DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Dominican Republic

Republica Dominicana

CAPITAL: Santo Domingo

FLAG: The national flag, adopted in 1844, consists of a white cross superimposed on a field of four rectangles, the upper left and lower right in blue, the upper right and lower left in red.

ANTHEM: Himno Nacional, beginning "Quisqueyanos valientes, alcemos nuestro canto" ("Valiant Dominicans, let us raise our song").

MONETARY UNIT: The Dominican peso (rd$) of 100 centavos is a paper currency. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 centavos and 1 peso, and notes of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 pesos. rd$1 = us$0.03287 (or us$1 = rd$30.42) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, but US and Spanish weights are widely used in commercial transactions.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Epiphany, 6 January; Altagracia Day, 21 January; Duarte Day, 26 January; Independence Day, 27 February; Labor Day, 1 May; Restoration of Independence, 16 August; Day of Our Lady of Las Mercedes, 24 September; All Saints' Day, 1 November; Christmas, 25 December. Movable religious holidays include Good Friday and Corpus Christi.

TIME: Eastern Daylight Savings Time is maintained throughout the year; 8 am = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola (Española) and includes the islands of Beata, Catalina, Saona, Alto Velo, and Catalinita in the Caribbean Sea, and several islets in the Atlantic Ocean. It has an area of 48,730 sq km (18,815 sq mi), with a length of 386 km (240 mi) e–w, extending from Cape Engaño to the Haitian border, and a width of 261 km (162 mi) n–s, extending from Cape Isabela to Cape Beata. Comparatively, the area occupied by the Dominican Republic is slightly more than twice the size of the state of New Hampshire. Bounded on the n by the Atlantic Ocean, on the e by the Mona Passage (which separates it from Puerto Rico), on the s by the Caribbean Sea, and on the w by Haiti, the Dominican Republic has a total boundary length of 1,648 km (890 mi), of which only 360 km (194 mi) is the length of the land boundary with Haiti.

The Dominican Republic's capital city, Santo Domingo, is located on its southern coast.

TOPOGRAPHY

The Dominican Republic is generally mountainous, with deserts in the extreme western regions. The principal mountain range, the Central Cordillera, running from east to west and extensively pine-forested, bisects the republic. Between the Central Cordillera and the Northern Cordillera (and their associated plains) lies the famous Cibao (La Vega Real) Valley (225 km/140 mi long, with an average width of 23 km/14 mi), noted for the excellent quality of its soil. Fertile valleys also abound in the central and eastern areas. The country contains both the highest mountain in the West Indies, Mt. Duarte (Pico Duarte, 3,175 m/10,417 ft), and the lowest-lying lake, Lake Enriquillo (46 m/151 ft below sea level). The Yaque del Norte, the Yaque del Sur, and the Yuna are the principal rivers.

CLIMATE

Climate and rainfall vary with region and altitude. Generally, however, average minimum and maximum temperatures range from 18–29°c (64–84°f) in the winter and from 23–35°c (73–95°f) in the summer. The coastal plain has an annual mean temperature of 26°c (79°f), while in the Central Cordillera the climate is temperate and the mean is 20°c (68°f). Rainfall varies from an annual average of 135 cm (53 in) in the eastern regions, with an extreme of 208 cm (82 in) in the northeast, to a mean of 43 cm (17 in) in the western areas. The rainy season generally extends from June to November and the dry season from December to May. The nation lies within the hurricane belt, and tropical storms constitute a major weather hazard.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Plants and animal life vary by region. Dense rain forests are common in the wetter areas; scrub woodland thrives along the drier slopes; and savanna vegetation is found on the open plains. Dominican mahogany and highly resinous pine trees grow in the high mountains. The rare hutia (a small rodent) and herds of wild boar are found in the mountainous areas. Ducks, doves, and several varieties of pigeons are seasonal visitors. Lake Enriquillo is the natural habitat of large flocks of flamingos. Spanish mackerel, mullet, bonito, and yellowtail snapper are found in the surrounding waters. As of 2002, there were at least 20 species of mammals, 79 species of birds, and over 5.600 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

The main agencies responsible for environmental protection are the Department of National Parks and the Department of State for Agriculture. The Dominican Republic has environmental problems in the areas of deforestation, water supply, and soil erosion, the latter of which also damages the nation's coral reefs. United Nations (UN) sources report that, as of 1993, the nation was losing 20,000 hectares per year of its forest lands largely due to commercial interests. The felling of trees was prohibited in 1967 to remedy the ill effects of indiscriminate cutting by commercial producers and farmers and the destruction by fire of large stands of timber. However, many farmers continue to cut trees surreptitiously to make more land available for cultivation. Soil erosion results from a combination of rainfall and the use of land in mountainous areas. The country has 21 cu km of renewable water resources with 89% used for farming. About 97% of the population has access to pure drinking water. Water pollution results from the effects of mining along with industrial and agricultural sources.

In 2003, about 51.9% of the total land area was legally protected. Lago Enriquillo is a Ramsar wetland site. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 5 types of mammals, 16 species of birds, 10 types of reptiles, 31 species of amphibians, 10 species of fish, 2 species of invertebrates, and 30 species of plants. Endangered species in the Dominican Republic include the tundra peregrine falcon, Haitian solenodon, three species of sea turtle (green sea, hawksbill, and leatherback), and American crocodile. The imposter hutia, the Hispaniolan edible rat, and Marcano's solenodon have become extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Dominican Republic in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 8,862,000, which placed it at number 86 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 5% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 34% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 102 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.7%, a rate the government viewed as too high. The government was initiating programs to address the high rate of adolescent fertility. The projected population for the year 2025 was 11,038,000. The population density was 182 per sq km (471 per sq mi). The southern coastal plains and the Cibao Valley are the most densely populated areas of the country.

The UN estimated that 64% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.99%. The capital city, Santo Domingo, had a population of 1,865,000 in that year. Other important cities are Santiago de los Caballeros, La Romana, San Pedro de Macorís, San Francisco de Macorís, and Concepción de la Vega.

MIGRATION

Four overseas immigration movements took place 1930–60: approximately 5,000 refugees from the Spanish Civil War in the late 1930s; a Jewish refugee group, which arrived in 1940; a continuous flow of Japanese, mainly farmers, since 1950; and 600 Hungarian refugees invited by the government in 1957. These are dwarfed, however, by the influx of Haitians, some seasonal, others permanent.

An estimated 35,000 Haitians entered the Dominican Republic after the military coup that overthrew Haiti's president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, in September 1991. By May 1997, 20,000 Haitians had returned to their homeland, voluntarily or by deportation. The majority of Haitian refugees live outside the capital, Santo Domingo. The Dominican Republic government initiated a program to deport illegal migrants back to Haiti. However, this program does not affect recognized refugees or asylum seekers, as they receive temporary residence permits. In October 2005, Migration News reported that estimates of the number of Haitians in the Dominican Republic in 2005 ranged from 300,000 to 1.6 million. A census of Haitians was planned to determine how they obtained illegal Dominican identity cards. The Dominican Republic began to issue identity cards to 300,000 Dominicans living illegally in Puerto Rico.

Emigration became significant for the first time during the 1960s, when 93,300 Dominicans legally entered the United States; during 1971–80, the figure rose to 148,100, and during 1981–85, it was 104,800. In 1990 there were 357,000 Dominican-born people living in the United States, mostly along the eastern seaboard. This census total may have been an undercount, for estimates of the Dominican population in the United States ranged as high as 1,000,000, including 200,000 in Puerto Rico. The total of remittances in 2001 was $1,982,000, or 9.3% of GDP. By the end of 2004, 99 Dominicans had applied to Canada for asylum.

The net migration rate estimated in 2005 was -3.2 migrants per 1,000 population, almost equivalent to the rate of -3.03 migrants per 1,000 population in 1999.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Ethnic divisions have been estimated at 16% European, 11% African, and 73% mixed. Descendants of early Spanish settlers and of black slaves from West Africa constitute the two main racial strains.

LANGUAGES

Spanish is the official language. Some English is spoken in the capital, and a Creole dialect is used along the Haitian border.

RELIGIONS

According to a 1997 population survey, professing Roman Catholics represented an estimated 68.1% of the population and Protestants, including Baptists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Methodists, Mormons, Seventh-Day Adventists, and others accounted for another 11%. However, the Catholic Church has claimed that their membership accounts for about 87% of the population and Evangelical Christians have claimed up to 25% of the population as members. As many as 20% of the population claims no religious affiliation whatsoever. It is believed that some Catholics may practice a combination of Catholicism and tradition Afro-Caribbean beliefs and customs. Other religions include Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism.

Religious freedom is protected by law, and there is no state religion. However, the Roman Catholic Church, which signed a concordat with the government in 1954, is extended special privileges not granted to other religions. Religious groups are required to register with the government for legal tax-exempt status. Roman Catholic marriages are the only religious marriages that are automatically recognized by the state. Civil unions are required for other faiths.

TRANSPORTATION

The national highway system is the dominant means of inland public transportation. Three main highways emanate from Santo Domingo: the Carretera Sánchez (connecting with Elias Piña on the Haitian border), the Carretera Mella (to Higüey in the extreme southeast), and the Carretera Duarte (to Monte Cristi on the northwest coast). In 2002 there were 12,600 km (7,830 mi) of roadways, of which 6,224 km (3,868 mi) were paved. In 2003, a total of 171,200 passenger cars and 207,000 commercial vehicles were licensed.

In 2004, the Dominican Republic had 1,743 km (1,084 mi) of standard and narrow gauge railroad. Of that total, 1,226 km (763 mi) were operated by sugar companies, and consisted of varying types of narrow gauge track. In that same year, there were 375 km (233 mi) of standard gauge track in operation, and another 142 km (88 mi) of narrow gauge railroad not affiliated with the sugar companies operated that year.

The Santo Domingo, Andrés, and Haina harbors, all in the Santo Domingo area, handle the vast majority of imports. Other large ports include Puerto Plata in the northwest; La Romana, Boca Chica, and San Pedro de Macorís in the southeast; and Barahona in the southwest. The Dominican merchant fleet had three cargo ship of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 11,230 GRT in 2005.

In 2004, there were an estimated 31 airports, 13 of which had paved runways as of 2005. Dominicana de Aviación provides international service from Las Americas International Airport at Punta Caucedo, 29 km (18 mi) east of Santo Domingo. Cargo and mail service to the US mainland, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands is provided by Aerolíneas Argo. Alas del Caribe provides domestic passenger service, as does Aerovías Quisqueyanas. There are also six other international airports at Puerto Plata, Punt Cana, Santiago, Samana, Barahona, a new airport in Santo Domingo, and La Romana. In 1997 (the latest year for which data is available), about 34,000 passengers were carried on regularly scheduled domestic and international flights.

HISTORY

The eastern part of the island of Hispaniola was originally known as Quisqueya, meaning "mother of all lands." It was first settled by the nomadic and warlike Carib Amerindians and later by the agricultural and peace-loving Arawaks. Christopher Columbus made the European discovery of the island and claimed it for Spain in 1492. Santo Domingo, the oldest city in the New World, was founded four years later by Bartholomew Columbus, the explorer's brother. By 1517, Hispaniola had become the springboard for Spanish conquest of the Caribbean and of the American mainland. As with other Caribbean islands, the Amerindian population dwindled, and was replaced by African slaves.

The importance of Hispaniola waned during the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1697, by the Treaty of Ryswick, Spain was forced to recognize French dominion over the western third of the island, an area now known as Haiti. In 1795, under the Treaty of Basel, Spain ceded to France the eastern two-thirds of the island, which by then had been renamed Santo Domingo. The island then came under the rule of the rebellious ex-slave Toussaint L'Ouverture. After Haiti received independence in 1804, the French retained the rest of the island until 1809. After a brief attempt at independence, the Dominicans fell under the control of Spain, which regained the eastern section of the island under the Treaty of Paris (1814).

In 1821, the Dominicans, led by José Múñez de Cáceres, proclaimed their independence. The Dominicans sought to become part of Simón Bolívar's newly independent Republic of Gran Colombia, but in 1822, the Haitians conquered the entire island. For 22 years, the Haitians ruled with an iron fist. A civil war in 1843 gave the Dominicans the opportunity to try again for independence, and, under Juan Pablo Duarte, they established the Dominican Republic as an independent state.

Between 1844 and 1916, the new republic alternated among personalist leaders, who sought foreign protection against Haiti. The most prominent among these were Pedro Santana and Buenaventura Baez, who dominated Dominican politics until 1882. Santana restored the Dominican Republic to the Spanish Empire during 1861–65. Baez in 1869 negotiated a treaty providing for US annexation, but the US Senate refused to ratify it.

After a 17-year dictatorship, the Dominican Republic entered a turbulent period characterized by general political instability and increasing debt to US interests. In 1905, US president Theodore Roosevelt appointed an American receiver of Dominican customs, and a subsequent treaty provided for repayment of the debt. This first application of the "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine was followed in 1916 by the US establishment of a military government under Marine Capt. H. S. Knapp. It ruled the Dominican Republic until 12 July 1924, when sovereignty was restored. US customs control continued until 1941.

In 1930, Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina was elected president. For the next 31 years, he ruled the Dominican Republic either directly or indirectly. Trujillo had himself reelected in 1934, 1940, and 1947, then arranged for his brother to become president in 1952 and 1957, and then installed Joaquín Balaguer in 1960. Under Trujillo, the Dominican Republic achieved some economic progress, removing its foreign debt. But Trujillo brutally suppressed fundamental human rights. Only one party was allowed, the press was totally controlled, and constant purges weeded out all but his most servile supporters. His most dubious achievements were a result of his own megalomania. In the capital city of Santo Domingo, which he renamed Ciudad Trujillo (Trujillo City), there were 1,870 monuments to Trujillo, who gave himself the title "The Benefactor of the Fatherland." He also amassed a personal fortune estimated at $900–$1,500 million.

Trujillo was assassinated on 30 May 1961. In July 1961, the Balaguer cabinet resigned as street rioting broke out. The opposition agreed to an interim coalition government under Balaguer that September, with Rafael Trujillo, Jr., as head of the armed forces. In November, the United States sent warships just outside Dominican waters to prevent the armed forces chief and his two uncles from a staging a rumored coup. They went into exile immediately.

After rule by an interim Council of State, Juan Bosch of the Dominican Revolutionary Party was elected president in 1962. He assumed office in February 1963 but remained in power for only seven months, during which time very little of the promised social and economic reform could be accomplished. The military, which overthrew Bosch in September 1963, proceeded to install a three-man civilian junta, called the Triumvirate, which was in turn overthrown by the supporters of Juan Bosch in April 1965. With anarchy threatening—and, according to US allegations, Communists deeply involved in the pro-Bosch insurrection—the United States sent 23,000 troops into the Dominican Republic, ostensibly to protect the lives of US citizens. Within weeks, the OAS had set up an Inter-America Peace Force in the country. This controversial set of arrangements eventually brought order to the country. After the 1966 elections, all US and OAS troops left the island.

In the general elections of June 1966, Balaguer, returned from exile, campaigned vigorously throughout the country, while Bosch, his chief opponent, remained home, apparently fearful of an attempt on his life. Balaguer won with 57.2% of the vote. Four years later, Balaguer ran essentially without opposition, as most parties withdrew from the campaign in response to rising political violence.

Events in 1974 followed a similar pattern. Two days before the election, an opposition coalition announced their withdrawal from the contest. The opposition's principal candidate, Silvestre Antonio Guzmán Fernández of the PRD (Dominican Revolutionary Party), called for general abstention from the election, charging Balaguer with fraudulent practices. Only one candidate—Adm. Luis Homero Lajara Burgos, a former chief of police under Trujillo—remained in the race. The results gave Balaguer an overwhelming majority, with 924,779 votes to Lajara Burgos's 105,320.

Following the 1974 elections, the opposition coalition, an amalgam of widely divergent political elements, decided to disperse in anticipation of the 1978 campaign. Despite their lack of representation in the legislature and in municipal councils as a result of the election boycott, the major opposition parties, aided by a large degree of press freedom, remained active and vocal. In the 1978 elections, the main presidential candidates were Balaguer and the PRD's Guzmán. Guzmán won with a 158,000-vote plurality, and his party gained a majority in the Chamber of Deputies. Numerous other parties, including the newly legalized Dominican Communist Party, participated in the elections. A right-wing military attempt to prevent Guzmán from assuming office was foiled, partly because of US government pressure.

During Guzmán's term, political prisoners were freed, press censorship was practically abolished, and political parties engaged in open activity. At the same time, however, there were mounting economic difficulties, aggravated by two hurricanes in 1979, which together left 1,300 people dead, 500 missing, and 100,000 homeless. In May 1982, a left-wing PRD senator, Salvador Jorge Blanco, was elected president. On 4 July, six weeks before his term was due to expire, Guzmán committed suicide, after several close associates were accused of fraud. Power was transferred peacefully to Vice President Jacobo Majluta Azar, and in August 1982, to Blanco.

Whatever plans President Blanco may have had were soon overtaken by the country's burgeoning foreign debt. Blanco turned to the IMF for assistance. The resultant restrictive economic policy raised production costs and reduced industrial output. A cut in the US sugar quota, as well as a generally low world price for the commodity, was a further blow to the economy.

In presidential elections held 16 May 1986, former president Joaquín Balaguer was returned to office with 857,942 votes (41.6%). Jacob Majluta Azar of the PRD took 814,716 votes (39.5%), and Juan Bosch of the PLD (Dominican Liberation Party) won 379,269 votes (18.4%). Balaguer embarked on an ambitious program of public works that created employment for nearly 100,000 people. But by 1988, inflation was on the rise, and the peso had become unstable. Nationwide strikes in 1989 suggested that the country was headed for further crisis.

In 1990, Balaguer stood for reelection, and won a narrow, hotly contested victory amid claims of fraud by the opposition. Officially, Balaguer received 35.7% of the vote to Juan Bosch's 34.4%. Balaguer was inaugurated, but immediately created controversy by suggesting a set of IMF-style liberal reforms. This brought national strikes in August and November of 1990, and demands for resignation. In the Chamber of Deputies, where Bosch's PLD held a plurality, Balaguer faced serious opposition.

The results of a large portion of the May 1994 presidential vote, won once again by Balaguer, were voided by the electoral board, and Balaguer agreed to shorten his term to two years, scheduling a new election for May 1996. In that contest, no candidate won a majority, but a second round of voting on 30 June produced a victory for Leonel Fernández of the PLD, who took office in August.

Although economic reforms introduced in late 1994 helped improve growth and lower inflation, unemployment remained high, spurring substantial emigration to the United States and Puerto Rico. In March and June 1995, riots occurred in response to unauthorized increases in public transportation fares. During his four years in office, Fernández successfully privatized several state-owned enterprises and utilities. The economy expanded at an average of 5% annually, unemployment fell, and inflation was low. Fernández successfully fought government corruption and consolidated democratic institutions. In spite of his popularity, however, he was constitutionally prevented from seeking reelection in the polling scheduled for May 2000. PRD's Rafael Hipólito Mejía won the May 2000 election after PLD's Danilo Medina withdrew from the runoff. Mejía had obtained 49.5% of the vote in the first round and was expected to easily defeat Medina in the runoff. Mejía took office promising to increase social spending but vowing to maintain the macroeconomic policies adopted by Fernández that helped that country become one of the fastest growing nations in Latin America in the late 1990s. In July 2002, Joaquín Balaguer died at the age of 95.

Deadly clashes between police and protestors broke out in November 2003 during demonstrations held to protest higher prices and cuts in electricity. In January 2004, further protests took place, demonstrating against the government's economic policies; five people were killed.

In May 2004, Mejía admitted defeat in presidential elections that were won by Leonel Fernández with 57.1% of the vote. That month, severe flooding took place in the southwest and in parts of neighboring Haiti; more than 2,000 people died or disappeared. The next presidential election was scheduled for May 2008.

GOVERNMENT

The constitution of 28 November 1966 established a unitary republic consisting of 26 (later increased to 31) provinces and a single National District. The government is effectively controlled by the chief executive, a president directly elected for a four-year term and eligible for reelection. Cabinet ministers (called secretaries of state) are appointed by the president, who must be at least 30 years of age.

The National Congress consists of a Senate, composed of 32 members, and a 150-member Chamber of Deputies, apportioned on the basis of population. Members of the two houses are elected for four-year terms and must be at least 25 years of age. Bills for legislative action may be introduced by the president, by the National Congress, or by the Supreme Court. Voting is by universal suffrage of citizens 18 years or older, although younger citizens, if married, may also vote. Members of the armed forces and national police may not vote. Presidential and congressional elections are not held simultaneously.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Although the Dominican Republic has three major parties and more than ten minor parties, two men, Joaquín Balaguer Ricardo and Juan Bosch Gavino, dominated its political system for decades, but starting in 1996 a new cadre of politicians emerged.

Joaquín Balaguer, a former president under Trujillo, was elected to the presidency six times, the last time in 1994. He died in 2002. He founded the Social Christian Reform Party (Partido Reformista Social Christiano—PRSC) while living in exile in New York in 1963. The party is tied to the Christian Democratic political movement, and relies principally on peasant and middle-class support. As of 2005, the PRSD held 1 of 32 Senate seats and 36 of 150 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.

Juan Bosch, who held the presidency for seven months in 1963, remained a major voice in Dominican politics into the 1990s. Bosch founded the Dominican Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Dominicano—PRD) in 1939. After withdrawing from the PRD, Bosch created his own party, the Dominican Liberation Party (Partido de la Liberación Dominicana—PLD) in 1973. In the second round of voting in the 1996 presidential elections, the PLD's Leonel Fernández was elected president with just over 51% of the vote. In May 2004, Fernández defeated incumbent Rafael Hipólito Mejía and was returned to office as president with 57.1% of the vote.

The PRD continued on without Bosch, and with far more success than Bosch was ever able to achieve. The PRD won the presidential elections of 1978 and 1982, although it was unable to achieve a majority in either house of congress in 1982. Headed by Vicente Sanchez Baret, the PRD has an association with Socialist International, and a "Eurosocialist" ideological thrust of moderate economic and social change. The party draws support from landless peasants and urban workers. Rafael Hipólito Mejía emerged as the PRD leader and easily won the 2000 presidential election. The PRD went on to win the 2002 parliamentary elections with 41.9% of the vote. The PRD held 29 out of the 32 seats in the Senate and also commanded a majority control in the Chamber of Deputies with 73 out of the 150 seats. The next parliamentary elections were scheduled for May 2006.

The Independent Revolutionary Party (PRI) was the vehicle for Jacobo Majluta Azar, who served as president briefly in 1982. A former PRD member, Majluta received only 7% of the vote in 1990. As of 2006 the party held no seats in the Chamber of Deputies or the Senate.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

The Dominican Republic is divided into 31 provinces and a National District, encompassing Santo Domingo. The provinces are further subdivided into municipal districts and municipalities. The president appoints the provincial governors. Municipal districts must have at least 5,000 inhabitants and produce sufficient revenue to finance their own administrative agencies. The municipalities and the National District are governed by mayors and municipal councils of at least five members, elected by popular vote.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The judicial system is headed by a Supreme Court with 16 judges, which rules on constitutional questions and serves in the last instance on appeals. Supreme Court judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council (consisting of the president, the leaders of both chambers of the National Congress, the president of the Supreme Court, and an opposition or nongoverning party member). The National Judicial Council appoints the judges of the lower courts and of the special courts. All judges are required to hold a law degree.

There are 31 provincial courts, as well as one court of first instance in the National District. The judicial system also includes one judge or court of justice for each of the country's 124 municipal districts, three courts of appeal, a court of accounts, and a land tribunal. There are also justices of the peace. The death penalty was abolished in 1924. Although the constitution provides for an independent judiciary, in practice the executive branch as well as public and private entities exert pressures on the courts. The constitution guarantees public trials, and indigent defendants have a right to a court-appointed attorney at state expense. Judicial reforms were being undertaken in the early 2000s.

Military courts try military personnel charged with extrajudicial killings.

ARMED FORCES

Active armed forces personnel in the Dominican Republic numbered 24,500 in 2005. The Army had 15,000 active personnel and was organized into six infantry brigades, one (each) armored, special forces, mountain infantry, artillery, engineer and Presidential Guard battalions. Equipment included 12 light tanks, 28 armored personnel carriers and over 56 artillery pieces. The Air Force has 5,500 personnel, whose equipment included 6 combat capable aircraft that consisted of fighter ground attack aircraft. The Navy had 4,000 personnel. Major naval units consisted of 15 coastal defense and 4 logistics/support ships. The country's paramilitary force consisted of the 15,000 member National Police. In 2005, the armed forces were allocated $190 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

The Dominican Republic is a charter member of the UN, having joined on 24 October 1945, and participates in the ECLAC, as well as other nonregional specialized agencies. The nation is also a member of the WTO, the ACP Group, G-77, the Inter-American Development Bank, the Latin American Economic System (LAES), the OAS, the Association of Caribbean States (ACS), and the Río Group. The country has observer status in CARICOM and the Latin American Integration Association (LAIA). In 2004, the Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the United States signed the US–Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). The agreement must be ratified by all participating countries before it enters into force.

The Dominican Republic is a member of the Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL) and an observer in the Nonaligned Movement. The country is a signatory of the 1947 Río Treaty, an inter-American security agreement. In environmental cooperation, the Dominican Republic is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, the London Convention, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, and the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Traditionally, the economy of the Dominican Republic was based primarily on agriculture, with sugar, coffee, and tobacco as the main export crops, but the services sector has become the largest employer (about 60% of the labor force), led by tourism. Between 1968 and 1974, the average annual growth of GDP was 10.5%. The improved political climate during that period stimulated public and private investment, both domestic and foreign, and the development of tourism. A sugar boom also contributed to rapid growth. During the second half of the 1970s, the growth rate slowed, in part because of rising oil prices and a weakening of the sugar market; damage from two 1979 hurricanes cost an estimated $1 billion. The GDP declined by 2.2% in 1985, reflecting low world prices for the country's exports, declining US sugar quotas, and IMF-imposed austerity. Unemployment soared to 26%, and inflation reached 37.5% the same year. The economy recovered somewhat in 1986 and 1987, due to the government's capital spending program and an increase in foreign investment.

The Dominican Republic had one of the fastest growing economies in the world in the 1990s, owing much of its success to the adoption of sound macroeconomic policies in the early 1990s and greater opening to foreign investment. Although GDP declined in both 1990 and 1991, in 1992 real GDP increased by 7%. The high inflation prevailing in the late 1980s and early 1990s was finally tamed in 1993 as a result of an austerity program that brought the annual inflation rate from 53.9% in 1992 to only 4.6% in 1993. However, very tight monetary and fiscal policies caused the economy to decline by 1.7% in 1994. Boosted by the continuous expansion of tourism, mining, and the export processing zones, the annual average growth rate 1995–2001 was 7.7%, despite Hurricane Georges in September 1998, which left about 300 dead, hundreds of thousands homeless, and did an estimated $1.3 billion worth of damage (8% of GDP). The rate of inflation fell from 14.3% in 1994 to 6% in 1999, but in 2000 had increased to 9%. Fiscal measures were introduced in 2001 to reduce the inflation rate in the booming economy, but this coincided with the decline in the external economy, and also became a factor in reducing the country's GDP growth rate to 2.7% in 2001, down from 7.6% in 2000 (the highest in Latin America).

In 2003, services accounted for over half of GDP (57.8%) and agriculture accounted for only 10.7%, down from about 20% in the mid-1990s. Tourism (the leading foreign exchange earner), telecommunications, and free-trade-zone manufacturing remain increasingly important industries. The Dominican Republic is among the top ten developing countries in terms of the amount of remittances received from abroad. In 2001 these totaled about $2 billion, double the rate in the mid-1990s. The economy's other major engine of growth has been its free trade zones. In 2000, net exports from the free trade aones were $1.7 billion, up from $1.2 billion in 1997, whereas traditional exports had fallen to $.97 billion from $1 billion. Both sectors declined in 2002, and in 2003 growth turned negative in (-0.4%), mainly due to the effects of a major bank fraud and limited growth in the US economy. The Dominican Republic continued to go through difficult economic times due in large part to bank frauds discovered in 2003 in which losses totaled more than 20% of GDP. In 2004 the real growth rate was only 1.7%.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2005 the Dominican Republic's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $58.5 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $6,500. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4.1%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 4.3%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 10.7% of GDP, industry 31.5%, and services 57.8%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $2.325 billion or about $266 per capita and accounted for approximately 14.1% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $69 million and accounted for approximately 0.5% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Dominican Republic totaled $11.98 billion or about $1,371 per capita based on a GDP of $16.5 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 4.1%. It was estimated that in 2002 about 25% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The labor force in 2002 (the latest year for which data was available) consisted of about 2.6 million persons. For that same year, 15.9% were engaged in agriculture, 21.1% in industry, and 63% in services and government. Unemployment is a persistent problem, affecting an estimated 17% of the workforce in 2005. Underemployment was also widespread.

