/mop/ndb/index.htm>. Accessed August 2001.

The Independent (newspaper). <http://www.independent-bangladesh.com>. Accessed August 2001.

Moon, P. The British Conquest and Dominion of India. London: Duckworth, 1989.

Spear, Thomas. The Oxford History of Modern India. 2nd edition. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1978.

Statistical Pocketbook of Bangladesh. Dhaka: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, 1998.

World Bank. Bangladesh: from Stabilization to Growth. Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1995.

World Bank Group. The World Bank Dhaka Office. <http://www.worldbank-bangladesh.org>. Accessed August 2001.

—Rafis Abazov

CAPITAL:

Dhaka.

MONETARY UNIT:

Taka (Tk). One Bangladeshi taka equals 100 paisa. Notes are in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 500 taka. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 paisa.

CHIEF EXPORTS:

Garments, jute and jute goods, tea, leather and leather products, frozen fish, and seafood.

CHIEF IMPORTS:

Machinery and equipment, chemicals, fertilizers, iron and steel, textiles, raw cotton, food (mainly rice and wheat), crude oil and petroleum products, and cement.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT:

US$187 billion (purchasing power parity, 1999 est.).

BALANCE OF TRADE:

Exports: US$5.523 billion (1999). Imports: US$8.381 billion (1999).

BANGLADESH

Compiled from the August 2005 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
People's Republic of Bangladesh

PROFILE

Geography

Area:

147, 570 sq. km. (55,813 sq. mi.); about the size of Wisconsin.

Cities:

Capital—Dhaka (pop. 10 million). Other cities—Chittagong (2.8 million), Khulna (1.8 million), Rajshahi (1 million).

Terrain:

Mainly flat alluvial plain, with hills in the northeast and southeast.

Climate:

Semitropical, monsoonal.

People

Nationality:

Noun and adjective—Bangladeshi(s).

Population:

144 million.

Annual growth rate:

2.09%.

Ethnic groups:

Bengali 98%, tribal groups, non-Bengali Muslims.

Religion:

Muslim 88.3%; Hindu 10.5%; Christian 0.3%, Buddhist 0.6%, others 0.3%.

Language:

Bangla (official, also known as Bengali), English.

Education:

Attendance—55.9%. Literacy—53.9% for males; 31.8% for females; a total of 43.1% literacy.

Health:

Infant mortality rate—62.6/1,000. Life expectancy—62.13 years (male), 62.02 years (female).

Work force (60.3 million):

Agriculture—60%; manufacturing and mining—7.8%; others—28.5%.

Government

Type:

Parliamentary democracy.

Independence:

1971 (from Pakistan).

Constitution:

1972; amended 1974, 1979, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1996, 2004.

Branches:

Executive—president (chief of state), prime minister (head of government), cabinet. Legislative—unicameral parliament (300 members). Judicial—civil court system based on British model.

Administrative subdivisions:

Divisions, districts, sub districts, unions, villages.

Political parties:

30-40 active political parties: largest ones include Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), the Awami League (AL), the Jatiya Party, and the Jamaat-e-Islami Party.

Suffrage:

Universal at age 18.

Economy

Fiscal year:

July 1 to June 30.

Annual GDP growth rate (2004 est.):

6%.

Inflation (April 2004):

5.83%.

Per capita GDP (2003):

$421.

Natural resources:

Natural gas, fertile soil, water.

Agriculture (25% of GDP):

Products—rice, jute, tea, sugar, wheat. Land—cultivable area cropped at rate of 176% in 1997; 175% in 2000; largely subsistence farming dependent on monsoon rainfall, but growing commercial farming and increasing use of irrigation.

Industry (Manufacturing; 16% of GDP):

Types—garments and knit-wear, jute goods, frozen fish and seafood, textiles, fertilizer, sugar, tea, leather, ship-breaking for scrap, pharmaceuticals, ceramic tableware, newsprint.

Trade (2003):

Merchandise exports—$6.5 billion: garments and knitwear, frozen fish, jute and jute goods, leather and leather products, tea, urea fertilizer, ceramic table-ware. Exports to U.S. (2003)—$2.074 billion. Merchandise imports (2003)—$9.7 billion: capital goods, food grains, petroleum, textiles, chemicals, vegetable oils. Imports from U.S. (2003)—$226 million.

GEOGRAPHY

Bangladesh is a low-lying, riverine country located in South Asia with a largely marshy jungle coastline of 710 kilometers (440 mi.) on the northern littoral of the Bay of Bengal. Formed by a deltaic plain at the confluence of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna Rivers and their tributaries, Bangladesh's alluvial soil is highly fertile but vulnerable to flood and drought. Hills rise above the plain only in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in the far southeast and the Sylhet division in the northeast. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh has a subtropical monsoonal climate characterized by heavy seasonal rainfall, moderately warm temperatures, and high humidity. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores affect the country almost every year. Bangladesh also is affected by major cyclones—on average 16 times a decade.

Urbanization is proceeding rapidly, and it is estimated that only 30% of the population entering the labor force in the future will be absorbed into agriculture, although many will likely find other kinds of work in rural areas. The areas around Dhaka and Comilla are the most densely settled. The Sundarbans, an area of coastal tropical jungle in the southwest and last wild home of the Bengal Tiger, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts on the southeastern border with Burma and India, are the least densely populated.

PEOPLE

The area that is now Bangladesh has a rich historical and cultural past, combining Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Mongol/Mughul, Arab, Persian, Turkic, and west European cultures. Residents of Bangladesh, about 98% of whom are ethnic Bengali and speak Bangla, are called Bangladeshis. Urdu-speaking, non-Bengali Muslims of Indian origin, and various tribal groups, mostly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, comprise the remainder. Most Bangladeshis (about 88.3%) are Muslims, but Hindus constitute a sizable (10.5%) minority. There also are a small number of Buddhists, Christians, and animists. English is spoken in urban areas and among the educated.

Sufi religious teachers succeeded in converting many Bengalis to Islam, even before the arrival of Muslim armies from the west. About 1200 AD, Muslim invaders established political control over the Bengal region. This political control also encouraged conversion to Islam. Since then, Islam has played a crucial role in the region's history and politics, with a Muslim majority emerging, particularly in the eastern region of Bengal.

HISTORY

Bengal was absorbed into the Mughul Empire in the 16th century, and Dhaka, the seat of a nawab (the representative of the emperor), gained some importance as a provincial center. But it remained remote and thus a difficult to govern region—especially the section east of the Brahmaputra River—outside the mainstream of Mughul politics. Portuguese traders and missionaries were the first Europeans to reach Bengal in the latter part of the 15th century. They were followed by representatives of the Dutch, the French, and the British East India Companies. By the end of the 17th century, the British presence on the Indian subcontinent was centered in Calcutta. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the British gradually extended their commercial contacts and administrative control beyond Calcutta to Bengal. In 1859, the British Crown replaced the East India Company, extending British dominion from Bengal, which became a region of India, in the east to the Indus River in the west.

The rise of nationalism throughout British-controlled India in the late 19th century resulted in mounting animosity between the Hindu and Muslim communities. In 1885, the All-India National Congress was founded with Indian and British membership. Muslims seeking an organization of their own founded the All-India Muslim League in 1906. Although both the League and the Congress supported the goal of Indian self-government within the British Empire, the two parties were unable to agree on a way to ensure the protection of Muslim political, social, and economic rights. The sub-sequent history of the nationalist movement was characterized by periods of Hindu-Muslim cooperation, as well as by communal antagonism. The idea of a separate Muslim state gained increasing popularity among Indian Muslims after 1936, when the Muslim League suffered a decisive defeat in the first elections under India's 1935 constitution. In 1940, the Muslim League called for an independent state in regions where Muslims were in the majority. Campaigning on that platform in provincial elections in 1946, the League won the majority of the Muslim seats contested in Bengal. Widespread communal violence followed, especially in Calcutta.