The labor code provides comprehensive protection for workers, but as of 2005, only about 8% of the Dominican workforce was unionized. Employees in nonessential public services are provided with the right to strike. The labor code also specifies steps for union registration, entering into collective bargaining pacts, and calling strikes. While it is illegal for companies to dismiss union members and organizers, enforcement has been inconsistant and there have been reports of intimidation of union organizers and members.

The standard work week is set at 44 hours with an eight hour day. The law also provides for a rest time each week of 36 uninterrupted hours. The labor code prohibits employment of children under 14. However, economic and social conditions have forced many children to work to help support their families. The minimum wage was $119 per month in the nation's free trade zones (FTZs) and $164 per month outside the FTZs in 2005. However, these amounts were insufficient to support a worker and a family. Occupational health standards are not enforced and working conditions, especially on sugar plantations, can be particularly harsh.

AGRICULTURE

With almost 33% of the total land area suitable for crop production and about 17% of the labor force engaged in farming, agriculture remains the primary occupation, accounting for 11% of GDP in 2003. Value of agricultural output grew at an average annual rate of 7.1% during 1968–73, but since 1975 the sector has been hampered by droughts (1975, 1977, and 1979), hurricanes (in 1979 and 1980), and slumping world prices and quota allocations for sugar (since 1985). In 1999, agricultural production was 0.4% higher than during 1989–91. The fertile Cibao Valley is the main agricultural center. In 2003, arable land totaled 1,546,000 hectares (3,944,000 acres).

After Cuba, the Dominican Republic is the second-largest Caribbean producer of sugarcane, the nation's most important commercial crop. The State Sugar Council (Consejo Estatal de Azúcar—CEA) operates 12 sugar mills and accounts for more than half of total production. Other large producers are the privately owned Vicini, with three mills, and Gulf and Western, whose largest mill is at La Romana. In 2004, sugarcane production was 5.2 million tons, down from an average of 7.1 million tons during 1989–1991. Output of sugar has declined since 1982, and land is gradually being taken out of sugar production and switched to food crops. Production of raw sugar rose from 636,000 tons in 1990 to 813,000 tons in 1997 but fell to 508,000 tons in 2004/05. The Dominican Republic has the largest single allocation of the US sugar import quota.

Another leading cash crop is coffee. Part of the crop was destroyed by hurricanes in 1979 and 1980, and 1979–80 production was only 670,000 bags (40,200 tons). Although production was usually about 57,000–59,000 tons annually in the 1980s, the acreage harvested declined from 157,000 hectares (388,000 acres) in the early 1980s to 139,000 hectares (363,000 acres) by the late 1990s, indicating a greater yield per acre. Coffee production in 2004 was estimated at 45,000 tons; exports of coffee in 2004 generated $5.8 million. Cocoa and tobacco are also grown for export. In 2004, production of cocoa beans was 45,000 tons and of tobacco, 18,000 tons. Banana production in 2004 was 480,000 tons. Production of other crops in 2004 (in thousands of tons) included rice, 640; coconuts, 181; cassava, 105; tomatoes, 154; pulses, 69; dry beans, 26; eggplants, 7; and peanuts, 3.

Under a land reform program initiated in 1962, a total of 178,602 hectares (441,333 acres) had been distributed to 36,480 farmers by the end of 1977. The government encourages fuller use of the nation's arable land through extensive land-clearing and irrigation projects and diversification of crops. Some mechanization has taken place on the large plantations, but primitive techniques are generally used. In 1973, the first stage of the Integrated Agricultural and Livestock Development Plan was initiated, calling for an investment of $38.1 million, to be financed by the IDB. The plan was designed to provide credit and technical aid to 45,000 small farmers, improve side roads, and study the country's water resources. The second stage of the plan, in the early 1980s, included extension of farm credits, reforestation, manpower training for irrigation projects, and reorganization of the Dominican Agrarian Institute.

Agricultural exports, mostly in the form of sugar, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, and cigars generated $646 million in 2004, or 48.4% of total exports. The government and private sector are emphasizing diversification to nontraditional agricultural crops such as fresh fruits, vegetables, and flowers.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

In 2005, Dominican livestock included 190,000 goats and 123,000 sheep. There were also about 2.2 million head of cattle, 60% for beef and 40% for dairy. The hog population, decimated by African swine fever in the late 1970s, decreased from 400,000 in 1978 to 20,000 in 1979; by 2005, however, it had recovered to 580,000. Poultry is the main meat source because it is cheaper than beef or pork. Poultry production relies on imports of feed grain from the United States. In 2005, 185,000 tons of poultry meat were produced, along with 78,000 tons of beef and 690,000 tons of milk.

FISHING

Although the waters surrounding the Dominican Republic abound with fish, the fishing industry is comparatively undeveloped, and fish for local consumption are imported. In 2003, the total marine catch was 17,490 tons, down from 19,048 tons in 1994. Marlin, barracuda, kingfish, mackerel, tuna, sailfish, and tarpon are found in the Monte Cristi Bank and Samaná Bay, which also supports bonito, snapper, and American grouper. The inland catch amounted to 4,161 tons in 2003.

FORESTRY

About 28.4% of the total land area consisted of forests and woodlands in 2000. Roundwood production in 2003 totaled 562,000 cu m (19.8 million cu ft). Virtually all the timber cut is for land clearing and fuel.

MINING

The Dominican Republic in 2003, was a regional producer of cement, steel, ferronickel, salt and gypsum, while the production of sand and gravel, limestone and marble were produced for the domestic market. Also, modest amounts of pectolite (larimar), amber, and limestone are produced by six artisanal mining associations. While, mining activity in the Dominican Republic has been centered on gold exploration as of 2003, there was no recorded gold production since 1999, when 651 kg were produced. In that same year, the production of gold and silver were suspended. Silver output in 1999 totaled 3,140 kg. Nickel production (mine output, laterite ore) in 2003 totaled 45,400 metric tons, up from 38,859 metric tons in 2002. The only nickel producer was Falconbridge Dominicana, an 85% Canadian-owned company.

The country was one of the few sources of amber in the Western Hemisphere. Salt Mountain, a 16 km block of almost solid salt west of Barahona, was the world's largest known salt deposit. There were also large deposits of gypsum near Salt Mountain, making the Dominican Republic one of three sources of gypsum in the Caribbean. In 2003, the country produced 230,632 metric tons of gypsum and 2,906,699 metric tons of hydraulic cement. Limestone, marble, and sand and gravel were also produced in 2003. Substantial lignite deposits were found in the early 1980s.

Production of bauxite, traditionally the principal mining product, ceased in 1992. The Aluminum Co. of America (Alcoa) mined bauxite between 1959 and 1983, when it turned its concession over to the state. Production in 1991 dropped 92% from the previous year, as a presidential decree suspended mining operations at the largest mine, in response to increasing fears of deforestation, although reforestation of mined areas was in progress.

ENERGY AND POWER

The Dominican Republic's energy and power sector is marked by a lack of oil, natural gas and coal. Therefore, the country is heavily dependent upon imports to satisfy its fossil fuel needs. Although the country does have a small refining capacity, imports far outweigh production.

In the electrical power sector, the Dominican Republic's capacity for 2002 has been placed at 2.968 billion kW, with the bulk, 2.486 billion kW generated by fossil fuels. Hydroelectric generating capacity takes up the remaining portion at 0.482 million kW. Electric power production in 2002 totaled 10.863 billion kWh, of which: 9.957 kWh came from conventional thermal sources; 0.869 kWh came from hydropower sources; and 0.037 billion kWh from geothermal/other sources. Electric power consumption in 2002 stood at 10.103 billion kWh. The Dominican Electric Corp. (Corporación Dominicana de Electricidad) is responsible for all public production, sale, and distribution of energy. However, electrical power supply has been erratic. Power blackouts are frequent and can last up to 20 hours per day. Although the government has taken steps to remedy the power shortage, as of 2006, the reliability of the power supply remained a problem.

The Tavera Dam, with a capacity of 60,000 kW, was completed in 1972. The Sabana Yegua hydroelectric and irrigation complex, begun in 1974, opened in 1980. The Habo I coal-fired plant at Haina was inaugurated in 1984.

In 2002, crude oil imports totaled an average 39,500 barrels per day, with total oil product imports at 130,540 barrels per day. Distillate residual and gasoline imports were the top three refined products imported in that year at 29,880 barrels per day, 25,090 barrels per day and 18,670 barrels per day respectively. Consumption of refined oil products in 2002 stood at 126,150 barrels per day.

Under the terms of the San José Pact, the Dominican Republic buys oil at discount prices from Venezuela and Mexico. It imports liquefied natural gas (LNG) from Trinidad and Tobago. An LNG terminal that is part of a $400 million project built by AES Andres became operational at the beginning of 2003, but the associated 300 MW power plant was not expected to be completed until the summer of 2003.

Imports of coal in 2002 came to 257,000 tons of hard coal.

INDUSTRY

Including the processing of sugar, food processing represents more than half of the total industrial production. Dominican agriculture was hit hard during the late 1990s by droughts in 1996 and 1997, and a hurricane in 1998, but little effect was seen on the manufacturing sector. The construction sector realized high growth after the arrival of Hurricane Georges in 1998, including in housing, commercial construction, and public works projects. Small plants produce powdered and condensed milk, ceramics, aluminum furniture and fittings, concrete blocks, pipes and tiles, air conditioners, barbed wire, and other products.

Since 1990, free assembly zones have contributed more than 3.5% of the GDP, although growth in the free trade zones decreased in 2001. The most active sectors in this industry were related to the processing of clothes and textiles, tobacco, electronics, and shoes. The Dominican Republic was the seventh-largest supplier of textiles to the United States after Mexico, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, and South Korea at the end of 2001. However, lack of demand in the United States for textiles resulted in layoffs in that sector and domestic manufacturing experienced no growth in 2001. The Dominican Republic has two oil refineries, with a total production capacity in 2002 of 49,000 barrels per day.

Industry represents a 31% of GDP, mainly focused on sugar refining, pharmaceuticals, cement, light manufacturing, and construction.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Dominican Medical Association and the Dominican Sugar Institute have their headquarters in Santo Domingo. Ten colleges and universities offer degrees in engineering, basic sciences, medicine, and agriculture. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 35% of college and university enrollments.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Santo Domingo is the principal port and commercial center, while Santiago de los Caballeros is the market and distribution center for the Cibao Valley. Most importing and exporting firms are located in Santo Domingo. Importers ordinarily represent numerous foreign manufacturers.

Department stores and supermarkets are increasing in number, but most retail stores are specialty shops. Groceries, meat, and fish are sold in most cities through a large central market, by neighborhood stores, and by street vendors. Retail credit is granted by larger stores and automobile dealers.

The domestic economy has shifted to rely on the developing tourism, which accounts for about $1.5 billion in annual earnings. Remittances from Dominicans living abroad are estimated to be about $3 billion per year.

Much of the population still lives in rural areas—many as impoverished peasants or migrant workers, others as independent small-scale landowners, and a small minority as elite landowners. Moreover, rural life in the Cibao Valley generally diverges from that of the southeastern sugar plantations and other areas, and city life varies from the frenetic pace of Santo Domingo to the more relaxed, traditional character of Santiago and smaller towns.

FOREIGN TRADE

Numerous free trade zones make the Dominican Republic attractive to export-import businesses. After the passage of the 299 Law on 23 April 1969, the free zone sector started to develop in the Dominican Republic. The first to be installed was La Romana Free Zone, followed by San Pedro de Macorís Free Zone, which was created by law in 1971 and built in 1972. However, some FTZ businesses moved to Mexico after the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the United States, Canada, and Mexico, went into effect.

Clothing production brings in the majority of export revenues (32%), but the commodity market also supports the export of pig iron (7.8%), medical instruments (7.7%), sugar (5.6%), and electrical parts (5.1%). Dominican Republic imports include food, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.

The Dominican Republic's most important trading partner is the United States (87% of export revenues); other markets include Canada, Western Europe, and Japan. The country exports freetrade-zone manufactured products (garments, footwear, etc.), nickel, sugar, coffee, cacao, and tobacco, and it imports foodstuffs, petroleum, industrial raw materials, and capital goods. On 5 August 2004, the Dominican Republic signed a Free Trade Agreement with the United States and five Central American countries to integrate into the US-Central American Free Trade Agreement.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

For more than 20 years prior to 1961, the Dominican Republic had no internal or external debt. In 1961, however, about us$70 million was taken out of the country by the Trujillo family and others. Political instability induced further net outflows of private capital throughout the 1960s. The nation's current accounts position

worsened during the 1970s, as trade deficits grew. Declines in export earnings in the 1980s brought shortages of foreign exchange. Large increases in imports and a sharp drop in commodity exports pushed the merchandise trade deficit to over $1.6 billion by the end of 1992, and $1.4 billion in 1998. Tourism (now the country's largest foreign exchange earner), expatriate remittances, and earnings from the free trade zones help to finance the trade deficit. Foreign direct investment as of the early 2000s was likely to remain high.

In 2004 the purchasing power parity of the Dominican Republic's exports was $5.2 billion while imports totaled $8.9, resulting in a trade deficit of -$3.7 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Central Bank of the Dominican Republic (Banco Central de la República Dominicana—BCRD) is the sole bank of issue. The state-owned Banco de Reservas, established in 1941, is the largest commercial bank in the country and acts as the fiscal agent and depository for the government. The Agricultural and the Industrial Credit Bank promotes the development of agriculture as well as industry by granting medium-term and long-term credit. The National Housing Bank (Banco Nacional de Vivienda) is a primary investor in low-cost housing. Other commercial banks include the Bank of Nova Scotia, Citibank, Banco Nacional de Credito, Banco Intercontinental (BANINTER), Banco Mercantil, Banco Osaka, Banco Global, Banco Hipotecario Dominicano (BHD), Banco Domingo del Progreso, Banco Popular Dominicano, and Banco Santa Cruz.

At the end of January 1996, the central bank tightened reserve requirements for lending based on new deposits and imposed limits on new lending to the commercial sector. The prime lending rate, which had fallen from 24% in December 1995 to 17% in 1996, was 18% in 1999. The exchange rate was devalued 9% in 1998, and continued to devalue through that year, but stabilized in 1999. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $2.4 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $7.9 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 13.47%.

Securities are traded on the Santo Domingo Securities Exchange, founded in 1991.

INSURANCE

Insurance firms are government-supervised and are required to furnish a bond to guarantee their obligations. Net premiums on life insurance are taxable, and the law requires that a certain proportion of the premiums collected must be invested locally. Workers' compensation and third-party automobile liability are compulsory insurance. The insurance market is regulated by the Superintendent of Insurance of the nation. In relation to the North American and European markets, the Dominican insurance industry has very low penetration and was among the lowest in Latin America, the result of relatively low per capita income and general lack of insurance awareness. In 2003, the value of all direct premiums written totaled $400 million, with nonlife premiums accounting for $368 million. Seguros Popular was the country's top nonlife and life insurer in 2003, with gross nonlife (including personal accident) and life insurance premiums written, totaling $98.2 million and $8.3 million, respectively.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Between 1968 and 1975, dependence on foreign loans and grants to finance the budget was substantially decreased, and by 1975 tax revenues amounted to about 12% of the GNP. In the late 1970s, this trend was reversed, with rising expenditures and increased assistance from abroad. Legislation was passed in 1997 to allow the privatization of state-owned enterprises, including public utilities,

the country's largest bank, an insurance company, and a number of factories. The government receives almost one-third of its revenues from taxes on imports, but the increasing use of the free trade zones diminishes indirect tax returns.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 the Dominican Republic's central government took in revenues of approximately $5.3 billion and had expenditures of $5.4 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$163 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 51.4% of GDP. Total external debt was $7.907 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2002, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were rd$70.158 billion and expenditures were rd$70.874 billion. The value of revenues in US dollars was us$3.770 billion and expenditures us$3.637 billion, based on a market exchange rate for 2002 of us$1 = rd$18.610 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 14.0%; defense, 6.0%; public order and safety, 4.5%; economic affairs, 23.5%; environmental protection, 0.7%; housing and community amenities, 8.4%; health, 12.9%; education, 16.8%; and social protection, 9.4%.

TAXATION

Personal income tax rates in the Dominican Republic in 2002 were 15–25%. The personal exemption level was equal to 2.3 times the country's average income and the threshold for the highest income tax bracket was 5.8 times the average income (in contrast to 1985 when the highest bracket was 73% and the threshold was 413.5 times the average income). Since January 1995 business income has been taxed at a flat rate of 25%. The main indirect tax is the Dominican Republic's value-added tax (VAT) introduced in January 1983 with a standard rate of 16% as of 2005. Excise taxes are imposed on alcoholic beverages (25–45%), tobacco products (25–50%), nonalcoholic beverages, and petroleum products. There is also a technical education tax.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

The customs tariff is primarily a revenue-raising instrument, although it is occasionally used to protect local industry. In September 1990, a government decree simplified the tariff schedule to six categories, with seven tariff rates, ranging from 5–35%.

As of 2001, the maximum basic tariff rate stood at 20%, but there were also levied consumption taxes that generally range from 15–60% on "nonessential" goods. However, nonagricultural luxury goods such as perfumes, automobiles and jewelry are subject to additional consumption taxes that range from 15–80%, which are calculated on the CIF (cost, insurance, freight) price. There is also a 5% foreign exchange surcharge associated with import transactions. A 16% industrialized goods and services tax is also levied on processed agricultural and nonagricultural goods based upon the CIF price plus the amount paid for taxes and duties.

There are no free ports, but at least 19 industrial free zones have been established at locations including La Romana, San Pedro de Macorís, Santiago de los Caballeros, Baní, and Puerto Plata.

In 1998, the Dominican Republic helped to establish the Central American–Dominican Republic Free Trade Area (CADRFTA). The country also has an agreement with CARICOM and Western Hemisphere governments for a free trade area by 2005.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

In August 1996, the Dominican congress passed the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agreement (MIGA) and in September 1996, President Leonel Fernández signed the accord. The program was designed to encourage the flow of foreign private investment by mitigating political risks associated with a project. It also provides guarantees to foreign investors against the risk of transfer restriction, expropriation, and war and civil disturbance in the host country. In 1997, the government established the Office for Investment Promotion (OPI).

In 1998, foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows rose to nearly $700 million, up from $421 million in 1997 and then peaked at a record $1.3 billion in 1999. For 2000 and 2001, average yearly FDI inflow was a little over $1 billion. At the end of 2000, total FDI stocks were an estimated $5.2 billion, up from $2.9 billion at the end of 1998. In 1998, the tourist sector was the destination of 44.5% of FDI inflows, but in 1999, tourism accounted for only 20% while foreign investments in electricity became the single-largest destination for inward FDI, attracting 47.2%. In 2000, the tourist sector was the destination of 7.7% of FDI inflows, investments in electricity (29.5%), telecommunications (28.6%), and trade (16%) all ahead of it.

In 2000, the leading source of FDI was the United States (21%); other major sources in 2000 were Spain (20%), Canada (14%), and France (10%). Major foreign investors include GTE and Bank of Nova Scotia of Canada; Shell of Holland/England; and Central Romana, Philip Morris, Citibank, Esso, Texaco, and Colgate Palmolive of the United States.

The International Monetary Fund reported that foreign direct investment is permitted in all sectors except the disposal and storage of toxic, hazardous, or radioactive waste; activities that affect public health or the environment; and activities related to defense and security. Furthermore, it reported that both residents and nonresidents may hold foreign exchange accounts. Payments and transfers are subject to documentation requirements. Some capital transactions are subject to approval, documentation, or reporting requirements.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) was $309 million in 2003; it was projected to be about $100 million for 2004, much of it directed at the tourism sector, free trade zones, and telecommunication sector. The decision to privatize or "capitalize" ailing state enterprises (electricity, airport management, sugar) has attracted substantial foreign capital to these sectors.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI) and Generalized Systems of Preferences—government programs that allow the import of raw materials, equipment, and goods for re-export duty-free—benefit the economy. Tax exempt status for up to 20 years is also available. Duty-free access to the European common market was granted by joining the Lomé Convention in 1989, which also provides inexpensive financing for economic development projects. The addition of free trade zones greatly improved the level of industry in the country, but the NAFTA agreement transplanted some manufacturers to Mexico.

The 1998 hurricane caused at least $1.2 billion in damage; analysts estimated that the Dominican Republic's emergency aid would amount to 25% of its annual budget. The United States offered $47 million, and the European Union (EU) offered $50 million. Foreign aid may have successfully saved the small economy, and even improved it in 1999. Still, the state has a number of parastatals to privatize, and the fairly strict tariff regime has driven most investment capital into the free trade zones.

Rising foreign direct investment, particularly in the electricity, telecommunications, tourism, and free-trade zone sectors drove the average annual gross domestic product (GDP) growth rate from 2.25% in the early 1990s to 7.75% in the second half of the decade. Economic growth fell to 2.7% in 2001, however, in part due to the global economic downturn, and to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States. The unemployment rate rose that year, yet the inflation rate was reduced by half. The government maintained a strict fiscal policy, and tightened monetary policy in early 2002. There was a need for further social spending and investments in infrastructure, however.

Growth turned negative in 2003 with reduced tourism, a major bank fraud, and limited growth in the US economy (the source of about 85% of export revenues), but recovered in 2004 and 2005. Resumption of a badly needed IMF loan, slowed due to government repurchase of electrical power plants, was basic to the restoration of social and economic stability.

As of 2005, the Dominican Republic was a country on the mend following the 2003 banking scandal under former President Hipólito Mejía, when inflation spiked to 63% and GDP contracted by 0.4%. Since then, President Leonel Fernández has improved banking supervision, cut government spending, and introduced tax reforms. His administration passed tax reform and arranged a $600 million IMF standby arrangement in March 2005 to ease the country's fiscal situation. Although the economy continued to grow at a respectable rate, inflation and unemployment remained the two biggest challenges. Other challenges include the continuous flow of undocumented Haitians seeking refuge and an inefficient legal system in which a lack of resources and personnel keeps rule-of-law reforms from expediting judicial processes. Additionally, a deteriorated electrical distribution system, partly sustained by subsidies, was subject to frequent outages that hurt industry and tourism. Finally, the end of global quotas on apparel exports might allow China to increase its share of sales to the United States, cutting into exports from the Dominican Republic. The DR–CAFTA agreement could help the Dominican Republic to overcome such changes in global markets, but increases in the competitiveness of the economy are required.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A 2001 law created a three-part social security program to be implemented in stages until 2006. Individual accounts provide coverage for public and private sector workers, including Dominican citizens living abroad. The funding for old age, disability and survivorship programs comes from contributions from the insured and the government, with the bulk of responsibility on the employer. There is universal coverage for basic health care and pediatrics. Employers cover the total cost of workers' compensation. Family allowances are limited to unemployed single mothers with young children.

Women continue to have lower economic and social status than men. They are often paid less for similar work and occupy few top leadership positions. Employers avoid hiring pregnant women, and some administer pregnancy tests to job applicants. Divorce is easily obtainable by either spouse and women can own property in their own name. Domestic violence and sexual harassment are common. The first shelter for battered women opened in 2004. Rape is a serious and grossly underreported problem.

Haitian immigrants, many of whom are low paid agricultural workers, face considerable discrimination. An estimated half million live under harsh conditions in special camps for sugarcane workers. Reports of mistreatment of Haitian migrant workers continue. Documented human rights violations include police brutality, arbitrary detention, and mistreatment of suspects in custody.

HEALTH

In 2005, average life expectancy was 71.44 years; in the same year the infant mortality rate was 29.37 per 1,000 live births. The overall mortality was estimated at 4.7 per 1,000 people. Approximately 64% of women with partners (ages 15 to 49) used contraception.

Modern aqueducts, drainage systems, and garbage disposal plants have been constructed in the principal cities. The National Water Supply and Sewerage Institute was established in 1962 and the National Rural Water Service was formed in 1964. In 2000, an estimated 79% of the population had access to safe water, compared with 37% in 1970, and 71% had adequate sanitation. In 2000, however, approximately 11% of children under five years of age were considered to be malnourished and as of 1999, 14% of all births were low birth weight. As access to health care has improved, so has the under-5 mortality rate, which in 1996 was 56; in 1980 it was 94. In 1999, there were 135 cases of tuberculosis per 100,000 people.

The country immunizes over 80% of children up to one year of age against tuberculosis, diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, and polio. Major causes of death between 1990 and 1994 were: communicable diseases (27 per 100,000), malignant neoplasms (28 per 100,000), and injuries (30 per 100,000). As of 1999 total health care expenditure was estimated at 4.8% of GDP. Approximately 80% of the population has access to health care services. As of 2004, there were an estimated 188 physicians, 184 nurses, and 84 dentists per 100,000 people. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 1.70 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 88,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 7,900 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Rapid population growth and migration to urban areas have combined to create an increasingly serious housing shortage. Destructive hurricanes have not helped the situation either. The National Housing Institute and the National Housing Bank, both established in 1962, have been responsible for a great deal of construction, including about 10,000 homes during the period 1966–72. In the period 1975–78, construction activity slowed down, but a 1979 hurricanes prompted a construction boom—not, however, to create new housing but to replace units that had been destroyed by the storms. The Guzmán government promoted the building of low-cost housing at a rate of about 6,000 units a year. President Jorge Blanco pledged in 1982 that 25,000 low-cost houses would be built annually during his administration and President Balaguer, after he returned to office in 1986, also built low-cost housing, though at a far slower pace than announced.

Hurricane Georges in 1998 damaged about 170,000 homes or about 10% of the nation's entire housing stock. About 49,000 of these homes were completely destroyed. With assistance from foreign programs such as USAID, the government was able to complete 2,250 new homes and make repairs and utility upgrades to over 1,000 others.

At the 2002 census, there were about 2,445,315 dwellings in the country; this figure does not include institutionalized dwelling spaces. Most housing units are detached houses; accounting for 80% of all housing in the census. Concrete blocks, cement, and wood are the most frequently used construction materials for dwellings.

EDUCATION

The foremost educational objective in recent years has been the enrollment of the entire population in the 5–14 age range. Nine years of education is compulsory. Primary education lasts for six years. Students have two choices for secondary education. The traditional system covers a six-year course of study with two years of general education followed by a four-year track of academic, technical, vocational, or teacher-training studies. The reform system also covers six years, with four years of science based studies and two years of specialization.

In 2001, about 35% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 96% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 36% of age-eligible students (30% for boys and 41% for girls). It is estimated that about 93% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 39:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 31:1.

The state-run Autonomous University of Santo Domingo, founded in 1538 and the oldest in the hemisphere, has suffered from a lack of resources. There are four private universities, one technological institute, four colleges, and seven schools of art and music. In 2003, about 34% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program (26% men and 43% women). The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 87.7%.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 2.3% of GDP, or 12.4% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

There are about 130 libraries located throughout the country. The library of the University of Santo Domingo is the most important, with over 105,000 volumes. The Pedro Henríquez Ureña National Library, founded in Santo Domingo in 1970, had a collection of over 154,000 volumes in 2002. In general, public library collections are few and small, mostly containing only a few hundred books. Exceptions are the public libraries in Santo Domingo and Baní, with holdings of about 35,000 volumes and 38,000 volumes, respectively.

All of the leading museums are in and around Santo Domingo. The Museum of Dominican Man (formerly the National Museum) houses 19,000 pre-Columbian, colonial, and contemporary exhibits relating to the country's history. The Gallery of Modern Art promotes the music, painting, sculpture, and poetry of both Dominican and foreign artists and writers. A new complex at the Plaza of Culture houses several museums, the National Library, and the National Theater. The Alcázar de Colón is the 16th-century home of the Columbus family; the reputed tomb of Christopher Columbus is in the Cathedral of Santa María la Menor. The Zoological and Botanical Garden in Santo Domingo is unique because of its natural setting and grottoes. Ponce de Leon's fort was declared a historic site in 1972 and is maintained as a museum.

MEDIA

The Dominican Telephone Co. operates the domestic telephone system, and the government controls domestic telegraph service. The larger cities have automatic telephone exchanges, and most of the telephones are on an automatic dial system. In 2003, there were an estimated 115 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 271 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

In 1998 there were 120 AM and 56 FM radio stations as well as about 25 television stations, of which the government-owned Radio-Televisión Dominicana is the most important. Many privately owned radio and TV stations broadcast differing political points of view, as do the many independent newspapers and periodicals. In 2000 there were 97 television sets for every 1,000 people. In 2003, there were about 181 radios for every 1,000 people. About 64 of every 1,000 people have access to the Internet as of 2003.

The newspapers of the Dominican Republic are rated by the Inter-American Press Association as among the freest in Latin America. The leading daily is Listín Diario (circulation 88,000 in 2004). Other papers of importance also published in the capital are El Nacional (circulation 45,000 in 2002), Hoy (40,000 in 2004), Ultima Hora (40,000 in 2004), and El Caribe, an independent morning daily (circulation 10,000 in 2004). Of the dailies published outside the capital, La Información of Santiago (circulation 15,000 in 2004) is the best known.

The legally provided freedom of speech and the press are said to be generally supported in practice by the government.

ORGANIZATIONS

Consumer associations, mainly for low-income groups, deal in basic foods such as rice, plantains, potatoes, and beans. The Confederation of Employers of the Dominican Republic and the National Council of Businessmen are the principal employers' organizations. There are chambers of commerce in Santo Domingo and other large towns. There are a couple of teachers' unions/associations as well as associations for a number of other professions.

The Asociacion Medica Dominicana promotes research and education on health issues and works to establish common policies and standards in healthcare. There are also several associations dedicated to research and education for specific fields of medicine and particular diseases and conditions.

The Dominican Revolutionary Youth, with membership of about 150,000, is the youth wing of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD), which is affiliated to the Socialist International. The Federation of Dominican Students is the national students' union. The Dominican Scout Associations and the Girl Guides have active youth programs. There are also number of youth organizations with religious affiliations. Sports associations promote competition in a number of favorite pastimes, including squash, tennis, and tae kwon do. National women's organizations include the Research Center for Feminist Action and You, Woman.

Volunteer service organizations, such as the Lions Clubs International, are also present. There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, UNICEF, Habitat for Humanity, and Caritas.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Although the Dominican Republic offers fine beaches and historical sites as well as quality hotel facilities, it had no organized tourist industry to speak of until 1967, and received no more than 45,000 visitors per year. Increased political stability made the country more attractive to tourists, and by 1973 the number of foreign visitors had grown to 182,036. By 1997 the Dominican Republic had 38,585 hotel rooms with an occupancy rate of 76%, and tourism was a mainstay of its economy. In 2003 approximately 3,268,182 tourists arrived in the Dominican Republic. There were 56,378 hotel rooms with 140,945 beds and a 72% occupancy rate. The average length of stay was 9.5 nights.

Resort centers—La Romana, Puerto Plata, Samaná, and Playa Grande—are the main attraction. Baseball is the national sport. Other popular pastimes include basketball, boxing, tennis, golf, hunting, fishing, and scuba diving. The Juan Pablo Duarte Olympic Center is one of the best-equipped sports facilities in the Caribbean. Citizens of the United States and Canada are not required to carry a passport; they may purchase a tourist card upon entering the country. Other visitors require a valid passport, and may require visitor visas.

In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Santo Domingo was $189. Daily expenses in La Romana were $267.

FAMOUS DOMINICANS

Juan Pablo Duarte (1813–76), national hero of the Dominican Republic, was the leader of the famous "La Trinitaria," along with Francisco del Rosario Sánchez (1817–61) and Ramón Matías Mella (1816–64), which proclaimed and won independence from Haiti in 1844. Emiliano Tejera (1841–1923) and Fernando Arturo de Merino (1833–1906), first archbishop of the Dominican Republic, were noted statesmen.

Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina (1891–1961) was the dominant figure in the political life of the country from 1930 until his assassination on 30 May 1961. He served four times as president and was commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Joaquín Balaguer (1909–2002) was a prominent political figure in the Dominican Republic. Juan Bosch (1909–2001), founder of the leftist PRD and later of the PLD, served for seven months as president in 1963.

Juan Bautista Alfonseca (1810–75), the father of Dominican music, was the first composer to make use of Dominican folklore. José Reyes (1835–1905), musician and soldier, wrote the music for the national anthem. José de Jesús Ravelo (1876–1954) composed the oratorio La Muerte de Cristo, which has been performed yearly since 7 April 1939 at the Basílica de Santa María la Menor on Good Friday. Other prominent Dominican musicians are Juan Francisco García (1892–1974), Luis Emilio Mena (1895–1964), and Enrique de Marchena (1908–1988).

In sports, Juan Marichal (b.1937) achieved fame in the United States as a baseball pitcher, as has Pedro Martínez (b.1971). Sammy Sosa (b.1968), a star home-run hitter, won the National League Most Valuable Player Award in 1998. Outfielder and slugger Manny Ramírez (b.1972) won the 2004 World Series Most Valuable Player Award for leading the Boston Red Sox to its first World Series victory in 86 years.

DEPENDENCIES

The Dominican Republic has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Calvert, Peter. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Latin America. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.

Chester, Eric Thomas. Rag-Tags, Scum, Riff-Raff, and Commies: The U.S. Intervention in the Dominican Republic, 1965–1966. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2001.

Health in the Americas, 2002 edition. Washington, D.C.: Pan American Health Organization, Pan American Sanitary Bureau, Regional Office of the World Health Organization, 2002.

Metz, Helen Chapin, (ed.). Dominican Republic and Haiti: Country Studies. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2001.

Pacini Hernandez, Deborah. Bachata: A Social History of a Dominican Popular Music. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995.

Safa, Helen Icken. The Myth of the Male Breadwinner: Women and Industrialization in the Caribbean. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1995.

Wiarda, Howard J. and Michael J. Kryzanek. The Dominican Republic, a Caribbean Crucible, 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992.

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Major Cities:
Santo Domingo, Santiago de los Caballeros, La Romana

Other Cities:
Azua, Baní, Barahona, Constanza, Higüey, Jarabacoa, La Vega, Puerto Plata, Samaná, San Cristóbal, San Francisco De Macorís, San Juan, San Pedro De Macorís

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report for Dominican Republic. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

The DOMINICAN REPUBLIC shares with the Republic of Haiti the tropical island of Hispaniola, one of the Greater Antilles situated between Cuba and Puerto Rico. Troubled by unstable political conditions throughout most of its history, it has had little chance until recent years to develop a sound economy capable of providing more than a subsistence level of living for most of its people. The period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, however, was marked by rapid economic development and progress, and the 1982 peaceful transition of power indicates the nation's growing stability.

Since its discovery by Columbus in 1492 and its colonization by Spain, Hispaniola has been, for brief periods, under the nominal control of Great Britain, France, Haiti, and the United States (1916-24). A bloody revolution on the French-held western end of the island in 1791 led to the establishment of Haiti as an independent country. Haitian forces dominated the island for varying periods between 1801 and 1843. The Dominican Republic gained its independence in 1844 after a successful revolt against Haitian rule, but its political history remained stormy, with foreign intervention in the country's affairs from the late 1800s to the middle part of this century. Recent political events suggest a promise of permanent democratic tradition.

MAJOR CITIES

Santo Domingo

Santo Domingo, the oldest continuous European settlement in the Americas, is the capital and largest city of the Dominican Republic. It serves as the commercial, social, and political hub of the country, as well as the principal seaport. It is a fast-growing city which has more than doubled its population in the last 10 years. The population is estimated at 3.6 million. Most inhabitants live in the older, poorer, barrio sections, bordering the Ozama River. Outside these areas and the commercial districts near the port, Santo Domingo is fairly modern, with new homes, apartments, and office buildings continually under construction. Here, streets and avenues are lined with palm and flame trees, and flowering shrubs.

La Plaza de la Cultura, on the western side of the city, is the most impressive cultural area in the Caribbean, boasting the Museum of Dominican Man (Museo del Hombre), with a collection of artifacts from the Indian migrations from South America through the Caribbean islands; the National Library (Biblioteca Nacional); and the National Theater (Teatro Nacional). Parks and playgrounds are numerous in the immediate outskirts of Santo Domingo, and nearby beaches lure Dominicans and tourists alike.

The present location of the nation's capital evolved through a series of incidents. Christopher Columbus made his first landing in the New World December 5, 1492, on the northwest coast of an island he named Hispaniola. On Christmas Day of that year, his flagship, the Santa María, was wrecked on the reefs of Cape Haitien, and from the salvaged timbers of this vessel the crew built the first European fort in the Western Hemisphere. Leaving a garrison of 40 men at the fort, Columbus set sail for further explorations and eventually went back to Spain. When he returned the following year on his second voyage, he found that the Indians had revolted against Spanish abuse, and had destroyed his small garrison. Columbus then ordered the construction of a new city, La Isabela, near the present city of Puerto Plata on the north coast of the Dominican Republic. His brother, Bartholomé (in English, Bartholomew), was made governor of Hispaniola.

In 1496, Bartholomé, enticed by rumors of gold, a good harbor, and fertile land, and disheartened by sickness and bickering among the colonists, transferred the seat of government to the south coast on the bank of the Ozama River. He named the new city Santo Domingo in honor of his favorite saint, Dominic. The spot served as Spain's stepping-stone to further explorations in the New World. Except for the period from 1936 to 1961, when the city was called Ciudad Trujillo, for (then) President Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina, this name has endured.

During the early 16th century, Santo Domingo was the staging area for the Spanish conquistadors. Among the famous explorers who contributed to the colorful history of the area were Ponce de León, Sir Francis Drake, Diego de Velázquez, and Hernán Cortés.

Clothing

Drip-dry materials, wash-and-wear cottons, and synthetic combinations will withstand repeated washings and the bright sun of the Dominican Republic. Because dry cleaning establishments are not up to U.S. standards, washable clothing is strongly recommended. For the most part, apparel that is suitable for a Washington, DC summer is appropriate all year in the Dominican climate. Jackets, sweaters, and shawls are needed for the rare cool evening. Lightweight rainwear and umbrellas are useful during the rainy season; rubbers or boots are not. Hats and gloves are rarely worn. Sun hats, shades, and other protective clothing are recommended because the tropical sun can be hard on the skin.

Tropical-weight shirts and neckties are normal office attire but, for special functions, a white or dark business suit is appropriate. Black dinner jackets (never white) are worn on some occasions. Women dress simply in cool, sleeveless (or short-sleeved) dresses for office or other activities. Stockings are worn only for special occasions. Pantsuits may be worn to the office; slacks are acceptable for casual gatherings or for shopping. Shorts may be worn. Shoes are available locally, although they are expensive and often poorly made.

Children wear summer garments year round. Nightclothes suitable for U.S. summers are practical for older children, but infants and young children may need warmer wear in air-conditioned bedrooms. Children's shoes, both locally made and U.S. brands, are available. Teenagers in Santo Domingo are style and label conscious, and formal wear is worn much more in Santo Domingo than in the U.S.

Food

Several modern supermarkets in Santo Domingo offer a wide variety of U.S. canned and frozen foods including baby foods, but at high prices. Coffee, bread, rice, and a variety of other local products are found in most supermarkets. Supermarkets sell pasteurized milk, yogurt, butter, and cheese. They are usually safe to consume once checked for freshness.

Fresh foods on the local market are generally in good supply and of adequate quality. Farmers' outdoor markets and door-to-door vendors also sell fresh fruits and vegetables. Special outlets for meats, eggs, baked goods, and dairy products are available. Beef, veal, pork, poultry, fish, lobster, and shrimp are also available locally. Due to the danger of ciguatera, a serious type of poisoning, do not eat fish at home or in restaurants. Both commonplace and tropical vegetables are found in season.

Local tropical fruits, including breadfruit, kumquat (nispero), gump (limoncillo), and guanabana, are plentiful and delicious. Lemons, as Americans know them, do not grow here; limes are used instead. Temperate zone fruits such as peaches, plums, and apples are imported occasionally, but are expensive.

Dairies sell pasteurized milk and will deliver. Milk in wax containers is preferable to bottled milk, as bottles may be contaminated. Local butter and cheese are usually safe, but should be checked for freshness.

The German-Jewish colony in Sosua, on the north coast, prepares excellent meats, cheeses, and good sandwich bread, all sold in Santo Domingo.

Fine local beers sell at prices approximately equal to those in the U.S. Most kinds of soft drinks are bottled here and sold at reasonable prices.

Supplies & Services

Beauty and barber shops are numerous in the cities and at the major resorts, with services varying from adequate to good. Tailoring is used mainly for alterations, but many American women find local dressmakers satisfactory. Shoe repair is satisfactory. All of these services are reasonable, but some radio, stereo, and television repairmen charge high rates. Cost estimates should be obtained beforehand. Laundries are available, but most expatriates prefer to have their laundry done at home. Washing and ironing should be supervised to prevent damage to fabrics, washers, and irons. At the few local dry cleaners, the quality of work is inconsistent.

Repair service is available on most cars, and prices for routine work are reasonable. However, major repairs can mean delays while parts are ordered; this type of service is expensive and quality often only fair. Automatic transmission repair, electrical system adjustments, work on window and door fittings, and other jobs requiring a delicate touch are sometimes risky, depending upon the garage used.

Religious Activities

The Dominican Republic is officially Roman Catholic, but many other denominations maintain churches in the country. Members of the U.S. community in Santo Domingo usually attend English-language services at these churches: Epiphany Episcopal Church, Protestant Community Church, First Baptist Church, Parroquia Santiago Apóstal (mass in English), and Hebrew Synagogue Center (English prayer books, services in Hebrew each Friday). Other denominations, which have Spanish-language services, are Seventh-Day Adventist, Plymouth Brethren, Latter-Day Saints, Assembly of God, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Roman Catholic.

Domestic Help

All types of servants are available. Generally, those who are experienced and well-trained pass from one expatriate family to another. Although efficiency and initiative are not outstanding characteristics, devotion to family and desire to please counterbalance these failings. Most servants speak only Spanish, but a few know some English. Many applicants for domestic work are illiterate and have no knowledge of American cooking or housekeeping, contrary to their claims. It is best to hire only on the recommendation of another employer, or to ask for advice at the U.S. Embassy personnel office, where a registry is kept on security-checked applicants.

The majority of Americans in the Dominican Republic (Santo Domingo, in particular) employ one or two full-time servants, and some have part-time yard boys and laun-dresses as well. Single people usually hire a maid for general housework, cooking, cleaning, and assistance with shopping at the local market. Some single people employ part-time maids. A family with children may need two servants, one acting as nursemaid in addition to helping with the housework. For security reasons, it is advisable to seek servants who will live in.

In addition to wages ($200-300 a month for live-ins), the employer furnishes all meals, uniforms, linens, and toiletries. Additional money is agreed upon to cover daily transportation for servants who live at home. It is customary to give a month's salary as a Christmas bonus to domestics who have been employed for a year. Some employers assist with medical expenses, and a certain amount of paternalism is involved in most employer-employee relationships. Servants customarily work a six-day week, with a paid two-week vacation after a year's service. Employers do not make obligatory payments for social or medical insurance.

Education

Most American children living in the capital attend the Carol Morgan School, a private, nonprofit institution providing coeducational instruction in English through grade 12. The curriculum parallels that of U.S. public schools, and the high school is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. The superintendent and teaching staff have U.S. certification. Of the total enrollment of 1,056, approximately 290 are Americans, 603 Dominicans (1994 est.), and the remainder other nationalities. School is in session from the last week in August to the first week in June, with a two-three week Christmas vacation, a week-long Easter break, and days off for the celebration of some U.S. and Dominican national holidays.

Carol Morgan School is just outside the city, in a complex of air-conditioned buildings. Spanish is taught as a foreign language in all grades, and four years of French are offered at the secondary level. The high-school curriculum is geared to college preparatory work. The physical plant has chemistry and physics laboratories, computer labs, 49 classrooms, infirmary, gymnasium, cafeteria, audiovisual facilities, and a 18,000-volume library. Physical education is offered in all grades, with intramural competition in volleyball, basketball, and softball. Extracurricular activities include a school newspaper, yearbook, literary magazine, dramatics and language clubs, and several special groups.

Santo Domingo has several other schools available to foreigners. Colegio Los Angelitos/St. George School has classes from nursery level to grade 12. The curriculum is bilingual. The school is large, well-organized, and follows a formal schedule combining British and American approaches to education. All teachers have certification. Resources and physical facilities are good. The school's name is Colegio Los Angelitos from nursery school through sixth grade, and St. George School in the upper-level classes.

ABC School offers a program based on U.S. and European educational systems. Enrollment is from kindergarten through grade six. Teachers either have college degrees or are university students.

American School of Santo Domingo provides coeducational instruction from pre-kindergarten through grade 12. The school is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in the U.S. The elementary classes receive instruction in English/language arts, mathematics, science, social studies, health, Spanish, art, music, and physical education. Special programs include remedial reading and comprehension, English as a second language, and mathematics. The high school follows a college preparatory program, covering all of the general areas of study, plus Dominican history and Spanish. Several electives are offered.

The George Washington School of English Education is also coeducational. An English curriculum is offered from nursery school to 12th grade.

Two nursery schools, Froebel School and Lucy's Lambs, are especially recommended. The Froebel School has excellent equipment and resources. The staff consists of a director and three assistants. The school has three classes: one for three-year-olds, a pre-kindergarten for four-year-olds, and a kindergarten for five-year-olds. Instruction focuses on the artistic, social, and academic aspects of the child's development.

Lucy's Lambs accepts children from ages two through five. There are two nursery classes for ages two through four, a pre-kindergarten for ages four through five, and a kindergarten for five-year-olds. Each class has about 20 children. The director and the kindergarten teacher are certified teachers. Instruction follows traditional approaches of learning colors, numbers, concepts, social adjustment, etc.

Recreation

Swimming, water-skiing, sailing, scuba diving, motor boating, baseball, softball, horseback riding, polo, volleyball, tennis, basketball, and cockfighting are among the more popular sports in the country. Americans in Santo Domingo enjoy these activities year round. Water sports are particularly popular, and several shallow, palm-lined beaches are within an hour's drive of the city. All major Santo Domingo hotels have swimming pools. Snorkeling and scuba diving are particularly interesting because of the clear water and the variety of marine life in the Caribbean. However, sharks and sea urchins are possible dangers.

Some of the finest fishing in the Caribbean may be found off the Dominican coast. Freshwater fishing and surf casting are popular, as well as fishing for marlin, sailfish, and other game fish. Some of the best spots include Cumayasa, La Romana, Cabeza de Toro, and Boca de Yuma, all east of Santo Domingo; Palmar de Ocoa and Barahona to the south; and Monte Cristi, Puerto Plata, and Samaná to the north.

Some Americans join the Club Náutico of Santo Domingo, about a 45-mile drive from the city. There is a clubhouse with dining room and bar, a small saltwater pool, a pier with a marina, and a fair beach. The club sponsors annual hunting and fishing tournaments.

Riding has become a popular sport, as have racquetball and running. For the latter, the city offers a few places for joggers, including the oceanfront or malecon, the six-mile perimeter of the Paseo de Los Indios Park, and the almost four-mile perimeter of the National Botanical Gardens. Many informal walking groups exist in the country.

The Dominican Republic now has several golf courses, and others are being planned or built. One 18-hole course is at the Santo Domingo Country Club on the outskirts of the city; membership is open to non-Dominicans. Two other championship courses are 80 miles east of the capital in La Romana, beside the Caribbean. A fourth course, designed by Robert Trent Jones, is also of championship quality; it serves the tourist facilities around the seaport town of Puerto Plata.

Baseball is the national sport, and all games draw large crowds. There are two seasons. The professional winter season (which occasionally features players from the U.S. major leagues) lasts from late October to the end of January, and the summer season runs from April to September. Games during both seasons are played at Quisqueya Stadium in Santo Domingo, and at stadiums in Santiago de los Caballeros, San Pedro de Macorís, and La Romana.

Hunting is permitted in the Dominican Republic. Ducks, which migrate from North America in winter, and doves are the principal fowl hunted. Quail (in small numbers), yaguaza (a West Indian tree duck), and guinea hen are also hunted; no large game is found in the country.

The restored colonial section of the city is the location of Santo Domingo's principal tourist attractions. These include the Cathedral of Santa María la Menor, Torre del Homenaje, Alcazar de Colón, and the Museo de las Casas Reales (Royal Houses). The cathedral, built between 1523 and 1540, is one of the finest examples of Spanish Renaissance architecture in the Western Hemisphere. The onyx and marble monument inside the edifice was brought block by block from Barcelona, Spain. Santa María is the oldest cathedral in the New World, and is one of three places which claim to contain the remains of Christopher Columbus. The cathedral was completely rehabilitated in 1992 in time for festivities celebrating the 500th anniversary of Columbus' arrival in the New World.

Torre del Homenaje, part of Ozama Fortress, was erected in 1503, and reflects the power of colonial Spain. The Alcazar de Colón is the restored fortress palace built by Diego Columbus, son of Christopher, and first viceroy of the island; it contains some fine pieces of period furniture. Museo de las Casas Reales houses exhibits of historical interest, and is the former residence of the captain general of Hispaniola.

There are several other museums of interest in the city. The Museum of Dominican Man is best known for its collection of pre-Columbian artifacts; the National Museum displays works by well-known Dominican and regional artists; and the Museum of Natural History and Geography houses exhibits dealing with the topography, agriculture, and flora and fauna of the republic.

A number of parks are scattered throughout the city. The largest of these, beautiful Paseo de Los Indios, is three-and-a-half miles long and offers scenery, botanical specimens, and recreational facilities. A municipal amusement park in this area, Mirador del Sur, has a variety of attractions for small children. The Jardín Botánico Nacional Moscoso (botanical gardens named for Dr. Rafael M. Moscoso) covers an area of over 1,800,000 square meters, and contains special laboratories with hundreds of varieties of tropical plants. Other attractions are the Great Ravine, the Japanese Park, and the world's largest floral clock; small boating facilities are available in an artificial lake in the garden. The modern Parque Zoológico Nacional is spread over 1,250,000 square meters, and includes about five miles of roads and walks. Animals from different parts of the world are displayed in open areas which resemble their natural habitats. The zoo features the largest bird cage in the world, a unique African plain, and a children's zoo.

An Olympic park, with a complex of sports facilities, was built for the XII Central Caribbean Games inearly 1974. The complex includes a stadium for soccer and track and field events, a covered sports palace with a seating capacity of 10,000, an Olympic-size pool, a cycling track, and court facilities.

The best beaches on the south coast are Boca Chica, 20 miles from the city; Guayacanes, Playa Caribe, Juan Dolio, and Villas del Mar, 30 miles; Barahona, 75 miles to the west; and Bayahibe, in La Romana, 80 miles to the east. Points of interest on the north coast are Puerto Plata and Sosua (about 150 miles from Santo Domingo) with their beautiful white-sand beaches.

Shopping in Santo Domingo is a real bargain because the Dominican peso trades favorably with most foreign currencies, and there is a wide variety of items from which to choose. Popular items include native handicrafts such as paintings, straw, macramé, and mahogany products. Amber, the country's national gem (more is mined in the Dominican Republic than anywhere else), is another good buy. Larimar, the sea-blue stone found in the western part of the country, is another recommended buy. There are duty-free zones in both Santo Domingo and Puerto Plata; Santo Domingo's is the largest duty-free area in the Caribbean.

Entertainment

Movies, shown in comfortable, air-conditioned theaters in Santo Domingo, are one of the principal means of entertainment outside the home. New and old U.S. films with original soundtracks and Spanish subtitles predominate, but British, Mexican, Italian, French, and German films are also shown. Santo Domingo has five popular gambling casinos at major hotels, and several nightclubs with floor shows. Also, various discotheques feature American music.

The National Theater is the center of a number of cultural presentations, including regular symphony concerts, occasional solo recitals, plays, ballets by visiting troupes, and operas or plays by local artists. The Binational Center (the Dominican-American Cultural Institute) and several private galleries offer exhibits by local artists.

Santiago

Santiago de los Caballeros is the "second city" of the Dominican Republic. Its name is commonly shortened to Santiago. Situated on the banks of the Río Yaque in the north-central part of the country, it is known for its Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra, a 23-year-old institution with a highly respected academic reputation. The university is considered the nation's best, and is supported by the Catholic Church and both public and private endowments.

Santiago was founded in 1504 by "30 Spanish gentlemen," and was rebuilt 60 years later after being demolished by an earthquake. It has endured not only several more earthquakes of varying intensity, but also a turbulent history of political insurrections. During the time that Rafael Trujillo was dictator in the middle years of this century, he tore down some of Santiago's finest old buildings, and erected what is widely considered to be an ugly "Peace Monument," and a $4 million suspension bridge that leads nowhere.

Santiago has grown considerably in the past quarter-century, and is home to 1.5 people. It is the commercial center of an agricultural region and the distribution point for several industries. These industries are centered on the production of rum, furniture, cigarettes, soap, pharmaceuticals, and leather articles. It is an especially clean city which keeps a crew of workers sweeping and washing the streets daily.

Santiago is noted for its excellent hotels and restaurants, and for the paradores, or pensiones, which attract the tourist trade. It is also famous for the fine Bermudez rum distilled here.

La Romana

La Romana is a seaport city of 133,000 in the republic's eastern province of the same name. Its popularity has increased in recent years with the completion of luxury tourist resorts, Casa de Campo and Club Dominicus, outside the city.

La Romana's name, meaning "The Scales," comes from earlier days when growers brought their crops to be weighed before shipment to Puerto Rican refineries. Its image has now changed to that of a spot popular with high society. It offers championship golf courses, superb tennis courts, good fishing facilities, swimming (off Catalina Island), a village inn, restaurants, a museum, and an exhibition hall.

The Casa de Campo complex near La Romana is fast becoming the Caribbean's most famous resort. Its 7,000 acres, spread out near the sea, include two championship courses designed by the golf architect Pete Dye.

About 10 miles from this luxurious resort is Altos de Chavón, an artist's replica of a 15th-century Spanish village. One of its famous attractions is a large, hillside amphitheater which serves as the site for cultural events. The tiny church in the village is popular for weddings.

La Romana itself is Gulf and Western Americas Corporation headquarters in the Dominican Republic, and also the site of the largest privately owned sugar refinery in the world. The city is home to several industries which manufactures soap, furniture, and shoes. The Abraham Lincoln School, a company-sponsored, English-language school, is open for students in pre-kindergarten through grade 12; admissions information is available from Fondación Gulf and Western, Central Romana, La Romana, Dominican Republic.

OTHER CITIES

AZUA (full name, Azua de Compostela) is located near the Caribbean Sea about 50 miles west of Santo Domingo. The original town, established in 1504, was destroyed by an earthquake, and Azua was rebuilt three miles inland at the foot of the Sierra de Ocoa. Trading includes rice, coffee, sugarcane, fruits, and timber. A paved highway connects the city with Santo Domingo. Azua's population is over 64,000.

BANÍ , capital city of Peravia Province, is located in southern Dominican Republic, 30 miles southwest of Santo Domingo. The city is a commercial center that produces rice, coffee, and bananas. Baní's population is close to 100,000.

BARAHONA (full name, Santa Cruz de Barahona) is situated on the Caribbean Sea in southwestern Dominican Republic, about 80 miles southwest of Santo Domingo. The city, site of a major port, has industries which include fishing, sugarcane, and fruits. It is also known for hunting. The city is accessible by air and roadway. Barahona's population is approximately 74,000.

CONSTANZA , 90 miles northwest of Santo Domingo over tortuous mountain roads, offers a scenery and climate change at 4,000 feet above sea level. The city's population is close to 15,200.

HIGÜEY , the capital city of La Altagracia Province, on the east coast, is known for its basilica, which houses the largest carillon in the Americas. The church represents the country's most outstanding example of modern architecture. The city is surrounded by fertile land where cacao, cattle, corn, rice, and dairy products are produced. A major highway links Higüey with Santo Domingo. The population of Higüey is about 83,700.

JARABACOA is a colonial city in the mountains, 60 miles northwest of Santo Domingo. It is now a small rural community with pleasant scenery, overlooking cloud formations in the lower mountain valleys. Potatoes, strawberries, apples, vegetables, and flowers are grown near the city. Jarabacoa has an estimated population of 13,400.

LA VEGA (full name, Concepción de la Vega) is the capital of La Vega Province in west-central Dominican Republic. Founded in 1494, La Vega is a commercial city in a fertile part of the country. Its crops include tobacco, coffee, cocoa, rice, and fruit. La Vega is located near the paved highway to the capital, and has an airfield. Its population is about 56,000.