When British India was partitioned and the independent dominions of India and Pakistan were created in 1947, the region of Bengal was divided along religious lines. The predominantly Muslim eastern half was designated East Pakistan—and made part of the newly independent Pakistan—while the predominantly Hindu western part became the Indian state of West Bengal. Pakistan's history from 1947 to 1971 was marked by political instability and economic difficulties. Dominion status was rejected in 1956 in favor of an "Islamic republic within the Commonwealth." Attempts at civilian political rule failed, and the government imposed martial law between 1958 and 1962, and again between 1969 and 1972.

Almost from the advent of independent Pakistan in 1947, frictions developed between East and West Pakistan, which were separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences also contributed to the estrangement of East from West Pakistan. Bengalis strongly resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan. Responding to these grievances, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1948 formed a students' organization called the Chhatra League. In 1949, Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani and some other Bengali leaders formed the East Pakistan Awami Muslim League (AL), a party designed mainly to promote Bengali interests. This party dropped the word Muslim from its name in 1955 and came to be known as Awami League. Mujib became president of the Awami League in 1966 and emerged as leader of the Bengali autonomy movement. In 1966, he was arrested for his political activities.

After the Awami League won almost all the East Pakistan seats of the Pakistan national assembly in 1970-71 elections, West Pakistan opened talks with the East on constitutional questions about the division of power between the central government and the provinces, as well as the formation of a national government headed by the Awami League. The talks proved unsuccessful, however, and on March 1, 1971, Pakistani President Yahya Khan indefinitely postponed the pending national assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan. Mujib was arrested again; his party was banned, and most of his aides fled to India and organized a provisional government. On March 26, 1971, following a bloody crackdown by the Pakistan Army, Bengali nationalists declared an independent People's Republic of Bangladesh. As fighting grew between the army and the Bengali mukti bahini ("freedom fighters"), an estimated 10 million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.

The crisis in East Pakistan produced new strains in Pakistan's troubled relations with India. The two nations had fought a war in 1965, mainly in the west, but the refugee pressure in India in the fall of 1971 produced new tensions in the east. Indian sympathies lay with East Pakistan, and in November, India intervened on the side of the Bangladeshis. On December 16, 1971, Pakistani forces surrendered, and Bangladesh—meaning "Bengal country"—was born; the new country became a parliamentary democracy under a 1972 constitution.

The provisional government of the new nation of Bangladesh was formed in Dhaka with Justice Abu Sayeed Choudhury as President, and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman ("Mujib")—who was released from Pakistani prison in early 1972—as Prime Minister.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, 1972-75

Mujib came to office with immense personal popularity but had difficulty transforming this popular support into the political strength needed to function as head of government. The new constitution, which came into force in December 1972, created a strong executive prime minister, a largely ceremonial presidency, an independent judiciary, and a unicameral legislature on a modified Westminster model. The 1972 constitution adopted as state policy the Awami League's (AL) four basic principles of nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy.

The first parliamentary elections held under the 1972 constitution were in March 1973, with the Awami League winning a massive majority. No other political party in Bangladesh's early years was able to duplicate or challenge the League's broad-based appeal, membership, or organizational strength. Relying heavily on experienced civil servants and members of the Awami League, the new Bangladesh Government focused on relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction of the economy and society. Economic conditions remained precarious, however. In December 1974, Mujib decided that continuing economic deterioration and mounting civil disorder required strong measures. After proclaiming a state of emergency, Mujib used his parliamentary majority to win a constitutional amendment limiting the powers of the legislative and judicial branches, establishing an executive presidency, and instituting a one-party system, the Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League (BAKSAL), which all members of Parliament (and senior civil and military officials) were obliged to join.

Despite some improvement in the economic situation during the first half of 1975, implementation of promised political reforms was slow, and criticism of government policies became increasingly centered on Mujib. In August 1975, Mujib, and most of his family, were assassinated by mid-level army officers. His daughter, Sheikh Hasina, was out of the country. A new government, headed by former Mujib associate Khandakar Moshtaque, was formed.

Ziaur Rahman, 1975-81

Successive military coups resulted in the emergence of Army Chief of Staff Gen. Ziaur Rahman ("Zia") as strong-man. He pledged the army's support to the civilian government headed by President Chief Justice Sayem. Acting at Zia's behest, Sayem dissolved Parliament, promising fresh elections in 1977, and instituted martial law.

Acting behind the scenes of the Martial Law Administration (MLA), Zia sought to invigorate government policy and administration. While continuing the ban on political parties, he sought to revitalize the demoralized bureaucracy, to begin new economic development programs, and to emphasize family planning. In November 1976, Zia became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and assumed the presidency upon Sayem's retirement 5 months later, promising national elections in 1978.

As President, Zia announced a 19-point program of economic reform and began dismantling the MLA. Keeping his promise to hold elections, Zia won a 5-year term in June 1978 elections, with 76% of the vote. In November 1978, his government removed the remaining restrictions on political party activities in time for parliamentary elections in February 1979. These elections, which were contested by more than 30 parties, marked the culmination of Zia's transformation of Bangladesh's Government from the MLA to a democratically elected, constitutional one. The AL and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), founded by Zia, emerged as the two major parties.

In May 1981, Zia was assassinated in Chittagong by dissident elements of the military. The attempted coup never spread beyond that city, and the major conspirators were either taken into custody or killed. In accordance with the constitution, Vice President Justice Abdus Sattar was sworn in as acting president. He declared a new national emergency and called for election of a new president within 6 months—an election Sattar won as the BNP's candidate. President Sattar sought to follow the policies of his predecessor and retained essentially the same cabinet, but the army stepped in once again.

Hussain Mohammed Ershad, 1982-90

Army Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad assumed power in a bloodless coup in March 1982. Like his predecessors, Ershad suspended the constitution and—citing pervasive corruption, ineffectual government, and economic mismanagement—declared martial law. The following year, Ershad assumed the presidency, retaining his positions as army chief and CMLA. During most of 1984, Ershad sought the opposition parties' participation in local elections under martial law. The opposition's refusal to participate, however, forced Ershad to abandon these plans. Ershad sought public support for his regime in a national referendum on his leadership in March 1985. He won overwhelmingly, although turnout was small. Two months later, Ershad held elections for local council chairmen. Pro-government candidates won a majority of the posts, setting in motion the President's ambitious decentralization program. Political life was further liberalized in early 1986, and additional political rights, including the right to hold large public rallies, were restored. At the same time, the Jatiya (National) Party, designed as Ershad's political vehicle for the transition from martial law, was established.

Despite a boycott by the BNP, led by President Zia's widow, Begum Khaleda Zia, parliamentary elections were held on schedule in May 1986. The Jatiya Party won a modest majority of the 300 elected seats in the National Assembly. The participation of the Awami League—led by the late President Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed—lent the elections some credibility, despite widespread charges of voting irregularities.

Ershad resigned as Army Chief of Staff and retired from military service in preparation for the presidential elections, scheduled for October. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the AL refused to put up opposing candidates. Ershad easily outdistanced the remaining candidates, taking 84% of the vote. Although Ershad's government claimed a turnout of more than 50%, opposition leaders, and much of the foreign press, estimated a far lower percentage and alleged voting irregularities.

Ershad continued his stated commitment to lift martial law. In November 1986, his government mustered the necessary two-thirds majority in the National Assembly to amend the constitution and confirm the previous actions of the martial law regime. The President then lifted martial law, and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly.