PUERTO PLATA , situated on a crescent-shaped bay on the Atlantic Ocean, is an historic town where pirate ships docked in the 1500s. It became a free port during the 18th century, and later a coffee port, when plantation owners built their townhouses on the streets which now are part of a national preservation plan. In town, horses still pull carriages past gingerbread houses with latticed verandas. The city, originally named San Felipe de Puerto Plata, is the capital of Puerto Plata Province. About 130 miles north of Santo Domingo, Puerto Plata has a population of about 86,000. Tobacco, coffee, sugar, cacao, bananas, and hardwoods are exported here. Liquor, dairy products, pasta, and leather are manufactured in Puerto Plata. The city is among the country's ten greatest cattle producing areas. Recently, the area has become the site of a large, and still expanding, international tourist complex. Major resorts include Jack Tar Village, Playa Dorado Hotel, Dorado Naco, and Villas Dorados.

SAMANÁ (formerly called Santa Bárbara de Samaná), situated on the east coast, is about 170 miles from the capital. It was settled in 1864 by escaped slaves from the U.S., whose ship bringing them from the Underground Railroad was blown ashore. Their descendants, now numbering 7,000, speak English, and maintain several old Protestant churches built over the years. Samaná, a seaside town, has excellent beaches and, as a spot for sport fishing, was once a favorite of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The city is a commercial and manufacturing center for coconuts, timber, rice, and marble. It has grown from a fishing village to a cruise port of note. Its population is about 38,800.

SAN CRISTÓBAL , 25 miles southwest of Santo Domingo, is the site of the Mahogany House, built and furnished by the late Rafael Trujillo. The city was the site of the signing of the Dominican Republic's first constitution in 1844. Founded in 1575, the city is situated in a region that produces rice, sugar, fruit, potatoes, livestock, and coffee. It is the capital of the province of the same name and has a population of approximately 124,000.

SAN FRANCISCO DE MACORÍS , the capital of Duarte Province, is located about 60 miles northwest of Santo Domingo. It is the busy center of an important sugar-and molasses-producing area. Timber, coffee, fruits, cacao, rice, hides, and wax are other major products of the district. The population of San Francisco de Macorís is about 130,000.

SAN JUAN (full name, San Juan de la Maguana), located in west-central Dominican Republic, was founded in 1508. The Battle of Santomé in 1844, which resulted in Dominican independence, was fought near San Juan. Markets include rice, fruit, corn, potatoes, and cattle. San Juan's population is roughly 50,000.

SAN PEDRO DE MACORÍS is located in the southeastern part of the country, about 40 miles east of Santo Domingo. The city's modern port handles most of the country's exports, which include molasses, timber, cattle, and sugar. Industries include corn milling, the manufacture of clothing, and soap and alcohol distilling. The Universidad Central del Este was founded here in 1970 and is located on the main road to Santo Domingo. The city's population is approximately 124,000. In recent years, San Pedro de Macorís has become a hotbed for baseball, producing more players per capita for U.S. major league teams than any other town ever.

Several other cities of interest are located within easy driving distance of Santo Domingo. On the north coast are La Isabela, Columbus' first settlement in the New World (1493); Sosua, settled by Jewish refugees from Germany in 1939; and Macao, 95 miles from Santo Domingo, noted for its beautiful, long beach.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, the second largest (after Cuba) of the Greater Antilles group, and shares a 224-mile border with Haiti to the west. The island is bordered on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Caribbean Sea, and on the east by the Mona Passage, which separates the Dominican Republic from the island of Puerto Rico, 71 miles away.

The country has a land area of 18,712 square miles, slightly larger than Vermont and New Hampshire combined. With its 1,000-mile coastline, it extends about 240 miles east to west, and has a maximum north-south width of about 170 miles.

Much of the terrain is rugged. Four nearly parallel mountain ranges traverse the country from northwest to southeast. The Cordillera Central is the largest range and divides the country into almost equal parts. Pico Duarte, at 10,128 feet the highest mountain in the West Indies, is within this range. The largest and most fertile valley, the Cibao, about 150 miles long and 10 to 30 miles wide, is in the upper central part of the country.

Dominican rivers vary in flow with the season, and are navigable only for short distances at their mouths, if at all. Their main use is for irrigation and hydroelectric power. The major rivers are the Ozama, Yaque del Norte, Yaque del Sur, Isabela, Higuamo, and Soco.

The climate varies little throughout the year. Although the country is in the tropics, temperatures seldom exceed 90°F, mainly because of constant trade winds. Temperatures in the coastal cities average about 78°F, with seasonal variations of five to eight degrees. Rainfall varies regionally, with about two-thirds of the annual 57 inches coming in the May-to-November rainy season. However, this period differs in various parts of the country; for example, the rainy season on the south coast occurs between May and November, and in the north from November to May.

Mildew, mold, rust, and insects are problems related to year-round high humidity. Furniture, leather goods, clothing, metal items, and books must be carefully aired and protected. The climate also contributes to prevalent upper respiratory infections, skin irritations, fungus, and stomach and intestinal complaints.

Hurricanes are a significant weather threat, particularly from mid-July through October, and have caused serious damage in recent years. The worst hurricane on record, which virtually destroyed Santo Domingo, occurred in 1930. Hurricanes David and Frederick, in August and September 1979, caused considerable damage to the city and countryside. In September, 1987, Hurricane Emily barely missed Santo Domingo. Earthquake tremors are felt occasionally, but have not had serious consequences since 1948.

Population

More than half of the Dominican Republic's 8.3 million inhabitants live in towns with populations over 10,000. The cities, however, are growing rapidly. The largest urban areas are Santo Domingo (3.6 million), and Santiago de los Caballeros (1.5 million).

The nation's population density of 171 persons per square mile makes it the seventh most densely populated country in Latin America, but it does not exceed that of most of the islands of the West Indies. Existing population pressure is accentuated by an annual growth rate of about 2%.

The nation's inhabitants are mostly descendants of both early European settlers and African slaves, but there are many relative newcomers of European and Middle Eastern origins. An estimated 16% of the population is Caucasian, another 11% are black, and the remaining 73% mixed Caucasian and Black. No traces of aboriginal Indians exist. No overt racial antagonism affects the relationship between the ethnic groups.

Spanish is the national language. It is spoken quite rapidly in the Dominican Republic, and many idioms and contractions are used in its colloquial form. English is spoken widely by the upper socioeconomic segment of society.

Under an accord with the Vatican in 1954, Roman Catholicism was formally established as the state religion, and the Dominican Government provides some financial support to the church. Freedom of worship is universal, however, and many Protestant denominations and missions of all faiths are found here.

Frequent colorful processions are held on various saints' day festivals. The nation's patron saint, Our Lady of Altagracia, is named after a vision of the Virgin Mary reported in the eastern part of the island in 1921. On holy days, mass is celebrated as a part of many public ceremonies.

The Dominican Republic does not have a large landholding class. A small but growing number of wealthy people dominate the country's social structure. For many years (1930-1961), this group held what little economic power was not monopolized by the ruling Trujillo family. The preponderance of the Trujillos in both the economic realm and in government ended with the dictator's assassination in 1961, but some of the established social patterns continue to linger. Upward mobility is geared largely to the acquisition of wealth, although increasing importance is being attached to education and professional achievement.

Two small groups top the social scale. One is composed of well-to-do persons whose extensive rural properties were not expropriated under the Trujillo dictatorship, and who have used their land to gain leadership in commerce and industry. Most of this group is centered around the northern cities of Santiago and Puerto Plata, but many maintain second homes in Santo Domingo. The second group is composed of former civil servants and military officials who attained prominence and wealth under previous governments. Their ranks include a few professionals and men of letters, but many of the latter fall into the small but growing middle class.

The middle class has suffered in recent years due to economic problems. It includes civil servants, private-sector managers, white-collar workers, teachers, and other professionals.

About three-fourths of the people are at the lower end of the socioeconomic scale. The majority earn a subsistence wage, have minimal education, live in substandard conditions, are largely rural, and are migrating to urban areas in the hope of improving their lot by serving as domestics or laborers.

Construction and public works projects employ substantial numbers of skilled and unskilled laborers in the urban areas, but not a sufficient number to offset the growing demand for jobs. It is estimated that more than 45% of the available labor force is unemployed or under-employed.

For many Dominicans, emigration is a viable alternative. Although the number seeking to enter the U.S., Venezuela, Canada, and Europe is increasing, the outflow is partially offset by significant illegal immigration of Haitians (estimated at 600,000) to the Dominican Republic.

Government

Originally a Spanish colony and later under Haitian rule, the Dominican Republic gained independence in 1844. Its subsequent history was characterized by alternating periods of authoritarian rule and instability. The collection of Dominican customs revenues was controlled by the U.S. from 1905 to 1940. A naval mission, chiefly composed of U.S. Marines, governed the country from 1916 to 1924.

Following Trujillo's assassination on May 30, 1961, the country again underwent a series of political crises, including the election and overthrow of the government of Juan Bosch, the first democratically elected president since 1930. This government lasted only seven months before it was toppled in a military coup in 1963. An attempt to restore constitutional government in April 1965 ended in civil war and the arrival of the Inter-American Peace Force (IAPF), of which U.S. forces were a part. Peace was restored, and the IAPF withdrew its last troops in September 1966.

In June 1966, Dr. Joaquín Balaguer was elected to a four-year term as president. During this period, his administration worked primarily to promote economic and social reforms. In June 1970, Balaguer was reelected to an additional four-year term. Although his second term was marred by both left-and right-wing terrorism and violence in 1970 and 1971, and by a minor short-lived guerrilla incursion in 1973, the country registered steady economic progress. Elections, in which an opposition alliance abstained only days before (claiming unfair conditions), were held again in May 1974, and President Balaguer was returned to office for the third time. He was defeated for a fourth term in 1978 by the candidate of the Dominican Revolutionary Party, Antonio Guzmán (Fernández).

The 1982 elections brought Dr. Salvador Jorge Blanco to the presidency in an orderly succession, and a growing strength in the country's democratic institution has been demonstrated. The 1986 elections saw Joaquín Balaguer return to the presidency for a fourth term. Jacobo Majluta, the president of the Senate who opposed Balaguer in the balloting, conceded defeat after claiming irregularities in the closely fought race. Majluta lost by less than 44,000 votes. Balaguer was reelected to the presidency for a fifth term in August, 1990. The results of the May 1994 election were disputed, leading to scheduling of a new election in May 1996. Leonel Fernandez was elected president in a second round of voting and took office in August.

Under the constitution, executive power is vested in the president, who is assisted by a cabinet which includes secretaries of state for various areas of responsibilities, such as armed forces, foreign relations, finance, interior and police, education, fine arts and public worship, agriculture, industry and commerce, public health and social welfare, labor, public works and communications, and sports.

Legislative power is vested in a bicameral congress. There are 30 senators, one for each province and the National District (the city of Santo Domingo). As a result of the 1990 election, the Social Christian Reformist Party held 16 seats, the Dominican Liberation Party won 12 seats, and the Dominican Revolutionary Party gained two seats. The Chamber of Deputies has 120 members, one for each 50,000 inhabitants, based on the 1981 census.

The judiciary consists of local justices of the peace and civil courts of the first instance, special land courts in each province, district courts of appeal, and the Supreme Court of nine justices. Judges are nominated by the Senate. The judicial system does not include trial by jury.

Local authority emanates from the central government. The country is divided into 29 provinces, each administered by a governor appointed by the president. Santo Domingo and the municipalities are each governed by a mayor and a municipal council, elected by popular vote for four-year terms.

Besides the majority and opposing parties now in Congress (the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD) and the Reformists), several Communist parties and factions exist, as do others with Marxist leanings. These include the Dominican Communist Party (PCD), legalized in 1977; the Dominican Popular Movement (MPD); the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD); and the Anti-Imperialist Patriotic Union (UPA). These groups are active in intellectual circles, laboring classes, and student groups.

The Dominican Republic is a member of the United Nations and its various specialized agencies, the Organization of American States (OAS), the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and is also a signatory to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

The flag of the Dominican Republic consists of two red and two blue sections divided by a white cross centered with the Dominican coat of arms.

Arts, Science, Education

The Dominican Republic has begun to achieve maturity in artistic, technical, and intellectual pursuits. In the past, opportunity to study abroad was limited and individual intellectual activity was discouraged. In recent years, an exciting ferment of new ideas, artistic expression, and an eagerness to discover and take part in the best intellectual and cultural developments has emerged. Santo Domingo's modern Cultural Plaza with its four museums, National Theater, and National Library is the scene of many artistic, musical, and theatrical productions. The opening of the National Theater in August 1973 signaled the beginning of a new cultural era for the country; the theater now draws artists and groups from around the world. The National Library, with a capacity for 200,000 volumes, and the Museum of Dominican Man were also inaugurated in 1973.

Individual artists who have achieved international renown include painters Gilberto Hernández Ortega, Guillo Perez, Ramón Oviedo, Candido Bido, Soucy de Pellerano, Ada Balcacer, Orlando Menicucci, Fernando Urena Rib, and Francisco Santos. Antonio Pratts Ventos, Domingo Liz, Ramiro Matos, and José Ramón Rotellini are leading sculptors who have done interesting work in metals and wood. Dominican architects show imagination and beauty in design.

Books of literary merit—novels, short stories, histories, and criticism—are published frequently. A five-volume anthology of Dominican literature has filled a need for gathering the best in the nation's writing. Popular music, merengue, salsa, and nueva ola performers are numerous. Several troupes of folkloric dancers and singers also perform.

Public education in the Dominican Republic has suffered greatly from a lack of funding, with the result that literacy may have slipped within recent years to less than 70%. Few families can afford to do without their children's labor, and only a limited number of free secondary schools exist. In general, schools are overcrowded, understaffed, and lack educational material and equipment.

Higher education is possible for only a fraction of the literate population. However, the oldest university in the Western Hemisphere, the 60,000-student Autonomous University of Santo Domingo (UASD), founded in the 16th century, has 10 times its enrollment of 20 years ago. Other excellent institutions are the Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra in Santiago, the Universidad Nacional Pedro Henríquez Urena and Instituto Tecnológico de Santo Domingo in the capital, and the Universidad Central del Este in San Pedro de Macorís. Although vocational and technical training cannot meet present needs, progress is being made in home economics, education, agriculture, commercial work, mechanics, electronics, metallurgy, and construction trades.

The principal institution for advanced technical training is the Instituto de Estudios Superiores. An English/Spanish branch of the World University of Puerto Rico is also active in Santo Domingo. Approximately 800 Dominican students attend universities in the U.S. annually, and several hundred also study in Europe (especially Spain) and in neighboring Latin American countries, particularly Mexico and Venezuela.

Commerce and Industry

Agriculture provides employment for roughly 17% of the Dominican labor force, and accounted for 15% of the total export earnings. Sugar, the mainstay of the economy, generates over $506 million annually. Other important agricultural products include coffee, tobacco, and cacao. The Dominican Republic also produces rice, potatoes, beans, plantains, yucca, and other crops for domestic consumption.

Industry has as its principal concerns sugar refining, textiles, pharmaceuticals, light manufacturing, and breweries that produce excellent local beer and rum. Mineral exports account for a substantial portion of total export value. In addition to recently discovered coal, the nation has important deposits of gold, silver, bauxite, and ferronickel.

The vigorous promotion of the Dominican Republic as a tourist haven has swelled the numbers of visitors to record levels placing the nation among the top Caribbean tourist destinations. Major resort complexes have been built on both coasts in an ambitious development program.

The U.S. is the principal trading partner of the Dominican Republic, and typically accounts for 70% of its exports and provided 46% of all imported goods. A relatively low inflation rate, import exonerations, low labor costs, and tax holidays help the investment climate. A long-needed revision of the basic foreign investment law is being considered to enhance the investment picture.

Transportation

Santo Domingo's international airport, Las Americas, is 19 miles from the city. It is served by the national airline, Dominicana (Compañía Dominicana de Aviación), American, Avianca, Viasa, ALM (subsidiary of KLM), Iberia, Lufthansa, Prinair, and Varig. Aeropuerto Internacional La Unión is the modern north-coast airport for the Puerto Plata/Playa Dorada/Sosua area.

Several private companies in the capital offer chartered, air-conditioned bus tours. A group of five persons can charter a car (público ) at reasonable rates for trips to Santiago, San Cristóbal, or Barahona. Air charter service is available from Herrera Airport in Santo Domingo; also, daily service to Santiago, Puerto Plata, and other points on the island is provided by Alas del Caribe, the country's domestic airline.

Passenger and cargo ships call at Santo Domingo, Puerto Plata, Haina, and Port-au-Prince (Haiti) on an irregular basis. Freight lines of various registries call at Santo Domingo from all parts of the world.

The Dominican Republic has no passenger or freight railways. Private car lines and buses connect outlying cities to one another and to the capital. Air-conditioned express buses run daily on regular schedules from Santo Domingo to Bonao, La Vega, Moca, Santiago, Puerto Plata, San Pedro de Macorís, La Romana, and other towns in the interior.

Buses, minibuses, and públicos have regular routes throughout the capital. The latter, usually painted blue with red, white, or green roofs (depending on the zones they cover) cruise certain streets picking up as many passengers as the car will hold. Regular taxis are available at large hotels, as is private call-a-cab service; these taxis operate on a zone system, but drivers are occasionally willing to carry a passenger a short distance, called a carrera, for a minimum fare plus tip. It is advisable to settle on a fare before hiring a cab.

Traffic moves on the right. Laws are similar to those in the U.S., but local drivers are aggressive, making defensive driving necessary. It is against the law to smoke while driving. Traffic police control busy intersections, and their signals must be learned quickly and followed closely. Police cars are green and white; ambulances are white; fire trucks are red.

Santo Domingo is the hub of a fairly extensive road network. A hard-surfaced, four-lane highway leads from the capital to the international airport and beach areas east of the city, but the road narrows to two lanes about 30 miles out. A fairly good, two-lane, heavily traveled road connects Santo Domingo with Santiago de los Caballeros—the nation's second largest city—and with Puerto Plata on the north coast. There is a highway connecting Puerto Plata eastward to the Samaná Bay area. Road networks throughout the republic are improving. Blacktop and gravel roads connect many outlying communities, although rural roads and bridges are often in poor condition. Vehicles with heavy-duty suspension and four-wheel-drive are generally required for these latter roads. Most Santo Domingo streets are blacktop, and their condition ranges from excellent to poor. The city has several divided boulevards. Most streets are narrow, particularly in the downtown shopping area, and permit only one-way traffic.

International driver's licenses are not valid in the Dominican Republic. Anyone without a license from his own country must take a written examination in Spanish and a road test to qualify for a Dominican license. Minimum third-party liability insurance is required; coverage should be obtained from a local firm, since few U.S. carriers are permitted to underwrite in the Dominican Republic.

Communications

Telephone service links all major points in the republic, and long-distance connections can be made to other countries without undue delay. There are some areas where growth has out-paced telephone expansion, but difficulties are minimal; local service is adequate. International mail is handled twice daily and normally takes three to five days for delivery to and from the eastern United States.

The Dominican Republic has over 200 radio stations, including short-wave and FM outlets. There are periodic newscasts all day, as well as interviews and all-round variety music programming.

Station HIJB (FM) has two classical music programs daily, "Gala Concert" at 1 p.m. and "Concert Hall" at 8 p.m. On Sundays, Texaco sponsors an opera at 1 p.m. Good shortwave radios can also pick up Voice of America (VOA), American Forces Radio, and Puerto Rican, Jamaican, and Florida stations.

Santo Domingo has six television stations: Rahintel, Color-Visión, Teleantillas, Tele-Inde, and Telesistema, all privately owned; and Radio Televisión Dominicana, government-owned. All stations transmit in color. Programs include local and international news, weather, sports, variety shows, movies, and dramatic serials produced in Latin America and the U.S. The majority of programs are in Spanish. CNN and 18 other cable TV stations are available 24 hours a day. Many hotels have satellite dishes that allow them to receive foreign language broadcasts from countries around the world. U.S. TV sets can be used in Santo Domingo without modification. Usual broadcasting hours are 11 a.m. to midnight.

Nine major Spanish-language daily newspapers (Monday through Saturday) are published in the Dominican Republic. El Caribe, Listín Diario, Hoy, and El Sol, the morning papers, carry extensive news coverage and take independent political lines. Última Hora, La Noticia, and El Nacional are published in the afternoon. El Día, Ya, and La Información are published daily in Santiago, and serve the interests of the Cibao Valley. El Nacional, La Noticia, and Listín Diario have the only Sunday editions. Some of these papers subscribe to Associated Press, United Press International, and other news services. One major weekly news magazine, Ahora, is published locally. The Miami Herald, the Wall Street Journal, Time, Newsweek, and The New York Times arrive the same day or a day after publication. The English-language weekly, The Santo Domingo News, provides business and tourism news.

Health

Santo Domingo has many American-trained dentists and doctors, including specialists in obstetrics, pediatrics, neurosurgery, gynecology, cardiology, gastroenterology, dermatology, and diseases of the eye, ear, nose, and throat. Most doctors speak some English. Emergency aids, such as incubators, oxygen tents, and blood banks are available, and several laboratories are equipped to do routine tests. A number of hospitals and small clinics are adequate, but not up to U.S. standards, particularly in nursing care, cleanliness, and diet. Nonetheless, Americans use them for obstetrical care, pediatrics, some surgery, and other illnesses or injuries requiring relatively short periods of hospitalization.

Primarily because of poor storage methods, the inadequate disposal of garbage and other wastes, and the tropical climate, Santo Domingo is infested with flies, cockroaches, ants, mice, and rats. Other pests include termites, ticks, bedbugs, tarantulas, and mosquitoes. Non-poisonous snakes are also found here. Small lizards and frogs sometimes get into houses. Commercial exterminators are available.

Sanitation standards are loosely enforced, and unsanitary practices in the processing, storage, distribution, and sale of food are common. Several modern supermarkets in the capital, however, have improved their refrigeration and handling of fresh produce and meat. Most Americans prefer these stores over local markets, even though supermarket prices are much higher. City water, often filled with surface seepage and sediment after heavy rains, is not potable unless boiled for 10 minutes. Filtered bottled water is available.

Fruits and vegetables must be washed thoroughly with soapy water and soaked in an iodine or clorox solution. Fruits should be peeled. Locally bought meats should be served well done. Shellfish is safe if cooked thoroughly.

Domestic employees should receive periodic physical examinations and chest x-rays to rule out tuberculosis. They must be trained in good food-handling techniques and in personal hygiene.

Dominican health authorities, with the cooperation of the Pan-American Health Organization and other international agencies, are conducting active campaigns against disease. Although some progress has been made, observers agree that the task is formidable. Diseases which affect the local population include intestinal parasites, tuberculosis, dengue fever, AIDS, malnutrition, venereal disease and, in some rural areas, malaria. Periodic epidemics of influenza and gastro-intestinal infections exist. Diarrhea, accompanied by dehydration and fever, is common, and particularly debilitating to young children. Other complaints include upper respiratory, ear, and gynecological infections; skin irritations; and fungal infections. Animal rabies is a problem.

The following immunizations are recommended by U.S. authorities: yellow fever and tetanus-diphtheria for ages seven and up; DPT (diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus), measles, mumps, rubella, and polio for those under seven; anyone over age 12 should take gamma globulin every six months to prevent hepatitis. Inoculations against measles, tetanus, and rabies are available locally.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs & Duties

A valid passport, or a U.S. birth certificate, Certificate of Naturalization or Certificate of Citizenship, along with photo identification, are required for both entry and exit. Because of the high incidence of fraud in the Dominican Republic and potential delays with Dominican Immigration, the U.S. Embassy strongly recommends that United States citizens travel with passports. Visitors who do not obtain a visa prior to entry must purchase a tourist card to enter the country.

Americans living in or traveling to the Dominican Republic are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the United States Embassy in Santo Domingo and obtain updated information on travel and security within the Dominican Republic. The U.S. Embassy is located at the corner of Calle Cesar Nicolas Penson and Calle Leopoldo Navarro in Santo Domingo; telephone (809) 221-2171; after hours (809) 221-8100. The Consular Section is a half-mile away at the corner of Calle Cesar Nicolas Penson and Avenida Maximo Gomez. The American Citizens Services section can be reached by telephone at (809) 731-4294, or via the Internet at http://www.usemb.gov.do/nacsl.htm. Consular office hours are 7:30 a.m. to 12:00 p.m. and 1:00 p.m. to 2:00 p.m., Monday through Friday, except holidays. There is a Consular Agency in Puerto Plata at Calle Beller 51, 2nd floor, office 6, telephone (809) 586-4204; office hours are 9:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m., and 2:30 p.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday, except holidays. U.S. citizens may register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy and obtain updated information on travel and security in the Dominican Republic.

Pets

A signed health and rabies vaccination certificate from a licensed veterinarian must be presented when importing a pet into the Dominican Republic, or the pet will be quarantined. Regulations change frequently; it is advisable to check beforehand with authorities.

Firearms & Ammunition

Dominican customs authorities strictly enforce regulations concerning the importation of firearms. Persons bringing firearms into the country, even temporarily, may face jail sentences and heavy fines. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of the Dominican Republic in Washington, D.C. or one of the Dominican Republic's consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures

The time in the Dominican Republic is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) minus four (the same as observed during Daylight Saving Time on the U.S. east coast).

The sole monetary unit is the Dominican peso, written RD$. Currency is issued in the same denominations as U.S. currency, and the coins bear a close resemblance. The four American banks in the capital are Bank of America, Banco de Boston Dominicano (an affiliate of First National Bank of Boston), Chase Manhattan, and Citibank.

Officially, the Dominican Republic uses the metric system of weights and measures but, in practice, the U.S. system of ounces, pounds, inches, feet, gallons, and miles is commonly used.

Disaster Preparedness

The Dominican Republic is a hurricane-prone country. In the event of a hurricane alert, a notice will be posted in U.S. Embassy Santo Domingo's web page cited below. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1… New Year's Day

Jan. 6… Epiphany

Jan. 21… Our Lady of Altagracia

Jan. 26… Duarte's Day

Feb. 27… Dominican Independence Day

Mar/Apr. … Good Friday^*

Mar/Apr. … Easter^*

May 1 … Dominican Labor Day

May/June … Corpus Christi^*

Aug. 16 … Dominican Restoration Day

Sept. 24… Our Lady of las Mercedes

Oct. 14 … Columbus Day

Dec. 25 … Christmas Day

^*Variable

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Finlay, Barbara. The Women of Azua: Work & Family in the Rural Dominican Republic. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1989.

Fodor's '89 Caribbean. New York:Fodor's, 1988.

Frommer's Dollarwise Guide to the Caribbean. New York: Prentice Hall, 1989.

Grasmuck, Sherry and Patricia R. Pressar. Between Two Islands: Dominican International Migration. Berkely, CA: University of California Press, 1991.

Haggerty, Richard A. Dominican Republic & Haiti: A Country Study. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1991.

Hillman, Richard S., and Thomas J.D'Agostino. Distant Neighbors in the Caribbean: The Dominican Republic & Jamaica in Comparative Prospective. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1992.

Hinze, Peter. Practical Travel A to Z: Dominican Republic. Chatham, NY: Hayit Publishing USA, 1992.

Kryzanek, Michael J. The Politics of External Influence in the Dominican Republic. New York: Praeger, 1988.

Lowenthal, A.F. (ed.) Exporting Democracy: The United States and Latin America. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1991.

Lugo, Marta. The Dominican Republic Guidebook. Teaneck, NJ: Eurasia Press, 1989.

Nelson, William J. Almost a Territory: America's Attempt to Annex the Dominican Republic. Cranbury, NJ: University of Delaware Press, 1990.

Schoenhals, Kai, comp. Dominican Republic. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1990.

Schoonmaker, Herbert Garrettson. Military Crisis Management: U.S. Intervention in the Dominican Republic, 1965. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1990.

Vargas-Lundius, Rosemary. Peasants in Distress: Poverty & Unemployment in the Dominican Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991.

Dominican Republic

History & Background

Geography & Population: The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two-thirds of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, which is located west of Puerto Rico. Its only border is with Haiti. The Dominican Republic has an area of 48,400 kilometers, and its population was estimated at 8.4 million in 1999. For political and administrative purposes, the country is divided into three regions and seven subregions, which together contain the 29 provinces and the National District.

It was originally occupied by Tainos, an Arawakspeaking people. The Tainos welcomed Columbus in his first voyage in 1492, but subsequent colonizers were brutal, reducing the Tainos population from about 1 million to about 500 in 50 years. To ensure adequate labor for plantations, the Spanish brought African slaves to the island beginning in 1503.

In the next century, French settlers occupied the western end of the island, which Spain ceded to France in 1697, and which, in 1804, became the Republic of Haiti. The Haitians conquered the whole island in 1822 and held it until 1844, when forces led by Juan Pablo Duarte, the hero of Dominican independence, drove them out and established the Dominican Republic as an independent state. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned to the Spanish Empire; in 1865, independence was restored.

Political, Social, & Cultural Bases: Economic difficulties, the threat of European intervention, and ongoing internal disorders led to a U.S. occupation in 1916 and the establishment of a military government in the Dominican Republic. The occupation ended in 1924 with a democratically elected Dominican government.

In 1930, Rafael L. Trujillo, a prominent army commander, established absolute political control. Trujillo promoted economic development and severe repression of domestic human rights. Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems. In August 1960, the Organization of American States (OAS) imposed diplomatic sanctions against the Dominican Republic as a result of Trujillo's complicity in an attempt to assassinate President Romulo Betancourt of Venezuela. These sanctions remained in force after Trujillo's death by assassination in May 1961. In November 1961, the Trujillo family was forced into exile.

The Trujillo administration initiated a campaign to increase the literacy rate, which was no higher than 30 percent in the early 1950s. These efforts resulted in a number of primary schools being established in rural areas. Urban needs were also met, to the extent that at the end of the regime, at least one primary school had been established in each town. These schools, however, were overcrowded, and many of them had to operate on double shifts, problems that have persisted into the twenty-first century.

Trujillo had also signed a concordato (agreement) with the Catholic church that included all Catholic schools under the auspices of public support. The Catholic church initiated several institutes for technical instruction that raised the level of professional training within the country. During President Joaquin Balaguer's terms of governance (1966-1978, 1986-1996) the Catholic church played a key role as a recipient of international aid for running educational and social programs.

The period of 1967 to 1971 saw the intervention of the World Bank and other international agencies to create many of the most recent initiatives in the educational system. These years saw the creation of organizations to teach American English to Dominicans and the use of scholarships to create a professional elite formed in American university systems. The San Jose Reform of 1967-1969 emphasized vocational training to improve industrial capacity.

The Dominican economy has undergone profound changes since the 1980s. Until the mid-1970s, traditional export products, mainly from agriculture, represented 60 percent of the total value of the country's exports. Over the last two decades, the service sector has led the economy, particularly economic and financial services related to tourism and industrial free trade zones, which by 1995 accounted for more than 70 percent of exports.

In 1992 the gross domestic product (GDP) began to recover, and by 1996 it was maintaining an average annual growth rate of more than 5 percent. In 1999, the country was singled out as the best economic performer in Latin America after having sustained a growth rate of more than 6 percent for several consecutive years.

This stability and macroeconomic growth have improved the purchasing power of the working population, and absolute poverty appears to have diminished. Despite this, reduced public spending for education and health has affected family budgets, unemployment rates (which stood at 15 percent in 1996-1997), and the percentage of the population linked to the informal economy and nonwage-earning activities. There has therefore been a considerable increase in relative poverty and the number of people who are in need. The public domestic debt, estimated at about US$400 million in mid-1997, has been burgeoning, and this has tended to inhibit private domestic investment. A particularly vulnerable factor is economic dependence on the 43 free trade zones.

After a long history of authoritarian regimes, the Dominican Republic is entering a new era of democracy and social participation, including education. At the same time, the proportion of children in the overall population is shrinking. The vast majority of the population is of working age (15- to 64-years-old).

Although the Dominican Republic has one of the fastest growing economies in the world (average growth of 7.5 percent from 1997 to 2000), it has one of the lowest investments in education in the hemisphere. Public investment in education has increased since the 1990s, but it is still very low in comparison with other Latin American countries.

Nonetheless, the Dominican Republic shows enormous advances in education. The country developed its planning capacity and implemented some key programs. According to the Deputy Secretary of Education, Josefina Pimentel, there were developments in several areas: new education laws to replace the obsolete legislation of 1951; new curricula developed for Basic Education; new textbooks published and distributed throughout rural and urban schools; and an increase in the amount of compulsory education to nine years of basic education, including a preschool year.

Consititutional & Legal Foundations

General Survey: Although there are a number of programs and rights granted in educational legislation, generally these rights are not enforced by the courts in the way that they are in countries such as the United States. This is largely because the Dominican legal system, which is based on the French Code, is not oriented to the enforcement of the "minor" rights of educational entitlement.

Until shortly after independence in 1865, education in the Dominican Republic was not legally regulated, and most schools were run by Catholic groups. In 1857, the national budget provided for no more than five schools for the entire country. In 1884, Puerto Rican political activist and educator Eugenio Ma. de Hostos enacted the first educational law, making local authorities responsible for providing and financing primary schools and the newly created normal schools, but entrusting the central government with secondary education.

The real base for the educational system was created in 1918 as a direct result of the American occupation, with orden ejecutiva 145 (executive order 145), which reformed the existing system along American lines. Though widely condemned at the time as anti-Dominican in intent, this system was further developed by the Trujillo dictatorship (1930-1961) with law 418, the General Law of Education (1938), and the Organic Law of Education (law 2909; 1951).

The reforms of middle secondary school (educacion media ) in 1967 were created by Resolucion 56-66, for the development of the Liceo Laboral (Labor High Schools) and the Laboral Especializado (Specialized Labor High Schools), training schools for work in industry that put special emphasis on the training of women.

Another reform measure for high school level development, Ordenanza 2-69 (Ordinance 2-69), emphasized a humanistic view of individual development and treated those aspects relating to technical and labor development as the means by which the individual could contribute to society. The goals of higher education were also based on integral humanistic development, where those who wished to retrain for a second career could acquire a technical degree and as such create the means by which they could be gainfully employed while furthering their education. These schools were termed Liceos Diversificados.

Institutions of higher education are established by law and their right to award degrees is sanctioned by the government. The Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo (UASD), the only public university in the Dominican Republic, was granted autonomous status and continuous state support in Law 5778 (1962). All private institutions of higher education are regulated by Law 236 (1967), which regulates both their structure and their right to award degrees.

In 1970, the objectives of the Ciclo Comun in middle school education emphasized human development as a goal for the first time. Within the reforms initiated by UNESCO in 1973 were two main efforts: the creation of a network of integrated centers of educational development with the goal of answering to the needs of both school-age and adult education, and technical schools dedicated to training individuals in rural education and agricultural work and health services. Literacy and vocational education scheduled at night for adults began in 1968, and the use of a radio-based program of primary school classes for campesinos began in 1974.

The 10-Year Plan: Between 1988 and 1990, the World Bank, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and UNESCO, working in tandem, began to quietly reinvest in Dominican education. As early as 1985, UNESCO began the formulation of what was to be the Plan Decenal (10-year plan), fostering interest among leaders of the education and business sectors in participating in an overall restructuring of the Dominican educational system. It took some five years from the first legal documents created in 1992 until the final version of the General Law of Education 66/97 was approved in 1997 for the different elements of the Plan Decenal to begin fully functioning. The more important acts are as follows:

• Ordenanzas 1'92, 2'92 established the legal base for the Pruebas Nacionales, the national standardized tests administered at the end of 4th, 8th, and 12th grades.
• Ordenanza 1'95 established the curricula for the Initial, Basic, and Middle schools and also for special and adult education.
• Ordenanza 1'96 established the evaluation model for all academic levels.

The combined law 66/97 integrates all other acts and gives the final version of the general law of education, the organization of its administration, and the relationship of all parts to the whole. Major foundations of the law are:

• that the universal right to education is "appropriate and free of cost, including those who are gifted, physically impaired, learning disabled and who, as such, must receive special education" (II.4.m);
• that nutrition and health in general are determining primary factors in scholastic achievement (II.4.ll); and
• that the goal of Dominican education is to form "people, men, and women, free-thinking, critical, and creative, able to participate in and construct a free society... that they can combine profitable work, community service, and humanistic, scientific, and technological training... to contribute to both national growth and their own personal development" (II.5.a).

The 12 major articles of the law address the principles and objectives of the Dominican educational system; the structuring of the educational system into preschool (inicial ), basic, middle (medio ), and higher (superior ) education; safeguards for quality within the system; the executive structuring of the educational system; the decentralization of the educational system and the rights and responsibilities of the regions, districts, and local centers; professional requirements for teachers and academic staff and their training, rights, and duties; the social benefits due to teachers, including insurance, pensions, and retirement; student welfare; participation within the educational system; the financing of education; the accreditation of studies; and those bodies responsible for the carrying out of the provisions of the educational law and concerning equity within the system.

Educational System—Overview

Structure & Degrees: In 1985 the structure of the educational pyramid consisted of three years of noncompulsory preschool education; six years in primary school; and six years in middle school, divided into two years of intermediate education and four years of secondary school, or into four years and two years (Plan de Reforma ). Students who continued to that point received their high school degree (bachillerato ) and might continue to the tertiary education provided by the Dominican universities, which conferred either licentiates (licenciaturas ), ingenerias, or doctorados (doctorates—for law and medicine only), depending on the field of study.

The revised structure is no longer a simple pyramid. Of the three years of preschool education, one year became compulsory, as did nine years of basic primary school, effectively extending compulsory schooling by four years. Middle school (to receive the bachillerato degree) has been reduced to only three years and is noncompulsory, as is higher education. Middle school students are separated into academic and technical-professional tracks, receiving high school diplomas that specify their tracks. Education provided by the Dominican universities continues to confer licenciaturas, ingenerias, and doctorados, but with extended programs, especially in the areas of medicine and law, whose programs have been effectively doubled in both material and time. Also of note is the inclusion of maestrias and nonmedical doctorados as the higher education system expands its postgraduate degree systems.

Special Groups: Like many other countries the Dominican Republic must deal with the children of temporary migrant workers, primarily from Haiti. There appear to be no barriers to attendance within the school system, but many Haitian parents want their children to work in the fields and earn money rather than attend school. Some schools have been constructed in those zones where large populations of Haitians reside (the bateys ).

In both secondary school and tertiary institutions, women predominated at the beginning of the millennium. The increase in women's employment, particularly in industrial free zones, has increased the pressure for wide availability of preschool. Some employers have begun a pilot program of four days working, four days off to allow women to go to school.

Education Reforms: In 1988, a "private" initiative combining interested business sectors and Pontificia Universidad Madre y Maestra (PUCMM, the major private Catholic university, a recipient of international money dedicated to research), with funding from the World Bank, began to work on a reconstruction of Dominican educational policy. This reconstruction plan was termed the Plan Decenal, or the 10-year Educational Plan. The unique participatory process that led to the formulation of the Plan Decenal produced three general outcomes: an identification of the main problems of education in the country; an understanding of research conducted about those problems, and the development of a series of proposals and innovations to solve them. More importantly, such a process increased the social capital of the nation for collective action around common goals. The initial success of the reform suggests that there is motivation and basic capacity in the country for undertaking national debates on social issues and developing general plans. The national government enthusiastically adopted the plans, which also garnered support throughout the international community.

Plan Decenal outlined the following goals:

1. Raising the Educational Level of the General Population: increasing school attendance, reducing illiteracy, expanding adult education, and developing programs for informal learning.
2. Increasing the Quality of Education: promoting innovation in education, compensating for the low socioeconomic level of students, bettering the living conditions of teachers, bettering the physical and pedagogical environment of the classroom, and raising the quality of the educational process.
3. Strengthening Educational Technology: promoting scientific and technological innovation, introducing the use of computers, expanding and bettering educational techniques, creating new technical careers, and establishing new technical schools.
4. Decentralizing the Educational System: modernizing the administrative system, encouraging the use of administrative meetings, and institutionalizing and standardizing the decision-making process.
5. Strengthening Community Ties to the School System: encouraging reciprocity between school and community, strengthening parent-teacher associations, and bringing the secular world into the classroom.
6. Increase the Investment in Education: by 1998, have use of 16 percent of the national budget for education; by 2001, have use of 25 percent of the national budget.

Organizational work continued throughout 1989 to 1990, when the commission Nacional del Plan Decenal (National 10-Year Plan) was formed through an alliance of SEEBAC (the Dominican Department of Education, later renamed SEEC), EDUCA, ADP (the teachers' union), the regional UNDP, and Plan Educativo, a Santo Domingo-based group of educators and industrialists. These groups worked both at the executive level of planning through use of chosen representatives and more extensively in the national consultas (consulting groups) that were to be developed for expanding and promoting the plan.

The system of consultas incorporated more than 100 institutions and involved more than 50,000 individuals. They were organized at five levels: open advising, institutional advising, national advising, internal advising, and regional advising. By 1993, through the process of the consultas, more than 100 organizations were officially listed as participants in the formulation of the Plan Decenal.

Preprimary & Primary Education

The Pre-Kinder and Kinder programs of the Dominican Republic were initiated by Rene Klang de Guzman, the wife of Antonio Guzman, in 1981. While this program never developed much beyond a pilot program, the organization for the welfare of children and their rights, CONANI, has lasted for over 20 years.

At the time of the midway assessment of the Plan Decenal in August 2000, approximately 23 percent of eligible children were in preschool (including those in mandatory kindergarten). The education department's goal is to increase that figure to 50 percent.

While the Kinder program is already mandated by law, very few schools have begun to create these levels due to a lack of classroom space and qualified personnel. While some universities have responded by opening training for this level, it will take years before an adequate number of people can be trained to fill the national demand.

Beyond the revamping of the curriculum for basic and middle schools, the most significant innovations of the Plan Decenal were likely the standardization of the school calendar to 42 weeks of five-hour days and the addition of national standardized tests for the fourth, eighth, and twelfth grade levels. These tests provide the system some means of comparison between school districts and allow for some quality control. A program was also designed to retain students, including free books, prizes, computer labs, and free breakfasts.

Additions to the curriculum include English and French (beginning in fourth grade), art and music, computer science, and a greater emphasis on math and science. These subjects add approximately 15 more teaching hours per week.

Secondary Education

Once past the sixth grade, two tracks are established for continuing students: the academic track that continues on through the twelfth grade with academic studies for those students who wish to pursue a university education, and the technical-professional tracks, for those who wish to enter any of the technical schools. Actual differentiation into tracks occurs at entry into secondary level at tenth grade. The simplest degree is that of the tecnico basico, wherein the student is prepared just one year past basic schooling. The two- and three-year technical track schools are mainly for business training (for the bachillerato commercial certification), agricultural training (for the Perito agronomo, or 13th grade agricultural diploma), and industrial training certifications. These schools offer a curriculum distribution of 30 percent academic subjects and 70 percent specialized subjects. Individuals in the technical-professional track number 62,286.

Participation in secondary education can still be characterized as weak. For each 1,000 students that enter first grade, only 219 enter ninth grade. Of those, 62 percent of secondary students complete their studies and receive their certification. There was a total of 432,793 students in secondary level in 2000, showing an increase of almost 100 percent from the 1993 total of 232,383 students. This makes it the fastest growing sector of the education system, compared to preschool (48.6 percent growth) and elementary school (24 percent). Eighty-one percent of all secondary students are in public schools, compared to 62 percent of preschool students and 87 percent of elementary school students.

The projected unit cost per secondary student was estimated at US$177 for the academic tracks and US$360 for the technical-professional tracks, as of 2001. The total number of secondary school teachers stands at 13,698, approximately 59 percent of whom work in the public school system. This yields a student-teacher ratio of 43:1 in public schools and 51:1 in private schools.

Updates to the curriculum include an increased emphasis on literature, art and music, and computer science, as well as stronger programs in math and science, adding approximately 15 more teaching hours per week. Problems in secondary education include over-age students (over one-fourth of students are more than 19 years old), overcrowding, and the dropout rate.

Higher Education

Public & Private Universities: The present university system, both public and private, owes much of its standards and administrative policy to the influence of the Universidad Autonoma de Santo Domingo (UASD). This university, the oldest in Latin America, was created by Pope Paul II in 1538 by Papal Bull and has a long academic tradition and influence in local politics. Awarded autonomous status in 1961, it remains the largest university system. Admission into the public university is very cheap and admission standards are low.

Private universities began with the 1962 formation of Roman Catholic Universidad Madre y Maestra (UCMM), later Pontificia Universidad Madre y Maestra (PUCMM), following a name change by Pope John Paul II in 1987. Precedent for awarding government subsidy to private universities was established in 1965 when the government awarded UCMM a subsidy of 1.2 million pesos. Following the establishment of UCMM, a multitude of universities were incorporated, including the Universidad Nacional Pedro Henriquez Urena (UNPHU, 1966), Universidad Central del Este (UCE, 1971), Instituto Technologico de Santo Domingo (INTEC, 1972), and Universidad Technologica de Santiago (UTESA, 1972).

Certification: The rapid expansion of the university system created problems of certification validity. These came to a head in the early 1980s with the closing of El Centro de Estudios Tecnicos (CETEC) in 1982. Of most concern for certification validity is the position of the English-language medical programs, which accept applications from many international students from such diverse areas as Pakistan, India, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Canada, and the United States.

In response to such concerns, the Dominican Council for Higher Education (CONES) was created through Decreto 1255 in 1983 to legislate, regulate, certify, and give consulting support to universities. In 1998 CONES recognized 29 universities with a combined total enrollment of 213,200. Not all universities, however, meet international agency standards for "full" university status, such as professional training with research-based departments. The Britannica Yearbook of 2000, for example, lists only seven universities and 73,461 students, numbers much lower than other sources. The state of California recognizes six of the medical programs. Much progress, however, was made during the 1990s to update curricula and improve the quality of academic professionals working within the university system. The study of medicine and law have been scrutinized heavily, and both programs have been substantially expanded and updated to meet system standards.

Enrollments & Courses: In 1997, according to the Consejo Nacional de Educacion Superior (National Council on Higher Education), the government department in charge of overseeing universities, there were 176,935 university students in the country. The UASD had 81,753 student. The largest private university, UTESA, had 21,353 students, followed by O&M with 17,504 students. CONES recognized 36 higher education institutions, including 29 universities and 7 institutes. Of the 29 universities recognized by CONES, 17 are located in Santo Domingo.

The 1997 study showed that most students opted to study accounting. From 1992 to 1997, some 10,376 students graduated in accounting, and 22,413 accounting students were enrolled. Education placed second, a turnaround from past years. There were 20,786 students enrolled in education, a marked increase from the 9,777 graduates of the previous five years. Marketing was another popular major, with some 17,672 students enrolled. Some 17,697 students chose computer sciences. Law maintained a steady enrollment of 19,100, but few Dominicans chose medicine, with only 2,224 enrolled.

The director of the CONES, Alejandrina German, said that her department is carrying out a study to determine the real demand for professionals in the country in order to make recommendations to high schools orienting their students in their choice of a university career.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Administrative Structure: Apart from CONES, the supervisory board that oversees the entire system, the administrative system is comprised of the Secretariat, headed by the Secretary of Education, a position that is decidedly political. The auditing, insurance, international and public relations, judicial concerns, and project implementation departments all rely on the Secretariat. The subsecretariats of Education, Administration, and Culture form a second administrative level, with its regional and subregional offices forming the educational framework. The regional system is broken down into regional directives and subdivided into districts. The districts themselves are comprised of the individual schools.

The director of each district, apart from three consultants—one external, one internal, and a computer systems expert—has a staff divided into three sections: academic, special services, and operations. Each separate staff is comprised of eight individuals in charge of specific areas of focus, for example, the math coordinator or the national coordinator.

Each district has an administrative board and an internal consultant. Beyond this, the district has a staff of five, one each in charge of national exams, community participation, physical education, supervision, and administrative support. Each district also has direct control of the individual schools.

Each school director has a Board of Regents, a Parent-Teachers Association, a Student Association, and two consultants to which to respond. Under his control is a staff of eight, one each in charge of registration, health and nutrition, medical aid, social work, student services, curriculum development, maintenance, and administrative assistance. Each director also has direct control of the teachers and students.

The highly participatory educational reform process of the Plan Decenal was not able to effect much change in the persistently centralized and slow decision-making mechanisms of the Secretary of Education. Neither national consensus nor the formulation of new legal rules have been able to substantially change the patterns of interaction among the actors in education.

Expenditures: Dominican educational reform has been financed by money from international organizations and the legal provision requiring that a percentage of the national budget be devoted to education. Although the full amount was not appropriated in the first years of the plan, appropriations by 1998 neared the required percentage of 16 percent. By contrast, annual per capita expenditures on education from 1987 to 1990, adjusted for inflation, were just 40 percent of the total expenditures in 1980.

The needs for financing the Plan Decenal were laid out for investors and contributors following meetings held in early 1993. The plan was to be developed in three phases: a four-year emergency program to jumpstart the improvement of primary schools, a consolidation program to evaluate gains and "consolidate" achievement of objectives, and a support program to fund administration and infrastructure.

Projected costs of these programs for 1993 alone were US$244.8 million, of which only 15 percent would be covered by foreign aid. It was believed that if the government lived up to its funding commitments and could maintain a gross national product (GNP) increase of 3.5 percent, the plan would be effectively funded. The General Law of Education 66/97, which mandates that 16 percent of the national budget be paid into the educational system, also requires the equivalent of 4 percent of the GNP.

Other provisions of Chapter 1, Title 9, call for 80 percent of the budget be dedicated to operating costs and less than 20 percent to capital expenses. Tax-deduction incentives for private business funding nonprofit education, research, or technical innovation endeavors can be applied for up to 5 percent, and educational materials are exempt from customs duties. Funds generated from the confiscation of unclaimed inheritances, 5 percent of inheritance taxes, 5 percent of any property sold by the state, 20 percent of unclaimed bank accounts, and all sale of property confiscated by police due to criminal activity are also earmarked for the National Fund for Educational Development. Apart from direct mandated financing from the national government, local schools and school districts can further depend on support supplied by the Parents and Friends Associations and patronage by private businesses.

In the 1998 fiscal year, the amount of funds budgeted for education represented 15.51 percent of the total budget. Given the growing state of the Dominican economy, increasing resources are becoming available. More importantly, the gap between the mandated rate of money earmarked for education and the amount spent in actuality is slowly narrowing. Between 1993 and 1996, for example, only 66 percent was paid into education, compared to 90 percent corresponding to 1998. Of the total educational budget of 1998, approximately 48 percent went to basic education, 813.4 million of which went into construction and infrastructure improvements. Of the personnel budget, approximately 66 percent went to payment of teachers, almost 24 percent went to administrative technicians, and about 9 percent went to management.

Nonformal Education

The Plan Decenal addresses inclusion of the nonformal programs and informal branches of the educational scheme (e.g., adult education, literacy, and vocational training). Special education is no longer isolated from traditional school programs, and there are interphasing links between the nonformal education network and the normal academic program. Total enrollment in adult education is 129,132, with literacy programs consisting of 42,132 students taught by 14,557 professionals in 669 night school centers. These classes are based on the ABCD Espanol Program.

Literacy and basic education is being expanded by use of radio and television transmissions to more isolated rural areas. Educational radio programs are offered in classes for grades one through eight. A new educational TV system is being installed for use in rural zones. This project, with funding from UNESCO, will transmit programs via a satellite signal from Mexico. New technology that will be implemented in the near future also includes establishing 500 new school computer centers and the creation of virtual classrooms.

All artistic institutions and training centers are financed and regulated from the Direccion de Bellas Artes (Direction of Fine Arts), a division of SEEC. Art and performing arts academies include Escuela de Bellas Artes (School of Fine Arts) in the San Francisco de Macoris; Escuela de Artes Plasticas (School of Plastic Arts) and the Instituto de Cultura y Artes (Institute of Culture and Art) in Santiago; Acadimia Dominicana de Musica (Music Academy), the Conservatorio Nacional de Musica (National Conservatory of Music), the Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes (National School of Fine Arts), and the Escuela de Arte Dramatico (School of Drama) in Santo Domingo. The Altos de Chavsn School of Design, a Dominican institution located in La Romana and run by a U.S. foundation, has been affiliated with the Parsons School of Design, a division of New School University in New York City, for 20 years. By graduating more than 800 students, largely Dominican, the school has added a significant Dominican presence to the international design world. More than 200 of the graduates have gone on to study at the Parsons School of Design in New York. Another school of design exists in San Juan de la Maguana.

At present there are two open universities in the Dominican Republic, both of which base their curriculum on andragogical teaching methodology: the Universidad para la Tercera Edad (UTE) and the Universidad Abierta para Adultos (UAPA). Neither university offers online classes at this time.

Teaching Profession

Qualifications: In the past it was considered ordinary for a public school teacher to be a graduate only of one of the normal schools that trained high school graduates for two years in teaching techniques. Reforms have mandated that each teacher must have a licenciatura or a university five-year degree to be able to teach in the public school system. Under the Plan Decenal funds were made available for teachers to return to school to upgrade their credentials.

Given that this was a tremendous jump from the previous system, the emergency program has designated funds for retraining teachers. Most teachers have the opportunity to return to the university to complete their education with funds provided by the government. Between 1994 and 2000, approximately 11,000 teachers returned to school to upgrade their knowledge.

A related issue is the lack of qualified language teachers. Most language teachers are accustomed to receiving higher pay than the public school system can offer and are in high demand. Rural areas simply do not have them. While this problem may be balanced in the future, it creates uncomfortable conditions for the present.

Compensation: A significant development for the teaching profession has been the tripling of teachers' salaries since 1995, which has begun to attract teachers back into education. Because their insurance programs and retirement plans are mandated by law, while the private school system's is not, the public school system is now at an advantage in attracting well-qualified teachers. The 10-year plan also encouraged teacher housing projects.

Summary

Five-Year Evaluation: The five-year evaluation of the Plan Decenal in August 2000 addressed the relative successes and failures in solving chronic problems within the Dominican educational system. Issues assessed for progress included illiteracy and enrollment, school calendar, standardized testing, curriculum reform, teacher shortages and professionalism, support associations, and health care and nutrition.

Illiteracy & Enrollment: The plan set a goal of eliminating illiteracy in the under-30 age group and ensuring that 9 out of every 10 children attend school. As of August 2000, the rate of illiteracy in the 15 to 24 age group had fallen to 9.5 percent, 11.2 percent of which is represented by males and 7.8 percent by females. School attendance in the 6 to 14 age group rose from 70.6 percent in 1990 to 85.6 percent in 1999, with an average growth rate per year of 2 to 4 percent. Current rates of promotion stand at 80 percent, repetition at 5.2 percent, and dropout at 15 percent, creating a 85.1 percent retention rate in basic education. Longitudinal cohort studies show that of 1,000 students that enter ninth grade, only 559 graduate.

Enrollments by gender demonstrate high numbers of females, with a 58 percent enrollment in secondary education and a 70 percent enrollment in postsecondary education. Total enrollment in education in 2001 stands at 229,161 for preschool, 1,713,783 for elementary school, 398,702 for secondary school, and 215,000 for university levels. Private schools now account for only 20 percent of total school enrollment.

School Calendar: Longer school calendars and school days were another aim of the plan, which specified expansion of the school calendar and daily schedule to 42 five-day weeks, with each day five-hours, from early September through the end of June. By 1995, the school calendar had been divided into 186 teaching days, 13 days dedicated to testing, and 18 days excluded for Christmas and Holy Week. Compliance with the new calendar is still not complete. In 1998, elementary and secondary schools reported an 82 percent compliance with the mandated schedule. Particularly problematic is compliance in the afternoon shifts that are the most likely to limit time.

Standardized Tests: The use of standardized tests has diverged somewhat from a diagnostic function and has focused solely on their promotional function. Still, the tests have provided a means by which nationwide standards may be set. By 2001, testing was being done annually in fourth, eighth, and twelfth grades, assessing students in language (Spanish, the language of instruction), math, natural sciences, and social sciences. Major problems still exist in the mechanics of test creation and scoring, and in reporting grades. Political opposition to testing from many quarters is said to be one reason for the slow implementation of the Plan Decenal.

Curriculum Reform: The creation and implementation of a new curriculum has had its greatest success in the design and publication of objectives, modalities, and specifications. Foci of the curriculum include computer science, compulsory English and French from fourth grade, ecology, and sports, as well as strengthening the traditional studies of language and math. Most areas now have government-issued books for 100 percent of basic education and 60 percent of secondary, together with their teachers' guides. These books are supplied for at least a minimal fee, however, and availability is not universal. Many schools, especially private schools, still opt for commercial texts approved by the Secretariat that are sold at prices that are almost prohibitive for the average breadwinner. Much training has been done to orient public teachers in the use of audiovisual equipment, yet most public schools lack both equipment and electrical supply for their use. Language and math programs, however are broadcast by means of contracted radio stations, especially to the border zones.