In July 1987, however, after the government hastily pushed through a controversial legislative bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. Passage of the bill helped spark an opposition movement that quickly gathered momentum, uniting Bangladesh's opposition parties for the first time. The government began to arrest scores of opposition activists under the country's Special Powers Act of 1974. Despite these arrests, opposition parties continued to organize protest marches and nationwide strikes. After declaring a state of emergency, Ershad dissolved Parliament and scheduled fresh elections for March 1988.

All major opposition parties refused government overtures to participate in these polls, maintaining that the government was incapable of holding free and fair elections. Despite the opposition boycott, the government proceeded. The ruling Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament, while still regarded by the opposition as an illegitimate body, held its sessions as scheduled, and passed a large number of bills, including, in June 1988, a controversial constitutional amendment making Islam Bangladesh's state religion and provision for setting up High Court benches in major cities outside of Dhaka. While Islam remains the state religion, the provision for decentralizing the High Court division has been struck down by the Supreme Court.

By 1989, the domestic political situation in the country seemed to have quieted. The local council elections were generally considered by international observers to have been less violent and more free and fair than previous elections. However, opposition to Ershad's rule began to regain momentum, escalating by the end of 1990 in frequent general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order.

On December 6, 1990, Ershad offered his resignation. On February 27, 1991, after 2 months of widespread civil unrest, an interim government oversaw what most observers believed to be the nation's most free and fair elections to that date.

Khaleda Zia, 1991-96

The center-right BNP won a plurality of seats and formed a government with support from the Islamic fundamentalist party Jamaat-I-Islami, with Khaleda Zia, widow of Ziaur Rahman, obtaining the post of prime minister. Only four parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1991 Parliament: The BNP, led by Prime Minister Begum Khaleda Zia; the AL, led by Sheikh Hasina; the Jamaat-IIslami (JI), led by Golam Azam; and the Jatiya Party (JP), led by acting chairman Mizanur Rahman Choudhury while its founder, former President Ershad, served out a prison sentence on corruption charges. The electorate approved still more changes to the constitution, formally re-creating a parliamentary system and returning governing power to the office of the prime minister, as in Bangladesh's original 1972 constitution. In October 1991, members of Parliament elected a new head of state, President Abdur Rahman Biswas.

In March 1994, controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the entire opposition. The opposition also began a program of repeated general strikes to press its demand that Khaleda Zia's government resign and a caretaker government supervise a general election. Efforts to mediate the dispute, under the auspices of the Commonwealth Secretariat, failed. After another attempt at a negotiated settlement failed narrowly in late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament. The opposition then continued a campaign of marches, demonstrations, and strikes in an effort to force the government to resign. The opposition, including the Awami League's Sheikh Hasina, pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for February 15, 1996.

In February, Khaleda Zia was reelected by a landslide in voting boycotted and denounced as unfair by the three main opposition parties. In March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the sitting Parliament enacted a constitutional amendment to allow a neutral caretaker government to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections; former Chief Justice Mohammed Habibur Rahman was named Chief Adviser (a position equivalent to prime minister) in the interim government. New parliamentary elections were held in June 1996 and were won by the Awami League; party leader Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister.

Sheikh Hasina, 1996-2001

Sheikh Hasina formed what she called a "Government of National Consensus" in June 1996, which included one minister from the Jatiya Party and another from the Jatiyo Samajtantric Dal, a very small leftist party. The Jatiya Party never entered into a formal coalition arrangement, and party president H.M. Ershad withdrew his support from the government in September 1997. Only three parties had more than 10 members elected to the 1996 Parliament: The Awami League, BNP, and Jatiya Party. Jatiya Party president, Ershad, was released from prison on bail in January 1997.

Although international and domestic election observers found the June 1996 election free and fair, the BNP protested alleged vote rigging by the Awami League. Ultimately, however, the BNP party decided to join the new Parliament. The BNP soon charged that police and Awami League activists were engaged in large-scale harassment and jailing of opposition activists. At the end of 1996, the BNP staged a parliamentary walkout over this and other grievances but returned in January 1997 under a four-point agreement with the ruling party. The BNP asserted that this agreement was never implemented and later staged another walkout in August 1997. The BNP returned to Parliament under another agreement in March 1998.

In June 1999, the BNP and other opposition parties again began to abstain from attending Parliament. Opposition parties staged an increasing number of nationwide general strikes, rising from 6 days of general strikes in 1997 to 27 days in 1999. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government elections unless the government took steps demanded by the opposition to ensure electoral fairness. The government did not take these steps, and the opposition subsequently boycotted all elections, including municipal council elections in February 1999, several parliamentary by-elections, and the Chittagong city corporation elections in January 2000.

In July 2001, the Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. Political violence that had increased during the Awami League government's tenure continued to increase through the summer in the run up to the election. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed during a visit of former President Jimmy Carter to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, foreswear the use of hartals (violently enforced strikes) as political tools, and if successful in forming a government allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament. The caretaker government was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary general election to be successfully held on October 1, 2001.

Khaleda Zia, 2001-present

The four-party alliance led by the BNP won over a two-thirds majority in Parliament. Begum Khaleda Zia was sworn in on October 10, 2001, as Prime Minister for the third time (first in 1991, second after the February 15, 1996 elections).

Despite her August 2001 pledge and all election monitoring groups declaring the election free and fair, Sheikh Hasina condemned the election, rejected the results, and boycotted Parliament. In 2002, however, she led her party legislators back to Parliament, but the AL again walked out in June 2003 to protest derogatory remarks about Hasina by a State Minister and the allegedly partisan role of the Parliamentary Speaker. In June 2004, the AL returned to Parliament without having any of their demands met for an apology to Sheikh Hasina and guarantees of a neutral Speaker. Since then, they attended Parliament irregularly before announcing a boycott of the entire June 2005 budget session. Sheikh Hasina and the AL demand early elections and significant changes in the electoral and caretaker government systems to stop alleged moves by the ruling coalition to rig the next election. The AL blames the ruling party for several high-profile attacks on opposition leaders, and asserts that the ruling party is bent on eliminating Sheikh Hasina and the AL as a viable force. The BNP and its allies accuse the AL of maligning Bangladesh at home and abroad out of jealousy over the government's performance on development and economic issues.

GOVERNMENT

The president, while chief of state, holds a largely ceremonial post; the real power is held by the prime minister, who is head of government. The president is elected by the legislature (Parliament) every 5 years. The president's circumscribed powers are substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government. (Under the 13th Amendment, which Parliament passed in March 1996, a caretaker government assumes power temporarily to oversee general elections after dissolution of the Parliament.) In the caretaker government, the president has control over the Ministry of Defense, the authority to declare a state of emergency, and the power to dismiss the Chief Adviser and other members of the caretaker government. Once elections have been held and a new government and Parliament are in place, the president's powers and position revert to their largely ceremonial role.

The prime minister is appointed by the president. The prime minister must be a Member of Parliament (MP) whom the president feels commands the confidence of the majority of other MPs. The cabinet is composed of ministers selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president. At least 90% of the ministers must be MPs. The other 10% may be non-MP experts or "technocrats" who are not otherwise disqualified from being elected MPs. According to the constitution, the president can dissolve Parliament upon the written request of the prime minister.

The legislature is a unicameral, 300-seat body. All of its members are elected by universal suffrage at least every five years. Parliament amended the constitution in May 2004, making a provision for adding 45 seats reserved for women and to be distributed among political parties in proportion to their numerical strength in Parliament. These 45 new seats have yet to be filled. The next general election is scheduled to take place no later than January 2007.