Teaching: In 1990, the salary paid to full-time teachers was RD$607.75 (US$50.00) per month, an amount that could only supply one-third of a typical family's cost of living. By the year 2000, this amount had been raised by 400 percent to a minimum of RD$3,200 (US$200.00). In 1992, the total number of education students in normal schools and university programs was only 1,463; by 1997, that number had risen to 26,240, equivalent to almost half of the public teaching population in 1990.

Support Associations: As part of the broad community support for the Plan Decenal, Parent/Friends Associations were to be created to aid schools. Most success has been seen at the individual school level, where 6,422 schools have active co-ops. These associations have initiated fundraising activities to boost income for supplies and maintenance needs, as well as activities to orient the community to responsibility in the educative process.

Health Care & Nutrition: School breakfasts are now served to one million children in kinder and elementary schools, compared to 45,000 in 1993. Of that one million, 70 percent come from 25 provinces and marginal urban zones of Santo Domingo. In the frontier zones, where poverty levels are more severe, 120,000 children receive more complete nutrition, including meat, through the United Nations Food Aid Program. This program is considered key in reducing the school desertion and repetition rate. Programs for visual screening had reached 40,950 children by 2000, and deparisitization programs had reached 190,000.

Second 10-Year Plan: Since the first 10-year plan did not complete all the desired educational reforms, a second 10-year plan is being formulated. The Secretariat states that while the first 10-year plan stressed quantity, the second 10-year plan will stress quality.

Bibliography

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Alvarez, Benjamin, Joan Dassin, Larry Rosenberg, and David Bloom. Education in Central America. Cambridge: Harvard Institute for International Development (in press).

Arrien, Juan. La educacion y la reforma de la educacion en cinco paises centroamericanos. Nicaragua: PREAL/Fundacion Ford/Universidad Centroamericana, 1998.

Berbaum, Marcia, and Uli Locher. EDUCA: Business Leaders Promote Basis Education and Education Reform in the Dominican Republic. Washington, DC: Creative Associates International, 1998.

Burki and Perri, eds. Beyond the Washington Consensus: Institutions Matter. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1998.

Centro Cultural Poveda. Propuesta para el dialogo nacional. Unpublished document, 1998.

Comision Centroamericana para la Reforma Educative. Manana es muy tarde. Santiago: Programa de Promocion de la Reforma Educativa en America Latina y el Caribe, 2000.

Fernandez, Leonel. La vision del futuro. Parques technologicos y fondos de becas tecnologicos. Power Point presentation, n.d.

Filmer, Deon, Lant Pritchett, and Yee-Peng-Tes. "Educational Attainment Profile of the Poor. DHS Evidence from Around the Globe." Mimeo, Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1998.

Flores, Ramon.. "Ciencia, tecnologia, globalizacion y educacion." Presentado al Simposio Educativo Internacional, Magisterio 2000. Republica Dominicana, August 1999.

Fullan, Michael. "Managing Change." (Restructuring Brief). North Coast Professional Development Consortium, 1993.

Fundacion Economia y Desarrollo. 1998. Analisis del gasto en programas de la ecretaria de Estado de Educacion y Cultura. Fundacion Economia y Desarrollo, 1998.

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——. Economic and Social Progress in Latin America. 1996 Report. Making Social Services Work. Washington, DC: IDB, 1996.

Navarro, Luisa. "El papel del maestro en el nuevo milenio." Presentado al Simposio Educativo Nacional Magisterio 2000. Republica Dominicana, August, 1999.

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Pimentel, Josefina. Reflexiones y perspectivas sobre la educacion dominicana. Santo Domingo: FLACSO/PREAL, 1998.

Prats, Ibelisse. "El paradigma de una educacion de calidad social para todos." Presentado al Simposio Educativo Nacional Magisterio 2000. Republica Dominicana, August 1999.

Programa de Naciones Unidad para el Desarrollo. H. Gomez G., ed. Educacion la agenda del siglo XXI. Hacia un desarrollo humano. Bogota: Tercer Mundo, 1998.

Puryear, J. "El sector privado y la educacion: la experiencia en paises desarrollados de la OCDE." In USAID/IDB, Perspectivas sobre la reforma educative.

——. Socios para el progreso. Santiago: PREAL, 1998.

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Zaiter, J. "La busqueda de un consenso nacional para la reforma de la educacion dominicana." In B. Alvarez y M. Ruiz-Casarea, Senderos de cambio. Genesis y ejecucion de las reformas educativas en America Latina y el Caribe. Politica educativa en America Latina y el Caribe, Informe tecnico 1. Washington, DC: Academic para el Desrrollo Educativo/Agencia para el Desarrollo Internacional de los Estados Unidos, 1997.

Zaiter, J., et al. La escuela dominicana y la reforma educativa. Santo Domingo: FLACSO/UNICEF/PREAL, 2000.

—Virginia Nordin

Dominican Republic

Compiled from the January 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Dominican Republic

PROFILE

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

DEFENSE

ECONOMY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-DOMINICAN REPUBLIC RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 48,442 sq. km. (18,704 sq. mi.), about the size of Vermont and New Hampshire combined.

Cities: Capital—Santo Domingo (pop. 2.25 million). Other city—Santiago de los Caballeros (908,230).

Terrain: Mountainous.

Climate: Maritime tropical.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Dominican(s).

Population: (2005) 9.033 million.

Annual growth rate: (2005) 1.8%.

Ethnic groups: Mixed 73%, European 16%, African origin 11%.

Religion: Roman Catholic 95%.

Language: Spanish.

Education: Years compulsory—6 Attendance—70%. Literacy—84.7%.

Health: Infant mortality rate: 28.3/1,000. Life expectancy—70.2 years for men, 73.3 years for women.

Work force: 60.2% services (tourism, transportation, communications, finances, others), 15.5% industry (manufacturing), 11.5% construction, 11.3% agriculture, 1.5% mining.

Government

Type: Representative democracy.

Independence: February 27, 1844. Restoration of independence, August 16, 1863.

Constitution: November 28, 1966; amended July 25, 2002.

Government branches: Executive—president (chief of state and head of government), vice president, cabinet. Legislative—bicameral Congress (Senate and House of Representatives). Judicial—Supreme Court of Justice.

Political subdivisions: 31 provinces and the National District of Santo Domingo.

Political parties: Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD), Social Christian Reformist Party (PRSC), and several others.

Suffrage: Universal and compulsory, over 18 or married.

Economy (2005)

GDP: $29.33 billion.

Growth rate: 9.3%; (2006 est.: 11%).

Per capita GDP: $3,247.

Non-fuel minerals: (1.4% of GDP) Nickel, gold, silver.

Agriculture: (11% of GDP) Products—sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, bananas, tobacco, rice, plantains, beef.

Industry: (25% of GDP) Types—sugar refining, pharmaceuticals, cement, light manufacturing, construction.

Services: Including tourism and transportation, 62% of GDP.

Trade: Exports ($6.146 billion (FOB), including processing zones: textiles, sugar, coffee, ferronickel, cacao, tobacco, meats and medical supplies. Markets—U.S. (75%), Canada, Western Europe, South Korea. Imports—$9.876 billion: food stuffs, petroleum, industrial raw materials, capital goods. Suppliers—U.S. (48%), Japan, Germany, Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia.

PEOPLE

About half of Dominicans live in rural areas; many are small landholders. Haitians form the largest foreign minority group. All religions are tolerated; the state religion is Roman Catholicism.

HISTORY

The island of Hispaniola, of which the Dominican Republic forms the eastern two-thirds and Haiti the remainder, was originally occupied by Tainos, an Arawak-speaking people. The Tainos welcomed Columbus in his first voyage in 1492, but subsequent colonizers were brutal, reducing the Taino population from about 1 million to about 500 in 50 years. To ensure adequate labor for plantations, the Spanish brought African slaves to the island beginning in 1503.

In the next century, French settlers occupied the western end of the island, which Spain ceded to France in 1697, and which, in 1804, became the Republic of Haiti. The Haitians conquered the whole island in 1822 and held it until 1844, when forces led by Juan Pablo Duarte, the hero of Dominican independence, drove them out and established the Dominican Republic as an independent state.

In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned to the Spanish Empire; in 1865, independence was restored. Economic difficulties, the threat of European intervention, and ongoing internal disorders led to a U.S. occupation in 1916 and the establishment of a military government in the Dominican Republic. The occupation ended in 1924, with a democratically elected Dominican Government.

In 1930, Rafael L. Trujillo, a prominent army commander, established absolute political control. Trujillo promoted economic development—from which he and his supporters benefited—and severe repression of domestic human rights. Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems. In August 1960, the Organization of American States (OAS) imposed diplomatic sanctions against the Dominican Republic as a result of Trujillo’s complicity in an attempt to assassinate President Romulo Betancourt of Venezuela. These sanctions remained in force after Trujillo’s death by assassination in May 1961. In November 1961, the Trujillo family was forced into exile.

In January 1962, a council of state that included moderate opposition elements with legislative and executive powers was formed. OAS sanctions were lifted January 4, and, after the resignation of President Joaquin Balaguer on January 16, the council under President Rafael E. Bonnelly headed the Dominican Government.

In 1963, Juan Bosch was inaugurated President. Bosch was overthrown in a military coup in September 1963. Another military coup, on April 24, 1965, led to violence between military elements favoring the return to government by Bosch and those who proposed a military junta committed to early general elections. On April 28, U.S. military forces landed to protect U.S. citizens and to evacuate U.S. and other foreign nationals.

Additional U.S. forces subsequently established order. In June 1966, President Balaguer, leader of the Reformist Party (now called the Social Christian Reformist Party—PRSC), was elected and then re-elected to office in May 1970 and May 1974, both times after the major opposition parties withdrew late in the campaign. In the May 1978 election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by Antonio Guzman of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD). Guzman’s inauguration on August 16 marked the country’s first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another.

The PRD’s presidential candidate, Salvador Jorge Blanco, won the 1982 elections, and the PRD gained a majority in both houses of Congress. In an attempt to cure the ailing economy, the Jorge administration began to implement economic adjustment and recovery policies, including an austerity program in cooperation with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In April 1984, rising prices of basic foodstuffs and uncertainty about austerity measures led to riots.

Balaguer was returned to the presidency with electoral victories in 1986 and 1990. Upon taking office in 1986, Balaguer tried to reactivate the economy through a public works construction program. Nonetheless, by 1988 the country had slid into a 2-year economic depression, characterized by high inflation and currency devaluation. Economic difficulties, coupled with problems in the delivery of basic services—e.g., electricity, water, transportation—generated popular discontent that resulted in frequent protests, occasionally violent, including a paralyzing nationwide strike in June 1989. In 1990, Balaguer instituted a second set of economic reforms. After concluding an IMF agreement, balancing the budget, and curtailing inflation, the Dominican Republic experienced a period of economic growth marked by moderate inflation, a balance in external accounts, and a steadily increasing GDP that lasted through 2000.

The voting process in 1986 and 1990 was generally seen as fair, but allegations of electoral board fraud tainted both victories. The elections of 1994 were again marred by charges of fraud. Following a compromise calling for constitutional and electoral reform, President Balaguer assumed office for an abbreviated term and Congress amended the Constitution to bar presidential succession.

Since 1996, the Dominican electoral process has been seen as generally free and fair. In June 1996, Leonel Fernández Reyna of the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) was elected to a 4-year term as president. Fernández’s political agenda was one of economic and judicial reform. He helped enhance Dominican participation in hemispheric affairs, such as the OAS and the follow up to the Miami Summit. On May 16, 2000, Hipólito Mejía, the PRD candidate, was elected president in another free and fair election, soundly defeating PLD candidate Danilo Medina and former president Balaguer. Mejía championed the cause of free trade and Central American and Caribbean economic integration.

The Dominican Republic signed a free trade agreement (CAFTA-DR) with the United States and five Central American countries in August 2004, in the last weeks of the Mejía administration. During the Mejía administration, the government sponsored and obtained anti-trafficking and anti-money-laundering legislation, sent troops to Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom, and ratified the Article 98 agreement it had signed in 2002. Mejía faced mounting domestic problems as a deteriorating economy—caused in large part by the government’s measures to deal with massive bank fraud—and constant power shortages plagued the latter part of his administration. During the Mejía administration, the Constitution was amended to permit an incumbent president to seek a second successive term, and Mejía ran for reelection. On May 16, 2004, Leonel Fernández was elected president, defeating Mejía 57.11% to 33.65%. Eduardo Estrella of the PRSC received 8.65% of the vote. Fernández took office on August 16, 2004, promising in his inaugural speech to promote fiscal austerity, to fight corruption and to support social concerns. Fernández said the Dominican Republic would support policies favoring international peace and security through multilateral mechanisms in conformity with the United Nations and the OAS. The Fernández administration has worked closely with the United States on law enforcement and immigration and counter-terrorism matters. On May 16, 2006, President Fernández’s PLD won a majority of seats in the upper and lower houses of Congress as well as a plurality of mayoral seats, marking a major shift in power among the main political parties. Several candidates have begun campaigning for the 2008 presidential elections, in which President Fernández is expected by many to run again.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

The Dominican Republic is a representative democracy with national powers divided among independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president appoints the cabinet, executes laws passed by the legislative branch, and is commander in chief of the armed forces. The president and vice president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for 4-year terms. Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral Congress—the Senate (32 members) and the House of Representatives (178 members).

The Dominican Republic has a multiparty political system with national elections every 2 years (alternating between presidential elections and congressional/municipal elections). Presidential elections are held in years evenly divisible by four. Congressional and municipal elections are held in even numbered years not divisible by four. International observers have found that presidential and congressional elections since 1996 have been generally free and fair. Elections are supervised by a Central Elections Board (JCE) of 9 members chosen for a four-year term by the newly elected Senate. JCE decisions on electoral matters are final.

Under the constitutional reforms negotiated after the 1994 elections, the 16-member Supreme Court of Justice is appointed by a National Judicial Council, which is comprised of the President, the leaders of both houses of Congress, the President of the Supreme Court, and an opposition or non-governing-party member. One other Supreme Court Justice acts as secretary of the Council, a non-voting position. The Supreme Court has sole authority over managing the court system and in hearing actions against the president, designated members of his cabinet, and members of Congress when the legislature is in session.

The Supreme Court hears appeals from lower courts and chooses members of lower courts. Each of the 31 provinces is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Mayors and municipal councils to administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo) are elected at the same time as congressional representatives.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 12/7/2006

President: Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna

Vice Pres.: Rafael ALBURQUERQUE de Castro

Sec. of State for Agriculture: Salvador JIMENEZ

Sec. of State for the Armed Forces: Ramon AQUINO Garcia, Lt. Gen.

Sec. of State for Culture: Jose RAFAEL Lantigua

Sec. of State for Education: Alejandrina GERMAN

Sec. of State for the Environment & Natural Resources: Maximiliano PUIG Miller

Sec. of State for Finance: Vicente BENGOA Albizu

Sec. of State for Foreign Relations: Carlos MORALES Troncoso

Sec. of State for Higher Education, Science, & Technology: Ligia AMADA MELO Viuda Cardona

Sec. of State for Industry & Commerce: Francisco Javier GARCIA Fernandez

Sec. of State for Interior & Police: Francisco ALMEIDA Rancier

Sec. of State for Labor: Jose Ramon FADUL

Sec. of State for the Presidency:

Sec. of State for Public Health & Social Welfare: Bautista ROJAS Gomez, Dr.

Sec. of State for Public Works & Communications: Manuel de JESUS PEREZ

Sec. of State for Sports: Felipe PAYANO

Sec. of State for Tourism: Felix JIMENEZ Jimenez

Sec. of State for Women: Flavia GARCIA

Sec. of State for Youth: Manuel CRESPO

Administrative Secretary of the Presidency: Luis Manuel BONETTI Veras

Technical Secretary of the Presidency: Juan Temistocles MONTAS Dominguez

Sec. of State Without Portfolio: Miguel MEJIA, Dr.

Sec. of State Without Portfolio: Eduardo SELMAN

Special Assistant to the President: Jose Joaquin BIDO Medina, Dr.

Presidential Adviser on Anti-Narcotics: Vincio CASTILLO

Attorney General: Radhames JIMENEZ Pena

Governor, Central Bank: Hector VALEZ Albizu

Ambassador to the US: Flavio Dario ESPINAL Jacobo

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Erasmo LARA-PENA

The Dominican Republic maintains an embassy in the United States at 1715 22d Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-332-6280).

DEFENSE

Congress authorizes a combined military force of 44,000 active duty personnel. Actual active duty strength is

approximately 32,000. However, approximately 50% of those are used for non-military activities such as security providers for government-owned non-military facilities, highway toll stations, prisons, forestry work, state enterprises, and private businesses. The Commander in Chief of the military is the President. The principal missions are to defend the nation and protect the territorial integrity of the country. The army, larger than the other services combined with approximately 20,000 active duty personnel, consists of six infantry brigades, a combat support brigade, and a combat service support brigade. The air force operates two main bases, one in the southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region near Puerto Plata. The navy operates two major naval bases, one in Santo Domingo and one in Las Calderas on the southwestern coast, and maintains 12 operational vessels. In the Caribbean, only Cuba has a larger military force. The armed forces have organized a Specialized Airport Security Corps (CESA) and a Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP) to meet international security needs in these areas. The Secretary of the Armed Forces has also announced plans to form a specialized border corps (CESEF). Additionally, the armed forces provide 75% of personnel to the National Investigations Directorate (DNI) and the Counter-Drug Directorate (DNCD). The Dominican National Police force contains 32,000 agents. The police are not part of the Dominican armed forces, but share some overlapping security functions. Sixty-three percent of the force serve in areas outside traditional police functions, similar to the situation of their military counterparts.

ECONOMY

After a decade of little to no growth in the 1980s, the Dominican Republic’s economy boomed in the 1990s, expanding at an average rate of 7.7% per year from 1996 to 2000. Tourism (the leading foreign exchange earner), telecommunications, and free-trade-zone manufacturing are the most important sectors, although agriculture is still a major part of the economy. The Dominican Republic owed much of its success to the adoption of sound macroeconomic policies in the early 1990s and greater opening to foreign investment. Growth turned negative in 2003 (-0.4%) due to the effects of government handling of major bank frauds and to lower U.S. demand for Dominican manufacturers. The Mejía administration negotiated an IMF standby agreement in August 2003 but was unable to comply with fiscal targets. The Fernández administration obtained required tax legislation and IMF board approval for the standby in January 2005. The Dominican peso fell to an unprecedented low in exchange markets in 2003–2004 but strengthened dramatically following the election and inauguration of Leonel Fernández. Since late 2004 it has traded at a rate considered to be overvalued on a purchasing power parity basis. Inflation fell sharply in late 2004 and was estimated at 9% for that calendar year. The Fernández administration successfully renegotiated official bilateral debt with Paris Club member governments, commercial bank debt with London Club members, and sovereign debt with a consortium of lenders. It met fiscal and financial targets of the standby agreement but fell short of goals for reforms in the electricity sector and financial markets. Central Bank statistics indicate 9.3% growth for 2005 with 7.44% inflation. The Central Bank estimates that economic growth for 2006 will surpass 11%, with inflation of about 5%.

The Dominican Republic’s most important trading partner is the United States (75% of export revenues). Other markets include Canada, Western Europe, and Japan. The country exports free-trade-zone manufactured products (garments, medical devices, etc.), nickel, sugar, coffee, cacao, and tobacco. It imports petroleum, industrial raw materials, capital goods, and foodstuffs. On September 5, 2005, the Dominican Congress ratified a Free Trade Agreement with the U.S. and five Central American countries, known as CAFTA-DR. The CAFTA-DR agreement is expected to enter into force for the Dominican Republic in early 2007. The stock of U.S. foreign direct investment (FDI) in Dominican Republic in 2005 was U.S. $758 million, down from U.S. $1.1 billion in 2004, much of it directed to the tourism sector, to free trade zones, and to the telecommunications sector. Remittances were close to $2.5 billion in 2005.

An important aspect of the Dominican economy is the Free Trade Zone industry (FTZ), which made up U.S. $4.75 billion in Dominican exports for 2005 (77% of total exports). In 2006, however, reports show that the FTZs lost 41,000 jobs and suffered a 5% decrease in total exports. The textiles sector experienced an approximate 17% drop in exports due in part to the appreciation of the Dominican peso against the dollar, Asian competition following expiration of the quotas of the Multi-Fiber Arrangement, and a government-mandated increase in salaries, which should have occurred in 2005 but was postponed to January 2006. Lost Dominican business was captured by firms in Central America and China. The tobacco, jewelry, medical, and pharmaceutical sectors in the FTZs all reported increases for 2006, which somewhat offset textile and garment losses. Industry experts from the FTZs expect that entry into force of the CAFTA-DR agreement will promote substantial growth in the FTZ sector for 2007.

An ongoing concern in the Dominican Republic is the inability of participants in the electricity sector to establish financial viability for the system. Three regional electricity distribution systems were privatized in 1998 via sale of 50% of shares to foreign operators; the Mejía administration repurchased all foreign-owned shares in two of these systems in late 2003. The third, serving the eastern provinces, is operated by U.S. concerns and is 50% U.S.-owned. The World Bank records that electricity distribution losses for 2005 totaled about 38.2%, a rate of losses exceeded in only three other countries. Industry experts estimate distribution losses for 2006 will surpass 40%, primarily due to low collection rates, theft, and corruption. At the close of 2006, the government had exceeded its budget for electricity subsidies, spending close to U.S. $650 million. The government plans to continue providing subsidies. Congress passed a law in early 2007 that criminalizes the act of stealing electricity. The electricity sector is a highly politicized sector and with 2008 presidential election campaigning already in motion, prospects for further effective reforms of the electricity sector are poor. Debts in the sector, including government debt, amount to more than U.S. $500 million. Some generating companies are undercapitalized and at times unable to purchase adequate fuel supplies.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States and with the other states of the inter-American system. It has accredited diplomatic missions in most Western Hemisphere countries and in principal European capitals. Newly elected president of Haiti René Préval made a working visit to Santo Domingo in March 2006, reciprocating Leonel Fernández’s call on the Interim Government of Haiti in December 2005. The Dominican Government has regularly appealed for international support for its island neighbor. There is a sizeable Haitian migrant community in the Dominican Republic, many of whom lack residence permits and citizenship documentation. The Dominican Republic belongs to the United Nations and many of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank, International Labor Organization, International Atomic Energy Agency, and International Civil Aviation Organization. It is a member of the OAS and of the Inter-American Development Bank.

U.S.-DOMINICAN REPUBLIC RELATIONS

The U.S. has a strong interest in a democratic, stable, and economically healthy Dominican Republic. The country’s standing as the largest Caribbean economy, second-largest country in terms of population and land mass, with large bilateral trade with the United States, and its proximity to the United States and other smaller Caribbean nations make the Dominican Republic an important partner in hemispheric affairs. The Embassy estimates that 60,000 U.S. citizens live in the Dominican Republic; many are dual nationals. An important element of the relationship between the two countries is the fact that more than 1 million individuals of Dominican origin reside in the United States, most of them in the metropolitan Northeast and some in Florida.

U.S. relations with the Dominican Republic are excellent, and the U.S. has been an outspoken supporter of that country’s democratic and economic development. The Dominican Government has been supportive of many U.S. initiatives in the United Nations and related agencies. The two governments cooperate in the fight against the traffic in illegal substances. The Dominican Republic has worked closely with U.S. law enforcement officials on issues such as the extradition of fugitives and measures to hinder illegal migration. The United States supports the Fernández administration’s efforts to improve Dominican competitiveness, to attract foreign private investment, to fight corruption, and to modernize the tax system. Bilateral trade is important to both countries. U.S. firms, mostly manufacturers of apparel, footwear, and light electronics, account for much of the foreign private investment in the Dominican Republic.

Exports from the United States, including those from Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, to the Dominican Republic in 2005 totaled $4.7 billion, up 8% from the previous year. The Dominican Republic exported $4.6 billion to the United States in 2005, equaling some 75% of its export revenues. U.S. goods exports in 2006 (January-September) were $5.2 billion, up 17.8% from the previous year. Corresponding U.S. imports (January-September) from the Dominican Republic were $4.5 billion, up 16.3%. The Dominican Republic is currently the 35th largest export market for U.S. goods. The U.S. Embassy works closely with U.S. business firms and Dominican trade groups, both of which can take advantage of the new opportunities in this growing market. At the same time the Embassy is working with the Dominican Government to resolve business disputes from previous administrations. The Embassy counsels U.S. firms through its Country Commercial Guide and informally via meetings with business persons planning to invest or already investing in the Dominican Republic. This is a challenging business environment for U.S. firms, especially for medium to smaller sized businesses. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) mission is focused on four areas: availability of health care, increasing economic opportunity, improving participation in democratic processes, and environmentally sound energy production.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

SANTO DOMINGO (E) Address: Cesar Nicolas Penson esq. Leopoldo Navarro; APO/FPO: APO AA 34041; Phone: 809 221-2171; Fax: 809 686-7437; INMARSAT Tel: 683 142-873; Workweek: 0800-1645; Website: usemb.gov.do.

Last Updated: 1/8/2007

Other Contact Information

U.S. Department of Commerce International Trade Administration Trade Information Center
14th and Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20230
Tel: 1-800-USA-TRADE
Internet: http://www.commerce.gov/

Caribbean/Latin American Action
1818 N. Street, NW, Suite 310
Washington, DC 20036
Tel: (202) 466-7464
Fax: (202) 822-0075

American Chamber of Commerce in the Dominican Republic
Torre Empresarial, 6to.
Piso, Ave. Sarasota No. 25,
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Tel: (809) 381-0777
Fax: (809) 381-0303
E-mail: amcham@codetel.net.do
Home Page:
http://www.amcham.org.do

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : October 11, 2006

Country Description: The Dominican Republic covers the eastern two-thirds of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. The capital city is Santo Domingo, located on the south coast of the island. Tourist facilities vary according to price and location. Spanish is the official language. Though English is widely spoken in major cities and tourist areas, it is much less common outside these areas.

Entry/Exit Requirements: The U.S. Embassy in the Dominican Republic strongly recommends that all U.S. citizens traveling to the Dominican Republic do so on a valid U.S. passport. Although Dominican law technically allows U.S. citizens to enter the country on other proof of U.S. citizenship (U.S. birth certificate, Naturalization Certificate, etc.) along with a photo ID, numerous U.S. travelers have been prohibited from departing the Dominican Republic on such documents. In these cases, Dominican Immigration has required the travelers to obtain a U.S. passport from the U.S. Embassy in Santo Domingo. Obtaining a U.S. passport may take up to 10 business days and requires documents that most tourists do not carry, thus potentially delaying the traveler’s return to the United States.

Important New Information: Effective January 23, 2007, all U.S. citizens traveling by air to and from the Caribbean, Bermuda, Panama, Mexico and Canada are required to have a valid passport to enter or reenter the United States. As early as January 1, 2008, U.S. citizens traveling between the United States and the Caribbean, Bermuda, Panama, Mexico and Canada by land or sea (including ferries), may be required to present a valid U.S. passport or other documents as determined by the Department of Homeland Security. American citizens can visit travel.state.gov or call 1-877-4USAPPT (1-877-487-2778) for information on applying for a passport.

Visas: Visitors who do not obtain a Dominican visa prior to entry must purchase a tourist card upon arrival to enter the country. Tourist cards cost ten U.S. dollars, which must be paid in U.S. currency. Tourist cards may be purchased at the Dominican Embassy in Washington or Dominican Consulates prior to arrival, as well as at Dominican airports at the time of entry. Tourist cards permit a legal stay of up to 60 days. Visitors who would like to extend their time in the Dominican Republic should visit the Migration Department in Santo Domingo and request an extension. Failure to request an extension will subject the visitor to a surcharge at the airport upon departure. Travel of children and EXIT requirements: In an effort to prevent international child abduction, the Dominican Republic requires that minors under 18 years of age traveling alone, or with anyone other than a parent, present written authorization from a parent or legal guardian. (Note: The age limit for this requirement was raised in July 2004 from 13 to 18.) This authorization must be in Spanish, and it must be notarized at a Dominican consulate in the United States or notarized and then certified at the Attorney General’s office if done in the Dominican Republic. Though not a requirement, the U.S. Embassy recommends that any minor traveling to the Dominican Republic without one or both parents should have a notarized document from the parent(s). In addition to clarifying the reason for travel, this will facilitate departure from the Dominican Republic.