Bangladesh's judiciary is a civil court system based on the British model; the highest court of appeal is the appellate court of the Supreme Court. At the local government level, the country is divided into divisions, districts, sub districts, unions, and villages. Local officials are elected at the union level and selected at the village level. All larger administrative units are run by members of the civil service.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 6/President: Iajuddin AHMED
Prime Minister: Khaleda ZIA
Min. of Agriculture: M. K. ANWAR
Min. of Commerce: Altaf Hossain CHOUDHURY
Min. of Communications: Nazmul HUDA
Min. of Defense: Khaleda ZIA
Min. of Education: Osman FARRUK
Min. of Energy & Resources: Khaleda ZIA
Min. of Environment & Forests: Tariqul ISLAM
Min. of Finance & Planning: Mohammad Salifur RAHMAN
Min. of Fisheries & Livestock: Abdullah Al NOMAN
Min. of Food & Disaster Management & Relief: Chowdhury Kamal Ibne YUSUF
Min. of Foreign Affairs: M. Morshed KHAN
Min. of Health & Family Welfare: Khandaker Mosharraf HOSSAIN
Min. of Housing & Public Works: Mirza ABBAS
Min. of Industries: Maulana Matiur Rahman NIZAMI
Min. of Information: M. Shamsul ISLAM
Min. of Jute & Textiles: Shahjahan SIRAJ
Min. of Law, Justice, & Parliamentary Affairs: Moudud AHMED
Min. of Local Govt., Rural Development, & Cooperatives: Abdul Mannan BHUIYAN
Min. of Post & Telecommunication: Mohammad Aminul HAQUE
Min. of Science & Information & Communication Technology: Abdul Moyeen KHAN
Min. of Shipping: Akbar HOSSAIN
Min. of Social Welfare: Ali Ahsan Mohammad MUJAHID
Min. of Water Resources: M. Hafizuddin AHMED
Min. of Women & Children Affairs: Khurshid Jahan HAQUE
Min. Without Portfolio: Abdul Matin CHOWDHURY
State. Min. of Home Affairs: Lutfozzaman BABAR
State Min. of Labor & Employment: Amanuallah AMAN
State Min. of Land: Ukil Abdus Sattar BHUIYAN
State Min. of NGOs: Lutfar Rahman Khan AZAD
Governor, Central Bank: Salehuddin AHMED
Ambassador to the US: Shamsher Mobin CHOWDHURY
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Iftekhar Ahmed CHOWDHURY

Bangladesh maintains an embassy in the United States at 3510 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel: 202-244-0183; fax: 202-244-5366).

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Despite serious problems related to a dysfunctional political system, weak governance, and pervasive corruption, Bangladesh remains one of the few democracies in the Muslim world. Bangladeshis regard democracy as an important legacy of their bloody war for independence, and vote in large numbers. However, the practice and understanding of democratic concepts is often shallow. Bangladesh is generally a force for moderation in international forums, and it is also a long-time leader in international peacekeeping operations. Its activities in international organizations, with other governments, and its regional partners to promote human rights, democracy, and free markets are coordinated and high profile.

Bangladesh lies at the strategic crossroads of South and Southeast Asia. Potential terrorist movements and activities in or through Bangladesh pose a potentially serious threat to India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Burma, as well as Bangladesh itself. The Bangladesh Government routinely denies Indian allegations that Indian insurgents in northeast India operate out of Bangladesh and that extremist Islamist forces are over-whelming Bangladesh's traditionally moderate character. It also denies there is any international terrorist presence in Bangladesh. Given its size and location, a major crisis in Bangladesh could have important consequences for regional stability, particularly if significant refugee movements ensue.

ECONOMY

Although one of the world's poorest and most densely populated countries, Bangladesh has made major strides to meet the food needs of its increasing population, through increased domestic production augmented by imports. The land is devoted mainly to rice and jute cultivation, although wheat production has increased in recent years; the country is largely self-sufficient in rice production. Nonetheless, an estimated 10% to 15% of the population faces serious nutritional risk. Bangladesh's predominantly agricultural economy depends heavily on an erratic monsoonal cycle, with periodic flooding and drought. Although improving, infrastructure to support transportation, communications, and power supply is poorly developed. Bangladesh is limited in its reserves of coal and oil, and its industrial base is weak. However, the country's main endowments include its vast human resource base, rich agricultural land, relatively abundant water, and substantial reserves of natural gas.

Since independence in 1971, Bangladesh has received more than $30 billion in grant aid and loan commitments from foreign donors, about $15 billion of which has been disbursed. Major donors include the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the UN Development Program, the United States, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and west European countries. Bangladesh historically has run a large trade deficit, financed largely through aid receipts and remittances from workers overseas. Foreign reserves dropped markedly in 2001 but appear to have now stabilized in the $2.2 to $2.5 billion range (or about 2.0-2.2 monthly import cover). On May 5, 2005, reserves stood at $3.24 billion.

Moves Toward a Market Economy

Following the violent events of 1971 during the fight for independence, Bangladesh—with the help of large infusions of donor relief and development aid—slowly began to turn its attention to developing new industrial capacity and rehabilitating its economy. The statist economic model adopted by its early leadership, however—including the nationalization of much of the industrial sector—resulted in inefficiency and economic stagnation. Beginning in late 1975, the government gradually gave greater scope to private sector participation in the economy, a pattern that has continued. A few state-owned enterprises have been privatized, but many, including major portions of the banking and jute sectors, remain under government control. Population growth, inefficiency in the public sector, a resistance to developing the country's richest natural resources, and limited capital have all continued to restrict economic growth.

In the mid-1980s, there were encouraging, if halting, signs of progress. Economic policies aimed at encouraging private enterprise and investment, denationalizing public industries, reinstating budgetary discipline, and liberalizing the import regime were accelerated. From 1991 to 1993, the government successfully followed an enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF) with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) but failed to follow through on reforms in large part because of a pre-occupation with the government's domestic political troubles. In the late 1990s the government's economic policies became more entrenched, and some of the early gains were lost, which was highlighted by a precipitous drop in foreign direct investment in 2000 and 2001. The current government has promised a return to liberalization. In June 2003 the IMF approved 3-year, $490-million plan as part of the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) for Bangladesh that aims to support the government's economic reform program up to 2006. Seventy million dollars was made available immediately. In the same vein the World Bank approved $536 million in interest-free loans.

Efforts to achieve Bangladesh's macroeconomic goals have been problematic. The privatization of public sector industries has proceeded at a slow pace—due in part to worker unrest in affected industries—although on June 30, 2002, the government took a bold step as it closed down the Adamjee Jute Mill, the country's largest and most costly state-owned enterprise. The government also has proven unable to resist demands for wage hikes in government-owned industries. Economic growth has been further slowed by a largely dysfunctional banking system. This has impeded access to capital. State-owned banks, which control about three-fourths of deposits and loans, carry classified loan burdens of about 50%.

The IMF and World Bank predict GDP growth over the next 5 years will be about 4.5%, well short of the 7%-8% that they feel is needed to lift Bangladesh out of its severe poverty. The post-September 11, 2001 global economic downturn hit especially hard Bangladesh's main export industry—ready-made garments. As a result, exports, which were growing 18% annually, are now growing 8%. The initial impact of the end of quotas under the Multi-Fiber Arrangement has been moderate and uneven with some sectors, especially knitwear, experiencing gains while other sectors report a 10-20% drop in orders. Downward price pressure means Bangladesh must cut final delivered costs considerably if it is to remain competitive in the world market. Foreign investors in a broad range of sectors are increasingly frustrated with the politics of confrontation, the level of corruption, and the slow pace of reform. Bangladesh may well lose not only potential investors but also those already invested if governance does not improve.