Dominican immigration authorities may restrict the ability of children to depart the country with only a birth certificate, especially when those children are American citizens of Dominican heritage. Due to this policy, the Embassy strongly urges that children who normally reside in the United States obtain a passport in the U.S. before traveling to the Dominican Republic. Likewise, U.S. citizen children normally resident in the Dominican Republic should obtain a passport from the U.S. Embassy in Santo Domingo before traveling to the United States. The specific guidelines on the Dominican regulations governing the travel of children in the Dominican Republic can be found (in Spanish) at http://www.migracion.gov.do.

For further information concerning entry and exit requirements, travelers may contact the Embassy of the Dominican Republic at 1715 22nd St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, tel. (202) 332-6280. There are also Dominican consulates in Boston, Chicago (Northfield, IL), Mayaguez, Miami, New Orleans, New York, and San Juan. Visit the Embassy of the Dominican Republic web site at http://www.domrep.org for the most current visa information. Visit the Embassy of the Dominican Republic web site at http://www.domrep.org for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: American citizens should be aware that foreign tourists are often seen as targets, and should maintain a low profile to avoid becoming victims of violence or crime. In dealing with local police, U.S. citizens should be aware that the standard of professionalism might vary. Police attempts to solicit bribes have been reported, as have incidents of police using excessive force.

Protests, demonstrations, and general strikes occur periodically. Previous political demonstrations have sometimes turned violent, with participants rioting and erecting roadblocks, and police sometimes using deadly force in response. Political demonstrations do not generally occur in areas frequented by tourists and are generally not targeted at foreigners. However, it is advisable to exercise caution when traveling throughout the country. Street crowds should be avoided. In urban areas, travel should be conducted on main routes whenever possible. Power outages occur frequently throughout the Dominican Republic, and travelers should remain alert during blackout periods, as crime rates often increase during these outages.

U.S. citizens considering overland travel between the Dominican Republic and Haiti should first consult the Consular Information Sheet for Haiti as well as the Internet site of the U.S. Embassy in Port-au-Prince for information about travel conditions in Haiti. Santo Domingo and the majority of tourist destinations within the Dominican Republic are located several hours from the Haitian border, and recent events in Haiti have generally not directly affected these areas.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Crime has continued to be a common problem throughout the Dominican Republic. Street crime and petty theft involving U.S. tourists does occur, and precautions should be taken to avoid becoming a target. While pick pocketing and mugging are the most common crimes against tourists, reports of violent crime against both foreigners and locals are growing. Criminals can be dangerous and visitors walking the streets should always be aware of their surroundings. Valuables left unattended in parked automobiles, on beaches and in other public places are vulnerable to theft, and reports of car theft have increased. Cellular telephones should be carried in a pocket rather than on a belt or in a purse. One common method of street robbery is for at least one person on a moped (often coasting with the engine turned off so as not to draw attention) to approach a pedestrian, grab his or her cell phone, purse or backpack, and then speed away. This type of robbery is particularly dangerous because the motorcyclist reaches the intended victim at 15–20 miles per hour and often knocks the victim to the ground.

Many criminals have weapons and are likely to use them if they meet resistance. Be wary of strangers, especially those who seek you out at celebrations or nightspots. Traveling and moving about in a group is advisable. The dangers present in the Dominican Republic, even in resort areas, are similar to those of many major U.S. cities. Expensive jewelry attracts attention and could prompt a robbery attempt. Limiting the cash and credit cards carried on your person and storing valuables, wallet items, and passports in a safe place is recommended.

Burglaries of private residences continue to be reported as well as crimes of violence. Criminals may also misrepresent themselves in an effort to gain access to your residence or hotel room. In one 2005 homicide, a U.S. citizen was murdered by two men who posed as repairmen to gain access to the apartment. In another, the Dominican police arrested the building’s actual maintenance man and an accomplice for the crime. The U.S. Embassy is also aware of three cases since June 2003 in which American citizens were kidnapped and held for ransom.

Since early 2004, the U.S. Embassy has received a growing number of reports from Americans who have been stopped while driving and asked for “donations” by someone who may appear to be a police officer before they would be allowed to continue on their way. Usually, the person(s) stopping the American drivers had approached from behind on a motorcycle; several of these motorcyclists pulled up alongside the driver’s window and indicated that they were carrying a firearm. In some cases, the perpetrators were dressed in the light green uniform of “AMET,” the Dominican traffic police; however, they often seemed too young to be police officers or wore ill-fitting uniforms that might have been stolen. In another incident, individuals dressed in military fatigues told the victim they were police and requested the victim to follow them to the police station prior to robbing him. Such incidents should be reported to the police and the Consular Section. If Dominican police stop an American driver for a traffic violation, the driver should request a traffic ticket rather than paying an on-the-spot fine. The driver also has the right to ask police for identification. While everyone driving in the Dominican Republic should abide by traffic laws and the instructions of legitimate authorities, Americans finding themselves in the aforementioned scenarios should exercise caution. In general, drivers should keep their doors locked and windows closed at all times and leave themselves an escape route when stopping in traffic in the event of an accident or other threat.

In 2006, the U.S. Embassy has received reports of Americans and others who were victims of vehicular-armed robberies in the northern provinces of the Dominican Republic. At least three of the reports indicate the victims were intercepted during the morning hours, when there was little other traffic, while driving on rural highways connecting Santiago and Puerto Plata. Drivers should exercise extreme caution when driving at night and use major highways when possible.

Many public transportation vehicles are unsafe, especially the route taxis or “carros publicos” in urban areas. These are privately owned vehicles that run along certain routes, can take up to six or more passengers, and are inexpensive. Passengers in “carros publicos” are frequently the victims of pick pocketing, and passengers have on occasion been robbed by “carro publico” drivers. Urban buses (“guaguas”) are only marginally better. The U.S. Embassy is also aware of at least one incident in which the driver of a “motoconcho” (motorcycle taxi) robbed an American passenger. The U.S. Embassy cautions its staff not to use these modes of transportation. As an alternative, some scheduled interurban bus services use modern buses and run on reliable timetables. These are generally the safest means of intercity travel. With respect to taxis, visitors to the Dominican Republic are strongly advised to take only hotel taxis or taxis operated by services whose cabs are arranged in advance by phone and can subsequently be identified and tracked.

Credit card fraud is common and recent reports indicate that its incidence has increased significantly. The U.S. Embassy strongly advises Americans to restrict severely the use of credit/debit cards in the Dominican Republic. The increase in credit card fraud is particularly pronounced in the eastern resort areas of the Dominican Republic. According to reports, store workers, restaurant service staff and hotel employees may conceal devices that can instantly record the credit card information. Often, this device appears to be a normal card reader used by businesses. Credit or debit cards should be carefully protected and never allowed out of the owner’s sight. Stolen cards are often used to the maximum amount before the victims are able to contact the bank. Victims of credit card fraud should contact the bank that issued the credit card immediately. It is advisable to pay close attention to credit card bills following time spent in the Dominican Republic.

Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) are present throughout Santo Domingo and other major cities. However, as with credit cards, the use of ATMs should be minimized as a means of avoiding theft or misuse. One local ATM fraud scheme involves sticking photographic film or pieces of paper in the card feeder of the ATM so that an inserted card becomes jammed. Once the card owner has concluded the card is irretrievable, the thieves extract both the jamming material and the card, which they then use. There are other ATM scams as well. Exercise caution and be aware of your surroundings when using an ATM card. The overall level of crime tends to rise during the Christmas season, and visitors to the Dominican Republic should take extra precautions when visiting the country between November and January.

Beaches: The Embassy occasionally receives reports of individuals who have become victims of crime, and particularly sexual assault, while at the beach. Vigilance is recommended. The numerous “all-inclusive” resorts serve abundant quantities of alcohol, a practice that encourages inattention and may be a factor in crime or sexual assault.

Tourist Police: The Dominican Republic does have police that are specially trained to assist tourists who require assistance. This public institution is called Politur and represents a cooperative effort between the National Police, Secretary of the Armed Forces, and the Secretary of Tourism. Politur typically has personnel in tourist areas to provide first responder type assistance to tourists. If you are the victim of a crime, Politur can help you get to a police station so that you may file a police report and seek further assistance. For more information on Politur and contact information, go to http://www.politur.gov.do/. Politur is located at the corner of 30 de Marzo and Mexico, Bloque D, Governmental Building, Santo Domingo. The general phone number is 809-686-8639.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice system and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical care is limited, especially outside Santo Domingo, and the quality of care varies widely among facilities. There is an emergency 911 service within Santo Domingo, but its reliability is questionable. Outside the capital, emergency services range from extremely limited to nonexistent. Blood supplies at both public and private hospitals are often limited, and not all facilities have blood on hand even for emergencies. Many medical facilities throughout the country do not have staff members who speak or understand English. A private nationwide ambulance service, ProMed, operates in Santo Domingo, Santiago, Puerto Plata and La Romana; Telephone number is 809-548-7200. ProMed expects full payment at the time of transport. The U.S. Embassy maintains a non-comprehensive list of providers of medical care in the Dominican Republic, which can be found at: http://www.usemb.gov.do/Consular/ACS/medical_assistance-e.htm.

Tap water is unsafe to drink and should be avoided. Bottled water and beverages are safe.

Dengue: During the period from June 25, 2006 through July 29, 2006, the Dominican Minister of Health documented 1,800 cases of dengue in the Dominican Republic. To reduce the risk of contracting dengue, the CDC recommends wearing clothing that exposes as little skin as possible and applying a repellent containing the insecticide DEET (concentration 30 to 35 percent) or Picaridin (concentration 20 percent or greater for tropical travelers). Because of the increased risk of dengue fever and the ongoing risk of malaria in the Dominican Republic, practicing preventative measures is recommended by the CDC.

For further information on dengue fever, please visit the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) website at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/dengue.

Malaria: Since October 2004, there have been several reported cases of malaria in areas frequented by U.S. and European tourists including La Altagracia Province, the easternmost province in which many beach resorts are located. Malaria risk is significantly higher for travelers who go on some of the excursions to the countryside offered by many resorts. Prior to coming to the Dominican Republic, travelers should consult the CDC web site at http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/index.htm for more information and recommendations on malarial prophylaxis.

The U.S. Embassy in Santo Domingo and the CDC are aware of several cases in which U.S. citizens experienced serious complications or died following elective (cosmetic) surgery in the Dominican Republic. The CDC’s web site at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5323a4.htm contains a report on patients who suffered postoperative infections following cosmetic surgery in the Dominican Republic. Patients considering travel to the Dominican Republic for cosmetic surgery may also wish to contact the Dominican Society of Plastic Surgeons (tel. 809-688-8451) to verify the training, qualifications, and reputation of specific doctors.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. Americans traveling in the Dominican Republic should be aware that Dominican hospitals often require payment at the time of service and may take legal measures to prevent patients from departing the country prior to payment.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning the Dominican Republic is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in the Dominican Republic is on the right side of the road. Speed limits vary from 25 mph in the city to 50 mph on rural roads, but they are generally not enforced. Drivers are required to carry liability insurance.

If you do drive in the Dominican Republic, you should be aware that the utmost caution and defensive driving are necessary. Traffic laws are similar to those in the United States, but undisciplined driving is common, due to a lack of adequate traffic controls. Many drivers will not use turn indicators. Rather, it is common for a vehicle operator to stick his hand out the window to signal a turn. Drivers can also be aggressive and erratic, often failing to yield the right-of-way even when road signs or signals indicate that they should. Travel at night on intercity highways and in rural areas should be avoided, due to vehicles’ being driven at excessive speeds, often with malfunctioning headlights or taillights. Blackouts also increase the danger of night travel. Turning right on red lights is permitted, but should be done with caution.

Traffic accidents often result in serious injury or death. This is often the case when heavy vehicles, such as buses or trucks, are involved. Traditionally, vehicles involved in accidents in the Dominican Republic are not moved (even to clear traffic), until authorized by a police officer. Drivers who violate this norm may be held legally liable for the accident.

Dominican law requires that a driver be taken into custody for driving under the influence or being involved in an accident that causes serious injury or death, even if the driver is insured and appears not to have been at fault. The minimum detention period is 48 hours; however, detentions frequently last until a judicial decision is reached (often weeks or months), or until a waiver is signed by the injured party (usually as the result of a cash settlement).

Visitors to the Dominican Republic might want to consider hiring a professional driver during their stay in lieu of driving themselves. Licensed drivers who are familiar with local roads can be hired through local car rental agencies. In case of accidents, only the driver will be taken into custody.

Pedestrians tend to step out into traffic without regard to corners, crosswalks, or traffic signals. Many pedestrians die every year crossing the street (including major, multi-lane highways) at seemingly random locations. Pedestrians do not have the right-of-way, and walking along or crossing busy streets—even at intersections with traffic lights or traffic police present—can be very dangerous.

Seat belts are required by law, and those caught not wearing them will be fined. There are no child car seat laws. The law also requires that all cell phone use be done through a hands-free device while driving. Police do stop drivers using cell phones without the benefit of these devices. Penalties for those driving under the influence and those involved in accidents resulting in injury or death can be severe.

Motorcycles and motor scooters are common in the Dominican Republic, and they are often driven erratically. Dominican law requires that motorcyclists wear helmets, but local authorities rarely enforce this law. As noted previously in this report, public transportation vehicles such as the route taxis (“carros publicos”) and urban buses (“guaguas”) are unsafe.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of the Dominican Republic’s Civil Aviation Authority as not being in compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards for the oversight of the Dominican Republic’s air carrier operations. For more information, visit http://www.faa.gov.

Currency Regulations: It is legal to exchange currency at commercial banks, exchange booths in hotels and exchange houses. The exchange rate is set by the Central Bank, based on prevailing market conditions. The market determines the exchange rate. No more than USD $10,000 or its equivalent in another currency, including Dominican pesos, may be taken out of the Dominican Republic at the time of departure.

Real Estate: Real estate investments require a high level of caution, as property rights are irregularly enforced. Investors often encounter problems in receiving clear title to land, and title insurance is not available. Real estate investments by U.S. citizens have been the subject of both legal and physical takeover attempts. Absentee landlords and absentee owners of undeveloped land are particularly vulnerable.

Investors should seek solid property title and not just a “carta de constancia,” which is often confused by foreigners with a title. An official land registry measurement (also known as’deslinde’ or “mensura catastral’) is also desirable for the cautious overseas investor. Squatters, sometimes supported by governmental or nongovernmental organizations, have invaded properties belonging to U.S. citizens, threatening violence and blocking the owners from entering their property. In at least one instance, the U.S. citizen landowner was physically assaulted. Several U.S. citizens with long-standing expropriation disputes with the Dominican Government have not received compensation.

Gambling: Many Americans have reported losing large amounts of money at Dominican casinos by playing a game (or variations thereof) known as “Super Keno,” “Caribbean Keno,” “Progressive Keno,” or “Progressive Roulette.” Players have complained that the game’s rules are unclear and/or misleading. Any complaints arising from a casino should be directed to the Office of Casinos at the Secretary of Finance. To register a complaint with this office, call 809-687-5131, ext. 2120.

Divorce: In recent years, there have been a number of businesses, primarily on the Internet, which advertise “Quickie Dominican Divorces.” The services of these businesses should be used with caution, as they may misrepresent the process of obtaining a divorce in the Dominican Republic. While it is relatively simple for foreigners to obtain a divorce in the Dominican Republic, such divorces are only valid if certain specific steps are taken. Those seeking information regarding divorce should first consult with an attorney in their home state. Additional information is available via the U.S. Embassy’s flyer on Divorce in the Dominican Republic, posted on the Embassy’s web site.

Hurricanes: The Dominican Republic is a hurricane-prone country. In the event of a hurricane alert, a notice will be posted on the U.S. Embassy in Santo Domingo’s web page at http://www.usemb.gov.do. Further information can be obtained by visiting the National Weather Service’s web site at http://www.nhc.noaa.gov. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency at http://www.fema.gov.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Dominican laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in the Dominican Republic are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. For more information on the Dominican judicial system, procedures, and penalties, please visit the Consular Section’s web page at http://www.usemb.gov.do. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in the Dominican Republic are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration web site, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within the Dominican Republic. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate.

By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy is located at the corner of Calle César Nicolás Penson and Avenida Máximo Gómez. The American Citizens Services (ACS) Unit can be reached by telephone at 809-731-4294, or via the Internet at http://www.usemb.gov.do/Consular/ACS/acs-e-contact.htm.ACS Unit office hours are 7:30 a.m. to 4:00 p.m., Monday through Friday, except on U.S. and Dominican holidays. The Chancery of the U.S. Embassy is located a half-mile away from the Consular Section, at the corner of Calle César Nicolás Penson and Calle Leopoldo Navarro. The telephone number is 809-221-2171.

There is a Consular Agency in the north coast city of Puerto Plata at Calle Villanueva esq. Avenida John F. Kennedy, Edificio Abraxa Libraria, 2nd floor, telephone 809-586-4204, 809-586-8017, 809-586-8023; office hours are 9:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m., and 2:30 p.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday, except holidays. The Consular Agency has a secondary office in Sosua, also on the north coast. That office may be reached at: “Sea Horse Ranch Project” Administrative Office, Carretera Sosua—Cabarete, Sosua, D.R., telephone 809-571-3880, fax 809-571-2374.

Dominican Republic

Compiled from the November 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Dominican Republic

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 48,442 sq. km. (18,704 sq. mi.), about the size of Vermont and New Hampshire combined.

Cities: Capital—Santo Domingo (pop. 2.25 million). Other city—Santiago de los Caballeros (908,230).

Terrain: Mountainous.

Climate: Maritime tropical.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Dominican(s).

Population: (2007) 9.365 million.

Annual growth rate: (2007) 1.5%.

Ethnic groups: Mixed 73%, European 16%, African origin 11%.

Religions: Roman Catholic 95%.

Languages: Spanish.

Education: Years compulsory—6 Attendance—70%. Literacy—84.7%.

Health: Infant mortality rate: 28.3/ 1,000. Life expectancy—70.2 years for men, 73.3 years for women.

Work force: 60.2% services (tourism, transportation, communications, finances, others), 15.5% industry (manufacturing), 11.5% construction, 11.3% agriculture, 1.5% mining.

Government

Type: Representative democracy.

Independence: February 27, 1844. Restoration of independence, August 16, 1863.

Constitution: November 28, 1966; amended July 25, 2002.

Government branches: Executive—president (chief of state and head of government), vice president, cabinet. Legislative—bicameral Congress (Senate and House of Representatives). Judicial—Supreme Court of Justice.

Political subdivisions: 31 provinces and the National District of Santo Domingo.

Political parties: Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD), Social Christian Reformist Party (PRSC), and several others.

Suffrage: Universal and compulsory, over 18 or married.

Economy (2006)

GDP: $36.05 billion.

Growth rate: 10.7%; (2007 est.: 7.9%).

Per capita GDP: $3,850.

Non-fuel minerals: (1.4% of GDP) Nickel, gold, silver.

Agriculture: (6.5% of GDP) Products—sugarcane, coffee, cocoa, bananas, tobacco, rice, plantains, beef.

Industry: (27.4% of GDP) Types—sugar refining, pharmaceuticals, cement, light manufacturing, construction.

Services: (including tourism and transportation) 58.6% of GDP.

Trade: Exports ($6.484 billion (FOB), including processing zones: textiles, sugar, coffee, ferronickel, cacao, tobacco, meats and medical supplies. Markets—U.S. (75%), Canada, Western Europe, South Korea. Imports—$8.797 billion: food stuffs, petroleum, industrial raw materials, capital goods. Suppliers—U.S. (48%), Japan, Germany, Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia.

PEOPLE

About half of Dominicans live in rural areas; many are small landholders. Haitians form the largest foreign minority group. All religions are tolerated; the state religion is Roman Catholicism.

HISTORY

The island of Hispaniola, of which the Dominican Republic forms the eastern two-thirds and Haiti the remainder, was originally occupied by Tainos, an Arawak-speaking people. The Tainos welcomed Columbus in his first voyage in 1492, but subsequent colonizers were brutal, reducing the Taino population from about 1 million to about 500 in 50 years.

To ensure adequate labor for plantations, the Spanish brought African slaves to the island beginning in 1503.

In the next century, French settlers occupied the western end of the island, which Spain ceded to France in 1697, and which, in 1804, became the Republic of Haiti. The Haitians conquered the whole island in 1822 and held it until 1844, when forces led by Juan Pablo Duarte, the hero of Dominican independence, drove them out and established the Dominican Republic as an independent state. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned to the Spanish Empire; in 1865, independence was restored. Economic difficulties, the threat of European intervention, and ongoing internal disorders led to a U.S. occupation in 1916 and the establishment of a military government in the Dominican Republic. The occupation ended in 1924, with a democratically elected Dominican Government.

In 1930, Rafael L. Trujillo, a prominent army commander, established absolute political control. Trujillo promoted economic development—from which he and his supporters benefited—and severe repression of domestic human rights. Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems. In August 1960, the Organization of American States (OAS) imposed diplomatic sanctions against the Dominican Republic as a result of Trujillo's complicity in an attempt to assassinate President Romulo Betancourt of Venezuela. These sanctions remained in force after Trujillo's death by assassination in May 1961. In November1961, the Trujillo family was forced into exile.

In January 1962, a council of state that included moderate opposition elements with legislative and executive powers was formed. OAS sanctions were lifted January 4, and, after the resignation of President Joaquin Balaguer on January 16, the council under President Rafael E. Bonnelly headed the Dominican Government.

In 1963, Juan Bosch was inaugurated President. Bosch was overthrown in a military coup in September 1963. Another military coup, on April 24, 1965, led to violence between military elements favoring the return to government by Bosch and those who proposed a military junta committed to early general elections. On April 28, U.S. military forces landed to protect U.S. citizens and to evacuate U.S. and other foreign nationals.

Additional U.S. forces subsequently established order. In June 1966, President Balaguer, leader of the Reformist Party (now called the Social Christian Reformist Party—PRSC), was elected and then re-elected to office in May 1970 and May 1974, both times after the major opposition parties withdrew late in the campaign.

In the May 1978 election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by Antonio Guzman of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD). Guzman's inauguration on August 16 marked the country's first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another.

The PRD's presidential candidate, Salvador Jorge Blanco, won the 1982 elections, and the PRD gained a majority in both houses of Congress. In an attempt to cure the ailing economy, the Jorge administration began to implement economic adjustment and recovery policies, including an austerity program in cooperation with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In April 1984, rising prices of basic foodstuffs and uncertainty about austerity measures led to riots.

Balaguer was returned to the presidency with electoral victories in 1986 and 1990. Upon taking office in 1986, Balaguer tried to reactivate the economy through a public works construction program. Nonetheless, by 1988 the country had slid into a 2-year economic depression, characterized by high inflation and currency devaluation. Economic difficulties, coupled with problems in the delivery of basic services—e.g., electricity, water, transportation—generated popular discontent that resulted in frequent protests, occasionally violent, including a paralyzing nationwide strike in June 1989.

In 1990, Balaguer instituted a second set of economic reforms. After concluding an IMF agreement, balancing the budget, and curtailing inflation, the Dominican Republic experienced a period of economic growth marked by moderate inflation, a balance in external accounts, and a steadily increasing GDP that lasted through 2000.

The voting process in 1986 and 1990 was generally seen as fair, but allegations of electoral board fraud tainted both victories. The elections of 1994 were again marred by charges of fraud. Following a compromise calling for constitutional and electoral reform, President Balaguer assumed office for an abbreviated term and Congress amended the Constitution to bar presidential succession.

Since 1996, the Dominican electoral process has been seen as generally free and fair. In June 1996, Leonel Fernández Reyna of the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) was elected to a 4-year term as president. Fernán-dez's political agenda was one of economic and judicial reform. He helped enhance Dominican participation in hemispheric affairs, such as the OAS and the follow up to the Miami Summit. On May 16, 2000, Hipólito Mejía, the PRD candidate, was elected president in another free and fair election, soundly defeating PLD candidate Danilo Medina and former president Balaguer. Mejía championed the cause of free trade and Central American and Caribbean economic integration.

The Dominican Republic signed a free trade agreement (CAFTA-DR) with the United States and five Central American countries in August 2004, in the last weeks of the Mejía administration. During the Mejía administration, the government sponsored and obtained anti-trafficking and anti-money-laundering legislation, sent troops to Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom, and ratified the Article 98 agreement it had signed in 2002. Mejía faced mounting domestic problems as a deteriorating economy—caused in large part by the government's measures to deal with massive bank fraud—and constant

power shortages plagued the latter part of his administration. During the Mejía administration, the Constitution was amended to permit an incumbent president to seek a second successive term, and Mejía ran for re-election. On May 16, 2004, Leonel Fernández was elected president, defeating Mejía 57.11% to 33.65%. Eduardo Estrella of the PRSC received 8.65% of the vote. Fernández took office on August 16, 2004, promising in his inaugural speech to promote fiscal austerity, to fight corruption and to support social concerns. Fernández said the Dominican Republic would support policies favoring international peace and security through multilateral mechanisms in conformity with the United Nations and the OAS. The Fernández administration has worked closely with the United States on law enforcement and immigration and counter-terrorism matters. On May 16, 2006, President Fernández's PLD won a majority of seats in the upper and lower houses of Congress as well as a plurality of mayoral seats, marking a major shift in power among the main political parties. Several candidates have begun campaigning for the 2008 presidential elections. On March 25, 2007, President Fernández announced his intention to run.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

The Dominican Republic is a representative democracy with national powers divided among independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president appoints the cabinet, executes laws passed by the legislative branch, and is commander in chief of the armed forces. The president and vice president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for 4-year terms. Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral Congress—the Senate (32 members) and the House of Representatives (178 members).

The Dominican Republic has a multiparty political system with national elections every 2 years (alternating between presidential elections and congressional/municipal elections). Presidential elections are held in years evenly divisible by four. Congressional and municipal elections are held in even numbered years not divisible by four. International observers have found that presidential and congressional elections since 1996 have been generally free and fair. Elections are supervised by a Central Elections Board (JCE) of 9 members chosen for a four-year term by the newly elected Senate. JCE decisions on electoral matters are final.

Under the constitutional reforms negotiated after the 1994 elections, the 16-member Supreme Court of Justice is appointed by a National Judicial Council, which is comprised of the President, the leaders of both houses of Congress, the President of the Supreme Court, and an opposition or non-governing-party member. One other Supreme Court Justice acts as secretary of the Council, a non-voting position. The Supreme Court has sole authority over managing the court system and in hearing actions against the president, designated members of his cabinet, and members of Congress when the legislature is in session.

The Supreme Court hears appeals from lower courts and chooses members of lower courts. Each of the 31 provinces is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Mayors and municipal councils to administer the 124 municipal districts and the National District (Santo Domingo) are elected at the same time as congressional representatives.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

President: Leonel FERNANDEZ Reyna

Vice Pres.: Rafael ALBURQUERQUE de Castro

Sec. of State for Agriculture: Salvador JIMENEZ

Sec. of State for the Armed Forces: Ramon AQUINO Garcia, Lt. Gen.

Sec. of State for Culture: Jose RAFAEL Lantigua

Sec. of State for Education: Alejandrina GERMAN

Sec. of State for the Environment & Natural Resources: Maximiliano PUIG Miller

Sec. of State for Finance: Vicente BENGOA Albizu

Sec. of State for Foreign Relations: Carlos MORALES Troncoso

Sec. of State for Higher Education, Science, & Technology: Ligia AMADA MELO Viuda Cardona

Sec. of State for Industry & Commerce: Francisco Javier GARCIA Fernandez

Sec. of State for Interior & Police: Francisco ALMEIDA Rancier

Sec. of State for Labor: Jose Ramon FADUL

Sec. of State for the Presidency:

Sec. of State for Public Health & Social Welfare: Bautista ROJAS Gomez, Dr.

Sec. of State for Public Works & Communications: Manuel de JESUS PEREZ

Sec. of State for Sports: Felipe PAYANO

Sec. of State for Tourism: Felix JIMENEZ Jimenez

Sec. of State for Women: Flavia GARCIA

Sec. of State for Youth: Manuel CRESPO Administrative Secretary of the Presidency: Luis Manuel BONETTI Veras

Technical Secretary of the Presidency: Juan Temistocles MONTAS Dominguez

Sec. of State Without Portfolio: Miguel MEJIA, Dr.

Sec. of State Without Portfolio: Eduardo SELMAN

Special Assistant to the President: Jose Joaquin BIDO Medina, Dr.