Agriculture

Most Bangladeshis earn their living from agriculture. Although rice and jute are the primary crops, wheat and vegetables are assuming greater importance. Tea is grown in the northeast. Because of Bangladesh's fertile soil and normally ample water supply, rice can be grown and harvested three times a year in many areas. Due to a number of factors, Bangladesh's labor-intensive agriculture has achieved steady increases in food grain production despite the often unfavorable weather conditions. These include better flood control and irrigation, a generally more efficient use of fertilizers, and the establishment of better distribution and rural credit networks. With 26.19 million metric tons produced in 2003-04 (July-June), rice is Bangladesh's principal crop. By comparison, wheat output in 2004 was 1.3 million metric tons. Population pressure continues to place a severe burden on productive capacity, creating a food deficit, especially of wheat. Foreign assistance and commercial imports fill the gap. Underemployment remains a serious problem, and a growing concern for Bangladesh's agricultural sector will be its ability to absorb additional manpower. Finding alternative sources of employment will continue to be a daunting problem for future governments, particularly with the increasing numbers of landless peasants who already account for about half the rural labor force.

Industry and Investment

Fortunately for Bangladesh, many new jobs—1.8 million, mostly for women—have been created by the country's dynamic private ready-made garment industry, which grew at double-digit rates through most of the 1990s. The labor-intensive process of ship breaking for scrap has developed to the point where it now meets most of Bangladesh's domestic steel needs. Other industries include sugar, tea, leather goods, newsprint, pharmaceutical, and fertilizer production. The country has done less well, however, in expanding its export base—garments account for more than three-fourths of all exports, dwarfing the country's historic cash crop, jute, along with leather, shrimp, pharmaceuticals, and ceramics.

Despite the country's politically motivated general strikes, poor infrastructure, and weak financial system, Bangladeshi entrepreneurs have shown themselves adept at competing in the global garments marketplace. Bangladesh exports significant amounts of garments and knitwear to the U.S. and the European Union (EU) market. As noted, the initial impact of the end of quotas on Bangladesh's ready-made garment industry has been moderate. Downward price pressures, however, mean Bangladesh must cut final delivered costs considerably if it is to remain competitive in the world market. Bangladesh has been a world leader in its efforts to end the use of child labor in garment factories. On July 4, 1995, the Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers Export Association, International Labor Organization, and UNICEF signed a memorandum of understanding on the elimination of child labor in the garment sector. Implementation of this pioneering agreement began in fall 1995, and by the end of 2001, child labor in the garment trade virtually had been eliminated.

The Bangladesh Government continues to court foreign investment, something it did fairly well in the 1990s in private power generation and gas exploration and production, as well as in other sectors such as cellular telephony, textiles, and pharmaceuticals. In 1989, the same year it signed a bilateral investment treaty with the United States, it established a board of investment to simplify approval and start-up procedures for foreign investors, although in practice the board has done little to increase investment. Bangladesh also has established successful export processing zones in Chittagong (1983), Dhaka (1994) and Comilla (2000), and has given the private sector permission to build and operate competing export promotion zones (EPZs).

The most important reforms Bangladesh should make to be able to compete in a global economy are to privatize the state-owned enterprises (SOEs), deregulate and promote foreign investment in high-potential industries like energy and telecommunications, and take decisive steps toward combating corruption and strengthening rule of law.

DEFENSE

The Bangladesh Army, Navy, and Air Force are composed of regular military members. Some of the senior officers and noncommissioned officers served in the Pakistan military before the 1971 independence war. Senior officers include "repatriates" who were interned in Pakistan during the war, and "freedom fighters" who fought against Pakistan. The 110,000-member, seven-division army is modeled and organized along British lines, similar to other armies on the Indian subcontinent. However, it has adopted U.S. Army tactical planning procedures, training management techniques, and noncommissioned officer educational systems. It also is eager to improve its peace-keeping operations capabilities and is working with the U.S. military in that area. The United States gave the Bangladesh Air Force four U.S. C-130 B transport aircraft in 2001 under the excess defense article (EDA) program. These aircraft will improve the military's disaster response and peacekeeping capabilities. The Bangladesh Navy is mostly limited to coastal patrolling, but in 2001 it paid to have an ULSAN-class frigate built in South Korea.

In addition to traditional defense roles, the military has been called on to provide support to civil authorities for disaster relief and internal security. The Bangladesh Air Force and Navy, with about 7,000 personnel each, perform traditional military missions. A Coast Guard has been formed, under the home ministry, to play a stronger role in the area of anti-smuggling, anti-piracy, and protection of offshore resources. Recognition of economic and fiscal constraints has led to the establishment of several paramilitary and auxiliary forces, including the 40,000-member Bangladesh rifles; the Ansars and village defense parties organization, which claims 64 members in every village in the country; and a 5,000-member specialized police unit known as the armed police. In 2004, a new police unit called the Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) was constituted with personnel drawn from the military and different law enforcement agencies. RAB is designed to fight hardcore criminal gangs. Bangladesh Rifles, under the authority of the home ministry, are commanded by army officers who are seconded to the organization.

In addition to in-country military training, some advanced and technical training is done abroad, including grant aid training in the United States. China, Pakistan, and eastern Europe are the major defense suppliers to Bangladesh, but military leaders are trying to find affordable alternatives to Chinese equipment.

A 2,300-member Bangladesh Army contingent served with coalition forces during the 1991 Gulf war. In June 2003 Bangladesh was the third-leading contributor to UN peacekeeping operations with a total of 2,642 troops, observers, and military police. As of April 30, 2005, Bangladesh's 7,942 peacekeepers deployed around the world made it the top troop contributor to international peacekeeping operations. At the completion of their deployment to Sudan later in 2005, that figure should reach 9,862.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Bangladesh pursues a moderate foreign policy that places heavy reliance on multinational diplomacy, especially at the United Nations.

Participation in Multilateral Organizations

Bangladesh was admitted to the United Nations in 1974 and was elected to a Security Council term in 1978 and again for a 2000-01 term. Then Foreign Minister Choudhury served as president of the 41st UN General Assembly in 1986. The government has participated in numerous international conferences, especially those dealing with population, food, development, and women's issues. In 1982-83, Bangladesh played a constructive role as chairman of the "Group of 77," an informal association encompassing most of the world's developing nations. It has taken a leading role in the "Group of 48" developing countries and the "Developing-8" group of countries.

Since 1975, Bangladesh has sought close relations with other Islamic states and a role among moderate members of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). In 1983, Bangladesh hosted the foreign ministers meeting of the OIC. The government also has pursued the expansion of cooperation among the nations of South Asia, bringing the process—an initiative of former President Ziaur Rahman—through its earliest, most tentative stages to the formal inauguration of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) at a summit gathering of South Asian leaders in Dhaka in December 1985. Bangladesh has served in the chairmanship of SAARC and has participated in a wide range of ongoing SAARC regional activities.

In recent years, Bangladesh has played a significant role in international peacekeeping activities. Several thousand Bangladeshi military personnel are deployed overseas on peacekeeping operations. Under UN auspices, Bangladeshi troops have served or are serving in Sierra Leone, Somalia, Rwanda, Mozambique, Kuwait, Ethiopia-Eritrea, Kosovo, East Timor, Georgia, Congo, Côte d'Ivoire and Western Sahara, Bosnia, and Haiti. Bangladesh responded quickly to President Clinton's 1994 request for troops and police for the multinational force for Haiti and provided the largest non-U.S. contingent.

Bilateral Relations With Other Nations

Bangladesh is bordered on the west, north, and east by a 2,400-kilometer land frontier with India, and on the southeast by a land and water frontier (193 kilometers) with Burma.

India

India is Bangladesh's most important neighbor. Geographic, cultural, historic, and commercial ties are strong, and both countries recognize the importance of good relations. During and immediately after Bangladesh's struggle for independence from Pakistan in 1971, India assisted refugees from East Pakistan, intervened militarily to help bring about the independence of Bangladesh, and furnished relief and reconstruction aid.

Indo-Bangladesh relations are often strained, and many Bangladeshis feel India likes to play "big brother" to smaller neighbors, including Bangladesh. Bilateral relations warmed in 1996, due to a softer Indian foreign policy and the new Awami League government. A 30-year water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River was signed in December 1996, after an earlier bilateral water-sharing agreement for the Ganges River lapsed in 1988. The Bangladesh Government and tribal insurgents signed a peace accord in December 1997, which allowed for the return of tribal refugees who had fled into India, beginning in 1986, to escape violence caused by an insurgency in their homeland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The implementation of most parts of this agreement have stalled, and the army maintains a strong presence in the Hill Tracts. Arms smuggling and reported opium poppy cultivation are concerns in this area. Occasional skirmishes between Bangladeshi and Indian border forces sometimes escalate and seriously disrupt bilateral relations. Bangladesh remains extremely concerned about a proposed Indian river linking project, which the government says could turn large parts of Bangladesh into a desert. The ruling party views the Indian Government as a major benefactor of the opposition Awami League, and blames negative international media coverage of Bangladesh on alleged Indian manipulation.

Pakistan

Bangladesh enjoys warm relations with Pakistan, despite the strained early days of their relationship. Landmarks in their reconciliation are:

• An August 1973 agreement between Bangladesh and Pakistan on the repatriation of numerous individuals, including 90,000 Pakistani prisoners of war stranded in Bangladesh as a result of the 1971 conflict;
• A February 1974 accord by Bangladesh and Pakistan on mutual recognition followed more than 2 years later by establishment of formal diplomatic relations;
• The organization by the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) of an airlift that moved almost 250,000 Bengalis from Pakistan to Bangladesh, and non-Bengalis from Bangladesh to Pakistan; and
• Exchanges of high-level visits, including a visit by Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto to Bangladesh in 1989 and visits by Prime Minister Zia to Pakistan in 1992 and in 1995.
• President Pervez Musharraf visited Bangladesh in 2002.
• Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz visited Bangladesh in 2004.

Still to be resolved are the division of assets from the pre-1971 period and the status of more than 250,000 non-Bengali Muslims (known as "Biharis") remaining in Bangladesh but seeking resettlement in Pakistan.

Burma

Bilateral ties with Burma are good, despite occasional border strains and an influx of more than 270,000 Muslim refugees (known as "Rohingya") from predominantly Buddhist Burma. As a result of bilateral discussions, and with the cooperation and assistance of the UNHCR, most of the Rohingya refugees have now returned to Burma. As of 2005, about 20,000 refugees remain in camps in southern Bangladesh.

Former Soviet Union

The former Soviet Union supported India's actions during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war and was among the first to recognize Bangladesh. The U.S.S.R. initially contributed considerable relief and rehabilitation aid to the new nation. After Sheikh Mujib was assassinated in 1975 and replaced by military regimes, however, Soviet-Bangladesh relations cooled.

In 1989, the U.S.S.R. ranked 14th among aid donors to Bangladesh. The Soviets focused on the development of electrical power, natural gas and oil, and maintained active cultural relations with Bangladesh. They financed the Ghorasal thermal power station—the largest in Bangladesh. Recently, Russia has conducted an aggressive military sales effort in Dhaka and has succeeded with a $124-million deal for eight MIG-29 fighters. Bangladesh began to open diplomatic relations with the newly independent Central Asian states in 1992.

China

China traditionally has been more important to Bangladesh than the former U.S.S.R., even though China supported Pakistan in 1971. As Bangladesh's relations with the Soviet Union and India cooled in the mid-1970s, and as Bangladesh and Pakistan became reconciled, China's relations with Bangladesh grew warmer. An exchange of diplomatic missions in February 1976 followed an accord on recognition in late 1975.

Since that time, relations have grown stronger, centering on trade, cultural activities, military and civilian aid, and exchanges of high-level visits, beginning in January 1977 with President Zia's trip to Beijing. The largest and most visible symbol of bilateral amity is the Bangladesh-China "Friendship Bridge," completed in 1989 near Dhaka, as well as the extensive military hardware in the Bangladesh inventory and warm military relations between the two countries. In the 1990s, the Chinese also built two 210-megawatt power plants outside of Chittagong; mechanical faults in the plants cause them to frequently shut down for days at a time, heightening the country's power shortage. In April 2005, Bangladesh and China signed nine memoranda of understanding on trade and other issues during the visit to Dhaka of Prime Minister Wen.

Other countries in South Asia

Bangladesh maintains friendly relations with Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka and strongly opposed the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Bangladesh and Nepal recently agreed to facilitate land transit between the two countries.

U.S.-BANGLADESH RELATIONS

Although the U.S. relationship with Bangladesh was initially troubled because of strong U.S. ties with Pakistan, U.S.-Bangladesh friendship and support developed quickly following Bangladesh's independence from Pakistan in 1971.

U.S.-Bangladesh relations are excellent. These relations were boosted in March 2000 when President Clinton visited Bangladesh, the first visit ever by a sitting U.S. President, and when Secretary of State Colin Powell visited in June 2003, as well as when Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld visited in June 2004. A centerpiece of the bilateral relationship is a large U.S. economic aid program, which totaled about $100 million in 2001. U.S. economic and food aid programs, which began as emergency relief following the 1971 war for independence, now concentrate on long-term development. U.S. assistance objectives include stabilizing population growth, protecting human health, encouraging broad-based economic growth, and building democracy. In total, the United States has provided more than $4.3 billion in food and development assistance to Bangladesh. Food aid under Titles I, II, and III of PL-480 (congressional "food-for-peace" legislation) has been designed to help Bangladesh meet minimum food requirements, promote food production, and moderate fluctuation in consumer prices. Other U.S. development assistance emphasizes family planning and health, agricultural development, and rural employment. The United States works with other donors and the Bangladesh Government to avoid duplication and ensure that resources are used to maximum benefit.

Since 1986, with the exception of 1988-89, when an aircraft purchase made the trade balance even, the U.S. trade balance with Bangladesh has been negative, due largely to growing imports of ready-made garments. Jute carpet backing is the other major U.S. import from Bangladesh. Total imports from Bangladesh were about $2 billion (excluding services) in 2003, down from the $2.1 billion in 2002. U.S. exports to Bangladesh (some $226 million, excluding services in 2003) include wheat, fertilizer, cotton, communications equipment, aircraft, and medical supplies, a portion of which is financed by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). A bilateral investment treaty was signed in 1989.

Another trade related issue between the two countries involves the export processing zones (EPZs) The government provides several tax, foreign exchange, customs and labor incentives to investors in the EPZs. One such incentive provided in recent years was an exemption from certain labor laws, which had the practical effect of prohibiting trade unions from the zones. The U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) law requires the beneficiary country to satisfy certain conditions relating to labor rights. On July 13, 2004, the government passed a bill allowing limited trade unionism in the EPZs effective November 1, 2006.