Presidential Adviser on Anti-Narcotics: Vincio CASTILLO

Attorney General: Radhames JIMENEZ Pena

Governor, Central Bank: Hector VALEZ Albizu

Ambassador to the US: Flavio Dario ESPINAL Jacobo

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Erasmo LARA-PENA

The Dominican Republic maintains an embassy in the United States at 1715 22d Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 (tel. 202-332-6280).

DEFENSE

Congress authorizes a combined military force of 44,000 active duty personnel. Actual active duty strength is approximately 32,000. However, approximately 50% of those are used for non-military activities such as security providers for government-owned non-military facilities, high-way toll stations, prisons, forestry work, state enterprises, and private businesses. The Commander in Chief of the military is the President. The principal missions are to defend the nation and protect the territorial integrity of the country. The army, larger than the other services combined with approximately 20,000 active duty personnel, consists of six infantry brigades, a combat support brigade, and a combat service support brigade. The air force operates two main bases, one in the southern region near Santo Domingo and one in the northern region near Puerto Plata. The navy operates two major naval bases, one in Santo Domingo and one in Las Calderas on the south-western coast, and maintains 12 operational vessels. In the Caribbean, only Cuba has a larger military force.

The armed forces have organized a Specialized Airport Security Corps (CESA) and a Specialized Port Security Corps (CESEP) to meet international security needs in these areas. The Secretary of the Armed Forces has also announced plans to form a specialized border corps (CESEF). Additionally, the armed forces provide 75% of personnel to the National Investigations Directorate (DNI) and the Counter-Drug Directorate (DNCD).

The Dominican National Police force contains 32,000 agents. The police are not part of the Dominican armed forces, but share some overlapping security functions. Sixty-three percent of the force serve in areas out-side traditional police functions, similar to the situation of their military counterparts.

ECONOMY

After a decade of little to no growth in the 1980s, the Dominican Republic's economy boomed in the 1990s, expanding at an average rate of 7.7% per year from 1996 to 2000. Tourism (the leading foreign exchange earner), telecommunications, and free-trade-zone manufacturing are the most important sectors, although agriculture is still a major part of the economy. The Dominican Republic owed much of its success to the adoption of sound macroeconomic policies in the early 1990s and greater opening to foreign investment. Growth turned negative in 2003 (−0.4%) due to the effects of government handling of major bank frauds and to lower U.S. demand for Dominican manufacturers. The Mejía administration negotiated an IMF standby agreement in August 2003 but was unable to comply with fiscal targets. The Fernández administration obtained required tax legislation and IMF board approval for the standby in January 2005. The Dominican peso fell to an unprecedented low in exchange markets in 2003–2004 but strengthened dramatically following the election and inauguration of Leonel Fernández. Since late 2004 it has traded at a rate considered to be overvalued on a purchasing power parity basis. Inflation fell sharply in late 2004 and was estimated at 9% for that calendar year. The Fernández administration successfully renegotiated official bilateral debt with Paris Club member governments, commercial bank debt with London Club members, and sovereign debt with a consortium of lenders. It met fiscal and financial targets of the standby agreement but fell short of goals for reforms in the electricity sector and financial markets. Central Bank statistics indicate 10.7% growth for 2006 with 5.0% inflation. The Central Bank estimates that the economy grew at 7.9% in the first six months of 2007 with an inflation rate of 5.9%.

The Dominican Republic's most important trading partner is the United States (75% of export revenues). Other markets include Canada, Western Europe, and Japan. The country exports free-trade-zone manufactured products (garments, medical devices, etc.), nickel, sugar, coffee, cacao, and tobacco. It imports petroleum, industrial raw materials, capital goods, and foodstuffs. On September 5, 2005, the Dominican Congress ratified a free trade agreement with the U.S. and five Central American countries, known as CAFTA-DR. The CAFTA-DR agreement entered into force for the Dominican Republic on March 1, 2007. The total stock of U.S. foreign direct investment (FDI) in Dominican Republic as of 2006 was U.S. $3.3 billion, much of it directed to the energy and tourism sectors, to free trade zones, and to the telecommunications sector. Remittances were close to $2.7 billion in 2006.

An important aspect of the Dominican economy is the Free Trade Zone industry (FTZ), which made up U.S. $4.55 billion in Dominican exports for 2006 (70% of total exports). Reports show, however, that the FTZs lost approximately 60,000 between 2005 and 2007 and suffered a 4% decrease in total exports in 2006. The textiles sector experienced an approximate 17% drop in exports due in part to the appreciation of the Dominican peso against the dollar, Asian competition following expiration of the quotas of the Multi-Fiber Arrangement, and a government-mandated increase in salaries, which should have occurred in 2005 but was postponed to January 2006. Lost Dominican business was captured by firms in Central America and Asia. The tobacco, jewelry, medical, and pharmaceutical sectors in the FTZs all reported increases for 2006, which somewhat offset textile and garment losses. Industry experts from the FTZs expect that entry into force of the CAFTA-DR agreement will promote substantial growth in the FTZ sector for 2007.

An ongoing concern in the Dominican Republic is the inability of participants in the electricity sector to establish financial viability for the system. Three regional electricity distribution systems were privatized in 1998 via sale of 50% of shares to foreign operators; the Mejía a administration repurchased all foreign-owned shares in two of these systems in late 2003. The third, serving the eastern provinces, is operated by U.S. concerns and is 50% U.S.-owned. The World Bank records that electricity distribution losses for 2005 totaled about 38.2%, a rate of losses exceeded in only three other countries. Industry experts estimate distribution losses for 2006 will surpass 40%, primarily due to low collection rates, theft, infrastructure problems and corruption. At the close of 2006, the government had exceeded its budget for electricity subsidies, spending close to U.S. $650 million. The government plans to continue providing subsidies. Congress passed a law in 2007 that criminalizes the act of stealing electricity, but it has not yet been fully implemented. The electricity sector is a highly politicized sector and with 2008 presidential election campaigning already in motion, the prospect of further effective reforms of the electricity sector is poor. Debts in the sector, including government debt, amount to more than U.S. $500 million. Some generating companies are undercapitalized and at times unable to purchase adequate fuel supplies.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

The Dominican Republic has a close relationship with the United States and with the other states of the inter-American system. It has accredited diplomatic missions in most Western Hemisphere countries and in principal European capitals. Newly elected president of Haiti René Préval made a working visit to Santo Domingo in March 2006, reciprocating Leonel Fernández's call on the Interim Government of Haiti in December 2005. The Dominican Government has regularly appealed for international support for its island neighbor.

There is a sizeable Haitian migrant community in the Dominican Republic, many of whom lack residence permits and citizenship documentation. The Dominican Republic is a founding member of the United Nations and participates in many of its specialized and related agencies, including the World Bank, International Labor Organization, International Atomic Energy Agency, and International Civil Aviation Organization. It is a member of the OAS and of the Inter-American Development Bank.

U.S.-DOMINICAN REPUBLIC RELATIONS

The U.S. has a strong interest in a democratic, stable, and economically healthy Dominican Republic. The country's standing as the largest Caribbean economy, second-largest country in terms of population and land mass, with large bilateral trade with the United States, and its proximity to the United States and other smaller Caribbean nations make the Dominican Republic an important partner in hemispheric affairs. The Embassy estimates that 100,000 U.S. citizens live in the Dominican Republic; many are dual nationals. An important element of the relationship between the two countries is the fact that more than 1 million individuals of Dominican origin reside in the United States, most of them in the metropolitan Northeast and some in Florida.

U.S. relations with the Dominican Republic are excellent, and the U.S. has been an outspoken supporter of that country's democratic and economic development. The Dominican Government has been supportive of many U.S. initiatives in the United Nations and related agencies. The two governments cooperate in the fight against the traffic in illegal substances. The Dominican Republic has worked closely with U.S. law enforcement officials on issues such as the extradition of fugitives and measures to hinder illegal migration.

The United States supports the Fernández administration's efforts to improve Dominican competitiveness, to attract foreign private investment, to fight corruption, and to modernize the tax system. Bilateral trade is important to both countries. U.S. firms, mostly manufacturers of apparel, footwear, and light electronics, as well as U.S. energy companies, account for much of the foreign private investment in the Dominican Republic.

Exports from the United States, including those from Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, to the Dominican Republic in 2005 totaled $5.3 billion, up 11% from the previous year. The Dominican Republic exported $4.5 billion to the United States in 2006, equaling some 75% of its export revenues. The Dominican Republic is the 47th-largest commercial partner of the U.S. The U.S. Embassy works closely with U.S. business firms and Dominican trade groups, both of which can take advantage of the new opportunities in this growing market. At the same time, the Embassy is working with the Dominican Government to resolve a range of ongoing commercial and investment disputes.

The Embassy counsels U.S. firms through its Country Commercial Guide and informally via meetings with business persons planning to invest or already investing in the Dominican Republic. This is a challenging business environment for U.S. firms, especially for medium to smaller sized businesses.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) mission is focused on improving access of underserved populations to quality health care and combating HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis (TB); , promoting economic growth through policy reform, support for CAFTA-DR implementation, and technical assistance to small producers and tourism groups; environmental protection and policy reform initiatives; improved access to quality primary, public education and assistance to at-risk youth; a model rural electrification program; and improving participation in democratic processes, while strengthening the judiciary and combating corruption across all sectors.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

SANTO DOMINGO (E) Cesar Nicolas Penson esq. LeoPOldo Navarro, APO/FPO APO AA 34041, 809 221-2171, Fax 809 686-7437, INMARSAT Tel 683 142-873, Workweek: 0800-1645, Website: http://www.usemb.gov.do/index.htm.

Other Contact Information

U.S. Department of Commerce
International Trade
Administration
Trade Information Center
14th and Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20230
Tel: 1-800-USA-TRADE
Internet: http://trade.gov/

Caribbean/Latin
American Action
1818 N. Street, NW, Suite 310
Washington, DC 20036
Tel: (202) 466-7464
Fax: (202) 822-0075

American Chamber of Commerce
in the Dominican Republic
Torre Empresarial, 6to.
Piso, Ave. Sarasota No. 25,
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Tel: (809) 381-0777
Fax: (809) 381-0303
E-mail: amcham@codetel.net.do
Home Page: http://www.amcham.org.do

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

May 9, 2007

Country Description: The Dominican Republic covers the eastern two-thirds of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. The capital city is Santo Domingo, located on the south coast of the island. Tourist facilities vary according to price and location. Spanish is the official language. Though English is widely spoken in major cities and tourist areas, it is much less common outside these areas.

Entry Requirements: For information concerning entry and exit requirements, travelers may contact the Embassy of the Dominican Republic at 1715 22nd St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, tel. (202) 332-6280. There are also Dominican consulates in Boston, Chicago (Northfield, IL), Mayaguez, Miami, New Orleans, New York, and San Juan. Visit the Embassy of the Dominican Republic web site at www.domrep.org for the most current visa information.

While a U.S. passport is not yet mandatory for sea travel, it is strongly recommended since it is a more readily recognized form of positive proof of citizenship. When traveling by sea, Dominican law allows U.S. citizens to enter the country on other proof of U.S. citizenship (U.S. birth certificate, Naturalization Certificate, etc.) along with a photo ID.

Visas: Visitors who do not obtain a Dominican visa prior to entry must purchase a tourist card upon arrival to enter the country. Tourist cards cost ten U.S. dollars, which must be paid in U.S. currency. Tourist cards may be purchased at the Dominican Embassy in Washington or Dominican Consulates prior to arrival, as well as at Dominican airports at the time of entry. Tourist cards normally permit a legal stay of up to 60 days. Visitors who would like to extend their time in the Dominican Republic should visit the Migration Department in Santo Domingo and request an extension. Failure to request an extension will subject the visitor to a surcharge at the airport upon departure.

Travel Of Children And Exit Requirements: Strict exit requirements apply to minors under 18 years of age (of any nationality) who are residents in the Dominican Republic. Such children traveling alone, without one parent, or with anyone other than the parent(s), must present written authorization from a parent or legal guardian. This authorization must be in Spanish, and it must be notarized at a Dominican consulate in the United States or notarized and then certified at the Dominican Attorney Genera's office (Procuraduria de la Republica) if done in the Dominican Republic. Though not a requirement for non-resident minors (in the Dominican Republic), the U.S. Embassy recommends that any minor traveling to the Dominican Republic without one or both parents have a notarized document from the parent(s). In addition to clarifying the reason for travel, this will facilitate departure from the Dominican Republic.

The specific guidelines on the Dominican regulations governing the travel of children in the Dominican Republic can be found (in Spanish) at http://www.migracion.gov.do. Visit the Embassy of the Dominican Republic web site at http://www.domrep.org for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: American citizens should be aware that foreign tourists are often considered attractive targets for criminal activity, and should maintain a low profile to avoid becoming victims of violence or crime. In dealing with local police, U.S. citizens should be aware that the standard of professionalism might vary. Police attempts to solicit bribes have been reported, as have incidents of police using excessive force.

Protests, demonstrations, and general strikes occur periodically. Previous political demonstrations have sometimes turned violent, with participants rioting and erecting roadblocks, and police sometimes using deadly force in response. Political demonstrations do not generally occur in areas frequented by tourists and are generally not targeted at foreigners. However, it is advisable to exercise caution when traveling throughout the country. Street crowds should be avoided. In urban areas, travel should be conducted on main routes whenever possible. Power outages occur frequently throughout the Dominican Republic, and travelers should remain alert during blackout periods, as crime rates often increase during these out-ages.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, can be found.

Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers out-side the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Crime continues to be a problem throughout the Dominican Republic. Street crime and petty theft involving U.S. tourists does occur, and precautions should be taken to avoid becoming a target. While pick pocketing and mugging are the most common crimes against tourists, reports of violence against both foreigners and locals are growing. Criminals can be dangerous and visitors walking the streets should always be aware of their surroundings. Valuables left unattended in parked automobiles, on beaches and in other public places are vulnerable to theft, and reports of car theft have increased. Cellular telephones should be carried in a pocket rather than on a belt or in a purse. One common method of street robbery is for at least one person on a moped (often coasting with the engine turned off so as not to draw attention) to approach a pedestrian, grab his or her cell phone, purse or backpack, and then speed away. This type of robbery is particularly dangerous because the motorcyclist reaches the intended victim at 15–20 miles per hour and often knocks the victim to the ground.

Many criminals have weapons and are likely to use them if they meet resistance. Be wary of strangers, especially those who seek you out at celebrations or nightspots. Traveling and moving about in a group is advisable. The dangers present in the Dominican Republic, even in resort areas, are similar to those of many major U.S. cities. Expensive jewelry attracts attention and could prompt a robbery attempt. Limiting the cash and credit cards carried on your person and storing valuables, wallet items, and passports in a safe place is recommended.

Burglaries of private residences continue to be reported as well as crimes of violence. Criminals may also misrepresent themselves in an effort to gain access to your residence or hotel room. In one 2005 homicide, a U.S. citizen was murdered by two men who posed as repairmen to gain access to the apartment. In another, the Dominican police arrested the building's actual maintenance man and an accomplice for the crime. The U.S. Embassy is also aware of three cases since June 2003 in which American citizens were kidnapped and held for ransom.

Since early 2004, the U.S. Embassy has received a growing number of reports from Americans who have been stopped while driving and asked for “donations” by someone who may appear to be a police officer before they would be allowed to continue on their way. Usually, the person(s) stopping the American drivers had approached from behind on a motorcycle; several of these motorcyclists pulled up alongside the driver's window and indicated that they were carrying a firearm. In some cases, the perpetrators were dressed in the light green uniform of “AMET,” the Dominican traffic police; however, they often seemed too young to be police officers or wore ill-fitting uniforms that might have been stolen. In another incident, individuals dressed in military fatigues told the victim they were police and requested the victim to follow them to the police station prior to robbing him. Such incidents should be reported to the police and the Consular Section. If Dominican police stop an American driver for a traffic violation, the driver should request a traffic ticket rather than paying an on-the-spot fine. The driver also has the right to ask police for identification.

New regulations require police to wear a nametag with their last name. While everyone driving in the Dominican Republic should abide by traffic laws and the instructions of legitimate authorities, Americans finding themselves in the aforementioned scenarios should exercise caution. In general, drivers should keep their doors locked and windows closed at all times and leave themselves an escape route when stopping in traffic in the event of an accident or other threat.

In 2006, the U.S. Embassy received reports of Americans and others who were victims of vehicular-armed robberies in the northern provinces of the Dominican Republic. At least three of the reports indicate the victims were intercepted during the morning hours, when there was little other traffic, while driving on rural highways connecting Santiago and Puerto Plata. Drivers should exercise extreme caution when driving at night and use major highways when possible.

Many public transportation vehicles are unsafe, especially the route taxis or “carros publicos” in urban areas. These are privately owned vehicles that run along certain routes, can take up to six or more passengers, and are inexpensive. Passengers in “carros publicos” are frequently the victims of pick pocketing, and passengers have on occasion been robbed by “carro publico” drivers. Urban buses (“guaguas”) are only marginally better. The U.S. Embassy is also aware of at least one incident in which the driver of a “motoconcho” (motorcycle taxi) robbed an American passenger. The U.S. Embassy cautions its staff not to use these modes of transportation. As an alternative, some scheduled interurban bus services use modern buses and run on reliable timetables. These are generally the safest means of intercity travel. With respect to taxis, visitors to the Dominican Republic are strongly advised to take only hotel taxis or taxis operated by services whose cabs are arranged in advance by phone and can subsequently be identified and tracked.

Credit card fraud is common and recent reports indicate that its incidence has increased significantly. The U.S. Embassy strongly advises Americans to restrict severely the use of credit/debit cards in the Dominican Republic. The increase in credit card fraud is particularly pronounced in the eastern resort areas of the Dominican Republic. According to reports, store workers, restaurant service staff and hotel employees may conceal devices that can instantly record the credit card information. Often, this device appears to be a normal card reader used by businesses.

Credit or debit cards should be carefully protected and never allowed out of the owner's sight. Stolen cards are often used to the maximum amount before the victims are able to contact the bank. Victims of credit card fraud should contact the bank that issued the credit card immediately. It is advisable to pay close attention to credit card bills following time spent in the Dominican Republic. There have been reports of fraudulent charges appearing months after card usage in the Dominican Republic.

Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) are present throughout Santo Domingo and other major cities. However, as with credit cards, the use of ATMs should be minimized as a means of avoiding theft or misuse. One local ATM fraud scheme involves sticking photographic film or pieces of paper in the card feeder of the ATM so that an inserted card becomes jammed. Once the card owner has concluded the card is irretrievable, the thieves extract both the jamming material and the card, which they then use. There are other ATM scams as well. Exercise caution and be aware of your surroundings when using an ATM card.

The overall level of crime tends to rise during the Christmas season, and visitors to the Dominican Republic should take extra precautions when visiting the country between November and January.

In many countries around the world, counterfeit and pirated goods are widely available. Transactions involving such products may be illegal under local law. In addition, bringing them back to the United States may result in forfeitures and/ or fines. More information on this serious problem is available at http://www.cybercrime.gov/18usc2320.htm.

Beaches: The Embassy occasionally receives reports of individuals who have become victims of crime, and particularly sexual assault, while at the beach. Vigilance is recommended. The numerous “all-inclusive” resorts serve abundant quantities of alcohol, a practice that encourages inattention and may be a factor in crime or sexual assault.

Tourist Police: The Dominican Republic does have police that are specially trained to assist tourists who require assistance. This public institution is called Politur and represents a cooperative effort between the National Police, Secretary of the Armed Forces, and the Secretary of Tourism. Politur typically has personnel in tourist areas to provide first responder type assistance to tourists. If you are the victim of a crime, Poli-tur can help you get to a police station so that you may file a police report and seek further assistance. For more information on Politur and contact information, use the following link: http://www.politur.gov.do. Politur is located at the corner of 30 de Marzo and Mexico, Bloque D, Governmental Building, Santo Domingo. The general phone number is 809-686-8639.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice system and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical care is limited, especially outside Santo Domingo, and the quality of care varies widely among facilities. There is an emergency 911 service within Santo Domingo, but its reliability is questionable. Outside the capital, emergency services range from extremely limited to nonexistent. Blood supplies at both public and private hospitals are often limited, and not all facilities have blood on hand even for emergenccies. Many medical facilities throughout the country do not have staff members who speak or understand English. A private nationwide ambulance service, ProMed, operates in Santo Domingo, Santiago, Puerto Plata and La Romana; Telephone number is 809-548-7200. ProMed expects full payment at the time of transport. The U.S. Embassy maintains a non-comprehensive list of providers of medical care in the Dominican Republic, which can be found at the following link: http://www.usemb.gov.do/Consular/ACS/medical_assistance-e.htm

Tap water is unsafe to drink and should be avoided. Bottled water and beverages are safe.

Dengue: Dengue is endemic to the Dominican Republic. To reduce the risk of contracting dengue, the U.S. Center for Disease Control (CDC) recommends wearing clothing that exposes as little skin as possible and applying a repellent containing the insecticide DEET (concentration 30 to 35 percent) or Picaridin (concentration 20 percent or greater for tropical travelers). Because of the increased risk of dengue fever and the ongoing risk of malaria in the Dominican Republic, practicing preventative measures is recommended by the CDC. For further information on dengue fever, please visit the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) website at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/dengue.

Malaria: Since October 2004, there have been several reported cases of malaria in areas frequented by U.S. and European tourists including La Altagracia Province, the easternmost province in which many beach resorts are located. Malaria risk is significantly higher for travelers who go on some of the excursions to the countryside offered by many resorts. Prior to coming to the Dominican Republic, travelers should consult the CDC web site at http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/index.htm for more information and recommendations on malarial prophylaxis

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

The U.S. Embassy in Santo Domingo and the CDC are aware of several cases in which U.S. citizens experienced serious complications or died following elective (cosmetic) surgery in the Dominican Republic. The CDC's web site at http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5323a4.htm contains a report on patients who suffered postoperative infections following cosmetic surgery in the Dominican Republic. Patients considering travel to the Dominican Republic for cosmetic surgery may also wish to contact the Dominican Society of Plastic Surgeons (tel. 809-688-8451) to verify the training, qualifications, and reputation of specific doctors.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. Americans traveling in the Dominican Republic should be aware that Dominican hospitals often require payment at the time of service and may take legal measures to prevent patients from departing the country prior to payment.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning the Dominican Republic is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Traffic in the Dominican Republic moves on the right side of the road. Speed limits vary from 25 mph in the city to 50 mph on rural roads, but they are generally not enforced. Drivers are required to carry liability insurance.

If you do drive in the Dominican Republic, you should be aware that the utmost caution and defensive driving are necessary. Traffic laws are similar to those in the United States, but undisciplined driving is common, due to a lack of adequate traffic controls. Many drivers will not use turn indicators. Rather, it is common for a vehicle operator to stick his hand out the window to signal a turn. Drivers can also be aggressive and erratic, often failing to yield the right-of-way even when road signs or signals indicate that they should.

Travel at night on intercity highways and in rural areas should be avoided, due to animals on the road, poor road conditions, and other vehicles being driven at excessive speeds, often with malfunctioning headlights or taillights. Blackouts also increase the danger of night travel. Turning right on red lights is permitted, but should be done with caution.

Traffic accidents often result in serious injury or death. This is often the case when heavy vehicles, such as buses or trucks, are involved. Traditionally, vehicles involved in accidents in the Dominican Republic are not moved (even to clear traffic), until authorized by a police officer. Drivers who violate this norm may be held legally liable for the accident.

Dominican law requires that a driver be taken into custody for driving under the influence or being involved in an accident that causes serious injury or death, even if the driver is insured and appears not to have been at fault. The minimum detention period is 48 hours; however, detentions frequently last until a judicial decision is reached (often weeks or months), or until a waiver is signed by the injured party (usually as the result of a cash settlement).

Visitors to the Dominican Republic might want to consider hiring a professional driver during their stay in lieu of driving themselves. Licensed drivers who are familiar with local roads can be hired through local car rental agencies. In case of accidents, only the driver will be taken into custody.

Pedestrians tend to step out into traffic without regard to corners, crosswalks, or traffic signals. Many pedestrians die every year crossing the street (including major, multilane highways) at seemingly random locations. Pedestrians do not have the right-of-way, and walking along or crossing busy streets—even at intersections with traffic lights or traffic police present—can be very dangerous.

Seat belts are required by law, and those caught not wearing them will be fined. There are no child car seat laws. The law also requires the use of hands-free cellular devices while driving. Police stop drivers using cell phones without the benefit of these devices. Penalties for those driving under the influence and those involved in accidents resulting in injury or death can be severe.

Motorcycles and motor scooters are common in the Dominican Republic, and they are often driven erratically. Dominican law requires that motorcyclists wear helmets, but local authorities rarely enforce this law. As noted previously in this report, public transportation vehicles such as the route taxis (“carros publicos”) and urban buses (“guaguas”) are unsafe.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of the Dominican Republic's Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) as being in compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards for oversight of the Dominican Republic's air carrier operations. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet website at http://www.faa.gov.

Currency: It is legal to exchange currency at commercial banks, exchange booths in hotels and exchange houses. The exchange rate is set by the Central Bank, based on prevailing market conditions. The market determines the exchange rate. No more than USD $10,000 or its equivalent in another currency, including Dominican pesos, may be taken out of the Dominican Republic at the time of departure.

Real Estate: Real estate investments require a high level of caution, as property rights are irregularly enforced. Investors often encounter problems in receiving clear title to land, and title insurance is not available. Real estate investments by U.S. citizens have been the subject of both legal and physical takeover attempts. Absentee landlords and absentee owners of undeveloped land are particularly vulnerable. Investors should seek solid property title and not just a “carta de constancia,” which is often confused by foreigners with a title. An official land registry measurement (also known as ‘deslinde’ or ‘mensura catastral’) is also desirable for the cautious overseas investor. Squatters, sometimes supported by governmental or non-governmental organizations, have invaded properties belonging to U.S. citizens, threatening violence and blocking the owners from entering their property. In at least one instance, the U.S. citizen landowner was physically assaulted. Several U.S. citizens with long-standing expropriation disputes with the Dominican Government have not received compensation.

Gambling: Many Americans have reported losing large amounts of money at Dominican casinos by playing a game (or variations thereof) known as “Super Keno,” “Caribbean Keno,” “Progressive Keno,” or “Progressive Roulette.” Players have complained that the game's rules are unclear and/or misleading. Any complaints arising from a casino should be directed to the Office of Casinos at the Secretary of Finance. To register a complaint with this office, call 809-687-5131, ext. 2120.

Divorce: In recent years, there have been a number of businesses, primarily on the Internet, which advertise “Quickie Dominican Divorces.” The services of these businesses should be used with caution, as they may misrepresent the process of obtaining a divorce in the Dominican Republic. While it is relatively simple for foreigners to obtain a divorce in the Dominican Republic, such divorces are only valid if specific steps are taken. Those seeking information regarding divorce should first consult with an attorney in their home state.

Hurricanes: The Dominican Republic is situated in an area of the Caribbean prone to hurricanes. In the event of a hurricane alert, a notice will be posted on the U.S. Embassy in Santo Domingo's web page at http://www.usemb.gov.do. Further information can be obtained by visiting the National Weather Service's web site at http://www.nhc.noaa.gov. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency at http://www.fema.gov.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Dominican laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in the Dominican Republic are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. For more information on the Dominican judicial system, procedures, and penalties, please visit the Consular Section's web page at http://www.usemb.gov.do. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in the Dominican Republic are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within the Dominican Republic. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy is located at the corner of Calle César Nicolás Penson and Avenida Máximo Gómez. The American Citizens Services (ACS) Unit can be reached by telephone at 809-731-4294, or via the Internet at http://www.usemb.gov.do/Consular/ACS/acs-e-contact.htm. ACS Unit office hours are 7:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., Monday through Thursday, Friday 7:30-12:15, except on U.S. and Dominican holidays. The Chancery of the U.S. Embassy is located a half-mile away from the Consular Section, at the corner of Calle César Nicolás Penson and Calle Leopoldo Navarro. The telephone number is 809-221-2171.

There is a Consular Agency in the north coast city of Puerto Plata at Calle Villanueva esq. Avenida John F. Kennedy, Edificio Abraxa Libraria, 2nd floor, telephone 809-586-4204, 809-586-8017, 809-586-8023; office hours are 9:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m., and 2:30 p.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday, except holidays. The Consular Agency has a secondary office in Sosua, also on the north coast. That office may be reached at: “Sea Horse Ranch Project” Administrative Office, Carretera Sosua Cabarete, Sosua, D.R., telephone 809-571-3880, fax 809-571-2374.