Relations between Bangladesh and the United States were further strengthened by the participation of Bangladesh troops in the 1991 Gulf war coalition, and alongside U.S. forces in numerous UN peacekeeping operations, including Haiti in 1994, as well as by the assistance of a U.S. naval task force after a disastrous March 1991 cyclone in Bangladesh. The relief efforts of U.S. troops are credited with having saved as many as 200,000 lives. In response to Bangladesh's worst flooding of the century in 1998, the United States donated 700,000 metric tons of food grains, helping to mitigate shortages.

Most recently, Bangladesh has become a valuable United States ally in the Global War on Terrorism. As part of the war effort, the Government of Bangladesh has publicly addressed problems of money laundering, weak border controls, and other factors to ensure that Bangladesh does not become a terrorist safe-haven.

Principal U.S. Embassy
Officials

DHAKA (E) Address: Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka, Bangladesh; APO/FPO: Unit 6120 Box 1000, APO AP 96562-1000; Phone: +880 885 5500; Fax: +880 882 3744; INMARSAT Tel: +881 676 311 001; Work-week: 0800 to 1630 Sunto Thurs; Website: http://dhaka.usembassy.gov/

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

August 30, 2005

Country Description:

Bangladesh has a developing economy. Tourist facilities outside major cities and tourist areas are minimal.

Entry/Exit Requirements:

A passport, visa and onward/return ticket are required. All travelers to Bangladesh, including American citizens, must have a valid visa in their valid passport prior to arrival. A valid visa in an expired or cancelled U.S. passport is not acceptable. If you are issued a new U.S. passport, you must have your Bangladesh visa transferred to that passport. Note that airport visas (landing permits) are no longer available upon arrival by air. Some Americans seeking visas from the Bangladeshi Embassy in Washington, D.C. or from Bangladeshi Embassies or Consulates in other countries have reported that they are erroneously advised to enter Bangladesh on a landing permit.

Expired visas to Bangladesh may be extended at the Directorate of Immigration and Passport, located at Segunbagicha, Dhaka. The phone number is 880-2-9123681 and fax 880-2-9123399.

There are two exit requirements: A) When traveling by air, there is a departure tax on all foreigners except babies under the age of two. This tax is included when air tickets are purchased. Otherwise, it is collected at the airport at the time of departure. The amount of the departure tax varies for travel to different countries (i.e., tax for the U.S. is the most expensive, which is USD $43). There is no travel tax for transit passengers traveling through Bangladesh without a visa and in country for 72 hours or fewer. These requirements may be subject to change, and travelers are advised to check with the Embassy of Bangladesh before traveling. B) Departing foreign nationals are also required to comply with the income tax ordinance of 1984 and submit an income tax clearance certificate/income tax exemption certificate to local airline offices upon departure from Bangladesh.

For further information on entry requirements and possible exceptions to the exit requirements, please contact the Embassy of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, 3510 International Drive, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, telephone 202-244-0183, fax 202-244-5366, website http://www.bangladoot.org, or the Bangladesh Consulates in New York, 211 E. 43rd Street, Suite 502, New York, NY 10017, telephone 212-599-6767, or Los Angeles, 10850 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 1250, Los Angeles, CA 90024, telephone 310-441-9399.

Safety and Security:

The overall security situation in Bangladesh, including threats to U.S. interests from extremists, remains a concern. In response to this potential threat, the U.S. Embassy has increased the level of security around U.S. Government facilities in and around Dhaka.

A series of coordinated explosions occurred across Bangladesh August 17th, 2005. More than 500 small devices went off simultaneously in more than 50 cities, including locations throughout the capital, Dhaka. Two persons were killed and more than 100 bystanders were injured. In the past few years, various groups have targeted cinemas, shrines, political gatherings, and the British High Commissioner.

Political confrontations such as demonstrations, rallies, and marches are unpredictable and have the potential for violence. In general, demonstrations occur on Friday afternoons but may take place at any time and any place. However, most demonstrations occur in downtown Dhaka, approximately five miles south of the U.S. Embassy. Protesters have used physical force, rocks, guns, and explosive devices during confrontations. In the past, police have used rubber bullets, tear gas, live ammunition, water cannons, and other riot equipment when confronting protesters. The U.S. Embassy has seen an increase in anti-American protests following Friday prayers at the national mosque largely in part due to U.S. involvement in Iraq. Americans are urged to avoid travel to the downtown Dhaka area on Fridays whenever possible.

Nationwide strikes or "hartals" are widely employed as a means of political expression in Bangladesh. The political opposition over the past several years has called a number of these hartals, resulting in the virtual shutdown of transportation and commerce, and sometimes attacks on individuals who do not observe the hartals. Clashes between rival political groups during hartals have resulted in deaths and injuries. American citizens are therefore urged to avoid all political protests, demonstrations, and marches. During hartals, American citizens should exercise caution in all areas and remain inside their hotels, residences, schools, or workplace whenever possible.

Due to kidnappings and other security incidents, including those involving foreign nationals, U.S. citizens are advised against traveling to the Khagrachari, Rangamati and Bandarban Hill Tracts districts (collectively known as the Chittagong Hill Tracts) unless the travel is absolutely essential. Individuals who choose to visit these districts are urged to exercise extreme caution. Visitors to Bangladesh should check with the Consular Section at the U.S. Embassy in Dhaka for updated information on planned political activities.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime:

Urban crime can be organized or opportunistic, conducted by individuals or groups, and commonly encompasses fraud, theft (larceny, pick-pocketing, snatch-and-grab), robbery (armed and unarmed), carjacking, rape, assault, and burglary (home and auto). Incidents of crime and levels of violence are higher in low-income residential and congested commercial areas. Visitors should avoid walking alone after dark, carrying large sums of money, or wearing expensive jewelry. Valuables should be stored in hotel safety deposit boxes and should not be left unattended in hotel rooms. Police are generally responsive to reports of crimes against Americans.

Information for Victims of Crime:

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while over-seas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Other Health Information:

Medical facilities in Bangladesh do not approach U.S. standards, even in tourist areas. There is no functioning emergency medical care system in Bangladesh. Prescription medication may be untrustworthy or unavailable. Medical evacuations to Bangkok or Singapore are often necessary for serious conditions.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance:

The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. Please see information on medical insurance overseas at The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions:

While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Bangladesh is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

The Bangladesh road network is in poor condition and poorly maintained. The streets of Dhaka are extremely congested, with hundreds of thousands of bicycle rickshaws competing with baby taxis, auto tempos, cars, overloaded buses, and trucks on limited road space. Also, driving is on the left side of the road in Bangladesh, and may be a source of confusion to American visitors. Inter-city roads are narrow. Driving at night is especially dangerous. Streetlights are rare even in cities. Road accidents are common in Bangladesh. Numerous American residents in Bangladesh report having had at least one traffic accident. Fatal head-on collisions on inter-city roads are common. When vehicle accidents occur, a crowd quickly gathers and judges the more affluent party to be at fault. Travelers are strongly urged not to use rickshaws or three-wheeled baby taxis due to their high accident rate, as well as the increased possibility of purse-sonatinas or muggings.

Rental cars with drivers and regular taxis are the preferred means of transportation.

Visit the website of Bangladesh's national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at the Bangladesh Parjan Corporation, National Tourism Organization, 233 Airport Road, Tejgaon, Dhaka-1214, telephone (880-2) 811-9192 or 811-8559, fax (880-2) 811-7235, internet website http://www.parjatan.org, or e-mail address, bpcho@bangla.net.

Aviation Safety Oversight:

The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of Bangladesh as not being in compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards for the oversight of Bangladesh's air carrier operations. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's internet web site at www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Special Circumstances:

Bangladesh is a riverine country with a wide network of waterways used for public transportation. Ferries and other boats compete with the railroads as a major means of public transport. Typically overloaded and top-heavy, ferries are subject to capsizing, particularly during the monsoon season from May to October or when encountering thunderstorms or wind gusts that arise unpredictably. Every year there are many fatalities resulting from ferry accidents.

Bangladesh customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Bangladesh items such as currency, household appliances, alcohol, cigarettes and weapons. There is no restriction as to the amount of U.S. dollars a visitor brings into Bangladesh, however, they must declare to Customs authorities if they are carrying more than USD $5,000 at the time of arrival. It is advisable to contact the Bangladeshi Embassy or Consulates for specific information regarding customs requirements.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a photocopy of their U.S. passport with them at all times in case they are questioned by local officials. This will provide proof of identity and U.S. citizenship.

In accordance with the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations to which Bangladesh is a signatory, a U.S. citizen under detention in Bangladesh has the right to request that the U.S. Embassy in Dhaka be notified regarding his or her situation. Bangladeshi authorities have repeatedly failed to notify U.S. consular officials of the arrest of American citizens.

Criminal Penalties:

While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses.

Persons violating Bangladeshi laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Bangladesh are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in illicit sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States. For more information, see http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1467.html.

Children's Issues:

For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues web site at http://www.travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location:

Americans living or traveling in Bangladesh are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Bangladesh. Americans without internet access may register directly with the Embassy. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located approximately four miles south of Zia International Airport, and five miles north of downtown in the Diplomatic Enclave, Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka, telephone (880-2) 885-5500, fax number (880-2) 882-3744. The workweek is Sunday through Thursday. The Consular Section is open for American Citizens Services Sunday through Thursday from 1:00 p.m. to 4:00 p.m. For emergency services and general information during business hours, please call (880-2) 882-3805. For emergency services after hours, please call (880-2) 885-5500 and ask for the duty officer. The Embassy's Internet home page is http://dhaka.usembassy.gov/.

International Adoption

June 2001

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family

Disclaimer:

The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and our current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note:

Adoption of children is not permitted under Bangladesh law. However, Bangladesh citizens are permitted to apply for guardianship of children, effectively giving Bangladeshi prospective adoptive parents custody of children. The 1982 Guardianship and Wards Amendments Ordinances prohibit granting guardianship of Bangladeshi children to non-Bangladeshi parents. These restrictions have limited adoption of Bangladeshi children to only a handful each year.

Bangladesh Adoption Authority:

The Bangladesh government offices responsible for guardianships are the Family Court and Ministry of Home Affairs.

Bangladesh Adoption Procedures:

Requirements for Obtaining Legal Guardianship: Biological parent must sign an irrevocable release of the child before a Notary Public or Magistrate here in Bangladesh.

• An application for legal guardianship must be made to the Family court. In Bangladesh, the Family Court has sole jurisdiction over family matters.
• A 'No Objection Certificate' must be obtained from the Home Ministry.
• The No Objection Certificate and 'legal guardianship' documents should be presented to the Bangladesh Passport Office for the child's passport. Prospective adopting parents should be listed as the legal guardians in the child's passport.

Age and Civil Status Requirements:

Prospective adoptive parents must be at least 18 years old and provide proof of Bangladeshi citizenship.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys:

The Bangladesh government does not approve adoption agencies or attorneys. The U.S. Embassy can provide a list of Bangladesh attorneys conversant with family law in Bangladesh. The Embassy can also assist in providing contact with local established charitable orphanages.

Doctors:

The U.S. Embassy can provide a list of panel physicians, should either you or your children experience health problems while in Bangladesh.

Bangladesh Documentary Requirements:

See Adoption Procedures above.

U.S. Immigration Requirements:

A Bangladesh child adopted by an American citizen must obtain an immigrant visa before he or she can enter the U.S. as a lawful permanent resident. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family

Bangladesh Embassy and Consulates in the United States:
Embassy of the Peoples Republic of
Bangladesh
3510 International Drive, NW
Washington, DC 20008
Phone: (202) 244-0183
Bangladesh Consulate Los Angeles
10850 Wilshire Boulevard,
Suite 1250
Los Angeles, CA 90024
Phone: (310) 441-9399
Fax: (310) 441-4458

Bangladesh Consulate New York 211
East 43rd Street, Suite 502
New York, NY 10017 Phone: (212) 599-6767
Fax: (212) 682-9211

U.S. Embassy in Bangladesh:
U.S. Embassy Dhaka
Diplomatic Enclave
GPO Box 323, Dhaka-1212
Phone: (880) 2-882-4700
through 4722
Fax: (880) 2-882-4449
Web Site:
http://www.citecho.net/usdhaka

Additional Information:

Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult BCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions.

Questions:

Specific questions regarding adoption in Bangladesh may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Bangladesh. You may also contact the Office of Children's Issues, SA-29, 2201 C Street, NW, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-2818, telephone 1-888-407-4747 with specific questions.

Public Announcement

December 21, 2005

This Public Announcement is being issued to alert U.S. citizens to recent events related to the security situation in Bangladesh. Those residing in or traveling to Bangladesh are urged to use extra care and precaution while in the country. This Public Announcement expires on March 21, 2006.

An outlawed Islamist terrorist organization, Jamaatul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), has taken responsibility for a series of bombings and suicide attacks in Bangladesh since August against a variety of targets. The half-dozen attacks have focused on the judicial system and local government institutions, killed approximately 30 Bangladeshis, and wounded nearly 200. JMB leaflets found at attack sites and sent to local media call for the implementation of strict Islamic law in Bangladesh, justify the use of indiscriminate suicide attacks, and condemn Western social and political concepts as un-Islamic. They also identify the governments of the United States and the United Kingdom as enemies of Islam. Newspapers and Bangladeshi non-governmental organizations, including several which receive funding from the United States Government, have received threats purportedly from JMB.

JMB's introduction of suicide bombers to Bangladesh in November represented a significant escalation in its campaign of violence. JMB has also demonstrated an ability to adapt its methods and targets to defeat police counter-measures. It is unclear how the arrest of several senior JMB figures in December, and the recovery of several large arms caches, will affect JMB's ability to mount future attacks. Thus far, no American citizens have been killed or wounded in these attacks.

JMB threats receive wide coverage in the local media. On December 10, several newspapers reported that the JMB had threatened to attack women, Muslim and non-Muslim, who failed to adopt Islamic dress.

The Embassy advises all Americans in or traveling to Bangladesh to take extra care and precaution while going out in public and to be cognizant of the current situation. American citizens in Bangladesh should remain vigilant, especially if visiting courts or municipal government offices.

U.S. citizens planning to travel to Bangladesh should consult the Department of State's Consular Information Sheet for Bangladesh and the most recent Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, which are available via the Internet at http://travel.state.gov. American citizens may obtain up-to-date information on security conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll-free in the United States and (202) 501-4444 from overseas.

U.S. citizens visiting or resident in Bangladesh are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy, where they may obtain updated information on travel and security within Bangladesh. Security updates are e-mailed to all registered Americans with an e-mail address. American citizens may complete a registration form on-line at https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs/. During normal business hours American citizens may call the U.S. Embassy in Dhaka at (880-2) 882-3805; for after-hours emergencies call (880-2)-885-5500, dial "0" and ask for the duty officer. The fax number of the consular section is (880-2) 882-4449. The U.S. Embassy is located in the diplomatic enclave north of downtown Dhaka, at Madani Avenue, Baridhara, Dhaka 1212. The Embassy's workweek is Sunday through Thursday, 8:00 am to 4:30 pm. The American Citizens Services (ACS) unit is open from 1:00 pm to 4pm, Sunday through Thursday, except for American and most local holidays.